MODELS OF ORGANISATION CHANGE

1) Lewin’s change management

model
Lewin’s Change Management Model is
one of the most popular and effective
models that make it possible for us to
understand organizational and structured
change. This model was designed and
created by Kurt Lewin in the 1950s, and it
still holds valid today. Lewin was a physicist and social scientist who explained the
structured or organizational change through the changing states of a block of ice. His model
consists of three main stages which are: unfreeze, change and refreeze. Let’s look at these
stages in detail:

 Unfreeze: The first stage of the process of change according to Lewin’s method involves the
preparation for the change. This means that at this step, the organization must get
prepared for the change and also for the fact that change is crucial and needed. This phase
is important because most people around the world try to resist change, and it is important
to break this status quo. The key here is to explain to people why the existing way needs to
be changed and how change can bring about profit. This step also involves an organization
looking into its core and re-examining it.
The main thing of unfreeze stage is that organization should develop a compelling message
showing why the existing way of doing things cannot continue, and then communicate it
throughout the organization.
An organization can easily develop a compelling message by pointing out
 Declining sales figures
 Poor financial results
 Surveys that shows lack of customer satisfaction etc

These things will make the message more forceful and show that things have to change in a
way that everyone can understand. To successfully prepare the whole organization for
change, management need to start at its core –management need to challenge the beliefs,
attitudes, values, and behaviors that currently define it. Senior management may use a
simple example of a building. Management may say that we must examine and be prepared
to change the existing foundations as this might not support to add more storeys. If we will
not change the foundation the whole building may risk to collapse.
 When an organization re-examine its core, it effectively create a (controlled) crisis, which
build a strong motivation and inspiration to seek out a new equilibrium. Without this
required motivation, management won't get the buy-in and participation necessary to
effect any meaningful change.

 Change: This is the stage where the real transition or change takes place. The process may
take time to happen as people usually spend time to embrace new happenings,
developments, and changes.
This stage also called Transition stage. After the uncertainty created and communicated in
organization in the unfreeze stage, now in change stage senior management or employees
begin to resolve uncertainty and look for new ways to do things. Management and staff
start to believe and act in new ways that support the new direction. Employees of the
organizations always take some time to embrace the new direction and participate
proactively in the change. In this stage organization need to focus on the specific issue of
personal transitions in a changing environment. So, appropriate leadership and reassurance
is required for successful management of this stage of Lewin's Change management model.
Staff will accept the change and contribute well if employees will understand how the
changes will benefit them. When the employees will come to know that the change is
necessary and will benefit whole organization then they will involve in it and will do their
best. Staff of organization needs time to understand the changes and they also need to feel
highly connected to the organization throughout the transition period. So time and
communication are the two vital keys to success for the changes to occur. When an
organization is managing change, the management of organization should keep in mind
that it requires a great deal of time and effort.
 Refreeze: When the changes are taking shape and employees of the organization have
embraced the new ways of working, now it’s time to refreeze. The obvious signs of the
refreeze stage are a stable organization chart and consistent job descriptions. Here it needs
to help employees and management of the organization to internalize or institutionalize the
changes. This means management should make it sure that the changes are used all the
time as well as they are incorporated by employees into everyday business. With a new
sense of stability and belonging, employees of the organization will feel confident and
comfortable with the new ways of working. Refreezing stage of Change management model
is very important. Because without it the employees of the organization get caught in a
transition trap where they aren't sure about how things should be done, due to this nothing
will ever gets done to full capacity.
If there will be no frozen state, it will be very difficult for organizational management to
tackle the next change initiative effectively. How will organization convince the employees
that something needs changing if it hasn’t allowed the most recent changes to sink in?
Change will be recognized as change for change's sake, so the encouragement, motivation
and inspiration are always required to implement new changes.

 Advantages-
 Lewin’s change management model is fantastic for when your business needs
to drastically change in order to succeed. It also excels at uncovering hidden
mistakes which were taken for granted, since you have to analyze every
aspect of whatever you’re changing.
 If you’re carrying out any business process reengineering (see
the template for this below) or know that you need to shake up some
ingrained mistruths, use Lewin’s model.
 Disadvantages-
 Due to the scale of the unfreezing process, Lewin’s model can be difficult and
time-consuming to enact. This isn’t necessarily a problem (since the changes
highlighted are often massive and require a large time investment anyway),
but it does mean that using the model for anything less than an in -depth
analysis and overhaul isn’t worthwhile.
 Lewin’s model also requires a great deal of care to be taken beyond the base
instructions to support your team and consider their emotions thro ugh the
turmoil.
 Massive changes (which this model is suited to) run the risk of alienating
employees, since their workflow will be drastically different than before. As
such, you need to be especially careful when bringing them on board and
keeping up their enthusiasm in the refreezing stage.
2) McKinsey 7 S Model

McKinsey 7-S framework or model is one of those few models that have managed to persist
even when others came in and went out of trend. It was developed by consultants working
for McKinsey & Company in the 1980s and features seven steps or stages for managing
change.

 Strategy is a plan developed by a firm to achieve sustained competitive advantage and

successfully compete in the market. What does a well-aligned strategy mean in 7s
McKinsey model? In general, a sound strategy is the one that’s clearly articulated, is
long-term, helps to achieve competitive advantage and is reinforced by strong vision,
mission and values. But it’s hard to tell if such strategy is well-aligned with other
elements when analyzed alone. So the key in 7s model is not to look at your company to
find the great strategy, structure,
systems and etc. but to look if its
aligned with other elements. For
example, short-term strategy is
usually a poor choice for a
company but if its aligned with
other 6 elements, then it may
provide strong results.

Your company strategy

needs to be formal enough to
allow you to move forward with
purpose and gain (or maintain) an
advantage over your competitors, and flexible enough to adapt to changes without
destroying your progress. As such, when assessing your strategy you need to answer
questions such as:
 What are your objectives?
 What is your strategy to achieve them?
 How are you staying competitive?
 How can your strategy adapt to the current (and future) situation?

 Structure represents the way business divisions and units are organized and includes the
information of who is accountable to whom. In other words, structure is the
organizational chart of the firm. It is also one of the most visible and easy to change
elements of the framework.
 Your structure should be fairly simple to note down since it’s more tangible than
your strategy, but it’s nonetheless important to double check with your team(s). Unless
your information is accurate for how your company is actually structured, you’re only
neutering the effectiveness of your changes.
Ask yourself:
 How is your company structured (departments, teams, etc)?
 What is your hierarchy?
 How are your departments organized and managed?
 How are your teams organized and managed?
 How do your individual team members organize themselves?
 Who makes the decisions?
 How are they carried out/passed down?
 How does everyone communicate?
 How often does communication occur?

 Systems are the processes and procedures of the company, which reveal business’ daily
activities and how decisions are made. Systems are the area of the firm that determines
how business is done and it should be the main focus for managers during organizational
change.

Any of our returning readers will know the importance of having processes and
managing them effectively, and now is when the McKinsey model applies that same
belief. Here you need to assess your business systems, including official processes,
unofficial shortcuts, rules, and how everything is tracked.
In other words, ask yourself:
 What are the core systems in your business (HR, finance, document
management, team management/meetings, etc)?
 How are these systems and/or processes stored and used?
 How are they updated (and are they up to date)?
 Are these systems accurate (are they being used word-for-word)?
 How do you track and assess the results of these processes?
 Who has access to these systems?

 Shared Values are at the core of McKinsey 7s model. They are the norms and standards
that guide employee behavior and company actions and thus, are the foundation of
every organization.
We’re back into abstract territory now, as the next step is to analyze your sha red
values. This will typically include both your official company values and your company’s
(possibly also your individual teams’) culture.
While culture might seem irrelevant to managing change, if used correctly it can be a
powerful tool indeed. Linking your values and culture to the changes you make will
make them more agreeable to your work force, who will, in turn, adapt them more
readily.
Take a look at:
 What are your core company values?
 What is your company culture?
 What are your teams’ cultures?
 Are they at odds with the company culture?
 Knowing this, how strong are your values?
 How could you strengthen them in practice?

 Style represents the way the company is managed by top-level managers, how they
interact, what actions do they take and their symbolic value. In other words, it is the
management style of company’s leaders.
This stage is all about assessing the management and leadership style used in your
business. While it might be tempting to present an idealized view of your own
leadership, resist that urge and be frank with how both you and the rest of the
company are managed/manage others.
The questions you need to be asking are:
 How are your departments and teams managed?
 How active is this management/leadership?
 Is this style effective, and to what extent?
 Do you inspire competition or collaboration?

 Staff element is concerned with what type and how many employees an organization
will need and how they will be recruited, trained, motivated and rewarded.
This section is exactly what you’d expect. Take a look at your staff list and assess
whether you have the required positions filled, what gaps you have, and so on.
Take a look at your staff list, their job descriptions, common tasks, and skill set in
general to answer:
 What positions do you have filled?
 What skills do they bring to your company?
 Are you lacking a particular skill set?
 Do you need to hire someone?
 If so, who will your next hire be?
 Skills are the abilities that firm’s employees perform very well. They also include
capabilities and competences. During organizational change, the question often arises of
what skills the company will really need to reinforce its new strategy or new structure.
Any of our returning readers will know the importance of having processes and
managing them effectively, and now is when the McKinsey model applies that same
belief. Here you need to assess your business systems, including official processes,
unofficial shortcuts, rules, and how everything is tracked.
In other words, ask yourself:
 What are the core systems in your business (HR, finance, document
management, team management/meetings, etc)?
 How are these systems and/or processes stored and used?
 How are they updated (and are they up to date)?
 Are these systems accurate (are they being used word-for-word)?
 How do you track and assess the results of these processes?
 Who has access to these systems?
 Benefits of this model
 This model offers ways and methods to understand an organization and get a
deep insight into the way it works.
 This model integrates both the emotional as well as the practical components of
change that is something that is important to create ways to enable employees
deal with transition easily.
 This model considers all parts to be important and equally worth addressing and
thus does not leave out some aspects that may be of importance.
 This model also offers directional factor to organizational change.
 Disadvantages of this model
 Since all the factors are interrelated and interdependent on one another, the failing
of one part means failing of all and this is the greatest disadvantage of this model.
 This model is complex as compared to the others and differences are not focused
upon in it.
 Organizations that have used this model have experienced more cases of failure, and
this too can be considered as one negative associated with it.

3) Kotter’s 8 step Model of Change

John Kotter (1996), a Harvard Business School Professor and a renowned change expert, in
his book “Leading Change”, introduced 8 Step Model of Change which he developed on the
basis of research of 100 organizations which were going through a process of change.
The 8 steps in the process of change include: creating a sense of urgency, forming powerful
guiding coalitions, developing a vision and a strategy, communicating the vision, removing
obstacles and empowering employees for action, creating short-term wins, consolidating
gains and strengthening change by anchoring change in the culture. Kotter’s 8 step model
can be explained with the help of the illustration given below:

1. Creating an Urgency: This can be done in the following ways:

 Identifying and highlighting the potential threats and the repercussions which might
crop up in the future.
 Examining the opportunities which can be tapped through effective interventions.
 Initiate honest dialogues and discussions to make people think over the prevalent
issues and give convincing reasons to them.
 Request the involvement and support of the industry people, key stakeholders and
customers on the issue of change.
2. Forming Powerful Guiding Coalitions -This can be achieved in the following ways:
 Identifying the effective change leaders in your organizations and also the key
stakeholders, requesting their involvement and commitment towards the entire
process.
 Form a powerful change coalition who would be working as a team.
 Identify the weak areas in the coalition teams and ensure that the team involves
many influential people from various cross functional departments and working in
different levels in the
company.
3. Developing a Vision and a
Strategy -This can be achieved
by:
 Determining the core values,
defining the ultimate vision
and the strategies for
realizing a change in an
organization.
 Ensure that the change
leaders can describe the
vision effectively and in a manner that people can easily understand and follow.
4. Communicating the Vision
 Communicate the change in the vision very often powerfully and convincingly.
Connect the vision with all the crucial aspects like performance reviews, training, etc.
 Handle the concerns and issues of people honestly and with involvement.
5. Removing Obstacles
  Ensure that the organizational processes and structure are in place and aligned with
the overall organizational vision.
 Continuously check for barriers or people who are resisting change. Implement
proactive actions to remove the obstacles involved in the process of change.
 Reward people for endorsing change and supporting in the process.
6. Creating Short-Term Wins
 By creating short term wins early in the change process, you can give a feel of victory
in the early stages of change.
 Create many short term targets instead of one long-term goal, which are achievable
and less expensive and have lesser possibilities of failure.
 Reward the contributions of people who are involved in meeting the targets.
7. Consolidating Gains
 Achieve continuous improvement by analysing the success stories individually and
improving from those individual experiences.
8. Anchoring Change in the Corporate Culture
 Discuss the successful stories related to change initiatives on every given
opportunity.
 Ensure that the change becomes an integral part in your organizational culture and is
visible in every organizational aspect.
 Ensure that the support of the existing company leaders as well as the new leaders
continue to extend their support towards the change.

 Advantages of Kotter’s Model

 It is an easy step by step model which provides a clear description and guidance on
the entire process of change and is relatively easy for being implemented.
 Emphasis is on the involvement and acceptability of the employees for the success in
the overall process.
 Major emphasis is on preparing and building acceptability for change instead of the
actual change process.

 Disadvantages of Kotter’s Model

 Since it is a step by step model, skipping even a single step might result in serious
problems.
 The process is quite time consuming (Rose 2002).
 The model is essentially top-down and discourages any scope for participation or co-
creation.
 Can build frustration and dissatisfaction among the employees if the individual
requirements are given due attention.
4) Burke Litwin Model of Organisational Change

The Burke Litwin Model of Organisational Change is all about defining and establishing a
cause-and-effect relationship. The model assumes 12 organisational elements that
determine a change within an organisation. The model derives its name from two
organisational change consultants and was developed in the 60’s by W. Warner Burke and
George H. Litwin. It is a useful change management tool to better understand all aspects of
an organisation and to view them from a perspective of change.

The framework

 The Burke Litwin Model of Organisational Change establishes a framework in which

four element groups within organisations are distinguished and presented in
columns. The middle column is often referred to as the backbone of the model. On
the left is a column with the so-called hard elements, which are tangible and
measurable, and on the right is a column with the so-called soft elements, which are
mainly abstract.
 The top four elements relate to the organisation as a whole and are also referred to
as the transformational factors. These are deeply rooted processes and
organisational characteristics that can be characterised as a corporate culture. Every
change that occurs herein has major consequences for the entire organisational
structure. A lasting change therefore affects the entire organisation.
 The middle four elements relate to the organisational structure, including the division
of departments. These are also referred to as the transactional factors. This concerns
the daily activities that take place in organisations and their mutual cohesion. Who is
responsible for what and how are departments and their mutual relationship
structured. All activities in this group are influenced by the organisational structure
and driven by management layers.
 The final elements consist of performance. These are about both individual and
organisational performance and focus on the output of organisations. In most cases,
performance is measured in turnover figures or profit percentages. At the same time,
the amount of goods produced, or the degree of customer satisfaction can also be
measured under performance.
1. External Environment- According to the model, it is especially external influences that
are important for organisational changes. Think of the economy, competition, customer
behaviour and politics and legislation. When the influences from the external environment
can be identified, this helps organisations to better understand the direct or indirect impact
and act accordingly. An organisation has no control over external influences.
2. Mission and Strategy- This describes the organisation’s goal and the processes that
ensure the goal and course can be realised. The vision, mission and
accompanying strategy are defined by the highest level of management. It is recommended
that the organisation always checks whether these suit the position of the employees.
3. Leadership- This concerns the responsible positions that give direction to the rest of the
organisation. Managers are responsible for developing a vision and motivating employees.
By having insight into key positions, this can be addressed in the event of a change.

4. Organisational Culture- Every organisations has its own values. This is less formal than
the Mission and Strategy element, but is present across the entire organisation.
An organisation’s culture includes both explicit and implicit rules, including regulations,
practices, principles and manners.
5. Structure- This concerns the hierarchical structure of the organisation, recognisable
departments and formal communication channels. It also includes the position-oriented
structure, such as responsibilities, authority, communication, decision-making and control.
6. Systems- This is about policy and procedures; mechanisms that are in place to help and
support employees. Think of IT services, facility departments and internal customer
support. It covers both employees and the organisation’s activities.
7. Management Practice- This is about the behaviour and activities of managers, which are
generally aimed at implementing the overall strategy. How well do managers comply with
the strategy and how do they deal with the resources at their disposal? How is their
relationship with the employees? These are all questions that arise when discussing
management practice.
8. Working Climate- This relates to employees’ experiences when it comes to the work
environment. How do they experience mutual cooperation, how comfortable do they feel,
and do they feel sufficiently rewarded for their effort? The mutual relationship with
colleagues and the extent to which an organisation makes employees happy are very
important when discussing the working climate.
9. Tasks and skills- This is about the (individual) task requirements and the alignment of the
job description with employees’ expertise. What are the requirements of a specific job, and
does this fit with the skills and knowledge of an individual employee? It is all about linking
the right positions to the right employees.
10. Individual values and needs- This relates to the demands and expectations that
employees have, including their remuneration, work-life balance, their role within the
organisation and their responsibilities. It is about the opinion employees have about the
quality of their work and aims to discover their needs. In some cases, this may result in task
expansion or even job enrichment, meaning the employee is given more responsibility.
11. Motivational Level- Motivation is about setting goals and inspiring and stimulating
employees. The more motivated employees are, the more willing they are to dedicate
themselves to the organisation.
12. Individual and General Performance- This dimension considers the performance level
of both the individual employee and on a departmental and organisational level. As
mentioned earlier, this can be measured on the basis of turnover, productivity, quality
requirements, efficiency and customer satisfaction.

5) Work Redesign Model

Restructuring the elements including tasks, duties and responsibilities of a specific job in
order to make it more encouraging and inspiring for the employees or workers is known as
job redesigning. The process includes revising, analyzing, altering, reforming and reshuffling
the job-related content and dimensions to increase the variety of assignments and
functions to motivate employees and make them feel as an important asset of the
organization. The main objective of conducting job redesigning is to place the right person
at the right job and get the maximum output while increasing their level of satisfaction.
Job Redesign Process

 Revising the Job Content: Job redesigning process involves recollecting and revising
job-related information to determine the inconsistency between person and the job.
 Analyzing Job-related Information: Once the job analyst is through with recollecting
and revising the job content, analyzing the discrepancies is the next step. It is done to
determine the hindrances in performing job-related tasks and duties and investigate
why an employee is not able to deliver the expected output.
 Altering the Job Elements: The next step is to amend the job elements. It may
include cut back on extra responsibilities or addition of more functions and a higher
degree of accountability. The basic aim of altering the job content is to design a job in
such a manner that encourages employees to work harder and perform better.
 Reformation of Job Description and Specification: After altering the job elements, a
job analyst needs to reform the job description and specification in order to make
sure that the worker placed at a particular place is able to deliver what is expected of
him.
 Reshuffling the Job-related Tasks and Duties: Next is
to reallocation of new or altered tasks and functions to
employees. It may be done by rotating, enriching,
enlarging and engineering the job. The idea is to
motivate the performers while increasing their
satisfaction level.

 Advantages of Job Redesigning

 Enhances the Quality of Work-Life: Job redesigning

motivates the employees and enhances the quality of
their work life. It increases their on-the-job productivity and encourages them to
perform better.
 Increases Organization’s and Employees’ Productivity: Altering their job functions
and duties makes employees much comfortable and adds to their satisfaction level.
The unambiguous job responsibilities and tasks motivate them to work harder and
give their best output. Not only this, it also results in increased productivity of an
organization.
 Brings the Sense of Belongingness in Employees: Redesigning job and allowing
employees to do what they are good at creates a sense of belongingness in them
towards the organization. It is an effective strategy to retain the talent in the
organization and encouraging them to carry out their responsibilities in a better
fashion.
 Creates a Right Person-Job Fit: Job Redesigning plays an important role in creating a
right person-job fit while harnessing the full potential of employees. It helps
organization as well as employees in achieving their targets or goals.
Therefore, the purpose of job redesigning is to identify the task significance and skill variety
available in the organization and reallocating the job-related tasks and responsibilities
according to the specific skills possessed by an employee.

6) ADKAR Model
The ADKAR model was developed by Jeff Hiatt in 2003 and it was introduced as a
practical tool by Prosci, a renowned change management consultancy and learning
centre. The ADKAR model is mainly intended to be a coaching and change management
tool to help and assist employees through the change process within organizations.

The ADKAR® model

consists of five
sequential steps or
actions:

1. Awareness of the
need for change-
Understanding why
change is necessary is
the first key aspect of
successful change. This
step explains the
reasoning and thought
that underlies a required
change. Planned
communication is
essential. When this step
is successfully completed
the individual (employee) will fully understand why change is necessary.

2. Desire to participate in and support the change- In this step the individual is able to
reach a point where they make a personal decision to support the change and participate in
the change. Naturally a desire to support and be part of the change can only happen after
full awareness of the need for change is established. Building desire is partly achieved by
addressing incentives for the individual and creating a desire to be a part of the change.

3. Knowledge on how to change- The third building block of the model, providing
knowledge about the change, can be achieved through normal training and education
methods. Other methods of transferring knowledge, such as coaching, forums and
mentoring, are equally useful, so don't limit this process to formal training. Two types of
knowledge need to be addressed: knowledge on how to change (what to do during the
transition) and knowledge on how to perform once the change is implemented.

4. Ability to implement required skills and behaviours- In this model Ability is understood
to be the difference between theory and practice. Once knowledge on how to change is in
place (theory) the practice, or actual performance of the individual, needs to be supported.
This can take some time and can be achieved through practice, coaching and feedback.

5. Reinforcement to sustain the change- This final stage of the model is an essential
component in which efforts to sustain the change are emphasized. Ensuring that changes
stay in place and that individuals do not revert to old ways can be achieved through positive
feedback, rewards, recognition, measuring performance and taking corrective actions.
This is often the part of change management that is most difficult as organisations are
already moving towards the next change.

 Why use the ADKAR® model of change?

The primary reason I favour this model of change management is it's focus on individual
change and ensuring each person makes the transition. This is more than a 'soft' approach -
it has practical applications.

 Most importantly, when you're focusing on the individual you're able to measure
where they are in the change process and what is required to assist them. You are
not simply relying on running a certain number of training programmes, or
communicating a particular message, and expecting everyone to follow.
 The model directs change management activities. It's focused on outcomes, not tasks
to be performed. Many change models describe what needs to be done - this model
describes the outcomes (Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, Reinforcement).
 Communication strategies can be focused.
 The ADKAR® model helps to measure the effectiveness of the change process.
Progress can be measured down to the individual level, gaps diagnosed, and
corrective action is directed.
 Managers have a tool they can use. Each part of the model gives manager's a specific
role. For example, an individual struggling with change may need knowledge on how
to change or may lack the ability to implement necessary skills or behaviours. The
manager is able to discern between the two and can provide training (knowledge and
information) or work closely with the individual, coaching them to give them the
confidence (and ability) to perform effectively.
 This change management model can be used for both project and non-project
change, and is effective as a model of individual change outside of the organisational
setting as well.
7) Bridges’ Transition
Model
The Transition Model was
developed and published by
change consultant, William
Bridges in his 1991 book
"Managing Transitions." This
model clearly highlights the
difference between change
and transition. The best part of the model is that it focuses on transition, not change. The
difference between change & Transition is very minor but very important. Change is
something that happens to people, even if they do not agree with it. While transition on the
other hand, is something internal: it's what happens inside people's minds when they are
encountered with change or while they go through change. Change may happen very
quickly, while transition usually occurs slowly with the
passage of the time.
Management of the company or project manager can use
the Bridges' Transition Model to understand how
company’s employees or project tea feel as you guide
them through change. This model highlights three distinct
stages of transition which are:

Stage 1: Ending, Losing, and Letting Go

Employees of the company or project team first enter this initial stage of transition model
when management or project manager first presents them with change. This stage of
Bridges' Transition Model is often marked with resistance and emotional upheaval, because
employees are being forced to let go of something that they are comfortable with.
At this stage, company’s employees may experience these emotions:
1. Fear
2. Denial
3. Anger
4. Frustration
5. Sadness
6. Uncertainty
7. Disorientation
8. A sense of loss
Employees or members project team have to accept that something is ending before they
can begin to accept the new idea. If management or project manager don't acknowledge
the emotions that employees or team are going through, management will likely encounter
resistance throughout the entire change process.

 Guiding company’s Employees through Stage One

It's important for management and project manager to accept employees/team resistance,
and understand their emotions. Management should allow them sufficient amount of time
to accept the change and let go, and try to arrange conversation and group talks among
employees to know what they're feeling. In conversations or group talks, make sure that
representative of management should listen empathically and communicate openly about
what's going to happen. Emphasize how people will be able to apply their skills, experience,
and knowledge once company implemented the change. Management of the company
should explain how you'll give employees what they need (for example, training and
required resources) to work effectively in the new changed environment. Employees
usually fear what they don't understand, so the more management should educate them
about a positive future, and also communicate about how their knowledge and skills are an
essential part of handling change and transition. This will more motivate and inspire
company’s employees to move on to the next stage.

Stage 2: The Neutral Zone

In this second stage of Bridges' Transition Model employees affected by the change are
often uncertain, more confused, and impatient. Employees may experience a higher
workload as they get used to new systems and new ways of working so management need
to best mange at this stage.
Consider this phase as a bridge between the old system and the new one; in some ways,
employees will still be attached to the old, while they are also trying to adapt to the new.
Employees or project team might experience the following:
1. Disliking towards the change initiative.
2. Low morale and low productivity.
3. Anxiety about their role, identity or status.
4. Doubts about the change initiative.
In spite of all these, management can handle this stage of Bridges' Transition Model by
great creativity, renewal and innovation. This is a great time to encourage employees to try
new ways of thinking and working.
 Guiding company’s employees through Stage Two
The guidance of management is incredibly important as employees go through this neutral
process. This can be an uncomfortable time for management as well as employees, as it can
seem unproductive or seem that little progress is being made. As employees or project
team might feel a bit lost, management of the company or project manager should provide
them with a solid sense of direction. Remind them of team goals about projects, and also
encourage and
motivate them to
talk about what
they're feeling.
Regularly get
feedback from
employees on how
they're performing,
especially with
regard to change. It
is also important that
management should
set short-term goals
during this stage, so
that employees can experience some quick achievements. This will help to improve
motivation as well as giving everyone a positive perception of the change effort.

Stage 3: The New Beginning

The last stage Bridges' Transition Model is a time of acceptance and energy. Employees of
the company have begun to embrace the change initiative. They start to learn and taking
interest in building the skills they need to work successfully in the new way, and they are
also starting to see early achievements from their work and efforts.

At this stage, employees or project team are likely to experience:

1. High energy.
2. Openness to learning required skills.
3. Improved commitment to the group or their role.

 Guiding employees through Stage Three

As employees begin to adopt the change, it's essential that management or manger help
them to sustain it. Use different management techniques such as Management by
Objectives to link employee’s personal goals to the long-term objectives of the company,
and also regularly highlight stories of success in the new change. Celebrate the change
company or project team gone through, and reward employees or team for all their hard
work and efforts.

8) Grief Model
 In 1969 Kubler-Ross described five stages of grief in her book "On Death And Dying". These
stages represent the normal range of feelings people experience when dealing with change
in their lives - or in the workplace.
All change involves loss at some level. The "Five stages" model is used to understand how
people react to change at different times. The stages were first observed as a human
response to learning about terminal illness. They have also been used to understand our
individual responses to all kinds of change.
The five stages of grief Kubler-Ross observed and wrote about are:

1. Denial: "I can't believe it", "This can't be happening", "Not to me!", "Not again!"
The Stage of shock or denial is usually the first stage in the Kubler-Ross Model and is mostly
short-lived. This is a phase during which one puts on a temporary defense mechanism and
takes time to process certain disturbing news or reality. One may not want to believe what
is happening and that it is happening to him/her. It can bring about a dip in productivity and
the ability to think and act. After the initial shock subsides, one may experience denial and
may remain focused on the past. Some people tend to remain in the state of denial for a
long time and may lose touch with reality.
2. Anger: "Why me? It's not fair!" "NO! I can't accept this!"
When the realization finally hits, and one understands the gravity of the situation, he/she
may become angry and may look for someone to blame. Anger can be manifested or
expressed in many ways. While some take out the anger on themselves, others may direct
it towards others around them. While some may be angry at life in general, others may
blame the economy. One always tends to remain irritable, frustrated and short tempered
during this stage.

3. Bargaining: "Just let me live to see my children graduate."; "I'll do anything if you give me
more time A few more years?"
When the stage of anger passes away, one may start thinking about ways to postpone the
inevitable and try to find out the best thing left in the situation. Those who are not faced by
death but by another trauma may try to negotiate in the situation and come to a point of
compromise. Bargaining may help to come to a sustainable solution and might bring some
relief to those who are moving close to what they wish to avoid altogether. The search for a
different outcome or a less traumatic one may remain on during this stage.
4. Depression: "I'm so sad, why bother with anything?"; "What's the point of trying?"
Depression is a stage in which the person tends to feel sadness, fear, regret, guilt and other
negative emotions. He/she may have completely given up by now and may now reach a
dead end from where the road only seems dark. One may display signs or indifference,
reclusiveness, pushing others away and zero excitement towards anything in life. This may
 seem like a lowest point in life with no way ahead. Some common signs of depression
include sadness, low energy, feeling demotivated, losing trust in god, etc.
5. Acceptance: "It's going to be OK."; "I can't fight it, I may as well prepare for it."
When people realize that fighting the change that is coming into their life is not going to
make the grief go away, they resign to the situation and accept it completely. The resigned
attitude may not be a happy space but is one in which the person may stop resisting change
and move ahead with it.

One of the best examples of the Kubler-Ross Change Curve is the Dead Car Battery
example. The following given example clearly demonstrates the transition process from
one stage to another.
It’s a chilly winter morning, and it is dark outdoors. There is a thin layer of frost on the
ground but you are late for work and hence have to rush out to the car parked outside. As
you place the key in the ignition and turn the car on, you realize that the battery is dead.
What follows is a clear demonstration of the Kubler-Ross transition stages:
1. Shock and denial – Your first reaction is of absolute shock and denial. You cannot believe
this happening to you when you are already running late, and you thus try to start the car
again and again.
2. Anger – Now that you realize the car cannot be started, you begin to feel angry and very
mad at the situation.
3. Bargaining – Even on knowing it won’t help, you start asking the car to start, just for once.
You promise it in your mind that you will keep it maintained and get the battery charged as
soon as possible.
4. Depression – All the negative thoughts start rushing to your mind. You begin to feel
depressed, sad and hopeless. You fear your job will be taken away and see now way out of
the situation.
5. Acceptance – Now you figure out what you should do next. You can a cab and decide to
deal with the situation later on.

Relevance of Kubler-Ross Change Curve in Business

The Kubler-Ross Model also holds true when it comes to business, work or employment.
Every organization needs to bring about changes in its management and policies. But
besides the improvement of systems, there must be a change in the people or employees
as well. If even in bringing about several changes in the systems and processes, the
employees of your company persist in their old ways, and then the thousands of dollars
invested will go to waste. This is why it is important for the employees too to adapt and
change accordingly. Only when the workforce of an organization makes personal changes,
or transitions can the company move ahead and reap the benefits. Every organization
needs to support the employees in the process of making transitions or changes. These
individual transformations can be traumatic and may involve a lot of power loss and
prestige issues. The easier it is for the employees to move along on their journey, the easier
will it be for the organization to move towards success. Thus, this impacts the success rate
and overall profits experienced by the company. The Change Curve in business is thus a
powerful model that can help one understand and deal with changes and personal
transitions. It helps to fathom how one will react to change and how to provide support
during the process of change.
Organization Development
 Concept:
Development is a continuous process and it accommodates in itself many changes that
occur in science and technology, economic, market, political environment, education,
knowledge, values, attitude and behaviour of people, culture etc. Organisation
development is a part of overall development in general. It cannot remain unaffected by
the developmental process. The organisation has to change the beliefs, values and its
structure to accommodate the new ideas, beliefs and new technologies for progress. This is
very essential. The organisation must respond to changes. So that it can face the challenges
ahead. The management of human resources depends upon organisational effectiveness.
Human resources form the main plank of any organisation. Humans are affected by change.
Organisation development accommodates and incorporates variety of planned changes
based on humanistic democratic values, technology that are sought to improve the
effectiveness of organisation and well being of its employees.

 Definition of Organization Development

 Organisation development is a system-wide application of behavioral science knowledge
to the planned development and reinforcement of organisational strategies, structures,
and processes for improving an organisation’s effectiveness. (Cummings and Worley,
Organisation Development and Change, Sixth Edition, South-Western Publishing, 1997,
p.2.)
 Organisation development, according to Richard Beckhard, is defined as:
 A planned effort
 Organisation-wide
 Managed from the top
 To increase organisation effectiveness and health
 Through planned interventions in the organisation’s ‘processes’, using behavioural
science knowledge.
 According to Warren Bennis, Organisation Development (OD) is a complex strategy
intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of organisations so that
they can better adapt to new technologies, markets, and challenges.
 Warner Burke emphasizes that OD is not just “anything done to better an organisation”;
it is a particular kind of change process designed to bring about a particular kind of end
result.
 OD is a systematic application of behavioral science knowledge to the planned
development and reinforcement of organisational strategies, structures and processes
for improving an organisation’s effectiveness. (Cummings and Worley, 1993)

 Nature and Scope of OD

1. OD is a Long-term Effort: which means that organisational change and development take
long time in fact it is a never ending journey of continuous change for organisation
effectiveness.
2. Supported by Top Management: The OD programmers seeks the serious attention and
commitment from the top management for achieving it’s objectives of improvements.
3. OD is a Learning Process: which means the process of interaction, listening and
selfexamining which facilitates individual, team and organisational learning.
4. OD is visioning Processes: which mean the organisation members develop a picture of
the desired future that includes the humanistic approach to make that picture a reality.
5. OD is an Empowerment Process: which means those leadership behaviors and human
resource practices that enable organisation members to develop and use their talents as
fully as possible towards organisational growth and success.
6. Contractual Relationship: Although neither the sponsoring organisation nor the change
agent can be sure at the outset of the exact nature of the problem or problems to be dealt
with or how long the change agent’s help will be needed, it is essential that some tentative
agreement on these matters be reached. The sponsoring organisation needs to know
generally what the change agent’s preliminary plan is, what its own commitments are in
relation to personal commitments and responsibility for the program, and what the change
agent’s fee will be. The change agent must assure himself that the organisation’s, and
particularly the top executives’, commitment to change is strong enough to support the
kind of self analysis and personal involvement requisite to success of the program.
Recognizing the uncertainties lying ahead on both sides, a termination agreement
permitting either side to withdraw at any time is usually included.
7. Change Agent: A change agent in the sense used here is not a technical expert skilled in
such functional areas as accounting, production, or finance. He is a behavioral scientist who
knows how to get people in an organisation involved in solving their own problems. His
main strength is a comprehensive knowledge of human behavior, supported by a number
of intervention techniques. The change agent can be either external or internal to the
organisation. An internal change agent is usually a staff person who has expertise in the
behavioral sciences and in the intervention technology of OD. Qualified change agents can
be found on some university faculties, or they may be private consultants associated with
such organisations as the National Training Laboratories Institute for Applied Behavioral
Science Washington, or University Associates (San Diego, California), and similar
organisations. The change agent may be a staff or line member of the organisation who is
schooled in OD theory and technique. In such a case, the “contractual relationship” is an in-
house agreement that should probably be explicit with respect to all of the conditions
involved except the fee.
8. Sponsoring Organisation: The initiative for OD programs comes from an organisation
that has a problem. This means that top management or someone authorized by top
management is aware that a problem exists and has decided to seek help in solving it.
There is a direct analogy here to the practice of psychotherapy: The client or patient must
actively seek help in finding a solution to his problems. This indicates a willingness on the
part of the client organisation to accept help and assures the organisation that
management is actively concerned.
9. Applied Behavioral Science: One of the outstanding characteristics of OD that
distinguishes it from most other improvement programs is that it is based on a “helping
relationship.” The change agent is not a physician to the organisation’s ills; he does not
examine the “patient,” make a diagnosis, and write a prescription. Nor does he try to teach
organisational members a new inventory of knowledge which they then transfer to the job
situation. Using theory and methods drawn from such behavioral sciences as psychology,
sociology, communication, cultural anthropology, organisational behaviour economics, and
political science, the change agent’s main function is to help the organisation define and
solve its own problems. The basic method used is known as action research. This approach,
which is described in detail later, consists of a preliminary diagnosis, collecting data,
feedback of the data to the client, data exploration by the client group, action planning
based on the data, and taking action.
10. System Context: OD deals with a total system — the organisation as a whole, including
its relevant environment — or with a sub-system or systems — departments or work
groups — in the context of the total system. Thus, OD interventions focus on the total
culture and cultural processes of organisations. The focus is also on groups, since the
relevant behavior of individuals in organisations and groups is generally a product of group
influences rather than personality.
11. Improved Organisational Performance: The objective of OD is to improve the
organisation’s capacity to handle its internal and external functioning and relationships.
This would include such things as improved interpersonal and group processes, more
effective communication, enhanced ability to cope with organisational problems of all
kinds, more effective decision processes, more appropriate leadership style, improved skill
in dealing with destructive conflict, and higher levels of trust and cooperation among
organisational members. These objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic
view of the nature of man — that man in a supportive environment is capable of achieving
higher levels of development and accomplishment. Also essential to organisation
development and effectiveness is the scientific method — inquiry, a rigorous search for
causes, experimental testing of hypotheses, and review of results. Finally, the democratic
process is viewed as having a legitimate, and perhaps dominant, role in the highly effective
organisation.
12. Organisational Self Renewal: The ultimate aim of the outside OD practitioner is to
“work himself out of a job” by leaving the client organisation with a set of tools, behaviors,
attitudes, and an action plan with which to monitor its own state of health and to take
corrective steps toward its own renewal and
development. This is consistent with the
systems concept of feedback as a regulatory
and corrective mechanism.

 PROCESS OF ORGANISATIONAL
DEVELOPEMENT

1. Initial Diagnosis of the Problem:

In the first step, the management should try
to find out an overall view of the situation to find the real problem. Top management
should meet the consultants and the experts to determine the type of programme that is
needed. In the first stage only, the consultants will meet various persons in the organisation
and interview them to collect some information.

2. Data Collection:
In this stage, the consultant will make the surveys to determine the climate of the
organisation and the behavioural problems of the employees. The consultant will meet
groups of people away from their work environment to get some answers to the
questions such as:

(i) What specific job conditions contribute most to their job effectiveness?
(ii) What kind of conditions interferes with their job effectiveness?
(iii) What changes would they like to make in the working of the organisation?

3. Data Feedback and Confrontation:

The data which has been collected in the second step will be given to the work groups, who
will be assigned the job of reviewing the data. Any areas of disagreement will be mediated
among themselves only and priorities will be established for change.
 4. Planning Strategy for Change:
In this stage, the consultant will suggest the strategy for change. He will attempt to
transform diagnosis of the problem into a proper action plan involving the overall goals for
change, determination of basic approach for attaining these goals and the sequence of
detailed scheme for implementing the approach.

5. Intervening in the System:

Intervening in the system refers to the planned programmed activities during the course of
an OD programme. These planned activities bring certain changes in the system, which is
the basic objective of OD. There may be various methods through which external
consultant intervene in the system such as education and laboratory training, process
consultation, team development etc.

6. Team Building:
During the entire process, the consultant encourages the groups to examine how they work
together. The consultant will educate them about the value of free communication and
trust as essentials for group functioning. The consultant can have team managers and their
subordinates to work together as a team in OD sessions to further encourage team
building. Following the development of small groups, there may be development among
larger groups comprising several teams.

7. Evaluation:
OD is a very long process. So there is a great need for careful monitoring to get precise
feedback regarding what is going on after the OD programme starts. This will help in
making suitable modifications whenever necessary. For evaluation of OD programme, the
use of critique sessions, appraisal of change efforts and comparison of pre and post training
behavioural patterns are quite effective.

The steps in OD are part of a whole process, so all of them need to be applied if a firm
expects to get the full benefits of OD. An organisation which applies only a few steps and
leaves the others will be disappointed with the results.

 Assumptions of Organizational Development

1. Assumptions of dealing with Individuals: The two basic assumptions about individuals in
organizations are:-
a. Most individuals have drives towards personal growth and development. They want to
develop their potential and therefore should be provided with an environment that is
both supportive and challenging. In other words, individuals want personal growth
 and development, which can be attained in a supportive and challenging work
situation.
b. Most people desire to make, and are capable of making, a greater contribution to
attain organization goals than most organizational environments permit. The
implication of this assumption is that people are experts. Organizations must remove
obstacles and barriers and reward success.
2. Assumptions of dealing with Groups: These assumptions relate to the importance of
work teams.
a. The most psychologically relevant reference groups for most people are the work
group. The work group greatly influences feelings of satisfaction and competence.
Therefore, individual goals should be integrated with group goals.
b. Most people interact co-operatively with at least one small reference group.
c. Work groups are the best way to satisfy social and emotional needs at work.
Therefore, the growth of individual members is facilitated by relationships, which are
open, supportive and trusting.
d. The suppression of feelings adversely affects problem solving personal growth and
satisfaction with one's work. Attitudinal and motivational problems in organizations
require interactive and transactional solutions. Such problems have the greatest
chance of constructive solution if all parties in the system alter their mutual
relationship, co-operation is always more effective than conflict.
3. Assumptions for designing Organizations: These assumptions relate to the importance
of designing organizations.
a. Traditional hierarchical forms of organizations are obsolete. Therefore, experimenting
with new organizational structures and new forms of authority is imperative (very
important/ essential). Creating cooperative rather than competitive organizational
dynamics is a primary task of the organization.
b. An optimistic, developmental set of assumptions about people is likely to reap
rewards beneficial to both the organization and its members. Co-operation is always
more beneficial.
c. People are an organization's most important resource. They are the source of
productivity and profits and should be treated with care. An organization can achieve
higher productivity only when the individual goals are integrated with organizational
goals.

 Goals of Organization Development

Edwin B. Flippo has given the following seven specific goals of OD. They are:-
1. Decision-making on the basis of competence rather than authority.
2. Creatively resolving conflicts through confrontation designed to replace win-lose
situations with win-win types.
3. Reducing dysfunctional competition and maximizing collaboration.
4. Increasing commitment and a sense of "ownership" of organizational objectives
throughout the work force.
5. Increasing the degree of interpersonal trust and support.
6. Creating a climate in which an growth, development and renewal are a natural part of
the enterprise's daily operation.
7. Developing a communication system characterized by mutual openness and condor in
solving organizational problems.
The choice depends on the circumstances. Restrictions the managers have to take into
account including limits on time and money and lack of skill at implementing a strategy. The
choice of a strategy usually results from conferences and discussions involving those who
will be most directly affected. The experiences, feelings and perceptions of conference
participants help determine if their parts of the organization are ready for change and for
OD techniques. The success of OD depends on a high level of receptiveness to change.

 Organizational Development Core Values

Ethics can be described as a set of professional standards. Because organizational
development is an ever expanding field, it requires practitioners to be flexible in how they
respond to situations, often on a case-by-case basis. As practitioners, our core values guide
our ethical behavior.

In Donald Anderson's book Organization Development: The Process of Leading

Organizational Change, he names the following 6 core values for the field:

1. Participation, involvement and empowerment- This may be the most fundamental value
we hold as OD practitioners. We know that "people support what they help create."
Therefore, we encourage our clients to see the benefit of involving all organizational
members in decision-making and change processes as appropriate.
2. The importance of groups and teams- Organizations are made up of a variety of formal
and informal groups and teams. Therefore, we encourage clients to recognize the norms
and beliefs that come along with these structures in order to help those groups and teams
contribute most effectively to the organization.
3. Growth, development and learning - As OD practitioners, we have an optimistic view of
people and teams. Therefore, we believe that our work with organizations should help
people to learn the skills needed to help them navigate change in the future.
4. Valuing the whole person- In order to help individuals maximize their potential in an
organiztion, we respect that people are complex. Therefore, we work hard to understand
individuals have diverse needs, skills, and feelings and respect those differences in our work
with them.
5. Dialogue and collaboration- Conflict is inevitable in teams and organizations. Therefore,
we believe in using dialogue to address conflict in a healthy, open manner in order to move
past the dysfunction that suppressed conflict can create.
6. Authenticity, openness and trust- In order to create trusting environments,
organizational leaders and members must consistently demonstrate honesty and
transparency in their words and actions. As OD practitioners, we must model this at all
times.

 Implications of OD Values and Assumptions

The implications of OD values and assumptions may vary for dealing with individuals,
groups and organisations.
 Implication for Dealing with Individuals- It is based on the assumptions that most
individuals have drives towards personal growth and development if provided a
supportive and conducive environment.
 Implications for Dealing with Groups- It is based on the assumptions that most
people wish to be accepted and to interact with at least one small reference group
and are capable of making greater contributions to a group effectiveness and
development.
 Implications for Dealing with Organisations- A key assumption in organisation
development is then needs and aspirations of human beings are the reasons for
organized efforts in the society. The belief is that people can grow and develop in
terms of personal and organisational competency to produce the desired result.
 The basic value of OD theory and practice is that of choice. Learning is seen as an
integral part of choice. Therefore, OD utilizes various strategies to intervene into the
ongoing activities of the organisation in order to facilitate learning and to help the
organisation (groups within it, as well as individuals who make up the groups) to be
able to make better choices about alternative ways to proceed more effectively.
Because choice is a fundamental value, OD works with the organisation to find out
how the organisation wishes to proceed. OD is not prescriptive in its purest form.
(Organisations in crisis often demand a more prescriptive approach and this is always
a difficult decision for the OD practitioner to weigh).

FOUNDATIONS OF OD

ACTION RESEARCH
Action Research is a useful method for facilitating organizational change by collaborating
and involving the client in the entire process of diagnostic, problem identification,
experiential learning, and problem-solving process. The entire process of action research is
action oriented with the objective of making the change happen successfully. The process
equally involves
experimentation with the
various frameworks in
practical situation and
application of various
theories in various
contexts which require
change.
In other words, the
process of Action
Research requires three
distinctive stages which
are consistent with the Lewin’s Model which describes the three stages of change.

1. Diagnosing the need for change (unfreezing)

2. Introduction of an intervention (moving)
3. evaluation and stabilization of change (refreezing)
The most commonly used model of action research which is used in the contemporary
scenario is Warner Burke’s 7 Step Action Research Model. These 7 steps are Stage of Entry,
Contracting, Data Collection, Providing Feedback, Strategic Planning, Planning & Designing
Interventions and Evaluating the success of Interventions.

 Advantages of Action Research Model

1. A Systematic Approach to Problem Resolution and Dealing with the Challenges of

Business
 Action Research Model improves an organization’s preparedness in proactively
responding to the change by anticipating the change in advance and developing the
internal mechanisms.
 Action Research Model is highly methodical and adopts a step by step approach which
helps the OD professionals in planning and implementing interventions directed
towards improving the organization’s competitiveness and business situation.
 The Model takes into account all the problems in a holistic manner, and it is equally
ensured that the problems are addressed proactively with effective solutions.
2. Helps in Analysis of Issues and Developing the Interventions Accordingly
 Action Research focuses on converting the information into action.
 It is helpful in identification of the requirements of the client and the existing/potential
challenges, development of a contract which involves definition of the key deliverables
 and the working relationship, data collection and identification of gaps/ root causes of
the issues, analysis of the data for setting the priorities and the plan of action, deciding
on the appropriate interventions and developing a plan for implementing the
interventions for achieving the intended objectives.
 Implementation of successful change programs on a short-term as well as long-term
basis.
3. Facilitates a Learning Culture
 The data collected in the entire process can be used in diverse areas such as the
implementation of quality tools for continuous improvement, strategic planning,
change management, decision making & problem solving, communication process and
organizational restructuring, leadership development and implementation of process
improvement initiatives.
 Fosters a deeper understanding related to the organizational functioning and the
challenges; provides best alternatives or strategic solutions for handling a problem at
hand or various organizational issues.
4. Key Involvement of Senior Leaders and Various Stakeholders
 In the entire process of Action Research, the Change Agents act as the champions of
change who effectively take charge of the entire process as process experts, provide
feedback and are involved in extensive communication with the key stakeholders
across various levels. They involve the top management professionals as well as the
stakeholders in the process, as without their consent and involvement the objectives of
change implementation cannot be achieved.
5. Facilitates Collaboration
 The change agent collaborates with the client in the process of identification of
problems and accords specific ranks to the problems, devises techniques or methods
for identifying the real cause of the problems and develops effective plans offering
realistic as well as practical solutions for addressing the problems.
 Helps in fostering mutual trust and interdependence which are very essential in the
pursuit of organizational success.
 Helps in Rebuilding the Organizational Culture and involves the confidence as well as
people in the entire process of organizational change, which otherwise wouldn’t have
been possible if the authoritarian style of leadership would have been exercised.
6. Results in Performance Improvement in all areas
 The Action Research Model adopts a comprehensive approach to identifying the areas
of improvement in all areas which may affect organizational functioning and success in
the long run.
 The process leads to a long-term improvement in the performance from all
perspectives by building a learning environment, facilitating knowledge and skill
 transfer in a better manner and following a structured/systematic approach for
organizational improvement.
 Helps in achieving the strategic goals of the organization by facilitating an alignment
between the strategic objectives and the goals of the action research intervention.
 The process of action research helps in leadership development by developing their
facilitation skills, developing team building and team management skills, understanding
the issues of the team members and working collaboratively for realizing the pre-
defined objectives.
 Action Research views an organization from a wholistic perspective instead of paying
importance to the individual subsystems of the organization in parts. This helps the
leaders in visualizing a bigger picture and in implementing a roadmap of action or plans
for improving organizational performance and overall productivity.

SURVEY FEEDBACK
The study of Survey Feedback played an important role in formation and history
of Organizational Development (OD). Developed as an organization wide intervention by
Mann and his associates (1957-1965), survey feedback is a process in which organizational
members complete questionnaires on various organizational issues, receive feedback on
the results, then take appropriate actions to address the critical needs and concerns.
Though some type of survey method was prevalent in various organizations earlier,
Institute for Social Research (ISR) of University of Michigan, USA developed a
comprehensive questionnaire for conducting survey in different aspects of an organization.
The basic objectives of survey feedback method are as follows:
1. To assist the organization in diagnosing its problems and developing action plan for
problem-solving.
2. To assist the group members to improve the relationships through discussion of common
problems.

 Process of Survey Feedback

Survey feedback method usually proceeds with sequential activities involving data
collection, feedback of information, developing action plans based on feedback, and follow
up.

1. Data Collection: The first step in survey feedback is data collection usually by a consultant
based on a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire may include different aspects of
organizational functioning. ISR has prepared a questionnaire which includes questions on
leadership – managerial support, managerial goal emphasis, managerial work facilitation,
peer support, peer goal emphasis, peer work facilitation, and peer interaction
facilitation, organizational climate – communication with the
 company, motivation, decision-making, control within the company, co-ordination between
departments, and general management, and satisfaction – satisfaction with the company,
satisfaction with the supervisor, satisfaction with the job, satisfaction with the pay, and
satisfaction with the work group. The questionnaire is administered personally either by the
members of consulting firm or by organization’s personnel. After the questionnaires are
completed, data are classified, tabulated, and analysis is made to arrive at some meaningful
conclusions.
2. Feedback of Information: After the data are analyzed, feedback is given to the persons who
have participated in the fulfilling up of questionnaire. The feedback may be given either
orally or in a written form. In oral system of feedback, it is provided through group
discussion or problem-solving sessions conducted by the consultant. Alternatively, feedback
may be given in the form of a written summary of findings. Whatever the method of giving
feedback is adopted, it should be constructive and suggestive, rather, threatening and
emotion-hurting as survey feedback is aimed at identifying weaknesses which must be
overcome through follow-up actions and not the fault-finding technique for criticism.
3. Follow-up Action: Survey feedback programme is not meaningful unless some follow-up
action is taken based on the data collected. One such follow-up action may be to advise the
participants to develop their own action plans to overcome the problems revealed through
a feedback or as is more commonly the case, follow-up action may be in the form of
developing some specific OD interventions particularly process consultation and team-
building, by the consultant.

 Evaluation of Survey Feedback

Survey feedback provides a base for many managerial actions which has been confirmed by
various research studies. In particular, survey feedback contributes in the following
manner:

1. It is cost-effective means of implementing a comprehensive OD programme making it a

highly desirable technique.
2. It generates great amount of information efficiently and quickly which can be used in
solving problems faced by the organization and its members.
3. Decision-making and problem-solving abilities of organization can be improved
tremendously because this approach applies the competence and knowledge throughout
the organization and the problems faced by it.
However, effectiveness of survey feedback depends on two factors. First, questionnaire
used and method adopted for its administration should be reliable and valid. If it is biased,
all attempts to diagnose the problems will be abortive and futile. Second, even if valid and
reliable information is collected, it is of no use unless follow-up action is taken based on the
information. A survey feedback is not a technique in itself for change; it provides base for
action for change.

SYSTEM THEORY
Systems Theory was first introduced by Van Bertalanffy (1950) and was introduced into
the organisational setting by Kataz and Khan (1966). Systems theory is an approach to
organisations which likens the enterprise to an organism with interdependent parts,
each with its own specific function and interrelated responsibilities. The system may be
the whole organisation, a division, department or team; but whether the whole or a
part, it is important for the OD practitioner to understand how the system operates, and
the relationship the parts of the organisation have. The emphasis in OD is that that real
systems are open to, and interact with, their environments, and it is possible to acquire
new properties through emergence, resulting in continual evolution. Rather than
reducing an organisation to the properties of its parts or elements, systems theory
focuses on the arrangement of and relations between the parts which connect them
into a whole.
Key Points-
 The organisation is an open system, which interacts with the environment and is
continually adapting and improving.
 The organisation influences and is influenced by the environment in which it
operates
 If an organisation is to be effective it must pay attention to the external
environment, and take steps to adjust itself to accommodate the changes in order
to remain relevant
 All part of the organisation are interconnected and interdependent; If one part of
the system is affected, all parts are.
 It is not possible to know everything about the system, but if you look hard
enough there are plenty of clues.
Applying Systems Theory in an OD Intervention-

 Use mixed groups to achieve a rich understanding how the change is seen from
different perspectives.
 Generate a holistic view of what must be done to give the organisation a secure
future
 Use diagnostic events to enhance people’s understanding of important
independencies and to support them in devising a way forward
 Help different sub-systems to work well together in independent areas
 Use processess that will increase collaboration across units
  Honour the primacy of relationship between different groups
 Where possible bring in outside bodies/data to stimulate the organisation to think
about the issues
 Expose people to the outside world in which the organisation operates
 Ensure the organisation stays externally sensitive and not insulated in their
perspective.
 Help the leadership team understand that they don’t have all the data required to
manage change the organisation desires.

PARTICIPATION AND EMPOWERMENT

 How it Began
Interest in empowerment and participation can be traced back to Kurt Lewin’s classic
research on leadership styles and the 1930’s Hawthorne studies. Individual agency needs
(e.g. need for control and achievement) have long supported motivation provided by
employee involvement and empowerment. At an organisational level the growing
importance of self-managed and self empowered teams has led to a growing interest in
participation and empowerment especially with the shift to a knowledge economy and
delayering within organisations.
Much research into empowerment has been conducted at an individual level. However,
Kirkman and Rosen (1997, 1999) explored empowerment at a team level, arguing that team
members can share the belief that their team has autonomy, performs meaningful tasks, is
competent and can make an impact. There is an assumption that these dimensions have
the same conceptual meaning as those at individual level analysis. However, team
empowerment is distinct from individual empowerment in that individual members may
differ in their beliefs about personal empowerment but have a shared belief and experience
among the team members.

A closely related concept is that of Team Participation which entails greater engagement of
team members in the processes contributing to team success. There are three key
processes; transition processes, how team task strategies, goals and plans are generated;
action processes, how the team coordinate and regulate effort to achieve team goals;
interpersonal processes, how teams manage conflict and morale in the team.

Both empowerment and participation assumes that involving team members in core team
functions would lead to improved team effectiveness and improve team outcomes. This
would prove satisfying for team members and would further motivate and engage the team
further in their work. Thus capturing important aspects of engagement. However, team
empowerment captures the psychological engagement among team members whereas
team participation involves collective behavioural engagement of team members. The
interconnectedness between empowerment and participation across both individual-level
and team-level reflect both a bottom up and a top down process through which individual
members influence their team, and the team influences individual members.

 Key Terminology
 Empowerment – an employee’s actual (subjective) sense of being empowered
determined by a set of believes or states; autonomy, meaning, competence and
impact
 Autonomy – An employee’s sense that they have latitude to choose how and where
to get their job done
 Team Participation – A process of information exchange and knowledge transfer.
The extent to which team members collectively and actively engage in transition,
action and interpersonal processes.

 In Brief
 Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976) – The key to employee
motivation is the task itself. Monotony stifles motivation to perform well, whereas
challenge enhances motivation. Variety, autonomy and the ability to make decisions
are three ways of adding challenge to a job. Job enrichment and job rotation are the
two ways of adding variety and challenge.
 Self-determination theory (Deci, Connell, & Ryan, 1989) is concerned with
supporting our natural or intrinsic tendencies to behave in effective and healthy
ways. Thereby capturing the belief that employees possess the competence to
perform effectively work tasks and roles and the belief they can make an impact on
the workplace.
 Participation in Decision Making (Locke and Schweiger, 1979, Locke et al., 1997)
assumes that encouraging and allowing employees to be involved in decision making
processes motivates employees and promotes decision quality and outcomes.
Perceived fairness, nature of task and employee knowledge contribute to
understanding how participation in decision making is related to performance and
motivation outcomes.

 Proactive and Citizenship Behaviours Personal Initiative (Frese & Fay, 2001), Voice
(Van Dyne & LePine, 1998) and Citizenship Behaviours (Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Paine
& Bachrach, 2000) directly consider employees’ active and proactive engagement in
work. Employee choose, and are encouraged, to actively participate in and
contribute to organizational work.
  Self-Managed and Autonomous Work Teams (Cohen & Bailey, 1997) is where
members of self-managed work teams are encouraged to be involved and participate
in making decisions that previously were made by supervisors and managers. Self
managed teams are reliant on team design and structural empowerment.

 What does this mean for Organisation Development?

 The OD practitioner must recognise that teams consist of a social system of
interdependent individual members – that is, individual team members cannot
accomplish their roles effectively, and the team as a whole cannot function
effectively, unless members work together in a coordinated fashion. In this respect
individual and team empowerment are positively related.
 At an individual level developing individual employees in respect to positive self-
views, including self-esteem and general self-efficacy are positively related to
psychological empowerment.
 Supporting individuals to interpret work experience more positively, as well as
enabling individuals to be more proactive at work will enhance the likelihood of an
individual being more empowered. Working with individual’s through coaching and
self-awareness can help develop motivational attributes; increase awareness of
cultural differences; develop an understanding of employee expertise and highlight
the quality of leader-employee relationships.
 Other areas to focus on through Management Development is for Managers to
support the individuals need for achievement and openness and emotional stability.
This can be achieved through review job characteristics to ensure that job tasks are
less ambiguous; there is access to more information; greater skill variety; autonomy;
team based rewards, role expectations; task significance and job feedback. The
quality of relationship between employees and their supervisor and co-worker must
also be developed through social support structures.
 Social-orientated inputs also need tackling, specifically leadership behaviours and
climate which exert social influences on teams, and play a major role in allowing,
encouraging and enabling team empowerment. Developing empowering leadership
behaviours will help team members to set their own goals, delegate responsibility,
enhance the teams’ sense of control and autonomy and raise team members’
expectations regarding team outcomes.
 An empowerment climate and participative leadership can be developed through
making use of organisational structures, encouraging information sharing, team
accountability, policies and practices which support employee empowerment.
ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE

Change is inevitable in the life of an individual or organisation. In today’s business world,

most of the organisations are facing a dynamic and changing business environment. They
should either change or die, there is no third alternative. Organisations that learn and cope
with change will thrive and flourish and others who fail to do so will be wiped out. The
major forces which make the changes not only desirable but inevitable are technological,
economic, political, social, legal, international and labour market environments. Recent
surveys of some major organisations around the world have shown that all successful
organisations are continuously interacting with the environment and making changes in
their structural design or philosophy or policies or strategies as the need be.
According to Barney and Griffin, “The primary reason cited for organisational problems is
the failure by managers to properly anticipate or respond to forces for change.”
Thus, in a dynamic society surrounding today’s organisations, the question whether change
will occur is no longer relevant. Instead, the issue is how managers cope with the inevitable
barrage changes that confront them daily in attempting to keep their organisations viable
and current. Otherwise the organisations will find it difficult or impossible to survive.

 Meaning of Change
Unlike other concepts in organisational behavior, not many definitions are available to
define the term “change”. In very simple words we can say that change means the
alternation of status quo or making things different.
“The term change refers to any alternation which occurs in the overall work environment of
an organisation.” To quote another definition “when an organisational system is disturbed
by some internal or external force, change occurs frequently. Change, as a process, is
simply modification of the structure or process of a system. It may be good or bad, the
concept is descriptive only.”
 Nature of Organisational Change
1. Movement from one state of balance to another: Change involves moving from the
existing state of balance to a new level of equilibrium. It disturbs the old equilibrium and
develops a new equilibrium where new ways of working become part of the system.
2. In whole or parts: It may involve change in some parts of the organisation (technology,
structure or people) or the organisation as a whole. Even if change is introduced in part of
the organisation, it affects the entire organisation. Change in one part, for example,
technology requires change in learning of people and may be structure to adopt that
technology.
3. Pervasive: The process of change is not restricted to one organisation or one country. It
is a worldwide phenomenon. The whole world, all countries, every organisation, its
members and all individuals change their pattern of working. However, the nature and
magnitude of change is different for different organisations.
4. Responsive to environmental factors: Change is affected by factors external and internal
to the organisations.
5. Continuous process: Change is not a one-time process. Organisations keep changing
their policies to survive and grow in the competitive markets. While some changes are
minor and get absorbed in the system through internal adjustments, major changes are
introduced through change agents.
6. Essential activity: Change is not a force that organisations may or may not respond to. If
organisations want to survive, change has to be accepted by them. They can, however, plan
the change or react to change. The former approach to change is conducive to
organisational development and growth.
7. Change agents: Change is initiated by change agents. Change agents can be internal or
external to the organisation. Internal change agents can be top executives of the
organisation. External agents are outside experts or advisors appointed by executives to
initiate the change process.

 Forces for change-

A. External Forces- External environment affects the organizations both directly and
indirectly. The organizations do not have any control over the variables in such an
environment. Accordingly, the organization cannot change the environment but must
change themselves to align with the environment. A few of these factors are :

1. Technology : Technology is the major external force which calls for change. The
adoption of new technology such as computers, telecommunication systems and flexible
manufacturing operations have profound impact on the organizations that adopt them. The
substitution of computer control for direct supervision, is resulting in wider spans of control
for managers and flatter organizations. Sophisticated information technology is also making
organizations more responsive. Both the organizations and their employees will have to
become more adaptable. Many jobs will be reshaped. Individuals who do routine,
specialised and narrow jobs will be replaced by workers who can perform multiple tastes
and actively participate in decision making. Managements will have to increase their
investment in training and education of the employees because employees' skills are
becoming obsolete more quickly. Japanese firms have progressed rapidly because they are
very fast in adopting new technological innovations.

2. Marketing Conditions : Marketing conditions are no more static. They are in the
process of rapid change as the needs, desires and expectations of the customers change
rapidly and frequently. Moreover, there is tough competition in the market as the market is
flooded with new products and innovations everyday. New methods of advertising are used
to influence the customers. Today the concept of consumerism has gained considerable
importance and thus, the consumers are treated as the kings.

3. Social Changes : Social and cultural environment also suggest some changes that the
organizations have to adjust for. There are a lot of social changes due to spread of
education, knowledge and a lot of government efforts. Social equality, e.g., equal
opportunities to women, equal pay for equal work, has posed new challenges for the
management. The management has to follow certain social norms in shaping its
employment, marketing and other policies.

4. Political Forces : Political environment within and outside the country have an
important impact on business especially the transnational corporations. The interference of
the government in business has increased tremendously in most of the countries. The
corporate sector is regulated by a lot of laws and regulations. The organizations do not have
any control over the political and legal forces, but they have to adapt to meet the pressure
of these forces. In our country, the new economic, policy has liberalised the economy to a
large extent. Many of the regulatory laws have been amended to reduce the interference of
the Government in business. An organizations is also affected by the world politics. Some of
the changes in the world politics which have affected business all over the world are e.g.,
the reunification of Germany, Iraq's invasion of Kuwait and the break of Soviet Union.

B. Internal Forces- Internal forces are too many and it is very difficult to list them
comprehensively. However, major internal causes are explained as follows :

1. Nature of the Work Force : The nature of work force has changed over a passage of
time. Different work values have been expressed by different generations. Workers who
are in the age group of 50 plus value loyalty to their employers. Workers in their mid-
thirties to mid-forties are loyal to themselves only. The youngest generation of workers is
loyal to their careers. The profile of the workforce is also changing fast. The 1990s has been
described as a decade where organizations will have to learn to manage diversity. The new
generation of workers have better educational qualifications, they place greater emphasis
on human values and question authority of managers. Their behavior has also become very
complex and leading them towards organizational goals is a challenge for the managers.
The employee turnover is also very high which again puts strain on the management. The
work force is changing, with a rapid increase in the percentage of women employees, which
in turn means, more dual career couples. Organizations have to modify transfer and
promotion policies as well as make child care and elder care available, in order to respond
to the needs of two career couple.
 2. Change in Managerial Personnel : Change in managerial personnel is another force
which brings about change in organization. Old managers are replaced by new managers
which is necessitated because of promotion, retirement, transfer or dismissal. Each
manager brings his own ideas and way of working in the organization. The informal
relationships change because of changes in managerial personnel. Sometimes, even though
there is no change in personnel, but their attitudes change. As a result, the organization has
to change accordingly.

3. Deficiencies in Existing Management Structure : Sometimes change are necessary

because of some deficiencies in the existing organizational structure, arrangement and
processes. These deficiencies may be in the form of unmanageable span of management,
larger number of managerial levels, lack of co-ordination among various departments,
obstacles in communication, multiplicity of committees, lack of uniformity in policy
decisions, lack of cooperation between line and staff and so on. However, the need for
change in such cases goes unrecognized until some major crisis occurs.

4. To Avoid Developing Inertia : In many cases, organizational changes take place just to
avoid developing inertia or inflexibility. Conscious managers take into account this view that
organization should be dynamic because any single method is not the best tool of
management every time. Thus, changes are
incorporated so that the personnel develop
liking for change and there is no unnecessary,
resistance when major changes in the
organization are brought about.

 Level of Change Programmes

The various types of change programmes may
be classified into individual level change,
group level change and organisational level
change.
1. Individual Level Change
Individual level changes may take place due
to changes in job-assignment, transfer of an
employee to a different location or the
changes in the maturity level of a person
which occurs over a passage of time. The
general opinion is that change at the
individual level will not have significant implications for the organisation. But this is not
correct because individual level changes will have impact on the group which in turn will
influence the whole organisation. Therefore, a manager should never treat the employees
in isolation but he must understand that the individual level change will have repercussions
the individual.
2. Group Level Change
Management must consider group factors while implementing, any change, because most
of the organisational changes have their major effects at the group level. The groups in the
organisation can be formal groups or informal groups. Formal groups can always resist
change, for example; the trade unions can very strongly resist the changes proposed by the
management. Informal groups can pose a major barrier to change because of the inherent
strength they contain. Changes at the group level can affect the work flows, job design,
social organisation, influence and status systems and communication patterns.
3. Organisational Level Change
The organisational level change involves major programmes which affect both the
individuals and the groups. Decisions regarding such changes are made by the senior
management. These changes occur over long periods of time and require considerable
planning for implementation.
A few different types or organisation level changes are:
i) Strategic Change: Strategic change is the change in the very basic objectives or
missions of the organisation. A single objective may have to be changed to multiple
objectives.
ii) Structural Change: Organisational structure is the pattern of relationships among
various positions and among various position holders. Structural change involves
changing the internal structure of the organisation. This change may be in the whole
set of relationships, work assignment and authority structure. Change in organisation
structure is required because old relationships and interactions no longer remain
valid and useful in the changed circumstances.
iii) Process Oriented Change: These changes relate to the recent technological
developments, information processing and automation. This will involve replacing or
retraining personnel, heavy capital equipment investment and operational changes.
All this will affect the organisational culture and as a result the behavior pattern of
the individuals.
iv) People Oriented Change: People oriented changes are directed towards performance
improvement, group cohesion, dedication and loyalty to the organisation as well as
developing a sense of self-actualization among members. This can be made possible
by closer interaction with employees and by special behavioral training and
modification sessions. To conclude, we can say that changes at any level affect the
other levels. The strength of the effect will depend on the level or source of change.
 TYPES of Change
1. Happened Change- This kind of change is unpredictable in nature and is usually takes
place due to the impact of the external factors. Happened change is profound and
can be traumatic as it’s consequences are unknown and out of direct control. This
kind of a change happens when an organization reaches the plateau stage in its life
cycle and gets victimized by the environmental pressures or demands. For example,
currency devaluation may adversely affect the business of those organizations who
have to depend upon importing of raw materials largely. In certain cases, some
political, as well as social changes, are unpredictable and uncontrollable.
2. Reactive Change- Changes which take place in response to an event or a chain of
various events can be termed as Reactive Change. Most of the organizations indulge
in reactive change. This kind of change usually occurs when there is an increase or
decrease in the demand for company’s products or services. It can also be a response
to a problematic situation or a crisis which an organization may be faced with. For
example, due to the advancements in technology or growing technological changes,
an organization may be forced to invest more in technology to stay ahead to face the
stiff competition. Recreation can also be regarded as a reactive change, which
involves the entire organization and occurs during the stage when an organization is
undergoing a serious crisis.
3. Anticipatory Change- If a change is implemented with prior anticipation of the
happening of an event or a chain of events, it is called as anticipatory change.
Organizations may either tune in or reorient themselves as an anticipatory measure
to face the environmental pressures. Tuning in essentially involves implementing
incremental changes which mean dealing with the subsystems individually or just
with the part of a system. Reorientation essentially involves changing the
organization from the existing state to a desired futuristic state as an anticipatory
measure and then dealing with the entire process of transition.
4. Planned Change- Planned change is also regarded as the developmental change
which is implemented with the objective of improving the present ways of operation
and to achieve the pre-defined goals. Planned change is calculated and is not
threatening as in this the future state is being chosen consciously. The introduction of
employee welfare measures, changes in the incentive system, introduction of new
products and technologies, organizational restructuring, team building, enhancing
employee communication as well as technical expertise fall under the category of
Planned Change.
5. Incremental Change- Change which is implemented at the micro level, units or
subunits can be regarded as incremental change. Incremental changes are introduced
or implemented gradually and are adaptive in nature. It is based on the assumption
that these small changes will ultimately result in a large change and establish the
 basis for forming a much healthier and a robust system. It even offers an opportunity
to an organization to learn from its very own experiences and create the adaptive
mechanisms for meeting the ultimate organizational vision. The extent of damage
due to a failed incremental change effort is expected to be much lesser than the
change which is implemented on a large scale or introduced universally.
6. Operational Change- This kind of change becomes a requirement or the need when
an organization is faced with competitive pressures as a result of which the focus is
laid more on quality improvement or improvement in the delivery of services for an
edge over the competitors. Similarly, changes in the customer’s buying patterns or
demands or the internal dynamics of an organization equally necessitate the
implementation of operational change. Operational change as the name implies
means introducing changes in the existing operations for realizing the intended goals.
This may include bringing in changes in the current technology, improving/re-
engineering the existing work processes, improving the distribution framework or the
product delivery, better quality management and improving the coordination at an
inter-departmental level.
7. Strategic Change- Strategic Change is usually implemented at the organizational
level, which may affect the various components of an organization and also the
organizational strategy. A change in the management style in an organization could
be considered as an example of strategic change. A multinational organization like
Toyota has taken a step ahead in bringing in a change in the overall organizational
philosophy for availing the advantages of being a leaner organization structurally,
flexibility, decentralized decision making and functioning of organizations and equally
allows a greater extent of freedom or autonomy in implementing proactive decisions.
This kind of change is expected to have a cascading effect on the entire organization
and accordingly would be having an influence on the overall performance.
8. Directional Change- Directional change may become a necessity due to the
increasing competitive pressures or due to rapid changes in the governmental control
or policies, which may include changes in the import/export policies, pricing structure
and taxation policies, etc. Directional change can also become imperative when an
organization lacks the capability of implementing/executing the current strategy
effectively or during the circumstances when a strategic change is required.
9. Fundamental Change- Fundamental Change essentially involves the redefinition of
organizational vision/mission. This may be required during extremely volatile
circumstances like volatility in the business environment, failure of the leadership, a
decline in productivity as well as the overall turnover or problems with the morale of
the employee.
 10.Total Change- A Total Change involves change in the organizational vision and
striking a harmonious alignment with the organizational strategy, employee morale
and commitment as well as with the business performance. Total Change becomes a
requirement during those circumstances when an organization is faced with many
criticalities such as long-term business failure, incongruence between the employee
and organizational values, failure of leaders/management in anticipating the realities
of business environment or the growing competitive pressures and concentration of
power in the hands of few. A new organizational vision along with major strategic
changes as well as complete organizational surgery can be the only solution at this
point of time.

 Process of Organisational Change:

Understanding the process of change requires careful consideration of the steps in the
change process, employee resistance to change and how this resistance can be overcome.
The management of change requires the use of some systematic process that can be
divided into a few stages or sub-processes. This is the essence of the most representative
model of managing change. It emphasises the role of the change agent who is an outsider,
taking a leadership role in
initiating and introducing
the process of change.
The process of change
must involve the
following so as to lead to
organisational
effectiveness. Firstly,
there is a re-distribution
of power within the
organisational structure.
Secondly, this
redistribution emanates
from a developmental
change process.

1. Internal pressure: The process of change begins as soon as top management starts
feeling a need of pressure for change from within the enterprise. This is usually caused by
some significant problem(s) such as sharp drop in sales (profits), serious labour trouble,
and/or high labour turnover.
2. Intervention and reorientation: An external agent is often invited to suggest a definition
of the problem and start the process of getting organisation people to focus on it. If internal
staff people are competent enough and can be trusted they can also manage the process of
change equally well.
3. Diagnosis and recognition of problem(s): The change agent and manager start gathering
necessary information and analyse it so as to recognise the more important problems and
give attention to these.
4. Invention of and commitment to solutions: It is important for the agent to stimulate
thought and try to avoid using the ‘same old methods’. Solutions are searched out by
creatively developing new and plausible alternatives. If subordinates are encouraged to
participate in the process, they will develop a sense of involvement and are likely to be
more committed to the course of action finally chosen.
5. Experimentation and search for results: The solutions developed in phase 4 are normally
put to tests on a small-scale (e.g., in pilot programmes) and the results, analysed. If the
solution is successful in one unit, or a certain part of a unit, it may be tried in the
organisation as a whole.
6. Reinforcement and acceptance: If the course of action is found desirable (after being
properly tested), it should be accepted voluntarily by organisation members. Improved
performance should be the source of reinforcement and thus should lead to a commitment
to the change.

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE- Resistance to change is the action taken by individuals and

groups when they perceive that a change that is occurring as a threat to them.

The following four reasons explain why people resist change:

(i) Uncertainty: Perhaps the main reason of employee resistance to change is uncertainty.
In the face of impending change, employees are likely to become anxious and feel nervous.
Diverse feelings among workers may lead to substantial resistance force to change. For
example, they may worry about their ability to meet the new job demands, they may think
their job security is threatened, or they may simply dislike ambiguity.
(ii) Self-Interests: Secondly, many impending changes threaten the self-interests of a
particular manager or unit. So, he may resist such change.
(iii) Different Perceptions: It is often observed that a manager recommends a plan for
change on the basis of his (her) own assessment of a situation. His peers and subordinates
may resist this change because they do not agree with the manager’s assessment or simply
perceive the situation differently.
(iv) Feelings of Loss: Finally, organisational people often resist change simply because of
feelings of loss. Many changes involve altering work arrangements, which may disrupt
existing social networks. Since social relationships are important to most people, they will
resist any change that might adversely affect those relationships. Other intangibles that are
threatened by change include power, status, security, familiarity with existing procedures
and self-confidence.
 Sources of Resistance to Change
1. Individual sources of resistance- Individual sources of resistance towards a change
exist in the basic human tenets or characteristics and are influenced by the
differences in perception, personal background, needs or personality-related
differences. It is important to understand those triggering factors or issues which
refrain individuals from endorsing change or extending their support and cooperation
towards any change initiatives at an organizational level. Criticizing the individuals or
the teams for not being supportive in the stages of transition or compelling them
cannot be an effective solution for implementing change smoothly or in a hassle free
manner.

The following factors explain why individuals may pose resistance towards change:
i) Habits: We individuals are influenced by our habits in our ways of working and accept
or reject a change depending upon the effect which a change may have on the
existing habits of the individuals. For example, change in the office location might be
subjected to resistance from the individuals as this might compel them to change
their existing life routine and create a lot of difficulties in adjustment or coping with
the schedule. The individuals might have to drive a longer way for reaching their
office, or start early from home for reaching their office in time, etc.
ii) Lack of Acceptability or Tolerance for the Change: Some individuals endorse change
and welcome a change initiative happily while few individuals fear the impact of
change. Over a period of time change fatigue also builds up.
iii) Fear of a Negative Impact Economically or on the Income: During the process of
organizational restructuring or introduction of organization-wide change as a
strategic move on the part of the management, several inhibitions, and fear rule the
thought process of the individuals. Fear of possible loss of a job as a result of change
or a change in their income structure or may be a change in their work hours could
be one amongst the possible reasons.
iv) Fear of the Unseen and Unknown Future: Individuals develop inertia towards the
change due to the fear of unknown or uncertainties in the future. This can be tackled
through effective communication with the participants of change and making people
aware of the positives of change and the course of action which individuals are
expected to follow to cope with the changing requirements successfully.
v) Fear of Losing Something Really Valuable: Any form of threat to personal security or
financial security or threat to the health of the individuals may lead to fear of losing
something precious as a result of the implementation of change.
 vi) Selective Processing of Information: It can be considered as a filtering process in
which the individuals perceive or make judgments by gathering selective information
which is greatly influenced by their personal background, attitude, personal biases or
prejudices, etc. If an individual maintains a negative attitude towards any kind of
change, then they are having a usual tendency of looking at the negativities
associated with the change and involve all the positive aspects of it.
vii) A Rigid Belief that change cannot bring about any facilitating change in the
organization and it only involves the pain and threats to the individuals.

2. Organizational Resistance: Organizations, by their very nature are conservative.

They actively resist change. Some of the organizational resistances are explained below:
i) Resource Constraints: Resources are major constraints for many organizations.
The necessary financial, material and human resources may not be available to
the organization to make the needed changes. Further, those groups in
organization that control sizable resources often see changeas a threat. They
tend to be content with the way things are.
ii) Structural Inertia: Some organizational structures have in-built mechanism for
resistance to change. For example, in a bureaucratic structure where jobs are
narrowly defined, lines of authority are clearly spelled out change would be
difficult. This is so because formalization provides job descriptions, rules, and
procedures for employees to follow. The people who are hired into an
organization are chose for fit; they are then shaped and directed to behave in
certain ways. When an organization is confronted with change, this structural
inertia acts as a counter balance to sustain stability.
iii) Sunk Costs: Some organizations invest a huge amount of capital in fixed assets. If
an organization wishes to introduce change then difficulty arises because of
these sunk costs.
iv) Politics: Organizational change may also shift the existing balance of power in
organization. Individuals or groups who hold power under the current
arrangement may be threatened with losing these political advantages in the
advent of change.
v) Threat to established power relationships: Any redistribution of decision
making authority can threaten long established power relationships within the
organization. Managers may therefore resist change that introduces
participative decision making because they feel threatened.
vi) Threat to expertise: Change in organizational pattern may threaten the
expertise of specialized groups. There fore specialist usually resists change.
vii) Group Inertia: Even if individuals want to change their behaviour, group norms
may act as a constraint. For example, if union norms dictate resistance any
 unilateral change made by management, an individual member of the union who
may otherwise be willing to accept the changes may resist it.

 Techniques for Overcoming Resistance to Change and Selection of Appropriate

Technique
According to Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) proposed six crucial techniques for
overcoming the resistance to change. These are given below:

1. Education and Effective Communication: This is one of the commonest techniques

for minimizing resistance to change by educating people and promoting awareness
through effective communication regarding the benefits of a planned change. By
explaining the need for change and the objectives of change, the management can
gain the much-needed support from the team members and facilitate its smoother
implementation. With the help of two-way communication, the employee’s queries
and oppositions related to various aspects of change can be quickly addressed and
thereby, minimize the objections or hassles which may come across in the path of
implementation of change.
Given below are the important principles which are related to the communication of
change and require a lot of attention while implementation a planned change:

 A large-scale planned change can be effective and yield successful outcomes

only if it involves two-way communication efforts. Only top down
communication or one-way communication will fail to attract the desired
commitment from the staff members.
 The staff members do have a preference for being communicated about the
change on face to face basis from their immediate supervisors.
 According to Beckhard & Pritchard 1992; Robbins et al. 1998; Ivancevich &
Matteson 1996, employees prefer a consultation and involvement in the
change.
Few important things which should be essentially followed while implementing an
organization-wide change are:

 Avoid sending emails or memo for informing the employees regarding a

change initiative and expect that the employees will be able to understand and
accept it readily.
 Invite the suggestions and feedback from the staff members, involve them in
the process and encourage their participation for effective results.
 Communicate with people regularly by engaging in face to face interactions
with them both individually and in groups and provide them opportunities for
discussion.
 2. Facilitating Participation and Involvement: This technique gives a lot of importance
to involving the resistors in the change process by setting up a collaborative
environment and implementing the change in consultation with the staff. It is a
constructive strategy and can be beneficial in minimizing the resistance to change by
involving the employees and seeking their participation in the entire process.
3. Support and Facilitation: Employees fear or resist change due to a number of
reasons as a result of which they pose a resistance or oppose any kind of
transformation in the existing ways of work or methods. The employees look for
complete emotional support and facilitation for being able to cope up with the
challenges resulting from the change and should be allowed to express their fear,
resentment or anger in connection with the change and the challenges of change.
4. Agreement & Negotiation: This technique involves negotiating or bargaining with the
resistors on various aspects related to the change and making tradeoffs so that the
concerns of the resistors and the management are both being given due
consideration and importance.
5. Co-optation & Manipulation: This technique involves getting the support, persuading
or influencing the employees in favor of the change. Manipulation involves covert
attempts from the managers by withholding painful information, twisting or
distortion of the information for making it more appealing for the staff members or
spreading false rumors across the organization in order to compel the employees to
accept the change manipulatively.
Alternately, the managers can depend on staff polling strategy and make an attempt
towards persuading the resistors to join the rest of the group. The management may
even co-opt an individual and assign certain important responsibilities in connection
with the implementation of change.

6. Coercion: Implicit and Explicit: Coercion involves exercising force or threat for making
the change accepted and followed by the employees. This strategy emphasizes more
on the use of fear by way of direct or indirect threats and involves harassment,
bullying or compels the employees to act in accordance with the expected ways or
else resign. This strategy is illegal, ineffective and in the long-run, will result in mass
resentment, dissatisfaction, high rate of absenteeism, low productivity and ultimately
high employee turnover.

Selecting the Right Technique and the Relative Benefits of Each Technique

1. Education and Effective Communication: This technique is useful when there is an

absence of availability of ample information with the employees, or they have
inaccurate or partial information on various aspects of change. Once the employees
 are convinced about the change, then they will help in the successful implementation
of change as change partners.
2. Facilitating Participation and Involvement: This technique can be useful when the
initiators lack substantial information for designing and implementing the change, or
the employees have tremendous power to resist the change. The involvement of the
employees can increase their commitment level and motivation for supporting the
change initiatives, reduce resistance and improve the quality of the decision in
connection with the change.
3. Support and Facilitation: This technique is useful when there is resistance towards
change from the people due to certain adjustment or adaptability issues. This is the
best technique as it involves employee facilitation, training & various supportive
efforts for reducing the resistance. However, this technique is very time consuming,
expensive and does not necessarily assure a successful outcome.
4. Agreement & Negotiation: This technique is effective when it involves exchanging
something valuable for reducing the resistance towards the change. This is one of the
most convenient techniques for avoiding any kind of major resistance.
5. Co-optation & Manipulation: This technique can be adopted only when the other
techniques fail to provide the desired results or are too expensive. This technique can
be relatively inexpensive and quick in terms of results.
6. Coercion (Explicit & Implicit): This technique should be avoided till the end and can
be used only as the last possible resort.

OD INTERVENTIONS
An intervention is a deliberate process by which change is introduced into peoples’
thoughts, feelings and behaviors. The overall objective of any intervention is to confront
individuals, teams or units of people in a non-threatening way and allow them to see their
self-destructive behavior and how it affects themselves and colleagues.
OD interventions refer to various activities which a consultant and client organisation
perform for improving organisational performance through enabling organisational
members better manage their behavior, their work group, and organisational culture. OD
interventions are also referred as OD techniques or OD strategies as they are designed to
accomplish specific objectives.

French and Bell have defined OD interventions as:

Sets of structured activities in which selected organisational units (target groups or
individuals) engage with a task or a sequence of tasks where the task goals are related
directly or indirectly to organisational improvement. Interventions constitute the action
thrust of organisation development: they make things happen.
 Characteristics of Organisation Development Interventions
There are eight characteristics of organisation development interventions from more
traditional interventions:
 An emphasis, although not exclusively so, on group and organisational processes in
contrast to substantive content.
 An emphasis on the work team as the key unit for learning more effective modes of
organisational behavior.
 An emphasis on the work team management of work-team culture.
 An emphasis on the management of the culture of the total system.
 Attention to the management of system ramifications.
 The use of the action research model.
 The use of a behavioral scientist-change sometimes referred to as a “catalyst” or
“facilitator.”
 A view of the change effort as an ongoing process.
 Another characteristic, number, a primary emphasis on human and social
relationships, does not necessarily differentiate OD from other change efforts, but it
is nevertheless an important feature.