BIOMECHANICAL ASPECTS OF

THE PERFORMANCE STRUCTURE

IN THROWING EVENTS
By Dr. Klaus Bartonietz

Leading German biomechanist, Dr. Bartonietz, who recently lectured in Australia,

presents his views on the theoretical and practical aspects of the biomechanical
performance structure in throwing events, stressing the close relationship
between technique and mechanical performance capacity. The following article is
a slightly abbreviated translation from Die Lehre der Leichtathletik, Vol. 34, No.
14, Apr11 1995 onwhi chDr .Bar toni
etz’sAust r
alianlectureswer ebased.Re-
printed with permission from Modern Athlete and Coach.

Knowledge of the demands of an event is necessary for planning and

implementing training, since the structure of the competition performance
determines the training structure. The release velocity of the given mass of an
implement represents the energy the competition implement receives from the
thrower. This velocity corresponds to the acceleration force impulse (integral of
the acceleration force over time). The created forces are therefore the result of
the conversion of the driving system and limited by it.

The acceleration performance Pa in the competition exercise expresses the

amount of energy transferred to the implement in the available event specific
time:

The acceleration performance has a constant relationship with the event specific
work conditions (mass of the implement, initial velocity, useful braking and
acceleration paths). These parameters are, next to the energetic aspects, an
inseparable aspect of a sporting technique (Fig. 1-3).

Fig. 1 (top left) illustrates the required increase in the javelin acceleration
according to model calculations (initial speed at t = 0/s, 6m/s, acceleration path =
1.5m). The characteristic changes of the fore-time graph that result from delays
in the acceleration are also shown in actual measured throws (comparison
between individuals and differences over several years). Fig. 2 indicates clearly
that higher acceleration values must be created when the rotational technique is
used in the shot put because of a lower implement speed at the placement of the
propping leg and a shorter acceleration path. The acceleration performance
therefore offers a means of evaluating the effectiveness of techniques (Bartonietz
1990, 1994).

In the end, it is the implement that needs a maximal acceleration that is not
necessarily achieved from a greater skeletal-motor drive (see the pivoting leg
comparison in Table 1). An efficient and correct development of strength
capacities for a target technique in unity with the actual technique level is
ther ef
oreunav oidabl e.An“overpot enti
al”ofs tr
engt hcapaci ti
esonl ymeans
additional training time and more mechanical loading of the movement
apparatus.

Assessments of the mechanical performance capacity of the leg drive can be

made indirectly in the execution of the competition exercise. If it can be assumed
that the initial velocity for the final acceleration phase has not significantly
changed over the years (or at least not diminished), then such characteristics as
the body positions, time intervals and ground reaction force-time graphs provide
qualitative information on this acceleration performance. An example of two
hammer throws (Fig. 3) by an elite athlete illustrates how a larger amount of
energy is transferred in a shorter time and clearly higher physical performance is
created.

We will realize the difficulties which are ahead of an athlete and his coach when
a young hammer thrower with a 5kg implement turns slower than Sedych in his
86m throw and has a release velocity that is about 5 m/s slower. With increasing
hammer masses (from 5kg to 7.26kg) the athlete needs large amounts of energy
to be transferred to I implement in shorter time intervals. Consequently, the
throwing technique must be developed towards a longer acceleration path (wider
radius).

Consequent l
yi tisagai ncl earthather e“nostrengt hincreaseinits el
f”.Ther eis
inseparable relationship between sporting technique and the mechanical
performance capacity: no technique is possible without performance and no
performance is possible without technique. Consequently, perfection of technique
has to be seen as a full year task, even when the development of technique is
not in the centre of the program.

An improvement of the performance with the competition implement therefore

requires:

1. A forced prerequisite of a larger contribution of mechanical work

(improved maximal strength capacity). This improved work capacity must
allow for;

2. A higher performance production within event specific conditions that is

originated from the legs, trunk and the throwing arm.

This leads to the question of how are the basic work capacity (maximal strength)
and the impulse performance (specific capacity) to be developed and which
neuro-muscular mechanisms are available for this task. The following
possibilities are significant:

The development of a refined morphological structure of the neuro-muscular

system, in particular increased functional muscular cross-section areas that can
be evaluated from the muscle mass and fiber length. According to the present
scientific opinion the number of muscle fibers are in humans determined
genetically and do not undergo any changes through training.

Methodological application: Training programs of a maximum of 10 to 12 weeks

with up to four training units a week with a medium intensity (60 to 80% of the
actual best performance). The execution of weight training exercises at maximal
speed produced only limited (Adekseyev/Roman 1976, Vorobev 1981) or no
(Thorstenson 1975) cross-sectional increases in the trained muscle groups.

Event specific differences of the desired hypertrophy depend on the mass of the
implement and the external forces. The shot put and the hammer throw are
relatively hypertrophy orientated, while the lowest orientation occurs in the javelin
throw. This is confirmed in the training analyses of Fuchs (1981) and Schuler
(1986), indicating that a volume orientated strength training directed towards
hypertrophy is inappropriate for elite javelin throwers. Muscular hypertrophy, in
the context of event specific demands, is the task of maximal strength training
over several years.

As a loss of optimal mechanical characteristics of the muscles (stretching

capacity, elasticity) must be avoided, there are limits to the development of
hypertrophy.
The improvement of neuro-muscular control, particularly the recruitment of a
l
argernumberofmot orunits(usi
ngt hes ocal led“ autonomonspr ot ect
ed
reserves”
).

According to Hettinger (1972) and Asmussen (1981), only about 2/3 of all muscle
fibers are simultaneously innervated in untrained persons. In order to make
better use of the available potential, the degree of innervation must be raised.
Estimation by Buhrle (1993) indicates that an additional recruitment could
increase the contraction force of a motor unit, for example the gastrocnemius, by
0.5N. According to our calculations, only an acceleration force of 5N is needed to
increaset her el
easev elocityinthemen’ sshotputby0. 14 m/s, corresponding to
0.3m in distance.

Contraction force can also be varied through the changing of unloading

frequency. However, it should not be overlooked that, from the throwing specific
viewpoint, it is not a question of developing fast high levels of strength
(“expl
osivest rengt h”)butt oimpr ovet hef i
nal accel erati
on.Thati s,toaccel
erat
e
from an already high speed level. An optimal timing is here also required.

Methodological application: single repetitions with maximal or super-maximal

loads (attempts with loads that are above the current best) and the use of the
highest level of willpower. The effectiveness of this has been proven in strength
training experiments, e.g. I ai Fukunaga (1970), Schmidtbleicher (1982, 1984),
Bravaja (1984), Kriegel (1986).

Further, it is necessary to improve the biochemical energy metabolism (energy

provision, energy conversion and the control of energy conversion) and to adapt
the tendon-ligament structure to the constantly increased loads. This load
tolerance capacity becomes often a limiting factor in throwing events. The
employment of volume orientated training with lower intensities is here useful
(Zaciorskij et. al. 1981).

Energy conversion can in competition specific work be brought to a higher level

by the improvement of intra- and inter-muscular coordination through the
activation of a larger number of motor units involved in the performance
(movement coordination for effective driving and braking leg work in the final
force application optimization of the antagonist input). This allows making use of
the performance improving potential of the stretching-shortening cycle of
muscular work. The energy release can be further increased, and even doubled
in the ankle joint, from the elastic qualities of the muscle-tendon complex (Huijing
1994).

The stretching-shortening cycle should in throwing events be regarded as

working together with the different weight implements and movement speeds
(standing throws, shorter or longer run-ups). It is a matter of specific adaptation
to the relevant masses and movement speeds. For this reason, standing throws,
or throws from a few strides, should be reduced to a minimum. It is relevant in
the stretching-shortening cycle for the final acceleration to note that there is a
difference in the movement coordination in whether the process of stretching the
shoulder-chest area is initiated by a forced braking of resistance, or whether it is
achieved from an active preliminary preparation of the upper body in a delayed
throwing arm (shot, discus, javelin).

Methodological application: development of a high load toleration and recovery

potential, use of specific strength training exercises and heavier implements, use
of lighter implements (in the high performance range relevant only to the javelin),
development of the reactive strength capacity in the lower extremities.

Which of these mechanisms, or which combinations, can be best employed to

improve performance depends, next to the event specific qualities, on individual
demands and training targets (for example, long-term multi-year development
with or without changes of implement weights, annual training structure,
evaluation of technique reserves, preparation and capacities levels). This means
in practice to control the adaptation processes so that the training loads are
directed to achieve higher acceleration performances within event specific
conditions through an increased work capacity (maximal strength training).
It has been proven that the development of maximal strength with gradually
increased specificity is successful as the performance capacity improves
(increased specificity of the training stimulus). It can be assumed that through
this specificity in strength training we can avoid the danger of instability in the
development of technique. This exists when extremely concentrated training
stimuli are applied in maximal strength training phases.

Whether it is necessary in the desired specificity to go as far as suggested by

Bondarchuck (1993) is worthy to be discussed further .Bondar chuck ’str
ai ni
ng
based studies of 60 throwers over several years came to the conclusion that
using mainly general strength development exercises during the early stages of
training is less effective than a long-term training method that contained specific
preparatory exercises right from the beginning. Bondarchuck formulated from this
conclusion his principle for the many-sided specific preparation theory. According
to it, on the road from a beginner to a world class athlete, specific strength
devel opmentex ercisesshoul dbeempl oy edgui dedbyt hepr incipleof“ from the
simpl et othec ompl i
cat ed”.

Adaptations to the neural factors (intramuscular coordination) and hypertrophy

that is developed during a strength training phase take place in opposing
temporal directions (Fig. 4). Initial performance improvements are almost
exclusively achieved from a better exploitation of neural factors, as well as the
training effect on untrained extremities.