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SECTION 5 - 2016/2017
GROUP PROJECT
LECTURER:
DATE OF SUBMISSION:
NAME NO MATRIC
CONTENTS PAGE
INTRODUCTION 3
OBJECTIVE 4
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM 4
METHODOLOGY 15-28
CONCLUSION 32
REFERENCE 33
APPENDIX 34- 46
2
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this project, we are required to conduct an analysis to assess the condition of the
pavement and to determine if structural improvement is required to support the project future
traffic. Road deterioration depends on road strength. The strength of a road construction for each
type of subgrade is supposed to be a function of the thickness of in particular, the bound layers in
the road. The materials used in the construction are also of importance for the strength. When the
thickness of these layers increases, the strength of the road is supposed to increase and also the
energy use for road construction. The project involves processes such as pavement distresses
identification, determination of possible causes to the event, treatment and maintenance of road
pavement. This process plays a significant rule to the pavement management and maintenance.
The purposes of maintaining the pavement condition are listed below:
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1.2 Objective of Project
1. To investigate and obtain the current status of the road pavement and identify the types of
defects
2. To evaluate the possible cause of pavement distresses
3. To recommend repair techniques that would minimize the distress of the pavement
4. To determine the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) for the selected location.
The location chosen for this project is in Kampung Parit Sempadan. Jalan Parit Sempadan
is chosen as it is a suitable site besides it is nearby to University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
(UTHM). The length of the road to conduct the pavement condition index is 1000 m and the length
for every section is 100 m. The type of pavement is flexible pavement. The road is categorized as
JKR R1 for single lane minor road with no access control and the design speed limit of 40 km/h
under the JKR road design standard.
4
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Types of Pavement Distress
The common causes of pavement deterioration and degradation are overloading, seepage,
improper or poor road surface drainage, lack of proper road maintenance, lack of proper design,
adverse climatic conditions and some other factors.
Road distresses disturb and adversely affect the traffic flow and traffic safety leading to
poor performance of the road. They also cause an increase in fuel costs, result in time delay and
cause troublesome to every road user. Identification of the road cracks at an early stage is
essential as preventive for road maintenance and effective remedial measures can be applied
before the problem becomes too severe and the pavement fails.
Pavement
Crack
Pothol s Surface
Deformation
Pavement
Distresse
Surface
Defect Patc
Edge
5
A. Pavement Cracks
1. Crocodile Cracks
2. Block Cracks
A pattern of cracks that divides the pavement into approximately rectangular pieces.
Rectangular blocks range in size from approximately 0.1 m2 to 10 m2.
6
3. Longitudinal Cracks
Longitudinal cracks are cracks which are usually straight and parallel to the centre line,
situated at or near the middle of the lane. It can happen singly or as series of almost parallel
cracks or with some limited branching.
4. Transverse Cracks
7
5. Edge Cracks
Edge cracks are crescent-shaped or fairly continuous cracks, parallel to, and usually
within 300 mm to 600 mm of the pavement edge. It usually occurs when paved shoulders do not
exist.
6. Crescent-shaped Cracks
Crescent-shaped cracks are half-moon in shape, commonly associated with shoving, often
occurring in closely spaced parallel group. It is mainly associated with the bituminous layer only.
8
B. Surface Deformation
1. Rutting
It is identified as the slight depression along the wheel paths in a pavement. It is classified into
two types. Mix rutting: when the rutting does not affect the subgrade and Subgrade Rutting
when the rutting is prominent in the subgrade.
Figure 9: Rutting
2. Depression
Localized road sections with a slight depression, it causes roughness and collects water which may
lead to pothole formation
9
3. Corrugation
Corrugation are regular transverse undulations, closely spaced alternate valleys and crests with
wavelengths of less than 2m. Generally, it will result in a rough ride and will become worse with
time.
4. Shoving
Shoving is the bulging of the road surface generally parallel to the direction of traffic and/or
horizontal displacement of surfacing material, mainly in the direction of traffic where braking or
acceleration movements occur, caused by traffic pushing against the pavement. Transverse shoving
may arise with turning movements.
10
C. Surface Defects
1. Bleeding
Bleeding is the presence of free bitumen binder on the surface resulting from upward
migration of the binder, causing low texture depth and inadequate tyre to stone contact. It
is most likely to occur I the wheel paths during hot weather.
2. Ravelling
11
3. Polishing
It is the smoothening and rounding of the upper surface of the road stone, exposing coarse
aggregate which are glossy in appearance and smooth to the touch. It usually occurs in the
wheel paths.
4. Delamination
Delamination is the loss of a discrete and large (minimum 0.01 square meter) area of the
wearing course. Usually there is a clear delineation of the wearing course and the layer
below.
D. Edge Defects
1. Edge Break
Edge break occurs when the edge of the bituminous surface are fretted or broken.
12
2. Edge Drop -Off
Edge drop off is the difference in elevation between the traffic lane and outside shoulder.
Typically occur when the outside shoulder settles or erodes. It is not usually considerate a
defect if the drop off is less than 25mm.
D. Pothole
Potholes are bowl-shaped depressions of varying sizes in the pavement surface. They
generally have sharp edges. Potholes are most likely to occur on roads with thin surfaces
course. They are usually caused when the severity of cracks increases. They cause
roughness and rider discomfort and are a major cause of accidents especially at dark times
when there visibility is very low.
13
E. Patch
Patch is a repaired section of pavement where a portion of the pavement surface has been removed
and replaced. It may not be associated with either a loss of serviceability.
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3.0 METHODOLOGY
Pavement Condition Index (PCI) method is used as a pavement rating method that is based
on visual inspection of the pavement distress. The method will identify the pavement condition
which is numerical rating of the pavement condition that ranges from 0 to 100, with 0 being failed
pavement and 100 being the perfect condition.
The survey begins with finding out the type of pavement distress such as cracking, surface
deformation, defects, patches, potholes, and edge defect. The measurement of distress includes
length, width, depth, diameter and area. The quantity must be calculated. The severity of the
distress is then defined according to low, moderate or high level.
15
For determining the pavement condition index, the section must be divided into sample
units. The total pavement section that we used to conduct the PCI method is 1000m. It is divided
into 10 sample units. Each section is 100m. Figure below shows how to determine the number of
sample units that needs to be inspected.
It is recommended that the sample units to be inspected be spaced equally throughout the
section. Hence, the systematic random is used. Sampling interval is determined.
10
Interval, I = 𝑁 = =2
𝑁 5
16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
17
Calculation of Density
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = × 100%
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
Example:
3.9
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 (13𝑁) = × 100%
330
Based on the surveyed, the deduct value can be determined by referring the graph of Distress
density-Percent based on the density parameter calculated and the level of road condition
(High=H, Medium=M, Low=L).
Example:
18
Determining the maximum allowable number of deduction, m.
The highest value of the deduct values is the HDV. HDV = 53.
𝑁 = 1 + (9⁄98)(100 − 𝑁𝑁𝑁)
𝑁 = 1 + (9⁄98)(100 − 53)
𝑁 = 5.32
Sort the deduct values in descending orders: 53, 47, 30, and 28.
Since the maximum allowable of deducts is 5.32, therefore all the deduct value are selected i.e.
53, 47, 30 and 28.
19
Reduce the smallest individual deduct value to 2 (q is now 3) determine the CDV.
1 53 47 30 28 158 4 92
2 53 47 30 2 132 3 80
3 53 47 2 2 104 2 74
4 53 2 2 2 59 1 59
𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 100 − 92
𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 8
20
Based on the rating of PCI value of 8, this section of pavement is in failed condition and need
reconstruction.
20. Alligator Cracking 25. Depression (m2) 30. Patching & Utility Cut 35. Shoving (m2)
(m2) 26. Edge Cracking (m) Patching (m2) 36. Slippage Cracking (m2)
21. Bleeding (m2) 27. Joint Reflection Cracking 31. Polished Aggregate (m2) 37. Swell (m2)
22. Block Cracking (m2) (m) 32. Potholes (no.)(m) 38. Weathering/Ravelling
23. Bumps And Sags (m) 28. Lane/Shoulder Drop Off 33. Railroad Crossing (m2) (m2)
24. Corrugation (m3) (m) 34. Rutting (m2)
29. Longitudinal &
Transverse Cracking (m)
DISTRESS DENSITY DEDUCT
QUANTITY TOTAL
SURVEY % VALUE
The highest value of the deduct values is the HDV. HDV = 54.
𝑁 = 1 + (9⁄98)(100 − 𝑁𝑁𝑁)
𝑁 = 1 + (9⁄98)(100 − 54)
𝑁 = 5.22
21
Sort the deduct values in descending orders: 54, 8.
Since the maximum allowable of deducts is 5.22, therefore all the deduct value are selected i.e.
54 and 8.
Reduce the smallest individual deduct value to 2 (q is now 1) determine the CDV.
1 54 8 62 2 46
2 53 2 55 1 55
𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 100 − 55
𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 45
Based on the rating of PCI value of 45, this section of pavement is in poor condition and need a
major rehabilitation or deferred action
22
Table 3: The survey results of road conditions.
39. Alligator Cracking 44. Depression (m2) 49. Patching & Utility Cut 54. Shoving (m2)
(m2) 45. Edge Cracking (m) Patching (m2) 55. Slippage Cracking (m2)
40. Bleeding (m2) 46. Joint Reflection Cracking 50. Polished Aggregate (m2) 56. Swell (m2)
41. Block Cracking (m2) (m) 51. Potholes (no.)(m) 57. Weathering/Ravelling
42. Bumps And Sags (m) 47. Lane/Shoulder Drop Off 52. Railroad Crossing (m2) (m2)
43. Corrugation (m3) (m) 53. Rutting (m2)
48. Longitudinal &
Transverse Cracking (m)
DISTRESS DENSITY DEDUCT
QUANTITY TOTAL
SURVEY % VALUE
The highest value of the deduct values is the HDV. HDV = 42.
𝑁 = 1 + (9⁄98)(100 − 𝑁𝑁𝑁)
𝑁 = 1 + (9⁄98)(100 − 42)
𝑁 = 6.33
23
Number of deduct value = 3.
Since the maximum allowable of deducts is 6.33, therefore all the deduct value are selected i.e.
42, 36, and 5.
Reduce the smallest individual deduct value to 2 (q is now 2) determine the CDV.
1 42 36 5 83 3 53
2 42 36 2 80 2 58
3 42 2 2 46 1 46
𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 100 − 58
𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 42
Based on the rating of PCI value of 42, this section of pavement is in poor condition and need a
major rehabilitation or deferred action.
24
Table 4: The survey results of road conditions.
58. Alligator Cracking 63. Depression (m2) 68. Patching & Utility Cut 73. Shoving (m2)
(m2) 64. Edge Cracking (m) Patching (m2) 74. Slippage Cracking (m2)
59. Bleeding (m2) 65. Joint Reflection Cracking 69. Polished Aggregate (m2) 75. Swell (m2)
60. Block Cracking (m2) (m) 70. Potholes (no.)(m) 76. Weathering/Ravelling
61. Bumps And Sags (m) 66. Lane/Shoulder Drop Off 71. Railroad Crossing (m2) (m2)
62. Corrugation (m3) (m) 72. Rutting (m2)
67. Longitudinal &
Transverse Cracking (m)
DISTRESS DENSITY DEDUCT
QUANTITY TOTAL
SURVEY % VALUE
The highest value of the deduct values is the HDV. HDV = 22.
𝑁 = 1 + (9⁄98)(100 − 𝑁𝑁𝑁)
𝑁 = 1 + (9⁄98)(100 − 22)
𝑁 = 8.16
25
Since the maximum allowable of deducts is 8.16, therefore all the deduct value are selected i.e.
22 and 6.
Reduce the smallest individual deduct value to 2 (q is now 1) determine the CDV.
1 22 6 28 2 20
2 22 2 24 1 24
𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 100 − 24
𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 76
Based on the rating of PCI value of 76, this section of pavement is in satisfactory condition and
need a preventive maintenance.
26
Table 3: The survey results of road conditions.
77. Alligator Cracking 82. Depression (m2) 87. Patching & Utility Cut 92. Shoving (m2)
(m2) 83. Edge Cracking (m) Patching (m2) 93. Slippage Cracking (m2)
78. Bleeding (m2) 84. Joint Reflection Cracking 88. Polished Aggregate (m2) 94. Swell (m2)
79. Block Cracking (m2) (m) 89. Potholes (no.)(m) 95. Weathering/Ravelling
80. Bumps And Sags (m) 85. Lane/Shoulder Drop Off 90. Railroad Crossing (m2) (m2)
81. Corrugation (m3) (m) 91. Rutting (m2)
86. Longitudinal &
Transverse Cracking (m)
DISTRESS DENSITY DEDUCT
QUANTITY TOTAL
SURVEY % VALUE
The highest value of the deduct values is the HDV. HDV = 33.
𝑁 = 1 + (9⁄98)(100 − 𝑁𝑁𝑁)
𝑁 = 1 + (9⁄98)(100 − 33)
𝑁 = 7.15
Since the maximum allowable of deducts is 7.15, therefore all the deduct value are selected i.e. 33 and 7.
27
Determining the Maximum Corrected Deduct Value, CDV
Reduce the smallest individual deduct value to 2 (q is now 1) determine the CDV.
1 33 7 40 2 30
2 33 2 35 1 35
𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 100 − 35
𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 65
Based on the rating of PCI value of 65, this section of pavement is in fair condition and need
rehabilitation.
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 47.2
Thus, the whole pavement sections are in poor condition and need a major rehabilitation or deferred
action.
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5.0 DISCUSSION & RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Discussion
From the result we get, there are 4 types of pavement distresses along the street of Parit
Sempadan. There are pothole, alligator crack, patching and longitudinal and transverse cracking.
1. Potholes
Pothole is a small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface that penetrate all the
way through the asphalt layer down to the base course. They generally have sharp edges and
vertical sides near the top of the hole. Potholes are the result of moisture infiltration and usually
the end result of untreated alligator cracking. As alligator cracking becomes severe, the
interconnected cracks create small chunks of pavement, which can be dislodged as vehicles drive
over them. The remaining hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged is called a pothole.
Causes
Solution
- Partial,
- Full-depth
- Injection patching
- Full depth replacement patch
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2. Alligator cracking
Alligator cracking is a load associated structural failure. The failure can be due to
weakness in the surface, base or sub grade; a surface or base that is too thin; poor drainage or the
combination of all three. It often starts in the wheel path as longitudinal cracking and ends up as
alligator cracking after severe distress.
Causes
- Inadequate structure
- Accumulated damage
- Age hardening
- Excessive loading
- Weak surface, base, or subgrade
- Thin surface or base
- Poor drainage
- Any combination of 1-4
Solution
- Full-depth patch
3. Patching
30
Solution
4. Longitudinal Cracking
Longitudinal cracks are usually parallel to the pavement’s center line, situated at or near
the middle of the lane. It can happen singly or as series of almost parallel cracks or with some
limited branching. Causes
Solution
- Reconstruction of joints
- Reconstruction
31
5.2 Recommendation
The pavement distresses are the factors that can cause road accidents to the consumers.
Thus, the pavement rehabilitation or maintenance activity should be carried out to overcome the
problem of pavement distress. Pavement rehabilitation methods can be categories into four types
which are restoration, resurfacing, reconstruction, and recycling. The pavement condition should
be surveyed before the rehabilitation of pavement in order to identify the type of pavement
distresses such as cracking, shoving and pothole. By identifying the pavement condition index and
the distress, we can determine the cause and solution to be carried out. Moreover, road maintenance
is essential as it acts as a preventive to road structure so that its condition will not affect by the
pavement distresses.
6.0 CONCLUSION
From our investigation at Jalan Parit Sempadan, we got the whole pavement are in poor
condition and need a major rehabilitation or deferred action. While most people would agree on
which roads are rated as excellent and which ones are rated as poor, deciding on whether a road is
in fair condition or good condition is more difficult. Being too lenient may mean that important
maintenance work is delayed. Being too strict may mean spending money on fixing a problem
before it really needs to be done.
It deals with surface conditions only. Surface conditions are symptoms of underlying
problems and need to be properly diagnosed. In the worst case, there can be severe distresses below
the pavement with no visual signs of distress. Other testing and inspection methods (a profilograph
to measure smoothness, for example, or load deflection testing to analyze structural strength)
should be used to quantify specific pavement conditions. Other factors such as capacity, drainage,
surface width, shoulder width, horizontal and vertical alignment and geometrics should be
considered in the pavement analysis. Therefore, it is only one tool which the PCI provides a broad
overall measure of the state of a road network and can help prioritize specific road maintenance
and rehabilitation requirements. It is not the only way to evaluate a road network and should be
used in conjunction with other asset management tools. Consultants with specialized equipment
can complete a more objective review of the entire road network.
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REFERENCE
[1] https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/pavements/ltpp/reports/03031/
03031.pdf
[2] https://definedterm.com/pavement_distress
[3] T.F.Fwa (2006). “The Hand Book of Highway Engineering”, Taylor & Francis Group,
United States of America.
[4] M.Y. Shahin. Pavement Management for Airports, Roads and Parking Lots. New York:
Springer, 2005
[5] "Standard Test Method for Airport Pavement Condition Index Surveys." In Annual Book of
ASTM Standard. Copyright ASTM. 100 Barr Harbor Dr., West Conshohocken: PA 19428, n.d.
[6] "Pavement Condition Index." In Ogra's Milestones, 30-32, 42. December 2009
33
APPENDIX
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45
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