Review Article

International Journal of Global Advanced

Materials & Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology: Innovative Applications in the Oil
& Gas Industry
Fakoya MF1,2*, Patel H1,2 and Shah SN1,2,3,4

Well Construction Technology Center, The University of Oklahoma, USA

1

2
Mewbourne School of Petroleum & Geological Engineering, The University of Oklahoma, USA
3
Emeritus Professor, The University of Oklahoma, USA
4
Shell Chair Professor, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University, India

Correspondence: Fakoya MF, Mewbourne School of Petroleum & Geological Engineering, The University of
*

Oklahoma, 100 E. Boyd, SEC-1210, Norman, OK 73019, USA, Tel: +14058850310; E-mail: feyifakoya@ou.edu

Received: Sept 20, 2017; Accepted: Dec 12, 2017; Published: Jan 02, 2017
Abstract
Many research efforts are being directed towards the unlocking of immense and diverse benefits of nanotechnology
in the oil and gas industry. Mainly, the research efforts have been through the usage of various nanoparticle types and
sizes. Nanoparticles exhibit unique properties due to their huge surface area and highly activated particle surface.
Nanoparticles can be deployed in different fluid systems to facilitate new applications, alternative methodologies,
and reinforcement of existing technologies as reported in literature. Most of the earlier studies have revealed some
interesting applications of non-metallic nanoparticles, and recently, researchers have presented innovative usages of
metallic and para-magnetic nanoparticles. Depending on the type and size, nanoparticles have been observed to alter
various fluid and petrophysical properties as well as molecular level physico-chemical processes − base fluid viscosity,
filtration loss control, fines migration control, foam or emulsion stability, interfacial tension, thermal upgradation of
heavy oil etc. Currently, nanoparticles have been identified to have potential applications in almost all disciplines of
the oil and gas industry such as exploration, drilling, logging, hydraulic fracturing, formation damage, enhanced oil
recovery, ex-situ upgrading of oil shales/bitumen etc. This paper aims to provide an overview of the major applications
of nanoparticles, their potential benefits, and associated economical and/or technical challenges and solutions. The
authors will also highlight some of the latest developments and ongoing research to identify promising areas for
future research. Overall, this study is intended to serve as a useful guide for both researchers as well as practicing
professionals in the oil and gas industry.
Keywords: Nanotechnology; Oil and gas; Exploration; Drilling fluids, Hydraulic fracturing fluids; Enhanced oil
recovery; Formation fines migration; Cementing; Heavy oil recovery

Introduction nanotechnology, various types of nanoparticles (NPs)

Nanotechnology describes the design, production,
and usage of substances at the nanometer (nm) level.
These substances, with their dimensions in the order
of 1-100 nm, are called nanoparticles. In the field of
exist which are mainly classified as fullerences, graphene,
carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, polymeric particles,
metallic, and metal oxides [1]. In the context of current
oil and gas applications, there are mainly three types of
NPs – (i) metallic and metal oxides NPs, (ii) organic NPs,

Int J Glo Adv Mat, 1(1):16-30 (2018) 16

and (iii) inorganic NPs [2].
Metallic or metal oxides NPs are made of alkali metal,
alkaline metal earth, transition metals, lanthanides, and
actinides. They are typically more expensive than the
nonmetallic NPs. The metallic NPs are synthesized using
one of the four methods – (i) reduction of metal salt
precursors, (ii) electrochemical synthesis, (iii) reduction
of organic ligands in organometallic precursors, and (iv)
metal vapor chemistry. Among these, the first one (Figure
1) is the most commonly used manufacturing process.
Metal oxide NPs, on the other hand, are fabricated using
two types of methods – liquid to solid and gas to solid
phase transformation. Detailed review on fabrication of
metal and metallic oxide NPs are provided [3].
According to the guidelines of electronegativity
differences, metal and their oxides are always considered
as polar and hydrophilic [4]. Because of their unique
physical and chemical characteristics, they have found
applications in almost all areas of oil and gas E&P business.
Nanoparticles of iron and its oxides have unique magnetic
properties and have found various applications such as
in sensors, imaging, and data storage. Ferro nano-fluids
also known as ‘smart-nano fluids’ have been employed in
drilling and reservoir management applications – mainly
for interfacial tension (IFT) reductions or intelligent
tracing. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) has been identified
to be a good agent for reducing viscosity and altering
wettability in EOR applications [2]. Copper and nickel
oxide NPs have mainly been investigated for application
in heavy oil recovery. Recently, researchers have also
identified other metal oxide NPs such as MgO, SnO2, TiO2,
ZnO, and ZrO2­­ to have potential applications in enhance
oil recovery pending further investigation.
Organic nanoparticles are carbon containing
compounds such as fullerene materials, carbon
nanoparticles, graphene, graphite nanopowder,
carbon nanotubes (CNT) etc. Carbon NPs can be used
with different coatings in EOR application [5]. Carbon
nanotubes (CNT) have unique combination of strength
and flexibility along with electrical features. This has led
researchers to consider it in fabrication of composite
cables and electronics for application in harsh pressure
temperature conditions. Additionally, carbon nanotubes
can also be used to greatly enhance various fluid
properties. To date, limited research has been conducted
to identify potential oil and gas applications of these
organic nanomaterials.
Int J Glo Adv Mat, 1(1):16-30 (2018)
Inorganic nanoparticles by definition are compounds
that lack carbon. One such compound is silica which is
abundant in nature and has found several applications in
oil and gas. Majority of the applicationsare in enhanced
oil recovery, minimizing water invasion in shale, filtration
and rheology control, foam and emulsion stability, and
drag reduction in porous media [6]. In addition to silica,
nano-structured zeolite can also be a potential agent for
use in oil and gas. It has been used as adsorbent and
catalyst in the downstream industry but can be employed
in reservoir application because of its ion exchanging
nature. Nano sensors, nano-sized colloidal dispersion
gels (CDG), polymer NP, polymer coated NP, ceramic
NP etc are some of the popular inorganic NPs being
investigated for application in the upstream petroleum
industry.
Following sections provide overview of some of the
latest development in applications of above mentioned
NPs. For the sake of reader’s convenience, the discussion
is categorized based on various areas of upstream oil and
gas industry.
Exploration and Reservoir Characterization
& Monitoring
Exploration of oil and gas is the riskiest and one of the
most expensive aspects of the business. Currently used
sensing tools or techniques such as seismic and logging are
not perfect yet. Because of the smaller size, nanoparticles
have the ability to migrate through the subsurface porous
media. Furthermore, their size dependent unique optical,
magnetic, electrical, physical, and chemical properties
make them suitable for application in exploration activity.
One of the widely investigated applications is reservoir
mapping. Paramagnetic NPs can be employed to identify
and monitor immiscible fluids distribution. One of the
earlier attempts of using ferro-fluid and guiding it through
porous medium under influence of a magnetic field
were made by Moridis et al. and Oldenburg et al. [7,8].
The concept was based on tracers used in blood flow
for medical diagnostics. Nanoparticles can be designed
to be preferentially adsorbed at oil-water interface or
dispersed in one of the fluid phases. These paramagnetic
NPs, when exposed to an external magnetic field, would
create fluctuations in the fluids interface and also
generate pressure waves [9]. The concept is graphically
presented in figure 2. Another recent application includes
use of superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) NPs as a
contrasting agent for NMR logging [10]. The contrast is
achieved by NPs via shortening of the T2 relaxation time of
NMR. These NMR nanosensors enable NMR relaxometry
17
Figure 1: Metal salt reduction process – the most Figure 4: Fluid loss profile of Blend-A nano-fluid before/
commonly used technique for fabricating metallic after optimization [17].
nanoparticles (source: [3]).

Figure 5: Plugging effect in Atoka shale (adapted from

[25] by [27]).
Figure 2: Schematic of water-ferrofluid interfacial
movement under magnetic field [9].

Figure 6: Recovery factor at different injected pore

volumes [40].
Figure 3: Detection of (a) downhole hydrocarbon [11]
and (b) H2S [12] (Image source: [3]).

to be performed directly inside the formation, at the well Another interesting application of nanotechnology
or in a fluid sample. Moreover, since these NPs remain in reservoir characterization and monitoring is use of
adsorbed at the fluid interface, they can also be used for nanomaterials based sensors. For example, Hwan et al.
monitoring purpose as reservoir is being produced. [11,12] developed “nanoreporters” to detect underground

Int J Glo Adv Mat, 1(1):16-30 (2018) 18

Figure 7: Oil recovery during water flooding and nano-
fluid injection [50].
Figure 8: Effluent turbidity of proppant beds [64].
Figure 9: Variation of initial and final setting times with
nanoparticle concentration [76].
Int J Glo Adv Mat, 1(1):16-30 (2018)
Figure 10: Illustration of concept of in-situ heavy oil
upgrading by introducing nanoparticles during SAGD
process [97].
hydrocarbon and H2S content. As shown in figure 3a, the
triheptylamine (THA) – probe molecules are attached to
a polymer chain and then it is mounted on carbon black
nanoparticle. This assembly is now called a nanoreporter.
The nanoreporter would travel through the formation
and probe molecules would be released wherever it
detects hydrocarbon. The amount of hydrocarbon can
be determined by quantitatively analyzing the leftover
probe molecules on recovered nanoreporter. The same
concept can be used for detecting H2S (figure 3b) or any
other chemical specie(s).
Another innovative application of nanotechnology
is nanologging. The concept of using nano-robots for
formation evaluation was introduced by Singh and
Bhat [13]. These robots can be circulated using mud
circulation system eliminating the need for wireline or
tubing conveyance. These nanorobots are equipped with
driving mechanism, nanosensors for measurement and
information gathering, microcomputer for processing the
data, and transmitters. This is still in the concept phase and
will require extensive research and development work to
overcome several challenges associated with fabrication,
integration of different components, programming, co-
ordination, transportation, etc.
Drilling and Hydraulic Fracturing Fluids
The experimental work of Ponmani et al. [14] revealed
that the addition of nano-fluids of CuO and ZnO to water-
based muds could be used to improve the thermal,
electrical, and filtration properties of these drilling
fluid systems. The sizes of these nanoparticles were
less than 50 nm, and they were deployed in different
19
base fluids (xanthan gum, polyethylene glycol, and
polyvinylpyrrolidone), at concentrations of 0.1-0.5% wt.,
to form the nano-fluids. Based on the work of Amanullah
et al. [15], nanomaterials can be used to develop
enhanced fluid systems with thin and tight mud cake.
Besides, the rheological and filtration properties of these
fluid systems will be improved. In the experimental work
of Amanullah et al. [15], different water-based nano-
fluids were prepared using three commercially available
nanoparticles at 0.5 ppb (0.14% w/w). The nano-fluids
displayed better viscous properties compared to the
bentonite mud. The filtration results showed that no spurt
loss was recorded for the nano-fluids. Thin and tightly
packed mud cakes were generated by the nano-fluids.
Furthermore, the laboratory experiments of Mahmoud
et al. [16] showed that ferric oxide nanoparticles could
assist in the formation of low-thickness filter cake
(with improved filtration properties) when dispersed
in bentonite-based drilling fluids. The nanoparticle
concentrations considered for the experiments were 0.1,
0.3, and 1% wt. 0.072% wt. Cx40 nanoparticles, 1 and 3% wt. gel-forming
Fluid loss properties can be enhanced in surfactant-
based fluids (SBF), polymeric fluids, and SBF-polymeric fluid
blends using nanotechnology [17]. Silica nanoparticles
of size 20 nm and concentrations of 0.058, 0.24, and
0.4% wt. were used. Promising filtration results were
achieved at different silica nanoparticle concentrations.
Blend-A (75% vol. of surfactant solution plus 25% vol. of
polymeric solution) nano-fluid was selected as the best,
and optimization revealed a cost reduction of 96.6% at
0.002% wt. nanoparticle concentration compared to the
initial recommendation of 0.058% wt. for this fluid. The
result of the optimization is presented in figure 4. Authors
attributed the improved results to the formation of a low
permeability and porosity filter cake. Srivatsa and Ziaja
[18] used colloidal silica nanoparticles at concentrations
of 10, 20, and 30% wt./wt. to study the usefulness of
nanotechnology in fluid loss control, and they confirmed
that colloidal silica nanoparticles facilitated an enhanced
filtration performance in polymer-surfactant blend.
Also, Javeri et al. [19] stated that a more continuous and
integrated filter cake will be formed in a drilling fluid in
the presence of silicon nanoparticles. They validated their
claim through filtration experiments by achieving a 34%
reduction in filter cake thickness in the mud sample that
contained silicon nanoparticles. Additionally, Fakoya and
Shah [20] investigated the application of nanotechnology
on the rheological properties of SBF, polymeric fluids, and
SBF-polymeric fluid blends. In their experimental work,
20 nm silica nanoparticles were used at concentrations of
Int J Glo Adv Mat, 1(1):16-30 (2018)
0.058, 0.24, and 0.4% wt. The fluids were tested within a
temperature range of 75 to 175°F, and interesting results
that displayed the potential application of nanotechnology
were documented. Besides, the detrimental effect of
nanotechnology above certain concentrations was also
documented.
In the work of Ko et al. [21], the use of magnetic
nanoparticles was shown to be effective in removing
residual polymer (that were introduced during polymer
flooding) from produced water. Also, Crews and Huang
[22] showed that use of nanoparticles with surfactant in
brine that contains internal breaker will help in removing
polymer residue from hydraulic fractures. According
to Crews and Huang [23], the internal breakers were
trapped in the thread-like micelles (TLM) that makeup the
pseudo-filter cake, and also, in those that leaked into the
formation. The experimental work of Crews and Huang
[22] required the loading of flow cell with different sizes of
sand proppants. For these tests, a mixture of 3% KCl brine,
surfactant, and 0.18 and 0.25% wt. polymer breaker E-21
was used as the remedial cleanup fluid. Results of the
particle park flow tests (i.e. flow tests through particulate
media) indicated a considerable resistance to flow (even
at low surfactant concentration in high-permeability
medium). The internal breaker was efficient because
the viscosity of effluent collected after post-flush was
water-like. This was attributed to the degradation of TLM
structure by the internal breaker and removal of more
polymer residue. Furthermore, the laboratory and field
results of McElfresh et al. [24] revealed the ability of
fluids containing nanosilica in stimulating damaged wells
through the removal of skin damage caused by paraffin
blocks and polymer-based filter cake.
According to Sensoy et al. [25], nanoparticles can
be added to water-based muds for the purpose of
reducing water invasion in shale. The tiny pore throats
of shale can be penetrated by carefully selected
nanoparticle sizes [26]. Shale is sedimentary rock that
contains clays, quartz, silicate, and carbonate minerals
in varying amounts. Mainly, the type of clay in a shale
formation will dictate the amount of water that will be
absorbed; so, wellbore stability is a major concern. In the
experimental studies of Sensoy et al. [25], Atoka and Gulf
of Mexico (GOM) shales were used. A 3% brine solution,
and nano-fluid samples containing 20 nm nanosilica at
concentrations of 5, 10, 29, and 40% wt. were prepared.
During pressure transmission, fluid samples were
allowed to flow over the top and bottom faces of the
20
shale samples. Shorter pressure transmission through
the shale sample was observed when the fluid samples
contained nanosilica compared to 3% brine solution. A
shorter pressure transmission indicated that the shale
pore throats were plugged by nanosilica. One of the
results of their experiments is shown in figure 5. The
reduction in water invasion that was documented in the
experimental work of Sensoy et al. [25] was confirmed
by Young and Friedheim [27]. In the laboratory work of
Young and Friedheim [27], several experiments were
performed on many shale samples using a water-based
drilling fluid containing silica nanoparticles. Better
performance in terms of fluid loss control, fluid rheology,
lubricity, and shale stability were achieved with the nano-
fluid. Moreover, Riley et al. [28] conducted research
that was similar to that of Young and Friedheim [27].
For the experiments, a Shale Membrane Test (SMT)
was developed to evaluate the plugging capability of
nanosilica. In one of their results, Atoka shales showed
a reduction in permeability (or, an increase in plugging
ability) with increasing silica nanoparticle concentration.
Also, the results of Agrawal et al. [29] showed that silica
nanoparticles have the capacity to stabilize clay, and
suppress its swelling. The experimental investigation
of Boul et al. [30] demonstrated that the addition of
functionalized nanosilicas to water-based drilling fluids
helped in achieving a better shale inhibition. Taraghikhah
et al. [31] also demonstrated that the dispersion of silica
nanoparticles in water-based drilling fluid could deliver a
better shale inhibition and wellbore stability.
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
The transportation of colloidal dispersion in reservoir
rock is difficult [5]. The difficulty is attributed to their
retention on reservoir walls, and this prevents them
from reaching target locations in the reservoir. Though,
nanoparticles can pass through the pore throats because
they are small; but, their deliverability at the deep
target locations where oil exists is questionable. This
deliverability concern needs to be addressed before
any potential application in EOR can be discussed. For
the laboratory work of [5], the transport and retention
properties of carbon nanoparticles (with/without surface
treatment) through dolomite and sandstone cores were
studied at high salinity. Dolomite is positively charged
due to its large quantity of divalent ions of calcium and
magnesium (Ca2+ and Mg2+). Conversely, sandstone is
negatively charged owing to its large silica content [5].
The core flood experiments, in the presence of carbon
nanoparticles without surface treatment, showed a
delayed nanoparticles breakthrough. The delay was
Int J Glo Adv Mat, 1(1):16-30 (2018)
attributed to carbon nanoparticles retention on core
surfaces owing to the effect of ionic strength and divalent
ions. A high ionic strength causes the shrinkage of the
double layer of charged particles in aqueous suspensions,
thus, their repulsive capability is reduced [5,32]. Higher
breakthrough values were observed with surface-treated
carbon nanoparticles, and these could be interpreted as
minimal retention. The surface modification served as a
shield for the carbon nanoparticles, and hence, hindered
charge interaction. Similarly, Rodriguez et al. [33]
studied the transportation of nanoparticle dispersions
in low-permeability limestones, and moderate- to
high-permeability sandstone cores. Nano-fluids made
with 5 and 20 nm silica nanoparticles (surface-treated
with polyethylene glycol) were used for the flooding
experiments performed with sandstone and limestone
cores. A data logger system was used to measure the
pressure drop during flooding experiments. The pressure
measurement was useful in determining an apparent
viscosity of dispersion. Results supported the conclusion
that concentrated dispersions of surface-treated
nanoparticles can be transported through reservoir rocks
of different permeabilities with minimal retention on pore
walls due to reversible adsorption. Reversible adsorption
can be explained as a situation where nanoparticles
that were initially clung to the pore walls, by weak van
der Waals attraction, were later released by Brownian
diffusion [33]. Yu et al. [34] investigated the adsorption
and transportation of silica nanoparticles in sandstone,
dolomite, and limestone. Their findings revealed the ease
of transporting silica nanoparticles through sandstone
core, but, a slight adsorption was observed with limestone
core. For the dolomite core flooding, a high nanosilica
recovery was reported. Also, Zhang et al. [35] conducted
flood experiments to investigate the transportation of
nanoparticles in porous media. Moreover, the transport
and retention properties of aqueous dispersions of
paramagnetic nanoparticles in reservoir rock were
investigated in the experimental work of Yu et al. [36].
Surface treated paramagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles,
at concentrations of 0.1-10% wt., were used for the core
flood experiments. Additionally, some mathematical
modeling work has been reported to facilitate the
understanding of nanoparticle transportation in porous
media [37-39].
Ehtesabi et al. [40] used TiO2 nanoparticles in
core flood experiments for the purpose of studying
their transportability and mechanism of oil recovery
enhancement. The transport study indicated that
some TiO2 nanoparticles were deposited in the core
21
plugs during flooding. This deposition resulted in
wettability alteration (from oil-wet to water-wet) of the
surfaces of the plugs, and thereby caused an increase
in oil recovery (with the highest recovery factor of 55%
achieved at 0.01% TiO2 nanoparticle concentration) as
shown in figure 6. Esfandyari Bayat et al. [41] probed
the effectiveness of metal oxide nanoparticles on EOR
in porous media at different temperatures (26, 40, 50,
and 60oC). The metal oxide nanoparticles used in their
experiments were aluminum oxide (Al2O3), titanium
dioxide (TiO2), and silicon dioxide (SiO2) with sizes of
40, 10-30, 20 nm respectively. The nano-fluids were
prepared by dispersing the nanoparticles in deionized
water at concentration of 0.005% wt. The nano-fluids
were injected into the porous media that was created
with limestone grains. The displacement tests, at the
different temperatures, showed that nanoparticles have
the capacity to increase oil recovery; but better results
were achieved with Al2O3 and TiO2 nano-fluids compared
to SiO2 nano-fluids. Alomair et al. [42] performed
core flood experiments with nano-fluids to assess the
recovery of heavy oil from Berea sandstone cores. The
materials used for nano-fluids preparation were treated
formation water of 3% wt. salinity, and nanoparticles of
aluminum oxide, nickel oxide, silica, and titanium dioxide.
Nanoparticles of aluminum oxide and silica promoted
the recovery of more oil compared to that of nickel oxide
and titanium dioxide. The superiority of aluminum oxide
and silica nanoparticles was ascribed to their tendency
to facilitate a lower interfacial tension. Ultimately, the
highest incremental oil recovery was observed when a
mixed nano-fluid of aluminum oxide and silica was used
at 0.05% wt., and at low salinity.
Mohajeri et al. [43] used zirconium oxide (ZrO2)
nanoparticles with surfactants to investigate their
efficiency in heavy oil recovery. The ZrO2 nanoparticles,
with average size of 14 nm, were prepared using the sol-
gel method. The flooding experiments revealed that the
addition of nanoparticles to surfactant solutions lead to an
increase in oil recovery. Partially hydrophobic nanosilica,
hydrophilic fumed silica, and an anionic surfactant was
used by Zargartalebi et al. [44] to investigate the effect
of silica nanoparticles on surfactant flooding. A captive
drive instrument was employed for interfacial tension
measurements, and unconsolidated sandstone sand
packs were deployed for the flooding experiments.
The results demonstrated the enhanced oil recovery
potential of silica nanoparticles during surfactant
flooding, with higher improvement in efficiency recorded
with the partially hydrophobic nanosilica. Hendraningrat
Int J Glo Adv Mat, 1(1):16-30 (2018)
and Torsæter [45] investigated the effect of initial rock
wettability on EOR process. Nano-fluids were prepared
with fumed hydrophilic silica nanoparticles (average size:
7 nm) at concentration of 0.05% wt. For the core flood
experiments, the silica nano-fluids were used within a
temperature range of 25 to 80oC on core samples from
Berea sandstone. Rectangular and transparent quartz
plates formed the solid substrates when determining
the wettability behavior. Observation showed that
the wettability of cores and quartz plates turned from
water-wet to oil-wet. Silica nano-fluids proved effective
in reducing the residual oil saturation, and also, they
increased the displacement efficiency. In their work,
Ogolo et al. [46] dispersed aluminum, silica, nickel, and
iron oxide NPs in water and diesel based carrier fluids
and noted up to 30% increment in oil recovery. They
concluded that aluminum oxide reduces viscosity and
silicon oxide contributes in rock wettability alteration.
They also reported that not only type of NP but carrier
fluid or dispersing agent also determine whether NPs
would positively affect recovery or negatively. Tarek [47]
also conducted core flooding studies and used nanofluids
made of aluminum, silicon, and iron oxide. It was reported
that using mixture of NPs instead of a single NP can yield
additional recovery of 8 to 20%.
Salem Ragab and Hannora [48] probed the ability of
SiO2 and Al2O3 nanoparticles in improving the recovery
of oil. These nanoparticles were investigated through
flooding experiments at concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, and
1% wt. They found SiO2 nanoparticles, at concentration
of 0.5% wt., as the effective solution because a recovery
factor of 81% was achieved. Also, Ye et al. [49] studied
the effect of nanotechnology in polymer flooding for
EOR application. The nano-fluid used was a combination
of acrylamide, acrylic acid, and nanosilica functional
monomer (prepared with nanosilica of 10 to 20 nm size
range). Fluids characterization was done with infrared
and 1H NMR (Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance)
spectroscopy, elemental analysis, and scanning electron
microscope. Berea sandstone cores were used for the
flooding experiments at 65oC. The nano-fluid displayed
a better mobility control compared to the fluid without
nanosilica functional monomer. Also, it enhanced
the recovery of oil by up to 20.1%. Additionally, the
laboratory work of Roustaei et al. [50] was directed
at studying the usefulness of modified nanosilica in
enhancing oil recovery from light and intermediate oil
reservoirs. The core plugs were from sandstone, and the
brine composition used was 5% wt. Silica nanoparticles
caused a reduction in interfacial tension, and also, oil
22
phase contact angle measurements revealed that the
rock wettability changed from water-wet to oil-wet. A
higher recovery was achieved with the light oil reservoir
cores as depicted in figure 7. Oil recovery enhancement
was attributed to the reduction in interfacial tension, and
wettability alteration.
According to Khambharatana et al. [51], oil/water
emulsions find application as mobility control agents in
enhancing the displacement efficiency of viscous oil. The
use of emulsions for EOR applications is still limited due
to stability issue that arises with emulsions stabilized by
colloidal solid particles. The fact that the transportation of
colloidal solids is mostly terminated after a short distance
into oil reservoirs raised this stability issue. Good sweep
efficiencies cannot be achieved when stability issues exist.
Singh and Mohanty [52] stated that the stability of foam is
possible in porous media. The laboratory work of Emrani
and Nasr-El-Din [53] involved the use of SiO2 (size: 100 and
140 nm) and Fe2O3 (size: less than 50 nm) nanoparticles
in stabilizing CO2 foam. The CO2 foam was prepared by
mixing CO2 gas and alpha olefin sulfonate (AOS) solution.
Nanoparticle concentrations of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3% wt.
were used for foam stability investigation. In the work of
Khajehpour et al. [54], silica nanoparticles dispersed in
surfactants were used to stabilize foam. Manan et al. [55]
showed the effect of different nanoparticle types and
concentrations on CO2 foam stability. Aluminum oxide,
copper oxide, silica, and titanium dioxide nanoparticles
were used for the displacement tests at concentrations
of 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 1% wt., respectively and at room
temperature and pressure. All nanoparticles stabilized
CO2 foam; however, aluminum oxide nanoparticles
presented the best results.
The investigation of the stability of emulsions and
foams stabilized by silica nanoparticles is needed to
support their potential application in EOR. Research has
established that emulsions stabilized by nanoparticles
can travel long distance in oil reservoirs [56,57]. Unlike
colloidal solids, the small size of nanoparticles permits
their easy passage through the pore throat of reservoir
formation [58]. Thus, nanoparticle-stabilized emulsions
are finding applications in EOR. The study of emulsions
stabilized by surface-coated silica nanoparticles was
reported by Zhang et al. [59]. The stability was possible
for months, and at elevated temperatures. Zhang et al.
[56] involved the use of aqueous suspensions of 5 and 20
nm surface-treated silica nanoparticles, toluene, hexane,
decane, mineral oil, and crude oil. The oil/water emulsions
were prepared with silica nanoparticles at concentration
Int J Glo Adv Mat, 1(1):16-30 (2018)
that ranged from 0.1 to 10% wt. The stability of emulsions
was tested, and it was found that the silica-stabilized
toluene-in-water emulsions were the most stable. Column
flood experiments were performed with toluene-in-water
emulsions in a glass-bead pack, and observation showed
the existence of a sharp emulsion-bank front (this is a
vital requirement for sweep efficiency). Espinoza et al.
[60] used 5 nm surface-treated silica nanoparticles, in the
range of 0.05 to 1% wt., to generate stable CO2 foams for
EOR applications. Also, Yu et al. [61] presented a process
for generating stable CO2 foam with silica nanoparticles.
Besides, the effect of brine concentration, pressure, and
temperature on CO2 foam generation was investigated.
Formation Fines Migration Control
The movement of formation fines to near wellbore
region during production from hydrocarbon reservoirs
is a normal experience. This movement leads to the
plugging of formation pores, and eventually, reduces
the production rate. According to Tiffin et al. [62], the
unconfined particles found in sandstone pore spaces
are mostly smaller than 37 microns. Thus, their passage
through a 400 U.S. mesh screen size will be easy, and
the consequence will be screen erosion and production
pump damage. Ogolo et al. [63] indicated that Al2O3
nanoparticles could delay the movement of fines in sand
at relatively high flow rates. Additionally, other few studies
have also highlighted the usefulness of nanoparticles in
formation fines migration control [63-70]. The proppant
pack tests of Huang et al. [64] involved the addition of
nanoparticles in slurry form to viscoelastic surfactant
fracturing fluid and proppants. Different type and
concentration of fines solutions were flowed through a 12
inches long proppant-pack that was inserted in an acrylic
tube that had 100 mesh screen placed at its bottom. A
clean filtrate exited the proppant-pack which signified the
capturing of fines by the nanoparticle-treated proppants.
The result of effluent turbidity test, shown in figure 8,
revealed high turbidity values for a non-treated proppant
bed compared to a nanoparticle-treated one.
Cementing
Cementing is an important part of oilfield operations,
especially for providing mechanical support, sealing, and
protection from corrosive fluids [71,72]. Atashnezhad et
al. [73] revealed the potential of barite nanoparticles in
reducing cement fluid loss. The barite nanoparticles were
produced by using a high-energy ball milling grinder
which crushed normal barite powder. The size range
of barite nanoparticles, from transmission electron
23
microscope (TEM), was 19.6-46 nm. Also, the nanoparticle
concentrations used for the experiments were 1, 3, and
5% by weight of total slurry. Nanosilica has shown the
ability to improve the early strength development, final
compressive strength, and fluid loss characteristics of
cement [74]. Besides, it facilitated the possibility of a wide
temperature application. Further, their work revealed the
compatibility of nanosilica with other cement additive
composition, and hence, promoting the design of
tailored cement properties. The acceleration of cement
hydration, in presence of nanosilica and silica fume, has
been reported in cement pastes [75]. Senff et al. [76]
mixed amorphous nanosilica with cement pastes and
mortars, and they investigated their effect on the fresh
(initial) properties of the mixtures. When compared to
the samples without amorphous nanosilica, lower values
were recorded for the spread, setting time, and the
time to reach maximum temperature. For example, the
setting time variation with nanoparticle concentration
is presented in figure 9. The potential of nanosilica as
hydration accelerator in oilwell cement (API class H) at
low temperature (59oF) was examined by Pang et al. [77].
Silica nanoparticles in the size range of 4 – 6 nm and
those with higher aspect ratios were found to be the most
beneficial accelerator. Jo et al. [78] prepared a concrete
with chemically synthesized nano-cement (contained
nanosilica and an alumina source) which produced a high
compressive strength after a few days of curing.
Heavy Oil Recovery
Use of nanoparticles in improving heavy oil recovery is
not new. Clark et al. [79] conducted first comprehensive
experiments to examine the effects of nanoparticles
in improving efficiency of steam stimulation
technique of recovering heavy oil. They attributed
the enhanced recovery to catalytic effect of NPs in
initiating high temperature chemical reaction known as
aquathermolysis. To date, several researchers [80-88]
have confirmed the efficacy of nanoparticles in improving
efficiency of thermal heavy oil recovery methods. During
aquathermolysis hydrogen is transferred from steam
to oil via water gas shift reactions (WGSR) and results in
hydrolysis of C-S bonds. This leads to decomposition of
oil molecules resulting in lower viscosity. Addition of NPs
can render these processes irreversible and hence, more
efficient cleavage and removal of O, S, and N derivatives
[88]. In addition to aquathermolysis, nanoparticles also
improve the thermal conductivity of oil which improves
heat distribution within the reservoir. In case of thermal
recovery techniques such as steam injection or SAGD,
this can significantly improve efficiency and result in
Int J Glo Adv Mat, 1(1):16-30 (2018)
enhanced recovery at a decreased cost. Some researchers
[86,89,90] have reported improvement in efficiency of
electromagnetic heating of heavy oil reservoir in presence
of iron oxide nanoparticles.
Moreover, NPs have also been observed to improve
the quality of produced fluid. In addition to decreased
viscosity, NPs can also enhance API gravity, and reduce
carbon residue (MCR), sulfur, and nitrogen content
[91]. Reader can refer to [91] for latest development,
opportunities, and challenges involved in nanoparticles
application in heavy oil in-situ upgradation and recovery
enhancement.
Most of the research so far has been focused
on application of NPs in thermal heavy oil recovery
techniques (> 250-300ºF). Very limited work has been
done to identify potential application of NPs in cold
heavy oil production. Few recent studies [85,89,92], have
confirmed that nanoparticles can alter heavy oil viscosity
even at room temperature. Shokrlu et al. [85] observed
heavy oil viscosity alteration by copper, iron, and nickel
NPs. They observed maximum viscosity reduction of 10%
with the heavy oil sample from Canada having viscosity
of 8492 cP at room temperature. Srinivasan and Shah
[92] employed copper oxide nanoparticles and observed
viscosity reduction of up to 20-30% with the crude oil
sample having viscosity of approximately 600 cP at room
temperature. The low temperature viscosity alteration by
nanoparticles can mainly be attributed to molecular level
physico-chemical reactions such as Ostwald ripening
process, coordination reaction, exothermic chemical
reactions, and weakening of hydrogen bond [93].
Patel and Shah in a soon to be published work have
investigated the effects of nanoparticles on extra heavy
crude oil samples having viscosity in excess of 100,000
cP at ambient temperature. In this unprecedented
work, notable viscosity reduction is achieved with just
nanoparticles at low temperatures. Viscosity alteration
is observed to be a function of not just temperature but
also on heavy oil characteristics, nanoparticle type, and
its concentration.
As discussed in EOR applications, wettability alteration
by surface adsorption is another advantage that NPs can
provide. Nanoparticles can adhere to the rock surface
turning it from oil wet to water wet resulting in release
of heavy oil molecules. In addition to surface tension,
metallic oxide NPs can also reduce oil-water interfacial
tension and can also improve stability of emulsions. Very
24
few researchers have investigated possibility of using NPs? What type of nanoparticle to use? What injection
NPs for non-thermal EOR in heavy oil reservoirs. Qiu [94] concentration is sufficient? How representative are the
used copper oxide NPs with a xylene-in-brine emulsion heavy oil samples being used in laboratory investigations?
and observed reduction in interfacial tension with heavy
oil sample from Alaska. Alomair et al. [95] performed core Current Challenges
flooding studies with nanofluids developed using oxides
There are several challenges associated with the
of silicon, aluminum, nickel, and titanium dispersed in
application of nanotechnology in the oil & gas industry.
brine. They not only observed reduction in IFT between
The two primary challenges are high cost of NPs and their
nanofluids and heavy oil but also recorded reduction in
transportation in subsurface porous medium. Almost all
viscosity.
studies have been performed in laboratories with small
quantities of NPs. Different application requires different
Based on the solvent based emulsion introduced
type of NPs with specific surface, electrical, mechanical,
by Qiu [94], Patel and Shah in a soon-to-be published
magnetic, optical, chemical, and/or thermal properties.
work have examined viscosity alteration caused by
These highly customized NPs are not only expensive but
nanoparticles in presence of a solvent based emulsion.
also challenging to produce in bulk for field application.
Solvent based emulsion can provide three distinct
There have been many studies on different ways of
benefits: (i) mobility control, (ii) viscosity reduction, and
synthesizing NPs but simple and low cost method has yet
(iii) in-situ emulsification [93]. Additionally, it also serves
to exist. Additionally, efficacy of NPs is highly dependent
as the medium for transporting nanoparticles into the
on their size, shape or surface properties and hence,
reservoir. Overall, this work will open the new avenue of
precise control in manufacturing them is also imperative.
employing chemical flooding for heavy oil reservoir and
Unless and until a cost-effective manufacturing of NPs is
rekindle the interest in non-thermal recovery techniques
realized, nanotechnology application in the industry will
in general.
remain a niche at best.
Most of the research has been focused on determining
Transportation of NPs into reservoir is another
improvement in recovery of heavy oil by NPs. But,
challenge. In almost all applications, NPs should be
very few studies have been undertaken to investigate
able to reach to the desired subsurface formation and
transportation NPs. Shokrlu et al. [84] examined
disperse as required. Stability of NPs in liquid carrier
injectivity and transportation of micron- and nano-sized
fluid is also a challenge. Additionally, it is widely known
particles. They used xantham gum polymer to create
that NPs are prone to aggregation because of their
stable suspension of particles in water. Farooqui et al.
surface charge. This agglomeration becomes aggressive
[87] conducted experiments on sand packs and used
in extreme conditions such as high salinity and high
xanthan and surfactant to stabilize the suspension in
temperature [3]. Surface modification or coating can help
water. In order to achieve this underground upgradation
minimize these problems. However, this would reduce or
of heavy oil, placement of NPs becomes a crucial aspect.
even eliminate special properties of NPs such as catalytic
A conceptual method of introducing the nanocatalysts
property, magnetism, sensing ability, affinity to rock or
in reservoir for high temperature application has been
fluid etc. Moreover, the lack of general understanding of
illustrated in figure 10. Santoso et al. [96] studied diffusion
migration behavior of NPs in porous medium is another
of iron oxide nanoparticles from brine carrier fluid to
difficulty requiring extensive theoretical modelling work.
heavy oil and concluded that denser and more viscous
heavy oil tends to reduce the possibility of diffusion.
Environmental impact and toxicity of NPs are also
concern that have not been investigated in detail.
For both high temperature and non-thermal applications
Some properties of NPs such as small size, large area-
of NPs, there are several questions that remain to be
to-volume ratio, surface activity, solubility etc. that are
answered before commercial field application become
being exploited in our applications, are the ones that
viable - How to transport nanoparticles into the reservoir?
make them potentially hazardous [98-100]. Additionally,
How to achieve maximum contact of nanoparticles with
how would NPs in produced fluids impact downstream
the heavy oil? How to prevent aggregation of NPs and
processing? Is it possible to separate and recycle them?
improve dispersion? How to prevent displacing fluid
These are some of the important questions that need to
from breaking through viscous heavy oil pool? Would
be answered with extensive research.
carrier fluid dampen the viscosity alteration capability of

Int J Glo Adv Mat, 1(1):16-30 (2018) 25

 Nanotechnology has made significant advancement
and has found several applications in medical,
pharmaceutical, chemical processing, and material
science industries. Some of these applications can be
migrated to oil field with some modification but this
will require collaborative work and cooperation among
various research entities.
Conclusions
The innovative applications of nanotechnology in the
oil and gas industry are discussed in this study. These
applications involved the use of several nanoparticles
with varying sizes and concentrations. The application
areas include exploration and reservoir characterization
and monitoring, drilling and hydraulic fracturing fluids,
enhanced oil recovery (EOR), formation fines migration
control, cementing, and heavy oil recovery.
Nanotechnology applications in the oil & gas industry
are in infancy with almost all studies being restricted
to laboratory scale experiments. Lack of cost-effective
process of manufacturing nanoparticles and efficient
transportation mechanism to disperse them into reservoir
are the biggest two challenges preventing commercial
application. The potential of nanoparticles has been well-
established but now, it is imperative to shift the research
focus to nanoparticle synthesis, their field deployment,
and HSE implications.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to extend their sincere gratitude to
the University of Oklahoma and Pandit Deendayal Petroleum
University for providing necessary resources and granting
the permission to publish this work.
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