AWWA Article on Theoretical Principles of Water Aeration

American Water Works Association
Theoretical Principles of Aeration

Author(s): Paul D. Haney
Source: Journal (American Water Works Association), Vol. 46, No. 4 (APRIL 1954), pp. 353-376
Published by: American Water Works Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41253802
Accessed: 26-10-2015 17:22 UTC
REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41253802?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
American Water Works Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal (American
Water Works Association).
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 128.6.218.72 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 17:22:26 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
TheoreticalPrinciplesof Aeration
By Paul D. Haney
to theJournalbyPaul D. Haney,San. Engr.Director,
A contribution
Environmental
San. Eng. Center{formerly HealthCenter),US Public
Ohio.
HealthService,Cincinnati,
of water is an exam- method not ordinarilyclassed as an

ple of a usefulclass of industrial aeration process; it is fundamentally
processes involving mass transferbe- similar,however,and is oftenaccom-
tween phases. In water works prac- plished with equipmentlike that used
tice,one phase is alwayswaterand the in certaintypesof aerators. Aeration
otheris a gas, usuallyair,butoccasion- findsits greatestapplicationin the ab-
ally a mixtureof air and othergases. sorptionand release of gases, princi-
As applied to water treatment,the pally oxygenand carbondioxide.
term "aeration" may be definedas a
process wherebythe water is brought Aerator Types and Uses
into intimatecontactwith a gas, usu-
On the basis of present practice,
ally air, forthepurposeof transferring structuresor
equipmentfor aeration
highlyvolatile substancesto or from be classified into two general
the water. These substancesmay in- may
aerators (exam-
clude oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitro- types: [1*| waterfall
:
ples spray nozzles, cascades, multiple
gen, hydrogensulfide,methane,and aerators
various unidentifiedvolatile organic trays); and [2] injection
(example: bubbles of compressed air
compoundsresponsiblefor taste and the The
odor. Oxygen, nitrogen,and carbon passed through water).
dioxide are universallypresentin air, waterfalltypeaccomplishesaerationby
and all the substances previously causing the water to break into drops
named are encountered in various or thin layers,therebyincreasingthe
natural waters. Carbon dioxide may ratio of exposed area to volume. The
also be introducedby such treatment injectiontype (also called "bubble" or
methodsas coagulation. "diffusion"aerators) dischargesbub-
The addition of chlorineto water bles of air into the water through
as
mightbe consideredto fall withinthe special injectiondevices such perfo-
scope of thisdefinition.Althoughcer- rated pipes or porous plates. Inas-
tain of the principlesof aerationapply, much as "diffusion" is a well recog-
chlorinationis accomplishedby highly nized natural phenomenonapplicable
specialized equipment. Consequently, to both kinds of aeratorsand to vari-
the processis not consideredpertinent ous other processes of mass transfer,
to this discussion. Recarbonation the adjectives "injection" or "bubble"
(additionof carbon dioxide) of a sof- are preferableas descriptivetermsfor
tened water is another treatment thistypeof aeration.
353
354 PAUL D. HANEY Jour.AW WA
The basicpurposeofaerationis the worksaeration. The phenomenon of

improvement, or
directly indirectly, of reaeration of natural bodies of water
thechemicaland physicalcharacteris-has beenwidelystudiedbecauseof its
ticsof waterforpublicand industrial vast importancein connectionwith
supply.Improvement byaerationmay waterpollutionproblems(1-3) and
be obtainedthroughthe physicalre- willnotbe givenspecific consideration
movalof: in thispaper.
1. Taste- and odor-producing sub-
stancessuchas hydrogen sulfideand, AerationStudies
to a limitedextent,certainvolatileor- This examination of the theoretical
ganiccompounds. principles of aeration will be limited
2. Corrosive substancessuchas car- largelyto theadditionand removalof
bon dioxide,hydrogen sulfide,and,in oxygenandcarbondioxide. Quantita-
manyindustrialwatersupplies,oxy- tivediscussion ofthetheory ofremoval
gen. (Removal of oxygen is, of. oftaste-andodor-producing substances
course,a deaeration process.) by aerationis limitedby uncertainty
3. Substances thatconsumeor inter- aboutthe natureand behaviorof the
ferewithchemicals usedin subsequent minuteamountsof thecompounds in-
treatment- forinstance,carbondiox- volved. Recent work reportedby
ide beforelimesoftening and hydrogen Middleton, Braus, and Ruchhoft(4)
sulfidebeforechlorination. maylead,afterfurther research,to a
4. Methane,whichmightcreatean betterunderstanding of the whole
explosionhazardif leftin the water. problem oftasteand odorin water.
The mechanism of the transfer of
Aerationmayalso be used forthe betweengas and liquid phases
additionof: gases
has been studied by Adeney and
1. Oxygenforthe improvement of Becker
tasteand odorand forthesubsequent (5, 6) ; Whipple,Fair, and
oxidationof iron,manganese, Whipple (7) ; Roe (<?); Lewis and
hydro- Whitman(9) ; Baylis (10) ; Nordell
gen sulfide,and, to a limitedextent, (11) ; Powell (12) ; and numerous
organicmatter. otherinvestigators (13-21) represent-
2. Carbon dioxide for the recar- various fieldsof interest.A good
bonationofsoftened watersandforas- ing
containing references to
sistancein hydrogen sulfideremoval. bibliography
muchoftheimportant workdoneprior
As appliedto waterin streamsor to 1930 has been preparedby Baylis
lakes,the processof dissolved-oxygen(10).
absorption,generallytermed"reaera- Probablyof greatestinterest to the
tion" or "reoxygenation," is funda- waterworksprofession is the Baylis
mentallythe same as the aeration (10) discussionof aeration,forit is
processusedat a watertreatment plant presentedfrom a water treatment
and maybe lookeduponas a special standpoint.Manyotherinvestigators
case underthe broadheadingof gas have publishedexcellentarticlesand
absorption. In pollutedwater,the experimental data thathave contrib-
mechanism is complicated by theoxy- uted muchtowarda bettercompre-
gen demandof the pollutants, ordi- hensionoftheaerationprocess. Their
narilynot an important factorin water reports,however,have been largely
April1954 AERATIONTHEORY 355
concernedwithapplicationsto theproc- concentration(saturationvalue) of a

ess industriesor sewagetreatment(18, gas and its actual concentrationis the
21), thegreatestamountof studybeing drivingforceavailable to cause inter-
devotedto the injectionor bubbletype change of gas betweenair and water.
process of gas transfer. If a wateris not saturatedwithoxygen
The chemical industry generally when in contactwith air, oxygen will
termsthe additionof gas to a liquid go into solution and equilibriumwill
"absorption"and frequentlyspeaks of graduallybe approachedfromthe di-
the removal of gas froma liquid as rectionof undersaturation towardsatu-
"desorption" or "stripping." The- ration. On theotherhand,ifthewater
oretically,the latter may be looked containsmore oxygenor, as morefre-
upon as "negative absorption." The quentlyhappens,more carbon dioxide
theoryof absorptionof gases, which than the amount that correspondsto
has beenquitewell developed(22) and saturationwhen exposed to air, oxy-
widelyemployed,may be assumed to gen or carbondioxide will be released,
apply as well to the release of gases and equilibriumwill be approached
fromwater (9, 10, 22). fromthe directionof supersaturation.
Agitationof the water- that is, aera-
Fundamental Concepts tion- by stirring, by breaking the
Before the theory of the aeration water into drops or thinlayers,or by
process can be developed,it is neces- blowingbubblesof air throughit, will
sary to consider several important speed up this process. The best that
physicochemicalprinciples, including aerationcan accomplishis theaccelera-
equilibrium,gas solubility,diffusion, tion of a process whichgoes on natu-
and the propertiesof a gas-liquidsur- rally. As previouslystated, it may
face (interface). not be possibleto establishexact equi-
libriumwithany reasonableamountof
Equilibrium aeration,butitcan oftenbe approached.
As appliedto dissolvedgases, "equi-
librium"means no furtherchange in Solubilityof Gases
concentration of the dissolvedgas with Like solids, each gas has its own
the passage of time. Consideredfrom solubilitycharacteristics.The factors
the standpointof gas transfer,aeration governinggas solubilityin water are
implies the promotionof equilibrium temperature, pressure,dissolvedsolids
between the gaseous constituentsof in the water,and the chemicalnature
water and those of the atmosphere of the gas. Unlike manysolids,gases
(23). Water exposed to air tends to exhibit decreasing solubilitywith in-
reachequilibriumwithit; the function creasing temperature. For pressures
of aerationis to speed up this natural up to approximately 1 atmosphere
process. True equilibriumis mainly (atm) and forgases whichdo not re-
of theoreticalinterest,as it is fre- act chemicallywithwaterto any great
quentlyimpracticaland generallyun- extent,the mass of the gas whichwill
necessaryto achieve it. Nevertheless, dissolve in water at a given tempera-
equilibriumor saturationconcentration tureis directlyproportionalto the par-
is an importantconcept because the tial pressureof the gas in contactwith
differencebetween the equilibrium the water (24). Under conditionsof
equilibriumand constanttemperature, Dissolved solids such as salts lower

this relationship,called Henry's law, the solubilityof gases in water. For
may be expressedby the equation: example,the equilibriumconcentration
S = HP (20°C, 1 atm) of oxygendissolvedin
...(1) sea water (20,000 ppm chlorides) is
in which5 is the concentration of gas 7.42 ppm,comparedwith9.17 in zero-
in the water,at equilibrium;P is the chloridewater (27). The loweringof
partial pressure of the particulargas gas solubilityby dissolvedsolids,how-
in the air or othergas in contactwith ever, is of minor importancein most
the liquid; and H is the Henry's law water supplies. Temperature and
solubilitycoefficient.* pressureare the major factorsgovern-
Henry's law applies to the gases ing gas solubility in most natural
most frequentlyconsideredin connec- waters. Pressure effectscan be esti-
tion with the aeration of water: oxy- matedby Henry'slaw, as alreadyindi-
gen, nitrogen,methane,and carbondi- cated. Although there is no simple
oxide. The last reacts with water to relationshipbetween temperatureand
form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which solubility, adequate tables of data
ionizesas follows: showinggas solubilityat various tem-
peratures are available (11, 27, 28).
H2CO3 ^ H+ + HCO3-
It should be evident that it is not
HCO3-^H+ + CO3--
correctto speak of the solubilityof a
At ordinarywatertemperatures and at gas in water withoutspecifyingtem-
the concentrationsof carbon dioxide perature and pressure. In practice,
encounteredin natural waters, how- however,the partialpressuresof oxy-
ever, less than 1 per cent of the dis- gen and carbon dioxide in air are fre-
solved gas will be in the form of quentlyassumed to be reasonablycon-
H2CO3 (9, 25). Furthermore,the stantat approximately21 per cent by
H2CO3 ionization constants are ex- volumeor 0.21 atm and 0.035 per cent
tremelylow. Hydrogensulfide,which by volumeor O.OOO35atm,respectively
is encounteredin certaingroundwater (11). Pure water at 20°C (68°F)
supplies, also undergoes chemical re- exposed to air at a pressureof 1 atm
actions in water. The dissolved H2S and in equilibriumwithit will contain
will ionize to a slightextent: 9.17 ppm of dissolvedoxygen and 0.5
H+ HS" ppm of dissolved carbon dioxide.
H2S ^ +
HS-±=;H+ + S-- These are the saturationvalues of the
two gases at the specifiedtemperature
H2S will also react with alkaline con- and the indicated partial pressures.
stituentsin natural waters, so that The saturationvalue for a gas is its
much of it may be presentas sulfide equilibriumconcentration forthespeci-
ion, S~~, ratherthanas H2S (11, 26). fiedconditions. The saturationvalues
Henry's law does not apply closelyto for CO 2 and O2 (20°C) are usually
the more soluble gases, such as chlo- assumed to be those previouslygiven.
rine and ammonia,whichreadilyform It must always be remembered,how-
compoundswithwater,but thesegases ever, that these and other saturation
are not of great significance for values at othertemperatures can differ
aeration. appreciablyfrom published values if
* If 6*is in partspermillionandP is in the partial pressures of the gases
atmospheres, H willbe in ppm/atm. change. The partial pressureof oxy-
gen, for example,becomeslower with For diffusion,thissame measureis the

increasedaltitude,while the CO2 con- "concentrationgradient/'
tentin air mayrisefrom0.035 per cent The rate of moleculardiffusionof a
in the countryto 0.06 per cent in an dissolvedgas in a liquid is dependent
industrialarea (11). Most published on the characteristicsof the gas and
data are in termsof gas solubilityin liquid,the temperature,the concentra-
distilled water. Enough dissolved tion gradient, and the cross-section
salts may be presentin some natural area throughwhich diffusionoccurs.
watersto requirea significant correc- These variousfactorsmaybe combined
tion (27). intoa differential
equationof diffusion,
whichis oftentermedFick's law (29) :
Diffusion
= KJ
(2)
A few large crystalsof copper sul- d^dt -DS%-dx
fateplaced in a glass of waterwill sink
i • i dm
- is the time rate of mass
to the bottomand slowlygo into solu- in which
tion. If the water is not mixed by at
transfer by diffusion;S is the cross-
stirringor by thermalcurrents,the
of blue-colored sulfateso- section area throughwhich diffusion
layer copper dc . ,
lutionwill remainin the bottomof the occurs; t~ is the concentrationgradi-
glass for some time. After a while,
withoutany apparentmixingwhatso- ent (mass per unit volume per unit of
ever,thecolorofthewaterwill become length) in the directionperpendicular
uniformthroughout,indicating uni- to the cross-sectionarea; and D is a
form concentrationof copper ion. constant characteristicof the solute
This slow mixingof the coppersulfate and solvent at a given temperature,
' 'diffusion
withall the water in the glass results called the coefficient.'1(D
from the process of diffusion. Evi- is expressed as area per unit time- for
dently diffusiontends to produce a example, square centimetersperhour.)
stable state of uniformconcentration. This equation is fundamentally the
Water flows througha pipe from a same as that used to describe the per-
of head to one of formanceof all typesof aerators (Eq
point high low head
at a rate proportionalto the square 5, page 362). The similarityis due to
the fact that molecular diffusion
root of the head difference. Heat
through films at the water surface
flows by conductionfroma point of
largely controls aerator performance.
high temperatureto one of low tem- of a diffusionequation to
Application
peratureat a rate proportionalto the reaerationhas been discussed Velz
difference.In the former by
temperature
(30).
instance,thedrivingforceis a function
of the differencein head; in heat flow, Surface Properties
the drive is furnishedby the tempera- It is evidentfromwhathas beenpre-
ture difference. In diffusion,the sentedpreviouslythat "equilibriumor
"drive" is the concentration difference saturation represents the ultimate
of thesubstancebeingdiffused.When state" (9) whichwaterexposed to air
dealing with water and heat flow, or some othergas triesto assume,and
head and temperaturevariationsper that equilibriumis a characteristicof
unitof lengthare termedhydraulicand primary importanceto the aeration
temperature gradients, respectively. process. The second importantchar-
358 PAUL B. HANEY Jour.A W WA
acteristicof theaerationprocess - and Ippen and others(32), in describ-

one whichwill be extensively consid- ing workon bubbleaeration,referto
eredinthispaper - is therateat which experiments in whichthe factthata
the water approaches equilibrium. filmof wateris carriedalongwiththe
Equilibrium and rateofapproachto it bubblein its ascent(throughwater)
are not independent of one another, was demonstrated byallowingthebub-
for,undercomparable conditions, the ble to penetrate a mineraloil layerat
drivingforce(and, hence,the rateof the top of the watercolumn. Water
approach)is greaterthe further the couldbe seen drainingoffthebubble,
systemis fromequilibrium. and attempts were made to measure
One oftheimportant factorsaffect- theamountofwaterin orderto calcu-
ingthisrateofapproachto equilibrium latetheliquidfilmthickness.
or saturation is theformation of films Bartholomew and colleagues(17),
at the water-airsurfacewhichoffer in discussing oxygentransfer through
resistancetogas transfer.The surface air bubblesor otherair-liquidinter-
filmis roughlyanalogousto a thin
layerof oil floating on the surfaceof
a bodyof waterwhichis subjectedto
agitation.If theoil spreadsuniformly,
it will forman effective seal even
though there is considerable turbulence
in thewaterbody(Fig. 1).
An air-water surface or interface ex-
hibitsproperties thatare strikingly dif-
ferent fromthoseof themainbodyof
wateror air. Thereis evidence(31)
thatwhena water-air (or otherliquid- Fig. 1. Gas and Water Films
gas) surfaceis formed,moleculesat
the interface becomeorientedinto a "Films"ofmoleculesorientedintoa defi-
definite pattern,thus losingthe free nitepatternformat thegas-waterinter-
andaimlessmovement characteristicof faceand constitute a barrierto thetrans-
themoleculesof themainbodyof the ferof gas;to or fromthewater.
gas andliquid. Thesefilms oforiented
molecules constitute an important bar- faces,statethatthediffusion resistance
rierto thetransfer of gas to or from was foundto be locatedin the liquid
the water. Evidencehas been found phaseand thatits magnitude depends
whichindicates thattheextentof mo- uponthepresence ofadsorbedsurface-
lecularorientation at the surfaceis active materialat the interface.It
sufficientto producea noticeable effect seemsprobablethatsoaps,detergents,
on the characteristics of the surface organicacids, and manyothersub-
region.The orientation increaseswith stances,even whenpresentin water
increasingdissymmetry of the mole- in minuteamounts,wouldbe capable
cules involvedand decreaseswithin- of causingconsiderable resistanceto
creasingtemperature (31). The ori- gas transfer through theirinfluence on
entedmoleculesprobablydo not mix the characteristics of the air-water
withtherestofthegas or water,even interface.Kehr (33) presented data
if thewaterand gas are in a stateof showing theadverseeffects ofa variety
turbulence (10). ofmaterials(oils,soaps,organicacids,
April 1954 AERATION THEORY 359
and raw and treatedsewage) on the exhibitcertainfeaturesof a stretched

rateoftransfer ofatmospheric oxygen elastic membrane. When air and
to water. In Kehr's experiments 6 waterare in contact, theinequalities of
ppmof soap in waterin an aeration molecular attraction (cohesion)at the
testchannel reduced thereaeration rate water surface,togetherwith other
50
approximately per cent. forces, changetheshapeofthesurface
doubtthatfilm-forming
Thereis little toproducea minimum potential energy
substancesare presentin all natural value (29) . For example,an oil drop
watersandin air. The passageofgas suspendedand at restin a liquid of
through thesegas andliquidfilms must thesamedensityas theoil assumesa
be bytheveryslowprocessofgaseous spherical shapeas a resultoftheforce
and liquiddiffusion.Turbulenceap- ofsurface tension.On theotherhand,
parently lowersfilmresistance, as does a dropofwaterhangingfroma faucet
increasedtemperature. A highveloc- or theend of a pipettakeson a pear
itygradient acrosstheinterface has a shapebecauseit is acteduponby the
similareffect. forcesofbothsurface tension andgrav-
Film "thickness," a usefulmeans ity. Surfacetensionplays a part in
ofvisualizing resistancetogas transfer,dropformation andis a veryimportant
canbe calculated fromabsorption data. factorin theformation of air bubbles
The thickness ofa quiescent waterfilm in water.
has beenestimated to be of theorder
of0.2 cm (9, 10) . On theotherhand, Gas TransferRate
a fallingdrop of waterwhichhas a Adeney(5, d), as a resultofstudies
highvelocity gradient acrosstheinter- of bubbleaeration,proposedthe fol-
facehas beenestimated to havea film lowingequationto describethe solu-
thickness of the orderof 0.0003 cm tionof oxygenand nitrogen in water
(10, 25). The relative film thickness from fairlylarge bubbles :
or aerationresistance valuesare more w = Wi - (wi - wo)e-f(a/v)t.. (3)
important than the absolutevalues.
The comparative filmthickness or re- in whichw is theconcentration in the
sistanceof waterat restand a falling waterat the end of t min; Wiis the
drop is approximately 700:1. The saturationconcentration at thegiven
filmthickness is believedto increase temperature and pressure;w0 is the
withexposuretime(10). initialconcentration (t = 0) ; / is the
One set of experiments by Adeney coefficientof escape gas fromthe
of
and Becker (5, 9) gave data which waterper unit of area (varies with
indicateda water filmthicknessof temperature) ; v is the volumeof the
0.001cm forrisingbubbles - approxi- water; a is the area of surfaceex-
mately fourtimesthatoffallingdrops, posed; and ey the base of natural
a
using comparable calculationmethod logarithms, is equal to 2.718. The
(9, 10). Computations based on Ip- Adeney equation mayalso be written :
pen'srecent experiments withsmallair
bubbles(32) gavelowerfilmthickness
or resistancevalues(see Table 2, page *»^~(i&i)0)'--<«
367). One of thebestanalysesof thegas
Surfacetensionis anotherproperty absorption processis thatprovidedby
ofconsiderable interest andimportanceLewis and Whitman(9, 34). Meth-
in aerationprocesses. Fluid surfaces ods of applyingtheoriginalWhitman
two-film theoryhave been gradually throughthe other (9). (Obviously,

developedand refinedin the 30-year therecan be no accumulation ofgas at
periodsincethetheorywas proposed. the interface beyondthatcorrespond-
Despitethe factthatthe theoryhas ing to saturation.) Figure 2 shows
neverbeencompletely checkedexperi- diagrammatically how the concentra-
mentally (22), it is useful
highly in the tion as
changes equilibrium conditions
design of gas absorptionor release are approached.Figure3 depictsan
devices. air-water - suchas wouldbe
interface
Evidenceof the probability of the formed by a water drop,a waterlayer,
existenceoffilmsat thewater-air sur- or an air bubblein water - and the
facehas alreadybeenpresented.Ap- concentration gradients. The draw-
pliedto aerationof water,the theory ingsdo notpurportto showtherela-
fa i ^* - I f gf '
If Jr ! U '
If / / Absorption j 1 Vr Release
| s s_
g
IJ
^
.__!_!
| il I '^^^^
j f.
0L i L- ol 1 . 1-
0 Time(t) 0 Time(t)
Fig. 2. Gas Absorptionand Release

S is the saturation concentrationof the gas in water; Ct, the concentrationat any
time, t; and Co, the initial concentration (t = 0). For gas absorption, as t in-
creases, Ct - > S and (S - Ct)- »0; (S - Ct) represents the driving force."
For release (negative absorption), as t increases, Ct- >S and (Ct - S)- »0;
(Ct- S) represents the "driving force." Conditions of constant temperatureand
air pressure are assumed.
oftheresistance tivefilmthickness
involvesconsideration or molecularshape
to masstransfer offeredby thesetwo or orientation. They merelyoffer
filmsat the air-waterinterface.The highlydiagrammatic presentations of
ofthetype surfaceconditionswhich apparently
filmsare presentregardless
of aeratorused,buttheymayvaryin havea majorinfluence on gas transfer.
theireffect,dependingon the particu- The resistance
encountered by diffus-
lar situation.Conditionsat the gas- ing gas moleculesis due to collisions
water interfaceare determinedby withthemolecules ofthegas or liquid
the equilibriumexistingbetweengas throughwhichdiffusion is occurring.
and liquidconcentrationsand by the As the moleculesare muchcloserto-
fact that all of the gas diffusinggetherin waterthanin air,diffusional
througheitherfilmmustalso diffuse resistance intheformer.
willbe greater
Resistance is also a functionof film and carbondioxidethandoes theliquid

thickness,however,and the gas film film. The less solublegases diffuseso
willprobablybe somewhatthickerthan slowlythroughtheliquid filmthatonly
theliquidfilmbecause,undercompara- a small concentration differenceis re-
ble conditionsof turbulence,the film quired across the gas film. The liquid
thicknessis determinedby the kine- at the interfacewill thereforebe sub-
I Air(Mixed) /
J GasFilm *~*^'^^
*
Air-Wat*"!' "- - juid [ /ib-^Concentration
Gradient
water Film
Interface^
Ct- > Water(Mixed) ' '

J
„ ...._
>4 - I- H)f- I- I- I- I- I- f~s"n<«
<co>s ct>s' ►
L
Decreasing Concentration (Gas Release)
Dissolved-Gas ConcentrationScale
Arbitrary
Fig. 3. Absorptionor Release of SlightlySoluble Gas

gradientin the waterfilmis large, comparedwith thatin the
The concentration
gas film. (See textforexplanationof symbols.)
matic viscosity,which is greater for stantiallysaturatedwiththe gas solute

gases than for liquids (P). In spite at thepartialpressure(Pg) of the gas.
of the greater thicknessof the gas It is unnecessaryto considerthe gas
film,it offersless diffusionresistance filmfurtherin the calculationswhen
to slightlysolublegases suchas oxygen slightlysoluble gases like oxygen or
362 PAUL D. HANEY Jour. AW W A
carbondioxideare involved. (This tudeonlyto gas transfer undercondi-

statementwouldnot hold,truefor a tions of constanttemperatureand
highlysolublegas suchas ammonia.) pressureand in the absence of ap-
preciablechemicalreaction(9).
AerationEquations At thetrueinterface betweenliquid
The fundamentalgas absorption and gas, substantial
equilibrium exists
equationapplicableto the additionof (Pi is inequilibriumwith d). There-
oxygento wateris givenbyLewisand fore:
Whitman(9) as: Ci = f(Pi)
KS)-^ -«
and thisfunction is the solubilityre-
lationshipgivenby Henry'slaw (Eq
= kg{Pg-P;)..(5) 1, withH in g/ml/atm) :
d = HPi
in whichw is theweightofsolutedis-
dw For slightlysolublegases, thereis
solved (g) ; t is time (hr); - is the practicallyno concentration
gradient
2.4 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1.01 i 1 1 1 1 i
j- 1 0.9 *_-
,3^. 0.8' ^~
V^*
« 2
I 2.1 - ^
^
o.2 ^sr-^
- o.i
18 ^^ oi i 1 1 1 -^s^-
rs« i
1.71 I I I 1 I I I I I '■ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 AerationTime (0-min
AerationTime (i)-sec
Fig. 5. OxygenAbsorption(Bubbles)
Fig. 4. CarbonDioxide Removal
(Falling Drops) Key: A- air bubbles1.29 mmin diame-
20.6°C, 144-in. water
ter, temperature
Key: A- 200 dropsper minuteat 20°C;
B-300 drops per minute at 16°C. column;B- air bubbles1.38 mm in di-
Based on Baylis data (10). ameter,temperature23.8°C, 86-in.water
column. Based on Ippen data (32).
rateofgas absorption(g/hr); A is the
area of liquid-gasinterface(sq cm); in the gas film(see Fig. 3). There-
kgis the transfercoefficientthrough fore:
thegas film(g/sqcm/hr/atm) ; Jzlis Pi = Pg
the transfercoefficient throughthe and:
liquidfilm(cm/hr); P is the concen-
trationof solutein the gas (atm); C d = HPg
is the concentrationof solutein the For this case (negligiblegas film
liquid (g/ml); and subscriptsit g, l resistance),
thefollowing equation,in
apply to conditionsat the interface, which KL representsthe overall
in the main body of gas, and in the
(both films)gas transfercoefficient,
liquid, respectively.It should be is also valid:
notedthatthisand otherrelatedaera-
tionequationscan applywithexacti-
be written
Equation5 maytherefore : absorption,"Eq 6 may be revisedto
describetherateofgas release:
~ Cl)
= kh{Ci
A'll)
= KL{d - CL) -£-*'(£)(c'-^-<7
or: dCt
The value-jr, in eitherabsorption
Cut
= -
J kzAiCi CL) orrelease,represents
rate and is net
an instantaneous
= KiA(Ci -CL) applicableto any ap-
preciabletimeperiod,because,as time
d represents the equilibrium con- elapses and gas transfer occurs,the
centrationin the liquid at the gas valueof(S - Ct)or (Ct - S) changes.
partial pressure,Pg, for any given The curves in Fig. 2 indicatethis
temperature.As previouslynoted, changediagrammatically forbothgas
thisis thesaturationvalue of thegas absorption and release.
and is subsequently designatedS in To determine concentration changes
the equationsforgas transfer.The fora given time,it is necessaryto
similaritybetween these equations integrateEq 6 and 7 betweenthe
and the diffusionequation (Fick's limitsof zero and t for "time" and
law,Eq 2) is evident. betweenCo and Ct for "concentra-
Equation 5 may be somewhatre- tion." (Co corresponds=to initial
visedas to nomenclature,and also re- concentration ; thatis, Ct Co when
written,on thebasisof rateofconcen- / = 0.) For gas absorption:
trationchange,by dividingbothsides
of the equation by the volume of
water,V (ml):
W
A
concentration
As -j. represents (g/ml,
/ / 1
equal to ppm X 10~6),thisequation s - ct -k'(A'

maybe rewritten :
3?-*•(£)«*-«...«> --*(£)«••(8)
inwhichS is thesaturation concentra-
tionof thegas in water(ppm); Ct is k' (kL)(l0-')
theconcentration (ppm)ofgas in the 2.303 2.303
waterat any timet' and kr= &z,X
10~6. Any concentration units may or:
be chosenfor5 and Ctbut "partsper Ct = S - (S - QIO-*^*'. ... (9)
" is a convenient
million termin con-
nectionwithwateraeration. This is essentiallythe same as Eq 4,
In gas absorption,Ctis lessthanS' developedby Adeney(5, 6).
in gas release,Ct is greaterthan S. For gas releasetheintegrated equa-
Assuming thatgas releaseis " negative tionis:
364 t»AULD. HANEY Jour.A IV WA
lo^§ff=-*(^)'-(10)
6. Temperature and pressure are
important factors because they in-
fluencegas solubility (S). Tempera-
For any situationwhereI - 1 is con- turealso influencesdiffusivityand film
resistanceand, hence,the value of kL-
stant, Eq 8 (absorption) and Eq 10 7. If the performanceof an aerator
(release) may be reduced to Eq 11 in absorbingor releasinggas is known
and 12, respectively: forone set of conditions,its perform-
ance under other conditions may be
logicf-"1-^ = -^....(11) approximated. (For example, an es-
o - Co
timate of the effecton CO2 removal
of doubling the aeration time by the
= -^....(12)
logio^^Co - o installationof duplicate equipment in
serieswiththat existingcan readilybe
in whichIza is k I -=z1. made, provided the performanceof
the existinginstallationis known.)
The previouslypresentedequations, Equations 8 and 10, whichdescribe
especially the differentialequations, absorption and release, may be re-
writtenas Eq 13 and 14, respectively:
Eq 6 and 7, indicate that:
1. At any instant, the rate of gas
transferis directlyproportionalto the - Ct)
logl0(5
differencebetween the gas saturation
=~k(y}t
+ log10(S - Co).. (13)
concentration(S) and the actual con-
centration(Ct) in the water (see Fig.
lOgl0(d - S) =
2). -ky-yJt
2. The rate of gas transfer (con- + log10(C0- S).. (14)
centration units) is directly propor-
tional to the exposed area-volume Both of thesecan be consideredto rep-
resentthe equation of a straightline,
ratio ( - ) ; thus,fora given volume, y = mx + b, provided functionsof y
and x are assigned as follows:
increasingthe area exposed will pro
duce a proportionateincrease in the y - logio(5 - Ct) Absorption]
rate of gas transfer. y = logio(G - S) [release]
3. The rate of gas transferis di- x = /
rectlyproportionalto the gas transfer
coefficient(kL or KL), which is, in The slope (m) and the y-axisinter-
turn,dependenton the diffusivity of cept (b) are definedby:
the gas in question and on the film
resistance.
4. The total amount of gas transfer
=-k(i)
m
rises as the period of aeration in- b = logio(.S - Co) [absorption]
creases (Eq 8 and 10). b = logio(C0 - S) [release]
5. The percentage change in the
gas saturationdeficit(S - Ct) or sur- If these equations are valid for
plus (Ct - S) forany given period is aeratorperformance, experimentaldata
constant,based on the deficitor sur- appropriatelyplottedwill yieldstraight
plus at the beginningof the period lines. The lines shown in Fig. 4 and
(Eq 6 and 7), 5 indicatesubstantialconformance.
Gas ExchangeRate Factors applicationwhen conditionson both

the rate of
The factorsinfluencing sidesof theair-water surfaceare tur-
include ex- bulent(9), as generallyhappensin
gas exchange temperature, theaerationofwater. Bubbleaeration
tentof agitation,filmthickness,
gas
producesmixing, andthereis evidence
partialpressure,and depthof basin. of circulation of liquidwithinfalling
dropsdue to thepersistence ofmotion
Temperature originating in the spraynozzle (22).
Changesin temperature are impor- Adequateventilation, naturalor arti-
tant,and it is essentialthata careful ficial,shouldbe providedto insureair
distinctionbe madebetweentheeffect turbulence and forotherreasonscited
of temperature on equilibrium(gas in a subsequent sectionof thispaper.
saturation value,S) and its effect on Thehighest valuesofkL(thethinnest
thegas transfer (kL), which films)are apparently
coefficient encountered just
is a measureof the rateof approach aftertheformation ofa bubbleor drop.
to equilibrium.Increasingthe tem- This phenomenon has been notedby
perature makes the gas less soluble Whitman (35), Baylis (10), and Ip-
(decreases 5*),thus lowering the rate pen (32). (See Table 1,waterdrops.)
of absorption(Eq 8) but increasing Theoretical considerations led to the
therateof release(Eq 10). The gas conclusion by Pasveer(37) that"the
transfercoefficients, on the other rateof diffusion is a maximum at the
hand, increase with increasingtem- moment of formation of the oxygen-
perature, thusmakingbothabsorption waterinterfacial surface. . ." andthat
and releasemorerapidat highertem- "the energyemployedfor aeration
peratures fora givensaturation deficit, shouldbe directed towardthecreation
- -
(S Ct), or surplus,(Ct S). The ofa new water-air interfacialsurface."
increase in the gas transfercoefficient Gas transfer coefficients for various
withtemperature is due to decreased experimental conditions are shownin
resistance plus an increasein thetrue Table 1. The diversityof experi-
coefficientof diffusion, D (Fick's law, mentalprocedures, however,makesit
Eq2). virtuallyimpossibleto comparethe
variousaerationsystems solelyon the
Agitation basis of reported gas transfer coeffi-
cients(kL).
Agitation oftheliquiddecreasesgas
transfer resistance.The effects ofagi- Film Thickness
tationon thegas absorption coefficient Film"thickness" maybe considered
(kL) have beenstudiedby numerous an overallmeasureofresistance to gas
investigators.Results reportedby transfer. From experimentally ob-
Hutchinson and Sherwood(25) indi- tainedvaluesofkL,theapparent thick-
cate that the absorptioncoefficientnessofwaterfilmsundervariouscon-
variesapproximately as the0.6 power ditionsmaybe estimated.Computed
of the stirringspeed above approxi- filmthicknesses, basedon gas diffusiv-
mately100 rpm. itydataforoxygenandcarbondioxide
Mixingis also important becauseit in water,givenby Wilke (38), are
minimizes the concentration gradients presented in Table 2.
withinthe mainbodyof water. The The diffusion coefficients(D), ac-
filmtheorywillhave its mostprecise cording to Wilke, are 1.75 X 10~B
TABLE 1
Gas TransferCoefficients
GasTransfer
No. Gas TecKp- Conditions Coefficient Investigator
and
v^ 'RL) x'.eierence
cm/hr
Absorption Into 50-ml Stirred Water
1 O2 25 no stirring 0.41 Hutchinson (25)

2 O2 25 stirring- 76 rpm 1.20 Hutchinson (25)
3 O2 25 stirring- 171 rpm 3.00 Hutchinson (25)
4 O2 25 - 486 rpm
stirring 5.43 Hutchinson (25)
5 O2 25 stirring- 1,025 rpm 7.64 Hutchinson (25)
6 air 20 O2 fromair ; no stirring 0.4 Becker (25)
Absorption Into 50-ml StirredWater
7 CO2 25 no stirring 1.46 Hutchinson (25)

8 CO2 25 stirring- 93 rpm 1.65 Hutchinson (25)
12 CO2 25 stirring- 1,025 rpm 8.35 Hutchinson (25)
Gas Bubbles in Water
13 O2 25 10-ml bubbles throughwater column 20 Schwab (25)

14 O2 25 side of 15-ml bubble 31 Adeney (25)
15 O2 21-22 1.52-2.54-mmdiameterbubbles through 97 Ippen (32)
25-in. water column
16 O2 20-21 1.51-2.13-mmdiameterbubblesthrough 88 Ippen (32)
140-in. water column
17 air 25 O2 absorption from tip of 15-ml air 230 Adeney (25)

bubble throughwater column
18 air 25 O2 absorption from side of 15-ml air 32 Adeney (25)
bubble
19 air 15 O2 absorption from 0.24-cm diameter 140 Scouller (25, 36)
air bubble through 34-cm water
column
20 air 22 O2 absorption from 1.33-mm diameter 205 Ippen (32)
air bubbles through 25-in. water
column
21 air 20-22 O2 absorption from1.29-2.05-mmdiam- 120 Ippen (32)
eter air bubbles through 140-in. water
column
Water Drops
22 CO2 24 0.1-ml water drops throughgas 260 Whitman (35)

23 CO2 24 drops at time of formation 338 Whitman (35)
sqcm per second (0.062 sqcm per Gas PartialPressure

hour) forcarbondioxide(18°C) and In additionto temperature,thepar-
2.6 X 10"5 sq cm per second (0.094 tialpressureofthegas in theair sur-
sqcm per hour) foroxygen(2S°C). roundingthe aeratorinfluencesthe
Inasmuchas mostof the data forkL saturation valueofthegas in question.
are at 25°C, the diffusioncoefficientAn increasein thepartialpressureof
for carbondioxidewas correctedto thegas in theair willproducea pro-
thistemperature by the methodpro- portional increasein thevalueof S, a
posedby Wilke (38) and others(22). resultthatwouldbe beneficial forgas
Film thicknessor gas transferre- absorption(Eq 8) but disadvantage-
sistancewas foundby dividingD (in ous for gas release (Eq 10). The
TABLE 2
Film Thickness
Approx.Film
■nt
No. tTemp. u t' "Thickness"
r.c
Uas kL D / n'
(Table 1) °C cm/hr sq cm/hr ( ~-
J
cm
StirredWater
1 O2 25 0.41 0.094 0.23

5 O2 25 7.64 0.094 0.012
6 air 20 0.4 0.094 0.2
7 CO2 25 1.46 0.074 0.051
12 CO2 25 8.35 0.074 0.0089
Gas Bubblesin Water
16 O2 20-21 88 0.094 0.0011

21 air 20-22 120 0.094 0.00078
WaterDrops
22 CO2 24 260 0.074 0.00028
squarecentimetersperhour)bykjj(in oxygenpartialpressurecould be in-

centimeters per hour), givinga quo- creasedsignificantly by addingpure
tientin centimeters. oxygento the air suppliedto an en-
thicknesses
The relative or resistance closedwaterfallor bubbleaerator,or
values are moresignificant than the bycompressing theair as in thelatter
actualvalues. Drops apparently have type. (A decreasein thepartialpres-
butthisconclusion sureof oxygenin an enclosedaerator
theleastresistance,
is basedon limiteddata. Performancemaybe prevented byadequateventila-
and relateddata underconditions ex- tion,but oxygenpressurecannotbe
isting in drop-producing waterfall raisedto anygreatextentbyordinary
aeratorsare notavailable. ventilation.)The onlymethodof in-
368 PAULD. HANEY Jour.AWWA
creasingthe pressurethat is practical the tank, however,would increase as

forwater plantsat presentis air com- removal continued,thus slowing the
pression. The use of pure oxygenhas rate of release (11).
been studiedin connectionwiththe ac- Practice oftenrequiresboth oxygen
tivatedsludge methodof sewage treat- absorptionand carbon dioxide release
ment(39). in the same aerator,thus necessitating
For gas release,the saturationvalue diffusion in bothdirectionsthroughthe
(S) obviouslyhas to be keptas low as gas and water films. Where this re-
is reasonablypossible. This objective quirementis to be met,theoryindicates
can be accomplishedby maintaining that adequate ventilation should be
the minimumpracticablepartial pres- provided. This not only preventsthe
sure in the air surroundingthe water. loweringof theoxygenpartialpressure
Consequently, forgas release,thorough and the increasingof the carbon diox-
ventilationof the structuresenclosing ide partial pressure, but offers the
aerators is essential. The work of added advantageof air turbulence.
Brown (40) at Memphis,Tenn., con- Forced-draftwaterfallaeratorsoften
firmsthis statement. His conclusion, flowprinci-
employthe countercurrent
based on pilot and full-scale(30-mgd
ple, particularlyforcarbondioxide re-
aerator) observations,was that media moval (11). Air is supplied at the
in a traytypeaeratorshouldbe so ar- bottom of the aerator enclosure and
ranged that fresh air continuously flows upward against the downward
passes over the water. It was further flowof the water. From a theoretical
concludedthat it is impossibleto se-
cure consistentresultswithan aerator standpoint,an aerator of this type
should be quite efficient for both oxy-
dependenton naturalventilationalone.
gen absorptionand carbon dioxide re-
Fairly uniformresultswill be obtained moval. Such an aerator will provide
if the aeratoris not housed and if ven-
a continuoussupplyof new air, as well
tilation is not obstructed by other
as thoroughgas and watermixingand
buildings(40). Ventilationis also of contact.
importancefrom a safety standpoint For gas release,reductionin partial
when carbon dioxide,methane,or hy-
drogensulfideis being removed. The pressurecan be obtainedby reducing
firstis an asphyxiant,the second cre- thetotalair pressureor by the addition
ates an explosionhazard,and the third of inertgases, or both. Vacuum de-
is highlypoisonous. aeratorsforboilerfeedwaterutilizethe
Theory leads to the predictionthat principleof reducingthe dissolvedair
aeration under pressure in a closed throughthe combinedeffectsof low-
tank should be quite efficientas a ered air pressure and high tempera-
means of adding oxygen to water but tureson gas solubility. Installationsof
inefficientfor carbon dioxide removal, large, cold-water,deaerating systems
even thoughthe CO2 removedand the based solelyon pressurereductionhave
excess air are periodicallyvented to been describedby Powell and Bacon
the atmosphere. Under such aeration (12) and by Speller (41). Ippen
conditions,the oxygenpartialpressure (32) mentions nitrogen "stripping,"
wouldbe highand its absorptionwould a methodin whichnitrogenis bubbled
be favored. The partial pressure of throughpartiallydeaerated water to
carbon dioxide in the gas pocket of reduce dissolvedoxygento low levels.
April 1954 AERATION THEORY 369
Depth of Basin duces the sulfidecontent,but, unless

the sulfur is removed,it may create
Ippen (32) recognizedthe influence furtherserious problemsin connection
of water depth on injection aeration
with chlorinationand water distribu-
systemsand made allowancesforwater tion (42, 43). Problems associated
pressure effects in computing gas withsulfurbacteriafollowingaeration
transfercoefficientsfor experimental
have been describedby Derby (43).
aeratorsof this type. Injection aera-
The efficiency of hydrogensulfide
torsnormallyare operatedin basins of
removalby aeration,that is, its actual
appreciabledepth. Under such condi- transferfromthe waterto the air, can
tions,5* and Ct are identicalonly at be increasedby aerationof the water
the surface. Changes in depth and
in an atmospherecontaininga high
resultingchanges in pressurealso af-
fectthe volumeof a risingbubbleand, partial pressure of carbon dioxide.
Such an atmosphere, whichcan be fur-
thevalue of^r. A rigor-
consequently, nished by waste flue gases or by re-
carbonation equipment, will contain
ous mathematicaldescriptionof gas
carbon dioxide on the order of 10 per
exchangefora risingair bubblewould cent, compared with approximately
be quite difficult
to formulate. 0.03 per cent in ordinaryair. This
relativelyvery large concentrationor
Hydrogen Sulfide Removal Theory
partial pressurecauses the carbon di-
Hydrogen sulfideremoval presents oxide contentof the water to increase
a special aerationproblemwhichis of duringaeration,therebydecreasingthe
considerabletheoreticaland practical pH and maintainingit at a low value.
interest.Hydrogen sulfide, a fairly The latter conditionfavors the H2S
soluble gas, is objectionablein water form of the sulfide and its transfer
suppliesbecause of its unpleasantodor from the water is effectuated. The
at very low concentrations, its corro- carbon dioxide added can be removed
siveness,and its highchlorinedemand in a secondaeratorof conventionalde-
(11, 42). It can be removedby aera- sign. It should be pointedout, how-
tion, but several complicatingfactors ever, that every hydrogensulfidere-
exist. One of the most important moval problemhas its own peculiari-
propertiesof hydrogensulfide is its ties. Althoughthe principlescitedare
high solubilityin relationto that of valid, each instance should be given
carbon dioxide- approximately 3 : 1 experimentalstudypriorto the instal-
(11). When water is aerated, the lationof full-scaleequipment(15).
carbon dioxide comes out much more
Taste and Odor Removal
rapidlythanthe hydrogensulfide,thus
raisingthe pH of the water and shift- No adequate theorycan be proposed
ing the H2S ionizationequilibriumto- to describe the physical removal by
ward the formationof more sulfide aerationof the majorityof taste- and
(HS~ and S"~), which cannot be re- odor-producingcompounds, because
moved by aeration. Anothercompli- there is very little knowledgeof the
cation is the fact that aeration intro- physical and chemical nature of the
duces oxygen, which reacts with the vast majority of these substances.
hydrogensulfide to form water and From the theorythat has been devel-
free sulfur, The latter reaction re- oped, certainbasic principlesmay be
370 PAULD. HANEY Jour.
AW WA
drawn, but, for any specificsituation, If the solubilityand boilingpointof

trialis the onlymethodof determining any particularcompound are known,
what resultscan actuallybe achieved. a rough estimateof the probable effi-
From the previousdiscussionof the ciencyof aeration in removingit can
theoryof gas transfer, it is evidentthat be made. In general, such estimates
solubility is an importantpropertyof will show that almost none of the
compounds that are to be removedor knowntaste-and odor-producing com-
reduced in concentrationby aeration. pounds- hydrogensulfideis an excep-
Anotherimportantcharacteristic of the tion- can be effectivelyremoved by
substance is its vapor pressure - the ordinary aeration processes. (The
pressure at which a liquid and its alleviationof tastesand odors through
vapor are in equilibrium at a given chemical changes resultingfrom the
temperature(10). The vapor pres- oxidationof these compoundsby dis-
sure of all substancesincreases with solved oxygenadded by aerationis not
increasingtemperature,and the tem- pertinentto this discussion.)
perature correspondingto a vapor
pressure of 1 atm is the true boiling Theoretical Aspects of Aeration
point of the substance. Vapor pres- Practice
sure has not previouslybeen stressed
in thispaper because thegases thusfar In discussing aerator performance,
consideredall show very high values Langelier (23) has called attentionto
at extremelylow temperatures. The the reciprocal relationship between
contact surfaceand time. This rela-
boiling point of oxygen is - 183°C
and that of carbon dioxide is - 78° C. tionshipwill be evidentfroman inspec-
Some idea of therelativevapor pres- tionof eitherEq 8 or 10. For a given
sure of a substancemay be obtained situation,as long as the productof -^
fromits boilingpoint. Materialswith
and t remainsconstant,the perform-
high boiling points have lower vapor
ance will be the same. Therefore,
pressuresat a given temperaturethan
those with low boiling points. For otherfactorsbeing equal, t may be in-
example, phenol, which has a fairly creased at the expense of ^ without
high boilingpoint,has an almostneg-
and vice versa. For
loss of efficiency,
ligiblevapor pressureat ordinarytem-
At
peratures. The vapor pressure of example,the effectiveexposure,-=, of
phenolis so small thatit would not be
at all practicalto attemptits removal water stored in an open basin 10 ft
by aeration. Within the usual water deep for 0.5 hr will be equivalentto
temperature range, 0°-30°C, com- At
the effectiveexposure, -~, of 1-cm
pounds whichboil at much more than
0°C probablycannot be removed by diameterdrops fallinga distanceof 15
aerationunless theirsolubilityis quite ft. Allowancemustbe made,however,
low (11). Chlorine, with a boiling forthe greaterturbulence(and, hence,
- the thinnerfilmsand lack of concen-
pointof approximately 34°C cannot
be removedreadily because of its fairly trationgradients) in the fallingdrops,
highsolubility and its tendencyto form a factorin theirfavor. Nevertheless,
compounds with water or other sub- it must be concludedthat,in the pas-
stancesin it. sage of water througha typicalwater
plant,considerable gas exchangewill manypractical, as wellas certainthe-

probably be obtained(23). oretical,advantages. In theory,the
The reciprocalrelationshipbetween waterfall type,particularly whenem-
timeand area exposedfindsapplica- ployingspraysor jets, will breakthe
tionin varioustypesof aerators. In waterinto turbulent thinlayersand
thewaterfall type,the maximum sur- drops, which will have a high gas
face area can be obtainedby drop- transfer coefficient(thinfilms)and a
producing spraynozzles,butthetime large surface-to-volume ratio. The
of exposurewillbe shortunlessthere principaltheoreticaldisadvantageis
is considerableexpenditureof head to the relatively shorttimeof exposure
forcethewaterhighintotheair. On thatcan be provided.The waterin a
theotherhand,trayand cascadeaera- jet rising10 ft and thenfallingthe
tors generallyproduceless surface same distancetravelsat an average
area,buttheexposureperiodmaybe rate of approximately 13 fps and,
greater,becausemoretimeis required hence,has onlyabouta 2-secexposure
forwaterto fall througha seriesof totheair. On theotherhand,a bubble
traysor over cascadeswithalternate of air of the size oftenemployedin
startingandstopping thanto fallfreely injectionaeratorshas verylittleaccel-
through thesamevertical distance.As erationand a terminal velocityof the
an example(basedon falling-body for- orderof 1 fps(32, 45). Thus,a bub-
mulas,withair frictionneglected), the ble risingthrough a waterdepthof 10
ratioof theaerationtimeprovidedby fthas a contacttimeof approximately
an aeratorcontainingN equallyspaced 10 sec,or aboutfivetimesthatof the
traysto thatprovided bya jet ofwater risingand fallingdrop. For an ap-
risingand fallingthesamedistanceis proximately equal expenditure of en-
i'/~N: 1. Thus,fora four-tray aera- ergy,a substantially longercontact
tor,thetheoreticalaerationtimewould period can be obtainedin injection
be thesameas fora jet,buttheaera- aeratorsthanin thewaterfall type.
tion timewould be greaterfor any To citean examplefromLangelier
largernumberof trays. As in previ- (23), assumethata volumeof water
ous examples,factorsotherthantime is aeratedwithan equalvolumeof air
comeintoplay,so thata comparison (measuredundera pressureequal to
cannotbe madestrictly on thatbasis. waterdepthH), subdivided intobub-
One factor,probablyof some impor- bles of radiusr in a basin of depthH;
tance,thatfavorsa trayor cascade assumethatanotherequal volumeof
aeratoris the apparentrapidrate of wateris subdivided intodropsof the
gas transferin newlyformed drops and same radius (r) and allowedto drop
waterlayers. Conditions arefavorable throughthe same height(H). The
fortherepeated destructionofold sur- energyrequirements of thetwometh-
facesand the formation of new ones ods are approximately thesame. The
in a trayor cascadeaerator. effectiveexposure for the drops
Effective-Exposure Ratios ( ~T71 = -a/ - f while that for the
Water worksinstallation statistics
(44) showthatthe waterfall typeof bubblesis , therisingvelocity ofthe
aeratoris morecommonly used than 'xr
the injectiontype. The formerhas bubblesbeingfifps. The ratioof the
effective-exposure factor of the bub- of the bubblesof air formedby the air
injection equipment. The size used
bles to that of the drops is -'/- - 1 will be a compromisebetweenthe in-
creased efficiency associatedwithsmall
(The constant,g, is the acceleration bubbles and the
due to gravity,32.2 fps per second.) practical problemsof
to
If /xis 1 fps, then the ratio becomes maintaining equipment produce
them. In this connection,certainthe-
*/ -- : 1. Based on theseassumptions, oretical considerations and experi-
mentaldata are of interest.
an air injectionbasin 16 ftdeep would For orificeair injectors,the produc-
have an effectiveexposure approxi- tionof bubblesis relatedto bothorifice
mately sixteen times as great as a diameterand rate of gas flow (32).
waterfallaeratorproviding16 ftoffree Single bubbles are produced at low
fall. There appears to be a theoreti- gas flow rates, their diametersbeing
cal advantagein favorof the air injec- a functionof the diameterof the orifice
tionaerator,despitethe greaterresist- alone.
ance to gas transferresultingfrom The size of a single bubble formed
thickerfilms. On the otherhand, the at low air flowrates by a simpleinjec-
time of exposure for the drops could tion device, such as a submergedpipe
be doubled,withoutadditionalenergy containingmultipleair outlet orifices,
expenditure,by the use of a nozzle is the resultantof a balance between
which would jet the water 16 ft into two forces: the buoyantforce of the
the air initially. The effectiveexpo- bubble,whichtendsto separateit from
sure ratio favoringthe injectionaera- the orifice,and the shear forceneces-
tor would therebybe halved, becom- saryto breakthe surfacetensionacross
ing 8:1. the orifice. The bubblemust grow to
A factorof some importancein the a certainsize in relationto the orifice
efficiency of bubbleaeratorsis the pat- beforeit can breakaway. Maier (45)
ternof flowofthewaterin theaeration found the relationshipbetween the
basin,as inducedby the bubblesthem- staticbubbleradius and the orificera-
selves. A spiral flow patternis de- dius to be approximately10:1 for
sirable for two reasons: high water water and solutionsof similarsurface
surfacevelocities,which promotegas tension. Using,a capillarytube orifice
transfer, are created; and a substantial with a bore diameter* of 0.1148 mm,
number of bubbles do not escape to Ippen ( 32) reportedthat,up to a criti-
the atmosphereimmediatelybut are cal gas flow rate of approximately72
carried across the aeration basin and ml per minute,the bubblesemergedin
held in a moreor less fixedpositionby single formation,with a constantdi-
thedescendingwater. In thisposition, ameter of 1.28 mm, approximately
the buoyancyof the bubbleis just bal- eleven times the orifice diameter.
anced by the drag of the descending When the rate rose beyondthiscritical
water. Consequently,spiral-flow aera- point, the bubble diameter increased
tors are more efficient than the older with increasinggas flowand the bub-
ridge-and-furrow style. bles emerged in chain formation.
From this and other information
Air Bubble Formation
(46), it appears that very small bub-
The efficiency of injection aerators bles cannot be produced withoutthe
depends to a great extenton the size use of orificesof extremelysmall di-
ameter- so small, in fact, that they various devices to produce a shearing

probablywouldnotbe practicalbecause stresson the bubblesufficient to cause
of rapidclogging. Work conductedby it,whilestillsmall,to breakaway from
Beck (46) on porous diffuserplates the orifice. Langelier (23) also car-
confirmed the observationthatthe ad- ried out work on devices using this
vantage gained by producing small principle. If properly applied, this
bubblesthroughthe use of devices of methodwould have the obviousadvan-
low permeabilityprobably is not tage of producingsmall bubbleswhile
worththeextraburdenof maintenance releasingair throughfairlylarge ori-
whichsuch devices impose. ficesnot subject to the cloggingprob-
The fact that the diameterof the lems associatedwithsmall ones.
bubblesformedwill be of the orderof
Bubble Velocity
I I 1 1 I
Information presented by Ippen
6|
(32) indicatesthatthe terminalveloc-
ityreachesa maximumforsinglebub-
bles witha diameterof approximately
1.2 mm. This maximumvelocityis
I
> '-'
ZT V D
approximately 32 cm per second (1.05
fps). For slightlylarger bubbles,the
velocityof rise decreases a little,to a
minimumvalue of approximately25
cm per second (0.8 fps) for a 6-mm
bubble diameter. A furtherincrease
in diameterresultsin greatervelocity,
a bubble of 20-mmdiameterhaving a
pi I I I I I risingvelocityapproximatelyequal to
0 12 3 4 5 6 thatof a 1.2-mmbubble (about 1 fps).
Bubble or Drop Diameter(d) The air and water used in the pre-
Fig. 6. Bubble Diameterand cedingexperiments(32) were filtered.
Area-Volume Ratio Haberman and Morton (47) have re-
The area exposed per unit volume of portedincreaseddrag (loweringof the
terminalvelocity)forbubbleswithdi-
sphericaldropsor bubbleshas an inverse ametersin the range 0.6-5 mm, when
relationshipto thediameter.
dispersed in water containing small
amounts of suspended matter. The
at least ten timesthe orificediameter terminal-velocitydecrease may be of
suggestsa minimumspacingof at least the order of 50 per cent for 1.4-mm
ten orificediametersbetweenorifices, bubbles. These investigatorsbelieve
in order to minimizethe chance for thatminuteamountsof suspendedmat-
coalescence of the bubbles after they ter produce effectsat the bubble film
have been formed(45). whichcause a loweringof the terminal
Much of the work conducted by* velocity. Similar effectswould prob-
Maier (45) on bubble formationwas ably be noted in raw waters. The
aimed at the productionof small bub- same investigatorsalso reportedthat
bles, using fairly large air injection the presence of surface-activesub-
orifices. He reportedsuccessfulre- stances in the water increasedbubble
sults,on a laboratoryscale, employing drag. One substance that produced
374 PAULD. HANEY Jour.AW WA
this effect was a nonionic liquid producedmaybe obtainedby consider-

detergent. ing 100 cu ftof air or water. This vol-
Porous air diffuserplatesof the per- ume of either,if in the formof a single
meabilitymostcommonlyused produce sphere,would have a surfacearea of
bubbles 25-30 mm in diameter (21). approximately104 sq ft. When di-
vided into drops or bubbles 0.1 in. in
Drop and Bubble Surface Areas diameter,however,the surfacearea be-
comes approximately72,000 sq ft,and
The factor- representingthe sur-
face contact area available for gas the -y factorchangesfrom1.04 to 720
transferper unit of volume,is of im-
portance in aeration efficiency.The per foot. (p. has the dimensions
rate of gas transferis directlypropor-
tional to this factor (Eq 8 and 10). = t-' in this instance,-.- :.)y
length foot
Considerationof the relationshipbe- Theoreticalconsiderations(45) serve
tweenthe surfacearea and the volume to emphasizethe importanceof obtain-
of a sphere is, therefore,of some in-
terestin any theoreticaldiscussionof ing as much uniformity in bubble or
drop size as possible. Because thevol-
aeration. If air bubblesrisingthrough ume of a sphericaldrop or bubble in-
waterand dropsfallingthroughair are creases as the cube of the diameter,
assumedto be nearlysphericalin shape, even a small percentageof large bub-
the principlesdiscussedapply to some bles or drops can considerablyreduce
extentto bothtypesofaerationdevices. the surface area exposed and, hence,
The area (A) of a sphereof d diam- the aeration efficiency.To illustrate,
eter is wd2;its volume (F) is -wd*
. assume that in the previous example,
involving100 cu ft of air or water,99
Then: per centof thebubblesor dropsare 0.1
in. in diameterand the resthave a di-
A__ t(P _ 6 ameter of 0.5 in. There will be ap-
V~ t(P~ d
6 proximately 147,000,000 bubbles or
drops, of which 1,470,000will have a
Figure 6 indicates this relationship diameterof 0.5 in. and a combinedvol-
ume of approximately56 cuft. The
graphically. When d is small, -~ is other99 per cent, with a diameterof
large, and conversely. Inasmuch as, 0.1 in., will have a volume of only 44
for any fixed conditionsof.concentra- cu ft. In other words, 1 per cent of
tion difference(Ct - S' or S - Ct) the bubbles or drops will contain 56
and gas transfercoefficient(k), the per cent of the total volume. For the
rate of gas transferis proportionalto 0.5-in. bubblesor drops,the combined
surfacearea will be approximately 800
■y,the efficiencyof aeration will de-
sqft. For the 0.1 inch bubbles or
cline withincreasingdrop diameterin drops, the combinedsurfacearea will
The
approximatelythe same way as the be approximately32,000 sq ft.
Yf factorshown in Fig. 6 declines. totalsurfacearea and the ■== factorwill
Some idea of the enormousarea in- be approximately
therefore 33,000 sq ft
volvedwhensmallbubblesor dropsare and 330 per foot,respectively,
or less
thanhalfthatavailablewhenall the 7. Whipple, G. C. ; Fair, G. M. ; & Whip-

dropsare 0.1 in. in diameter.Viewed ple, M. C. The Microscopyof Drink-
ing Water. JohnWiley & Sons, New
anotherway,if only1 per centof the York (4th ed., 1927). p. 408.
dropsare fivetimesoversize,therate 8. Roe, F. C. Aerationof Water by Air
of gas transfer will be decreasedby Diffusion. Jour. AWWA, 27:897
morethan50 percent. (Jul. 1935).
9. Lewis, W. K. & Whitman, W. G.
Principlesof Gas Absorption. Ind.
Acknowledgment Eng. Chem.,16:1215 (1924). Becker,
The authorgratefully acknowledges H. G. Discussion. Ibid., p. 1220.
the assistanceof the AWWA Task 10. Baylis, J. R. Eliminationof Taste and
- Committeeon Odor in Water. McGraw-Hill Book
Group on Aeration Co, New York (1935). p. 305.
Manual of WaterQualityand Treat- 11. Nordell, Eskel. Water Treatmentfor
mentand of variousmembersof the Industrialand Other Uses. Reinhold
staffoftheSanitaryEngineering Cen- Pub. Co, New York (1951).
ter,US Public Health Service,Cin- 12. Powell, S. T. & Bacon, H. E. Corro-
sion Controlby Deaeration. Wtr. &
cinnati, Ohio,particularly R. L. Wood- Sew. Wks., 84:109
ward and Shinji Soneda. Especially 13. Johnstone, H. F. & (1937). Williams, G. C.
helpfulhas been the cooperation re- Absorptionof Gases by Liquid Drop-
ceivedfromA. T. Ippen and C. E. lets. Ind. Eng. Chem.,31:993 (1939).
Carver, Massachusetts Institute of 14. Donaldson, Wellington. Aeration
and Experiments for Removalof Carbonic
Technology,Cambridge, Mass., Acid. Eng. News-Rec, 90:874 (May
E. W. MooreandH. A. Thomas,Har- 17, 1923).
vardUniversity, Cambridge, Mass. 15. Powell, S. T. & von Lossburg, L. G.
Removal of HydrogenSulfide From
References Well Water. Jour.AWWA, 40:1277
(Dec. 1948).
1. Streeter, H. W. & Phelps, E. B. A 16. Pigford,R. L. & Pyle, Cyrus. Per-
Study of the Pollution and Natural
formance Characteristicsof Spray
Purification of the Ohio River.
USPHS Pub. Health Bui., No. 146 Type Absorption Equipment. Ind.
Eng. Chem.,43:1649 (1951).
(1925). 17. Bartholomew,W. H, et al. Oxygen
2. Streeter, H. W. Measuresof Natural
Transferand Agitationin Submerged
Oxidation in Polluted Streams. II.
The ReaerationFactor and Oxygen Fermentations.Ind. Eng. Chem.,42:
Balance. Sew. & Ind. Wastes,7 :534 1801 (1950).
(1935). 18. Eckenfelder,W. W, Jr. AerationEf-
3. Phelps, E. B. StreamSanitation. John ficiencyand Design. Sew. & Ind.
Wiley & Sons, New York (1944). Wastes,24:1221, 1361 (1952).
4. Middleton, F. M.; Braus, Harry; & 19. Hale, F. E. Present Status of Aera-
Ruchhoft, C. C. FundamentalStud- tion. Jour. AWWA, 24:1401 (Sep.
ies of Taste and Odor in Water Sup- 1932).
plies. Jour. AWWA, 44:538 (Jun. 20. Thuma, R. A. Aeration With Com-
1952). pressed Air for Removing Odors.
5. Adeney,W: E. & Becker, H. G. The Jour. AWWA, 24:682 (May 1932).
Determination of the Rate of Solution 21. Air Diffusionin Sewage Works. Man-
of Atmospheric Nitrogenand Oxygen ual of PracticeNo. 5, Fed. Sew. & Ind.
by Water. PhilosophicalMagazine, Wastes Assns, Champaign, 111.
38:317 (1919); 39:385 (1920). (1952).
6. Adeney, W. E. The Principles and 22. Sherwood,T. K. & Pigford,R. L. Ab-
Practices of the Dilution Method of sorptionand Extraction. McGraw-
Sewage Disposal. CambridgeUniv. Hill Book Co, New York (2nd ed,
Press, London (1928). p. 68. 1952).
376 PAUL D. HANEY JOUT.
AW WA
23. Langelier, W. F. The Theory and 35. Whitman, W. G. ; Long, Louis; &
Practiceof Aeration. Jour.AWWA, Wang, H. Y. Absorptionof Gases by
24:62 (Jan. 1932). a Liquid Drop. Ind. Eng. Chem.,18:
24. Getman,F. H. & Daniels, Farrington. 363 (1926).
Outlines of Theoretical Chemistry. 36. Scouller, W. D. & Watson, W. The
JohnWiley & Sons, New York (5th Solution of Oxygen From Air Bub-
bles. Surveyor (Br.), 96:2215:15
ed., 1931). p. 141.
25. Hutchinson, M. H. & Sherwood,T. K. (Jul. 6, 1934).
37. Pasveer, A. Research on Activated
Liquid Film in Gas Absorption.Ind. Sludge. I. A Study of the Aeration
Eng. Chem.,29:836 (1937). of Water. Sew. & Ind. Wastes,25 :
26. Pomeroy,Richard. HydrogenSulfide 1253 (1953).
in Sewage. Sew. & Ind. Wastes,13 : 38. Wilke, C. R. Estimationof Liquid Dif-
498 (1941). fusionCoefficients. Chem.Eng. Prog-
27. StandardMethodsfor the Examination ress,45:218 (1949).
of Water and Sewage. Am. Pub. 39. Okun, D. A. Systemof Bioprecipita-
HealthAssn. & Am. Wtr. Wks. Assn., tionof OrganicMatterFrom Sewage.
New York (9th ed., 1946). p. 137. Sew. & Ind. Wastes,21 :763 (1949).
28. Seidel, Atherton. Solubilitiesof In- 40. Brown, R. L. AerationExperiments at
organic and Metal Organic Com- Memphis,Tenn. Jour.AWWA, 44:
336 (Apr. 1952).
poundsin Water. D. Van Nostrand, 41. F. N. CorrosionCauses and
New York (3rd ed., 1940). Speller,
Prevention. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
29. Van Nostrand'sScientificEncyclopedia. New York (3rd ed., 1951). p. 414.
D. Van Nostrand,New York (1945). 42.
Black, A. P. & Goodson, J. B., Jr.
pp. 362, 1090. The Oxidationof Sulfidesby Chlorine
30. Velz, C. J. Deoxygenationand Re- in Dilute Aqueous Solutions. Jour.
oxygenation. Trans. ASCE, 104:560 AWWA, 44:309 (Apr. 1952).
(1939). 43. Derby, R. L. Hydrogen Sulfide Re-
31. Harkins, W. D. The Physical Chem- movaland Water Softening at Beverly
istryof SurfaceFilms. ReinholdPub. Hills, Calif. Jour. AWWA, 20:813
Co., New York (1952). p. 18. (Dec. 1928).
32. Ippen, A. T.; Campbell, L. G.; & 44. Inventoryof Water and Sewage Facili-
Carver,C. E., Jr. The Determination ties in the UnitedStates, 1949. Div.
of Oxygen Absorptionin Aeration of Water PollutionControl,US Pub.
Processes. Tech. Rpt. 7, Hydro- Health Service,Washington, D.C.
dynamicsLab., MassachusettsInst. of 45. Maier, C. G. The Ferric Sulfate-
SulfuricAcid Process. Bui. 260, Bur.
Technology,Cambridge,Mass. (1952). of Mines, US Dept. of Commerce,
33. Kehr, R. W. Measures of Natural
Oxidation in Polluted Streams. IV. Washington,D.C. (1927).
46. Beck, A. J. DiffuserPlate Studies.
Effectof Sewage on Atmospheric Re- Sew. & Ind. Wastes,8:22 (1936).
aeration Rates Under Stream Flow 47.
Haberman,W. L. & Morton,R. K. An
Conditions.Sew. & Ind. Wastes,10:
Experimental Investigation of the
228 (1938). Drag and Shape of Air BubblesRising
34. Whitman, W. G. The Two-FilmThe- in Various Liquids. Rpt. 802, David
oryof Gas Absorption.Chem.& Met. W. Taylor Model Basin, US Navy,
Eng., 29:146 (Jul. 23, 1923). Washington, D.C. (Sep. 1953).

AWWA Article on Theoretical Principles of Water Aeration

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

AWWA Article on Theoretical Principles of Water Aeration

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

American Water Works Association

Theoretical Principles of Aeration

You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

of water is an exam- method not ordinarilyclassed as an

The basicpurposeofaerationis the worksaeration. The phenomenon of

concernedwithapplicationsto theproc- concentration(saturationvalue) of a

equilibriumand constanttemperature, Dissolved solids such as salts lower

gen, for example,becomeslower with For diffusion,thissame measureis the

acteristicof theaerationprocess - and Ippen and others(32), in describ-

and raw and treatedsewage) on the exhibitcertainfeaturesof a stretched

two-film theoryhave been gradually throughthe other (9). (Obviously,

Fig. 2. Gas Absorptionand Release

Resistance is also a functionof film and carbondioxidethandoes theliquid

Ct- > Water(Mixed) ' '

Fig. 3. Absorptionor Release of SlightlySoluble Gas

matic viscosity,which is greater for stantiallysaturatedwiththe gas solute

carbondioxideare involved. (This tudeonlyto gas transfer undercondi-

equal to ppm X 10~6),thisequation s - ct -k'(A'

Gas ExchangeRate Factors applicationwhen conditionson both

Absorption Into 50-ml Stirred Water

1 O2 25 no stirring 0.41 Hutchinson (25)

6 air 20 O2 fromair ; no stirring 0.4 Becker (25)

Absorption Into 50-ml StirredWater

7 CO2 25 no stirring 1.46 Hutchinson (25)

Gas Bubbles in Water

13 O2 25 10-ml bubbles throughwater column 20 Schwab (25)

17 air 25 O2 absorption from tip of 15-ml air 230 Adeney (25)

22 CO2 24 0.1-ml water drops throughgas 260 Whitman (35)

sqcm per second (0.062 sqcm per Gas PartialPressure

1 O2 25 0.41 0.094 0.23

Gas Bubblesin Water

16 O2 20-21 88 0.094 0.0011

22 CO2 24 260 0.074 0.00028

squarecentimetersperhour)bykjj(in oxygenpartialpressurecould be in-

creasingthe pressurethat is practical the tank, however,would increase as

Depth of Basin duces the sulfidecontent,but, unless

drawn, but, for any specificsituation, If the solubilityand boilingpointof

plant,considerable gas exchangewill manypractical, as wellas certainthe-

ameter- so small, in fact, that they various devices to produce a shearing

this effect was a nonionic liquid producedmaybe obtainedby consider-

thanhalfthatavailablewhenall the 7. Whipple, G. C. ; Fair, G. M. ; & Whip-

Вам также может понравиться