Catapulta

WINTER 2015

world
of
mystery

ugliest animal
in the world

science behind
love
SCIENCE | TECHNOLOGY
 Alfred Yan, IV 1
Editor-in-Chief:
Michael Gao (II) Layout Editor:
TABLE OF curiosity
CONTENTS
rover
Yinyu Ji (III)
Task Manager: Layout Associates:
William Gao (II) John (Hanjin) Kim (II) What comes to mind when one hears
Hayden Codiga (IV)
Content Editors: Fahad Anwar (V)
3 the word “Mars”? Some people would think of
Ocean green aliens, while others would be reminded
Jiayi Chen (II) Annie Tsan (V) 2 Acidification of a copper-red desert. Clearly, Mars is a very notable
Spirit and Opportunity. For these two rovers, it could take
Kevin Yang (II) 1 The water planet for many reasons. It is also the second closest
days to make just one single composition analysis. By using
Content Associates: Treasurer: Curiosity CRISIS ChemCam, a laser could simply zap right through the
celestial satellite to Earth besides the Moon, which is
Randy Chen (III) Daniel Sherman (II) Rover dust and outer layers, completely ridding the need to even
why the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
William Ho (III) make contact with the sample. With this quick process,
(NASA) has sent probes there such as the Curiosity.
Ashley Chou (V) Website Coordinator: about a dozen mineral analyses could be made in one day.
The Curiosity rover was launched in November
Zhaoyang (Tim) Liu (V) Michael Lee (II) 5 2011 and landed on Mars in August 2012. Upon landing
So where is Curiosity now? Currently, it is at a
mountain on Mars: Aeolis Mons. This mountain, about
Copy Editor: Faculty Advisor:
4 The
BLOBFISH
onto Mars’s surface, Curiosity was able to utilize many
the size of Mt. Rainier in Washington State, is situated in
WHITE advanced technologies. One of these was ChemCam, a
Neil Sun (I) Ms. Bateman RHINOS the middle of Gale Crater in the equatorial region. There,
new innovation built on the rover that could analyze the
Copy Associates: NASA is having Curiosity scale and analyze parts of the
properties of the rocks and minerals on Mars from up to
Elisabeth Kotsalidis (II) Special Thanks: mountain. They believe that Aeolis Mons is made of
seven meters away. ChemCam, which stands for Chemistry
Nena Kotsalidis (IV) Mr. Smith many different layers of rock piled over time, which will
and Camera instrument, is composed of two parts: the
Alfred Yan (IV) 9 Remote Micro Imager (RMI) and the Laser-Induced
provide clues to the geologic and climatic history of Mars’s
MATH AND surface. They are also investigating any evidence of water,
8 art Breakdown Spectrometer (LIBS). When ChemCam makes
such as the presence of clay or sulfate. Hopefully, NASA
6-7 Sixie Science an analysis, the RMI first employs a high-tech camera
will continue to make more technological advancements
Importance of Projects that provides a close-up image of the area that is being
as it continues to explore our neighboring red planet.
Dear
Coral Reefs
sampled, which gives information on the sampled area’s
geological surroundings. Next, the LIBS fires a laser at
the rock, causing it to produce a plasma that is visible to

READER: 10
11
Science behind
LOVE

the naked eye. After the laser is fired, a built-in telescope
captures the light from the plasma and transfers it to three
spectrometers in the rover’s body. These spectrometers
We hope you enjoyed February break and all the elephants and
the ivory then analyze the wavelengths of the atoms from the plasma
snow days! Here is the Winter Issue of Catapulta, trade and thus are able to determine what the rock is made of.
the school’s science magazine! In this issue there are
ChemCam is useful because it makes the process of
many exciting things from seventh grade science
taking rock samples less complicated and time-consuming.
fair experiments to articles concerning endangered
Previously, sampling minerals on Mars meant having to do
species, spacecrafts, and the oceans. This issue in-
many laborious tasks such as grinding and brushing away
volved the hard work of students from all grades, and 14-15 the rock’s outer layers, as with the other rovers on Mars,
includes articles written by a wide array of students. New Antibiotic
12-13 DISCOVERED
History of the
We hope you enjoy the articles: there are a lot of Intervet
cool scientific facts you might not have known,
and fun and challenging puzzles at the end. Also,
So where is
if you are interested in contributing (writing ar-
ticles, working with the publication crew), feel free
curiosity now?
to contact us at catapultasciencebls@gmail.com.
16
back inside
THE CANNY A Mountain on
BLS CATAPULTA Mars.
CANNABIS
TIPS FROM
BLS GARDEN
2 Masha leyfer, V
Every minute, at least one child dies from improper sanitation. Water has a direct link
to education and gender equality. Water related illnesses have taken more lives than wars. A
simple tap can change the lives of an entire community. More people in the world have access
to a mobile phone than to a toilet. Which would you choose? The water crisis is a very real and
often underrated world issue.
About 72% of Earth is covered in water, but only 1% of that is available for human use.
To put that into perspective, if 100 liters represents the Earth’s water, only half of a tablespoon
would be available to use. For this reason, six hundred million people, almost a tenth of the
world’s population, suffer from water shortages daily and one out of every eight people lacks
clean water.
Many people who have access to tap water, a toilet, and proper filtration
often do not understand how serious the issue is: water is taken for granted,
when in fact, it is a precious resource, and one that we are wasting. Others
do not acknowledge parts of this crisis because it simply sounds ridiculous:
how can having a toilet change somebody’s life? The impact is incredible. For
example, girls without toilets are significantly less likely to get a full education
than those who have access. How does this tie into science? This issue
is relevant to multiple areas of science such as climatology and health.
Water in a region has both direct and indirect effects on the economy
and people’s access to water has a direct effect on how they are
treated and how they stand in society. The consequences and
WATER
repercussions of this issue are very serious, and this problem
must no longer be ignored.
CRISIS
“EVERY
MINUTE, A OCEAN
CHILD DIES”
Around the nineteenth century, the British,
hungry for power, set out overseas in an attempt to es-
tablish themselves in the Americas to acquire wealth.
What resulted was the Industrial Revolution, an event
whose consequences are insidious and grow worse as
time progresses. Pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide, are released in massive amounts, caus-
ing seemingly irreparable damage to the ocean, an en-
vironment which provides sustenance for many di-
verse life forms. Carbon and nitrogen emissions have
an especially detrimental effect on the environment.
The carbon emission that everyone is most famil-
iar with is CO2, or carbon dioxide. When large amounts of
carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere, some of
it is absorbed by the ocean. The water molecules and car-
bonate ions (CO32-) in the ocean react with the absorbed
carbon dioxide, forming bicarbonate ions. This poses
an issue to many organisms, such as coral, clams, and
sea urchins, that rely on carbonate ions. They are called
“calcifying organisms” because they use carbonate ions
and calcium ions to create their shells. With less carbon-
ate ions available, calcification becomes more difficult.
Carbon dioxide not only harms calcifying organ-
isms, but also decreases the ocean’s pH, creating a po-
tentially harmful environment for almost all aquatic life.
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), the pH of water on the ocean
surface has decreased by 0.1 pH units, which is a thirty
percent increase in acidity. NOAA also notes that more
than a billion people around the world rely on seafood
as their main source of protein.
Without aquatic life, biodiversity
would evidently decrease,
resulting in the decline
of many economies
that depend on the
seafood industry.
ACIDIFICATION
Randy Chen, III 31
Nitrogen emissions, similar to car-
bon dioxide emissions, are both greenhouse gases and
catalysts in ocean acidification. N2O, or nitrous oxide,
which some people know as “laughing gas,” is a green-
house gas stronger than carbon dioxide. According to
the EPA, one pound of nitrous oxide has 300 times
more of an impact on global warming than one pound
of carbon dioxide. Additionally, it lasts an average of
120 years in the atmosphere before finally being con-
sumed by chemical reactions. The Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) also notes that roughly seventy-
five percent of N2O emissions comes from agricultural
soil management. This is because most fertilizers con-
tain nitrogen, which reacts with oxygen, forming N2O.
Another type of nitrogen emission is nitrogen
oxide (NO), which is released by fossil fuel power plants.
This is also, however, released by tobacco smoke. Mol-
ecules of nitrogen oxide rise into the atmosphere and
react with water molecules in clouds to form nitric acid
(HNO3). Nitric acid is a component of acid rain that
precipitates into the ocean and onto land, killing off life.
Despite the extraordinary amounts of these pol-
lutants that are being emitted into the atmosphere, there
are simple things ordinary people can do to help: Car-
pooling and taking public transportation result in less
emission of pollutants, and abstaining from egregious
actions such as smoking prevents causing harm not only
from oneself, but also from the environment and every-
one else. Though problems like ocean acidification and
global warming seem impossible to overcome, like being
trapped in the dark, there is always a solution, and there
will always be a shining light.
4 Carol Cao, V
WHITE RHINOS
With
its square-
shaped lips
and huge head,
the northern white
white rhinoceros, or
Ceratotherium simum, is
known, like all other rhinos,
for its two notorious horns on
its forehead. Could these horns be
the northern white rhino’s downfall?
Even with its 11-13.75 feet body
and 20-27.5 inch tail, the white giant’s horns
are sought after in many Asian countries to be
sold in the black market. It is especially demanded
in Vietnam, and it is also used in traditional Chinese
medicine. The horn symbolizes wealth and prestige
and thus is highly sought after, despite the fact that the
poaching of these rhino horns is heavily discouraged. As
more and more rhinos are poached before they are able
to breed, sooner or later, the species will come to an end.
There are now only five living northern white
rhinos that are in custody of humans in zoos and wildlife
protection centers. In October 2014, Suni, one of the two
male white rhinos at that time, died in Kenya’s Ol Pejeta
Conservancy. Suni was likely the last male capable of
breeding. More recently in December of 2014, Angalifu,
another white rhino, died of old age at 44 years old in the
San Diego Zoo.
There is another northern white rhino in San
Diego Zoo, one in Czech Dvur Kralove Zoo, and two
females and one male in Ol Pejeta Conservancy. The only
slim chance of their reproduction is artificial breeding.
With only one infertile male and four females left of this
species, however, the northern white rhino is virtually
doomed to extinction.
What we have learned from the white rhino is
that our actions can have negative consequences and can
be harmful for a species. As we lose more northern white
rhinos every year, the number will soon drop to zero. As
the old saying goes, you never know what you have until
it’s gone. All we can do is hope that this beautiful rare
species will not become extinct.
Only five living
Kevin S. Qi, V 5
UGLIEST ANIMAL
IN THE WORLD?
This majestic creature is the blobfish. Yes, it is a adorable. With the aid of extreme water pressure, the
real animal. Just take it in. blobfish appears plump and small.
The Psychrolutes marcidus, also known as the Sadly, the blobfish is endangered due to fishing
blobfish, is a deep-sea fish that lives off of the coast of trawlers. These fishermen drag nets along the bottom of
Australia. Its body is composed of a muscleless jellylike the ocean, damaging the ocean floor and its inhabitants.
mass. It is so gelatinous because it lives around 2000 to The blobfish is not the intended catch, and therefore is
4000 feet below the ocean’s surface. There, the water abandoned when it reaches the surface. Some fishermen
pressure is so much higher that, if the blobfish were not mistake blobfish for lobsters, which also contributes to
so blobby, it would instantly be crushed. their declining number. Hopefully, by increasing awareness
One would think that not having any muscles about the blobfish and their plight, we can ensure that
would make it difficult for the blobfish to acquire nutrients these fish, however unattractive they may be, will continue
through food. Fortunately for the blobfish, its body is less to roam the world’s oceans.
dense than water, which allows it to float above the ocean
floor, where it waits for food to swim straight into its
mouth. Yes, it is a real
To be fair, this picture of the blobfish was taken
above sea level. Its body is not suited for this
animal.
low pressure. The high pressure of the
deep sea is what keeps the blobfish’s
jelly-like body together. Without
pressure, the blobfish simply
falls apart, resulting in what is
seen here.
A blobfish
in its natural
habitat actually
looks quite
THE BLOBFISH.
6 William Ho, III
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PHENOMENA OF CORAL REEFS
The oceans are filled with many different
forms of life. One of the most essential, most
overlooked, and now most endangered types
of sea life is coral. Corals are essential to the
existence of life in the oceans, primarily in the
coral reefs, because nearly all act as primary
producers in marine reef ecosystems. The
idea that an animal can act as a primary
producer may seem like heresy to many Biology
1 students. The justification for this is symbiosis.
Corals, sea anemones, and giant clams all have
mutualistic relationships with a special type of
photosynthetic algae known as zooxanthellae.
These zooxanthellae give corals energy as well as
their unique, fascinating coloration. Indeed, the
complexity of corals and their associates makes
them especially susceptible to numerous threats
nowadays, with climate change and human
interactions with the environment among them.
In order to understand how corals could
be so greatly affected by all of these factors, one
must have a basic understanding of how corals
work. Photosynthetic corals as a whole are
classified into numerous subsets. There are two
large subsets that comprise all photosynthetic
corals—soft corals and stony corals. Most
scientific literature and government bodies
refer to stony corals when they say coral, but it is
important to recognize the distinction between
these two types of coral: soft corals do not
have calcium skeletons and are generally more
tolerant of a wider range of conditions than
stony corals. For this reason, most literature
involving massive coral die offs in the oceans are
concerning stony corals, not soft corals. Within
the stony corals, there are two more divisions:
small polyp stony corals (SPS) and large polyp
stony corals (LPS). Small polyp stony corals
are much more demanding than large polyp
stony corals in terms of environment, and they
constitute the majority of coral species. The
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species lists
as many as 169 species in the genus Acropora,
the most abundant genus of SPS coral, while
“Most essential, most
overlooked, most endangered”
the Australian government lists 184 different
species in this genus. Since these fragile
creatures make up the majority of reef-building
corals, when they are affected by climate
change, the reefs and oceans suffer. Therefore,
it is not surprising how much of an effect the
thousands of species of coral have on the planet.
Given how important corals are to the
environment, it is concerning that they are on
the brink of extinction. How might that be?
Most animals are extremely resilient and adept
at maintaining homeostasis; Unfortunately,
corals are not so hardy. While coral are
animals, they are extremely fragile—one slight
change to the water chemistry in the ocean
could cause every single one in a given area to
perish within days. In addition, SPS coral are
entirely reliant on their zooxanthellae to live;
without zooxanthellae, the coral would not be
able to obtain energy and therefore perish.
Temperature changes, pH drops, chlorine leaks,
salinity changes, and disruptions in the nitrogen
cycle are only some of the numerous water
parameter factors which can kill stony corals
and their symbiotic zooxanthellae. In addition,
there are a number of infectious coral diseases
that have incredible potential to cause damage.
Notably among these are rapid tissue
necrosis, which can turn all of the flesh on the
coral into looming, putrid-smelling masses of
brown jelly; Acropora eating flatworms, which
eat corals from the inside out; and white-band
coral disease, which has devastated Caribbean
reefs. Further, the locals in the underdeveloped
countries which house some of the largest reefs
in the world—including the Philippines, Indonesia,
and the Maldives—do not fully understand the
value of coral to their lives, and have even
used them in cement. For this variety of
reasons, the stony coral population has been
greatly depleted throughout the world, leading
to nearly every species of stony coral being
listed as endangered by the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species.
The loss of coral is detrimental even to
terrestrial ecosystems. As primary producers,
corals supply energy to every reef ecosystem
in the world. Corals are an essential part of
the diet of many reef fish, some of which are
known as obligate corallivores due to their sole
dependence on corals as food. Through multiple
trophic levels, the reef ecosystem affects the
sharks and whales of the open ocean as well
as terrestrial organisms, such as humans,
through food.
and the oceans in general? Did you know
BLS has its own aquarium? Do you own
an aquarium and want to connect with
other BLS aquarists? Visit the BLS Marine
William Ho, III 7
However, the oceans also have an even more
significant effect on the entire planet: many
chemical reactions which occur in the ocean have
a great impact on every life form on the planet.
In order to prevent the catastrophe that
might come about with massive coral die offs,
many governments are limiting the harvest of
coral. Additionally, many organizations across
the world, both private and government-
sponsored, are taking the initiative to asexually
propagate coral in captivity, where they will
be safe from predation and coral diseases.
However, while these efforts certainly produce
results, they are rather small compared to
the natural sexual reproduction of coral in the
oceans.
In December 2014 on the Great
Barrier Reef in Australia, a multitude of coral,
influenced by numerous factors, among which
were the tides and temperature, underwent
sexual reproduction. This process was so vital
to the environment that the government of
Australia prohibited diving and the harvesting
of marine life during the coral spawning
season. Last year’s coral spawning was
especially unique, since the weather allowed for
thousands of eggs to successfully be released
and since the reef was in great health at the
time. This spectacular occurrence will have
incredible effects on the coral population
in Australia, and hopefully this will allow the
reefs make a comeback in the near future.
Want to learn in depth about corals
science club (blsmsac@gmail.com)!
Meetings are every other Monday in
Mr Smith’s room.
 Annie Jackson, VI
8 Lienna peng, VI
Every year, students in Class VI work on science fair projects in the Fall. These projects
allow them to learn the scientific method and hone their abilities in 21st century
learning expectations in speaking, presenting, researching, and problem solving. Here
are two examples of what Mr. Smith’s students explored in their Earth Science class.
I did my science fair on weathering.
After researching some ideas, I chose to do my How Water and Ice
experiment on this because one can see the effect
weathering has on everyday life. But before I
Change Back
discuss my science fair project, what is weathering? Annie Jackson
Weathering is the various physical and chemical processes that cause exposed rock to decompose. Weathering is
a broad concept, so I first had to find whether the weathering was mechanical or chemical. After conducting a
lot of research, I figured out that my project, focusing on frost wedging, fell into the physical weathering.
In nature, when water seeps into the cracks of a rock and the temperature drops, the water freezes
and expanded, in the process cracking the rock. In my experiment, a water balloon demonstrated the
water that had seeped through the cracks and hardened dough covering the water balloon represented the
rock. Once I froze the “rock” in the freezer, the water froze and expanded causing the dough to crack.
My project, therefore, serves a model of the natural phenomenon of frost weathering.
Frost weathering is the fracturing of rock due to the expansionary pressure associated
with the freezing of water in planes of weakness or pore spaces. One can see signs of
the many changes that weathering has caused in a lot of places. One example is
the sidewalk. Somewhere just outside one’s house, one might see expanded cracks
because of rain and snow. Other large rocks such the ones in big parks also have
signs of frost wedging. Even though nobody “noble” has ever completed my
experiment, that did not stop me from completing it, and I am glad that I did!
Biodiesel: The Energy
of the Future fat. Biodiesel
What is biodiesel? Biodiesel is a fuel based vegetable oil or animal
is made from triglycerides, methyl alcohol, and either
Lienna Peng potassium or sodium hydroxide (lye). The lye acts as a catalyst, and it
strips away the glycerin molecules found in triglycerides. By striping away
the glycerin molecules, the three fatty acids in triglycerides are freed,
and they join with methyl esters in the methyl alcohol to form biodiesel.
Due to its renewability, sustainability, and environmental-friendliness,
biodiesel is becoming more and more used throughout the world.
There are many ways to create biodiesel. One could mix it
with petroleum, gasoline, or another solvent, and then use the oil as it
is (straight vegetable oil) or convert it to biodiesel. All these methods
have problems, but the first two have the more significant problems.
Strait vegetable oils (SVO) require a SVO engine and are very viscous,
which makes them inconvenient to use during the winter. Mixing oil with
gasoline, though not hugely problematic, still poses a serious problem;
this process is heavily reliant on fossil fuels. Converting SVO is probably
the best method because it does not require a modification to the engine,
and it has better cold weather properties, due to the methyl alcohol in it.
Overall, biodiesel is becoming more and more commonly used
worldwide because fossil fuels are running out. Diesel is now available in
many gas stations, and there is no doubt that biodiesel will be the energy to
power the future.
MICHAEL LEE, II 9
Durer’s Innsbruck
Mathematics and art have a long historical relationship;
Castle Courtyard
without mathematics, how would the Greeks have constructed such
elegant works of architecture like the Parthenon, and how would (1494)
the Arabs have woven intricate patterns of interlocking shapes? But
without art, mathematics would be stale, reduced to algorithms of
parsing set theory, and would have never been able to visualize and
describe in concrete terms the beauty of modern algebra.
Here are two famous examples of the intimacy between the
two seemingly unrelated fields: Albrecht Durer (d. 1528 in Nuremberg)
and Maurits Cornelis Escher (d. 1972 Holland). Both were originally Escher’s Fish
mathematicians by trade, but decided to try their hand at making a No. 107 (1960)
living as artists. They both became extremely successful artists.
To most 21st century citizens, both images seem The other notable artist is Escher. His painting
ordinary, but to the people at the time of their debut, these of fish seems almost modern, and the reason for this is
works of art added a certain intellectual liveliness to the because the mathematical techniques he had introduced
monotony of style and technique. If we were restricted to art inspired further artistic application of the field of
to drawing stick figures with only perfect straight lines Abstract Algebra. In the painting, we see a school of
and perfect circles, we could not “admire” paintings fish swimming in what seems to be blue water, but upon
because they would have no distinguishing features. further inspection, the water is another school of fish,
To counter the stagnating wealth of artistic just hiding behind our perceptual biases. He is most noted
techniques, mathematicians such as Durer and Escher for his use of Symmetrical Space Filling Curves. Whereas
introduced techniques of the abstract science, known most mathematicians preferred to use polygons, Escher
as “Mathematics,” to the concrete world of visual art. used plants, animals, and even people to demonstrate the
Math & Art
The Abstract Humanities
First, there is Durer, born into a time when paintings beautiful symmetry of mathematical art. This technique
depicting people were drawn with no dimensionality and produces the disorienting still motion of the fish: the fish
had no semblance to the reality they claimed to reflect are positioned so that if any fish were close, they would
(see medieval art). Durer took the flatness of the pre- produce the same animal, just rotated, and the fish are
Renaissance, crumpled it to a ball, and added some kind bound by well-defined strokes. When the surface that
of dimensionality to his art. His Castle Courtyard, from the fish glide on is also flatly bounded by the same lines
the viewer’s perspective, has some objects that seem to but unbounded by the space between fish, this creates
be closer and larger and others that seem to be a mass of the effect of still motion and the recreation of the fish
color in the distance. This is done by drawing a system shape on the surface only disorients the viewer more.
of similar triangles, where shapes are projected into the Whether or not one appreciates the art or the art’s
distance while retaining their inherent shape. In his time as history, one has to appreciate the abstract geometrical and
an artist, this technique of geometric projection has been algebraic manipulations which the human mind perceives
widely used in the works of Italian Renaissance artists, intuitively. Art borrows techniques from math, and math
but Durer’s mathematical curiosity led him to draw with also borrows from art and if all math were abstract, the
projections not based on straight lines but curved lines, discipline would lack the human intuition that defines
as if it were reflected from a concave or convex mirror mathematics. Mathematics is only a refinement of
to mimic the natural perception of the human eye. This common sense in the abstract sense, and art is only a
resulted in his work on multiview orthographic projections. visualization of abstract reasoning in a concrete sense.
10 Jacqueline Kam, III
Ivory is used to create items like piano
keys, jewelry, and religious artifacts,
and is known for its sheer white color.
The process in which ivory is obtained,
however, is violent and ruthless. This
prized luxury item is taken mostly from
Earth’s largest land animal, the elephant.
The African elephant is the main target
of the trade, and despite efforts to
protect it, thousands are illegally
killed every year. In fact, over 25,000
African elephants were killed in 2012
alone.
These magnificent creatures have
not only been poached to endangerment,
but are also killed in the most gruesome
and inhumane ways. Most of them are
shot to the point where they can no
longer walk or protect themselves. Then,
completely vulnerable, their tusks are
cut off so deeply that, even if they
were to survive, their tusks could not
grow back. A great percentage of the
poached elephants bleed to death.
Their tusks are then taken to major
participants in the ivory trade,
such as Southern Africa and Asia;
70% of the ivory is smuggled
into China. A smuggler earns
around 3,600 dollars for
carrying ivory, giving the
middleman a strong
incentive to obtain and To help beautiful animals such as
trade.
There were about 26,000,000
elephants in Africa in 1800, and today
there remain only 600,000, with their
numbers decreasing. The killing itself
has detrimental effects on the mental
state of the surrounding elephants,
Elephants and the
Ivory Trade
especially on orphaned babies. Elephants
live in very complex social structures
and create relationships with each other,
just as humans do. They can remember
individuals and places for years, and also
mourn their dead and remember where
they died. Organizations like the David
Sheldrick Wildlife Trust and WildAid
have attempted to save injured and dying
elephants, and they serve as centers for
traumatized victims. Foundations like
these aim to nurse elephants whose tusks
have been cut off back to health, and
also to ease their trauma, especially with
the young orphans.
Elephants are not the only
victims of the ivory trade. Animals such
as hippos, walruses, and narwhals are also
hunted for their horns, although they
have not created as much controversy as
the elephants killed in Africa and Asia.
Rhinos have also fallen victim to trade
because of their horns. Their horns are
made of keratin, the same protein that
makes up our fingernails and hair, and
it is believed by some to have medical
benefits. Because of this, the rhino
population is decreasing unsettlingly fast.
In 1960, there were more than 2,000
northern white rhinos in the world, and
now due to poaching, there remain only
four.
elephants, you can support organizations
like the International Elephant
Foundation, Elephant Care International,
The David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust,
African Wildlife Foundation, Amboseli
Elephant Research Project, WildAid, and
more.
Every Valentine’s Day, many people
begin to think, “Who am I going to ask
out? Do I look cute enough in this dress, or
should I get another one?” Neither love nor
attractiveness seems to be scientific at first
glance. However, your relationship with that
kid in your science class is just as scientific as
what your teacher is teaching.
Evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin
suggested that animals obtain traits based
on how well the traits can help them survive,
which is a process called natural selection.
But male peacocks do not need all those
pretty feathers to survive, do they? Darwin
therefore proposed a process called sexual
selection, in which traits develop in an animal
to beat out others of the same gender for
a better mate. In most cases, like with the
peacock, these traits show that the animal
is strong and healthy enough to reproduce.
We humans admire bilateral symmetry
because an asymmetrical face shows
SCIENCE
BEHIND
LOVE
Liane Xu, V 11
a defect that cannot be overcome.
Additionally, a low waist-to-hip ratio for
women and men is seen as “sexy” by many.
Animals with an ideal amount of sexual
hormones called estrogen for females and
testosterone for males tend to have waists
70% the width of their hips, and usually have
an easier time conceiving and giving birth.
Why are you and your friends
attracted to different people? Part of the
answer lies in pheromones, an odorless
chemical that we subconsciously expel, which
triggers reactions from the opposite sex.
Studies have shown that women are more
attracted to men with a dissimilar major
histocompatibility complex (MHC), the part of
the immune system that recognizes foreign
substances. Similar genes can also attract
people to each other.
But at the end of the day, let us just
say we all have our own interests.
“OWN ?
R E S T S”
INTE
12 Duy Nguyen, II
The Construction of the Internet
a brief history of
the internet
In the 1960s, Dwight D. Eisenhower’s
administration established an agency tasked with
competing against the Soviet Union in the field of
technology. Initially, the main focuses were on computer
and space, and the research organization associated with
them was the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA).
In 2014, the Internet turned 45, and its child, the World Wide Web, turned 25. The Internet is a technology that most of us take for Today, it is referred to with “Defense” in front as DARPA.
granted by not recognizing its ubiquitous presence. Later on, the space division branched out and became the
Before the Internet National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
Computer researching continued without much media
attention.
The world was very different before the Internet. Since its invention, During the late 1960s, ARPA began working on
our lives have changed greatly, in ways that are and are not noticeable. a distributed network, partly to improve better use of the
Before the Internet, a server was a person who served another, mainframes by connecting them together, and to also fix
a surfer was one who went to the beach, and a browser was the aforementioned problem with the communication
a person who browsed through books. Computers infrastructure of America. This new network was to be
used to be gigantic machines sitting alone in book called the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
rooms that made an incredible amount of noise (ARPANET), the mother of today’s Internet.
and heat. If one wanted to use them, he or she In 1968, the project became available for
had to sit in the same room or connect his or contractors to bid on. However, most of the major
her computer terminals to larger computers, telecommunication companies ridiculed this project. To
called mainframes. The greatest change brought them, the current telephone communication system was
by the Internet was in communication. Before the perfect and the companies did not have the time and
Internet, if one wanted to send a message across a long resources to tinker with it. Thus a small company, situated
distance, he or she had to use a telephone to call the person on the other side. At that time, the telephone and the in Cambridge, MA, won the bid: BBN Technologies
telegraph seemed like the fastest methods of communication. However, there were still many problems with them. (BBN), which is currently a subsidiary of Raytheon,
In the 1960s, the United States was involved in the war with the Soviet Union. The Americans worried another Massachusetts company.
that the NORAD system (North American Aerospace Defense Command) would fail and that the United States The project’s initial goal was to create a network
would be nuked. The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) further heightened this fear. One of the United States’ fears,
besides being nuked, was that the communication system would be heavily damaged and deleterious to American
cities. After all, the telephone of the 1960s was quite different from today’s. In the 1960s, phones connected two
people. When one picked up the phone, he or she would need to connect it to the operator and then request At the start of the 1990s, the price of comput-
connection to the phone number he or she wished to reach. The operator sitting at the telephone exchange would ers plummeted. More households owned computers,
then connect him or her through telephone switchboards to the other phone number. Until modern times, this such as small PCs from IBM or Apple. The Internet
process was done manually. But this system had a huge flaw: if the connection between two phones was cut, the was still, however, reserved for military and academic
communication was broken. Given the destructive nature of nuclear devices, a nuke use. Connecting to the Internet was a tremendous has-
on United States would have disabled communication for a long time, impairing sle. In the 1990s, there was no Google, no Firefox, no
any response from the military. Therefore, there was an urgent need for a better There was Facebook, or any other websites. To do something like
communication system. Much research was done to alleviate this problem, but an urgent need sending emails, one had to sit at the computer and type
telephone companies would not spend money to upgrade this system. Thankfully, lines and lines of command and code through the system.
modern telephones have advanced to digital switching, and the flaw that would for a better In 1989, Sir Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher in
have destroyed the United States’ communication system is now forgotten. communication
The Internet is still very young, and its history is still relatively short. However, the Internet certainly has one of
system the most important roles in the functioning of our society and enables us to maintain the lifestyle we have now.
Therefore, let us celebrate the anniversary of the very young Internet and its even younger son, the World Wide
Web.
Duy Nguyen, II 13
to link together four mainframes. The mainframes were
to be linked to an Interface Message Processor (IMP),
then from this to the phone line and to the other IMPs.
BBN was tasked with creating the first IMP. These
machines were due nine months after the start of the
project, the first day of 1969. On August 30, 1969,
the first IMP was delivered and connected to Leonard
Kleinrock at University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA). By December of that year, the four mainframes
at UCLA, Stanford University, University of California,
Santa Barbara, and University of Utah, were connected
to the network.
Gradually, the ARPANET expanded. A year after,
there were 13 nodes (points) on the network. The main
use of the network was to send files and commands to
mainframes. Since no one had done this type of network
before, most of the technologies around the Internet
were created during this time period. Telnet was created
in 1969; the first email was sent in 1971; the TCP/IP
protocol was created by Vinton Cerf in 1973.
During the 1970s and 1980s, the speed of
Internet development picked up. As more mainframes
were connected to the Internet, the technologies were
standardized by the International Organization for
Standardization. The Internet seemed to be headed for
a bright future. In 1989, the networks around the world
were connected together and thus the Internet was
officially born.
After the Internet
CERN, had an idea. He proposed a way to use the In-
ternet as a backbone to serve up and link together docu-
ments. He coded a simple program to access these docu-
ments. This was the founding of the World Wide Web.
With the invention of the Web, the presence of the In-
ternet became ubiquitous. Today, it is easy for tech-sav-
vy teenagers to surf the web. Companies such as Ama-
zon, Microsoft, Google, and Yahoo have been formed
to take advantage of the lucrative Internet business.
14 Elisabeth Kotsalidis, II
Antibiotics have been used for nearly three quar-
ters of a century to treat people who have infectious dis-
eases. Antibiotics are drugs that reduce illness and death
from infectious bacterial diseases. These drugs, however,
have been used so frequently and for so long that the
infectious microorganisms they are designed to kill have
adapted to them. In fact, antibiotic-resistant bacteria do
not respond to the drugs developed to kill them.
The growing number of bacteria that have be-
come unresponsive to treatment with antibiotics is alarm-
ing. According to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, “every year at least 2 million people in the
United States become infected with bacteria that are re-
sistant to antibiotics and at least 23,000 people die each
year as a direct result of these infections.”
How do bacteria become resistant to antibiot-
ics? Antibiotic resistance is a natural and unavoidable
phenomenon, because bacteria evolve. Evolution occurs
due to spontaneous mutations in the bacterial genome
which occur in approximately 1:1x106 to
1x107 bacterial cells. Some of these
mutations are beneficial and en-
able a bacterium to synthesize
enzymes that inactivate the
antibiotics, while other
NEW
ANTIOBIOTIC
DISCOVERED BY
BOSTON SCIENTISTS
mutations close up the entry points that allow antibiotics
to enter the cell, and others make pumps that export the
antibiotic back outside the cell so that it does not harm
the bacterium. Bacteria that acquire any of these antibi-
otic resistance genes are able to multiply in the presence
of therapeutic levels of antibiotic. Since those bacteria
without the resistance genes are killed, the frequency of
the resistant bacteria increases dramatically in the gene
pool, which often renders antibiotics ineffective.
Bacteria may develop resistance to a single while
others develop resistance to several different kinds of an-
tibiotics. In some cases, there are no available antibiotics
that are effective against these multidrug resistant bacteria.
According to the Alliance for the Prudent Use of
Antibiotics website, “the current higher-levels of antibi-
otic-resistant bacteria are attributed to the overuse and
abuse of antibiotics. In some countries and over the In-
ternet, antibiotics can be purchased without a doctor’s
prescription.
Patients sometimes take antibiotics unnecessarily, to treat
viral illnesses like the common cold.”
The World Health Organization is very concerned
about the issue of drug-resistant infections and consid-
ers antibiotic resistance “an increasingly serious threat to
global public health that requires action across all govern-
ment sectors and society.” Fortunately, there are many sci-
entists around the globe working hard, trying to stay one
step ahead of these microorganisms that threaten to take
us back to a time when a minor cut could kill. For the first
time in 25 years, a major new antibiotic discovery has been
made by researchers at Northeastern University in Boston.
Using soil from a field in Maine, these sci-
entists have isolated a previously uncultured
strain of bacteria called Eleftheria terrae, which
makes the new antibiotic called teixobactin.
So right now you may be asking yourself, “Bac-
teria make antibiotics? I thought you said antibiotics kill
bacteria. So, why are they making antibiotics and how
does that make sense?” Bacteria and fungi do in fact make
antibiotics. They do so to help them kill other bacteria
in their environment that are competing with them for
food and water and other limited resources in the soil.
This poses the question of why scientists have not been
looking in the soil for new ones all along, since this
could solve the current critical need for
new antibiotics. The reason for this
is because it is has been very dif-
ficult to grow soil bacteria under
Elisabeth Kotsalidis, II 15
laboratory conditions to study them.
However, recently, the scientists at Northeastern
University, led by Dr. Kim Lewis, have been able to solve
this laboratory growth problem of soil bacteria with a new
technology that the scientists have developed. The tech-
nology is called the iChip, and it could bring about the dis-
covery of even more new antibiotics in the future. In fact,
scientists are even calling this new technology “promising
and exciting” because it will allow them to scour ordi-
nary soil samples for new bacteria. This includes the 99%
of soil bacteria that do not grow in a laboratory dish.
Teixobactin has been shown to kill bac-
teria that cause tuberculosis, methicillin-resistant
“PROMISING AND
EXCITING TECHNOLOGY”
staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), as well as other deadly
bacteria that can not be killed by even the most pow-
erful antibiotics currently available. Although teixo-
bactin has yet to be tested on humans, scientists have
tested it on mice and have gotten positive results. The
clinical trials on humans will take another year or two.
The scientific article describing this new technol-
ogy as well as the new antibiotic was pub-
lished in the journal Nature, on
January 7, 2015.
16 Daniel Sherman, II
The three small raised beds, which comprise the
Boston Latin School garden, have produced a myriad
number and variety of vegetables including tomatoes,
carrots, radishes, peppers, chives, garlic, kale, lettuce, rose-
mary, mint, basil, endive, beans, and cantaloupe. These
vegetables are given for free to BLS students and people
in the Longwood area who walk down Avenue Louis Pas-
teur. Through the effective use of the minimal land avail-
able, the garden has cultivated this great variety of foods
without the use of pesticides and artificial fertilizers. One
technique often employed is to sow rows of vegetable
seeds and allow them to grow for several weeks. Then,
rows of an additional vegetable are planted in between
the half-matured plants, so that both may develop at the
same time, without either inhibiting the other’s growth.
This technique was used predominantly for lettuce and
garlic. Furthermore, vegetables are planted according to
the season in which they are most hardy. As the months
pass, vegetables that are no longer highly productive
are removed and composted, creating more
space for new vegetables. For example,
when the beans went out of season
and all the bean pods had already
been collected, these plants were re-
moved and replaced with peppers.
The use of beans also provided nu-
trients to the soil, for legumes share a
symbiotic relationship with soil bac-
teria known as Rhizobium, which is
found in the root nodules of legumes.
BLS
GARDEN
JOHN KIM, II
In exchange for the legumes’ sugars, the bacteria provide the
legumes with nitrogen , which is incorporated into the soil,
Although last year’s marijuana legal- Vaporized cannabis still contains two
thus promoting the growth of neighboring plants as well.
ization has been moving forward, in hopes of times more THC than the regular marijuana
To attract pollinators that fertilize the crops’ seeds,
reducing the issue of illegal smoking of weed, joint. When the vaporized cannabis is inhaled
the garden uses marigolds and nasturtiums, two plants that
some people seem to have found ways to often, propylene glycol can maximize the dan-
are usually planted ornamentally. These ornamental plants
abuse the legality of the dangerous drug. Fol- ger of intoxicating one’s body. In addition, no
also attract predatory insects, such as hoverflies, whose lar-
lowing the trend of the infamous E-cigarettes, one knows for sure what the consequences
vae eat aphids. Thus, the crops themselves are pollinated
some savvy people who are bent on pot-usage are for inhaling constant doses of this chemi-
and also protected for most of the year from insect damage.
have experimented with smoking it discreetly in cal and what else is included in the vaporized
Regarding the topographical layout of the gar-
public. People who have done this use a hand- cannabis. This can be a major concern toward
den, tall plants of the Solanaceae (Nightshade) family,
held vaporizer, or a vape pen which looks iden- teenagers, who often smoke E-cigarettes. The
such as tomatoes and peppers (and in one year eggplant),
tical to the E-cigarettes which people use in combination of this very widely-used drug and
are planted in the same bed and are separated from the
public. Instead of vaporizing nicotine in a liquid the growing popularity of vape pens proves a
smaller crops. As these plants are of the same family, they
form, the vape pen that is used for smoking pot great issue especially because they are wide-
require similar conditions, which are easier to provide
is modified to vaporize the molecules in con- ly used by young adults and precipitate po-
when grouped together. This arrangement also prevents
centrated marijuana oil. tentially negative effects. Understanding the
other plants from being outcompeted, as might occur if
Some companies, including JuJu Joint, myriad of negative health and social effects
the taller Nightshades were combined with smaller let-
have started selling vape pens. The products that any type of marijuana smoking has, we,
tuces and herbs. In addition, certain herbs of the gar-
of JuJu Joints have an average of 40% to 50% as teenagers, must not smoke this deleterious
den, which tend to survive over the winter, are planted
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) which compared drug.
in such a way that annual (living for less than a year) veg-
to homemade vape pens, have advantages
etables may be situated around them. For example, mint
such as not having to charge batteries, having
and rosemary, both of which are of the Lamiaceae (Mint)
family, have become well-established perennials (living
no smell, and having no visible smoke. However, a MAJOR
for more than two years) in the garden, which week af-
ter week provide an almost continuous yield. This year,
this inconspicuous approach cannot serve as
an excuse to smoke weed, as a vaporized con-
centrate is proven to be lethal to one’s health.
CONCERN
endive, kale, and marigolds were planted around these
herbs to maximize use of the land. Chives are another
example or perennial vegetables that also offer produce
almost every week after the winter. The garden also uses
the strategy of locating most plants of the same species DelEterious DRUG
in the same area, not only to standardize the conditions
they receive, but also to facilitate natural reseeding of
the plants. In this garden, marigolds, tomatoes, and
chives are the most efficient reproducers by seed.
The garden currently is dormant due to
the winter. Many seeds and bulbs, how-
ever, have already been sown, and
green leaves will soon emerge
THE CANNY
when Massachusetts itself
emerges from the cold and
snow of the winter.
CANNABIS

PuzzleS
For each puzzle, those who
correctly solve it will be put
into a raffle for a ten dollar
gift card! Email responses to
catapultasciencebls@gmail.
Read
the ar-
ticles to de-
code the name
of a famous sci-
entist and inventor.
When submitting your
answer, give the full answer
and bold the letter specified.
SCAVENGER
HUNT
- Give the sec-
ond-to-last letter
of the current location
(full name) of Curiosity.
- Give the ninth let-
ter of the genus name of
the new bacteria which makes
an antibiotic called teixobactin.
- Give the first letter of the genus name
of the northern white rhinoceros.
- Give the second letter of the
written-out age of the Inter-
net as of 2014. (e.g., 23 would
be written out as twenty three).
- Give the third letter of the word de-
noting the literary device found in the
title of the article of the previous page.
- Give the second letter of the
event(s) which water-related illnesses
have taken more lives than.
- Give the fifth letter in the name of
the protein from which fingernails,
hair, and rhino horns are made.
- Give the sixth letter in the first
name of the scientist who proposed
a process explaining the beautiful
feathers of a male peacock.
- Give the sixth letter of the type of
pressure associated with freezing wa-
ter that causes frost weathering.
- Give the third letter of the word
which the “P” in “SPS” stands for.
- Give the second letter of the word
that would complete this sentence:
“without art, mathematics would
be stale, reduced to an algorithm of
_______ set theory”

Though it may be surprising, natural languages are often modeled on several rules that can
be observed from a computational viewpoint. The field of computational linguistics deals
with determining patterns in languages with the aid of computers and computer science.

THE Here is a scenario between two friends, Alice

and Ben, who live in the planet Kwarzul. Both
of them know nine different languages.
KWARZUL
WORD PUZZLE Your Task:
A language family is a group of languages which 1. A: gödok selam burinhi sahkul
share a common root. For instance, languages 2. B: gaesu jelam laeku perum sejil
like Spanish, French, and Italian are part of a
latum
language group called the “Romance Languages.”
In Alice and Ben’s ten-lined conversation, there 3. A: gäsihl sihtak sehkul jilä
are nine different languages, and three language kumunhbha
groups. 4. A: Shazil kevan latokje laov
i. There are ten different sentences, 5. B: Gaesu julaem gaeku juran
but only nine different languages. Which two serajukisarekuji
numbered sentences are in the same language?
6. A: Guräillumpal supar kural pujak
ii. Now, of the nine different languages, sort
them into three language groups. Each language 7. B: Lariva shzaol jiolra
group has exactly three different languages. raenvokovon!
N.B. Umlauts, as seen in the “o” in “gödok,” are 8. A: Junchai lunkai saijan feiran?
important. Since you do not know what these 9. B: Jaeol shaeol rarajok
words mean, it is important to look for patterns. rarataeshik
10. B: Saelam Pujai zelan kaufei