Production Technology

Lecture Notes
On
Production Technology
MC1656
Dr. Manish Rawat

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechatronics Engineering

School of Automobile, Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering
Manipal University Jaipur
Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

MC1656 Production Technology
Syllabus SE-I SE-II
• Non-conventional Machining: EDM, EBM, ECM, ECG, CM, AJM, Wire cut EDM, USM, LBM,
• Gear and Thread Manufacturing: Different types of Threads manufacturing methods, and tools involved,
Different gear forming and generating methods. Gears finishing processes.
• Powder Metallurgy: Production of metal powders, compaction and sintering.
• Polymers and Composites: Introduction to polymers and composites; plastic processing – injection,
compression and blow molding, extrusion, calendaring and thermoforming; molding of composites.
• Press Tool: Classification of presses, Classification of dies, cutting actions in dies, clearance, Methods of
reducing cutting forces, Minimum Diameter of Piercing Centre of Pressure, Blanking, Piercing, Drawing,
Bending and Progressive Die design, scrap reduction, strip layout.
• Jigs and Fixtures: Differences between Jigs and Fixtures, Design principles, 3-2-1 location principle, Types of
locators, Concept of work piece control, Geometric control, Dimensional control and Mechanical control, Jigs
and fixtures for various machining operations

Recommended Books
Text Books:
• Serope Kalpakjian, and Steven R. Schmid, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology” Pearson Education, 6th
Edition, 2009.
• Amitabha Ghosh, and Asok Kumar Malik, “Manufacturing Science” Affiliated East West Press Pvt. Ltd., 2nd
Edition, 2010.
References:
• P.C. Sharma, “A text book of Production Technology” S. Chand and Company, 4th Edition, 2006.
• Jain R.K, “Production Technology: Manufacturing Processes, Technology and Automation”, Khanna Publishers,
17th Edition, 2011.
• P N Rao, “Manufacturing Technology” Volume-1 and 2, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 4th Edition, 2013.

Non-conventional Machining

Issues in Conventional Machining

 Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials using tools that are harder than the materials
themselves.
 New and novel materials because of their greatly improved chemical, mechanical and thermal properties are
sometimes impossible to machine using traditional machining processes.
 Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in machining hard materials like ceramics and composites
or machining under very tight tolerances as in micro-machined components.
 The need to a avoid surface damage that often accompanies the stresses created by conventional machining.
Example: aerospace and electronics industries.

Issues in Conventional Machining

 Due to large cutting forces and large amount of heat generated at the tool-workpiece interface, undesirable
deformation and residual stresses are set up in the workpiece.

Need for Unconventional Machining Processes
• Limitation of conventional machining methods
• Rapid improvements in the properties of materials i.e. Metals and non Metals
and Tool material hardness>W/P Hardness
• Product Requirements i.e.

Complex Shapes,
Machining in inaccessible area,
Low tolerances,
Better surface integrity and
High surface finish.

• High production rate
• Low cost of production
• Precisions & Ultraprecision machining
Requires material removal in the form of atoms or molecules

Some Important Characteristics of UMPs
• Performance depends on thermal, electrical or/and chemical properties of
workpiece.
• Use different kinds of energy in direct form
• In general, low MRR but better quality products

Case-1: Square Blind Hole Manufacturing
This can not be obtained in foundry or in forging practices. This has to be finished in a
machine shop……..for that firstly used the drilling and plugging ….but in increase the
production time and poor surface finish.

Case-2: A Square Hole Machining
With Foundry and forging….we can not be achieve the desired accuracy even if we can
make the hole. To achieve accuracy, we must go for machining using an end milling
cutter….but there will be a restriction on the corner radius depending on the size of
cutters

Classification of Un-conventional Machining
Mechanical Energy Thermo-electric Energy Electrochemical and Chemical

Energy
• Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) • Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) • Electro-chemical Machining
(ECM)
• Ultrasonic Machining (USM) • Laser Beam Machining (LBM) • Chemical Machining (CHM)
• Water Jet Machining (WJM) • Electron Beam Machining (EBM) • Biochemical Machining (BM)
• Abrasive Water Jet Machining • Electric Discharge Machining

(AWJM) (EDM)
• Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM) • Ion Bean Machining (IBM)
• Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (AFM)

Shapes Cutting Capability
1. Micro-machining and Drilling: LBM and EBM

2. Cavity sinking and standard Hole Drilling: EDM and USM
3. Fine hole drilling and contour machining: ECM
4. Clean, rapid cuts and profiles: PAM
5. Shallow pocketing: AJM

Abrasive Jet Machining


• Abrasive feeder: To supply the

abrasive particles
• Machining Chamber with

vacuum dust collector
• AJM Nozzle (Tungsten carbide or

sapphire)
• Abrasives: Al2o3, SiC, glass

beads, crushed glass and sodium
bicarbonate.

Operating principles:
• Abrasive: composition, strength, shape,

size and mass flow rate.
• Carrier gas: composition, pressure and

velocity.
• Nozzle: geometry, composition, nozzle-tip

distance (stand off distant and it
orientation). In a range of SOD which
usually varies from 0.75 to 1.0 mm, the
MRR is maximum.



Application:
• This is used for abrading and frosting glass more economically as compared to etching and
grinding.
• Cleaning of metallic smears on ceramics oxides on metals, resistive coating etc.
• Cutting and machining of fragile material like germanium, silicon etc.
• Etc.

Water Jet Machining

Water Jet and Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Operation:
• This process works on basic principle of water erosion.
• It uses kinetic energy of water particle to erode metal at contact surface.
• The jet speed is almost 600 m/s.
• It does not generate any environmental hazards.
• For cutting hard materials, abrasive particles are used in water jet. These abrasive particles erode
metal from contact surface.
• WJM and AWJM can be achieved using different approaches and methodologies as enumerated
below:
• WJM – Pure,
• WJM - with stabilizer,
• AWJM – entrained – three phase – abrasive, water and air,
• AWJM – suspended – two phase – abrasive and water.


Working:
• First water is filled in water reservoir.
• A pump sucks water from water reservoir and send it to intensifier.
• Intensifier increases the water pressure from 4 bar to 4000 bars. It sends water to accumulator which
store some pressurize water.
• This high pressure water now sends through tubing system to nozzle. The water passes through flow
regulator valve which regulate the flow.
• Now this high pressure water enters into nozzle. Nozzle converts some pressure energy of water into
kinetic energy.
• A high speed high pressurize water jet is available at nozzle exit.
• This water jet send to strike at work surface. It erode metal from the contact surface. Thus metal
removal take place.
• Hydraulic Pump:
• Hydraulic Intensifier: The water pressure at outlet of intensifier is about 3000-4000 bars.
• Hydraulic Accumulator: Hydraulic accumulator is used when large amount of pressure energy is
required for an instant. It used to eliminate pressure fluctuation. It supplies fluid at high pressure
when required.
• Tubing System: Tubes are used to supply high pressure water to the nozzle for further cutting
process. It increase the kinetic energy of fluid. It diameter is about 10-14 mm.
• Flow regulator: Flow regulators are used to regulate the flow according to cutting requirement. For
high cutting load, high pressurized water is supplied at high rate.
• Abrasive: Generally Aluminium oxide, Silicon carbide etc. used as abrasive particles.
• Nozzle: The size of nozzle is about 0.2 - 0.4 mm. If abrasive water jet machining is used, abrasive
particles mixed in water stream before entering into nozzle.
• Drain and Catcher: The drain and catcher system is used to remove debris and other machined
particle form water.

CNC Water Jet and Abrasive Water Jet Machining

Application
Paint removal
Cleaning
Cutting soft materials
Cutting frozen meat
Textile, Leather industry
Mass Immunization
Surgery
Peening
Cutting
Pocket Milling
Drilling
Turning
Nuclear Plant Dismantling
Materials:
Materials
Steels
Non-ferrous alloys
Ti alloys, Ni- alloys
Polymers
Honeycombs
Metal Matrix Composite
Ceramic Matrix Composite
Concrete • Stone – Granite
Wood • Reinforced plastics
Metal Polymer Laminates
Glass Fibre Metal Laminates

Advantages:
• It does not change mechanical properties of work piece. It is useful for machining heat sensitive
material.
• It is environment friendly because it does not form any dust particle and used water as cutting
fluid.
• Good surface finish.
• No physical tool is require.
• It can cut both soft and hard material. For machining soft materials, water jet machining is used and
for machining hard materials, abrasive water jet machining is used.
• It is ideal process for laser reflective materials where laser beam machining cannot be used.
• Lower cost of machining.

Dis-advantages:
• It cannot used for machining material which degrade in presence of water.
• Low metal removal rate.
• High initial cost.
• Thick material cannot be machined easily.


Ultrasonic Machining
(USM)

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
Introduction:
• Ultrasonic machining is a mechanical type non-traditional machining process.
• The word ultrasonic describe a vibratory wave having frequency larger than upper frequency limit of
human ear. (Shear waves and longitudinal waves)
• High velocity longitudinal waves can easily propagate in solids, liquids and gases.
• It is employed to machine hard and/or brittle materials (both electrically conductive and non-
conductive).
• It is used for materials having hardness usually grater than 40 RC.
• It is used the shaped tool, high frequency mechanical motion and abrasive slurry.
• Work material is removed by repetitive impact of abrasive particles carried in the liquid medium.
• The USM process is capable of producing the 3D profiles corresponding to the tool shape.

Working Principle


Material Removal Process:
• The stock removal due to an impact is a measure of indentation volume, size of an abrasive particle
and its indentation depth determines the removal volume.
• The maximum amplitude of vibration of the tool is restricted not to exceed half size of abrasive
particles used (ideally).
• The range of abrasive article size lies between 10 and 150 microns and amplitude between 5 and 75
microns.
• MRR is also depends on the rate at which the abrasive particles are hammered, i.e. frequency of
operation. (High Frequency – More MRR)
• Abrasive in a slurry form is more effective compared to abrasives in loose form. (Liquid form
provides the Cavitation Effect during the return stroke of the tool).

Main Elements of USM:
• Magnetostrictive Transducers
• Transducer Frequency
• Concentrator
• Nodal Point Clamping
• Feed Mechanism

Applications of USM:
• Used for conducting or non-conducting brittle materials.
• Manufacture of hard alloy wire drawing, punching and blanking dies, also making small
complicated dies and punches of steel.
• Machining Semiconducting materials such as germanium and silicon.
• Making instruments and optical parts of glass, quartz, fluoride and barium titanate.
• Cutting accurate shallow holes of rectangular or other section in cemented and nitride steel.
• Cutting of industrial diamonds.
• Grinding glass, quartz and ceramics.
• Etc.

Following materials have been successfully machined by ultrasonic:


Electrochemical Machining
(ECM)

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
Introduction:
• The principle of electrolysis is used to remove the metal from workpiece.
• The principle of electrolysis is based on Faraday’s laws. (Weight of substance is directly proportional
to the current which passes, time length of time of electrolysis processes and equivalent weight of
material)
• In ECM work is made the anode and the tool is the cathode.
• The electrolyte is so chosen that there is no plating (decomposition of metal) on the cathode (tool).
(Tool shape remains unchanged)
• The process will be take place if close gap (0.1-0.2 mm) is maintained between the tool and work.



Description of Process:
In DC supply circuit the WP is made the anode and the tool is made cathode.
As power supply is switched on and current starts flowing the circuit.
Electrons are removed from the surface atoms of the workpiece.
These ions tend to migrate to the hollow cutting tool. (Deposited on the tool)
And flush by the electrolyte before depositing on the tool

Operational Setup:
• Power Supply:
• Current 10000-40000 amperes and voltage range is from 5 to 30 volts DC.
• Voltage regulation circuits.
• Cut-off circuits.
• Current Density usually high.
• Electrolyte:
• It is essential for electrolyte process.
• It cools the cutting zone which becomes hot due to the flow of high current.
• Electrolyte vary from strong slat to strong acid.
• Sodium and potassium slats are probably the most common.
• 20% common slat (NaCl) solution is appropriate for many materials.
• Electrolyte is pumped between tool and workpiece gap about to 2.5 N/mm2 and 30 m/s.
• It should not be allowed to boil (350C to 650C).

Operational Setup:
• Tool:
• Any material that is good conductor of electricity can be used as tool material.
• Good thermal conductivity.
• Strong enough to withstand the high hydrostatic pressures.
• It should be easily be machined.
• Common materials are titanium, copper, brass or stainless steel.
• Machined Surface and MRR:
• Machining rate and surface finish are directly proportional to current density.
• Tool much heating of electrolyte….. (reduces the electrolytic action).
• Gas evolution at the cathode surface may reduce the current flow.

ECM Operational Setup:
• Tool:
• Any material that is good conductor of electricity can be used as tool material.
• Good thermal conductivity.
• Strong enough to withstand the high hydrostatic pressures.
• It should be easily be machined.
• Common materials are titanium, copper, brass or stainless steel.
• Machined Surface and MRR:
• Machining rate and surface finish are directly proportional to current density.
• Tool much heating of electrolyte….. (reduces the electrolytic action).
• Gas evolution at the cathode surface may reduce the current flow.
• Workpiece and Work Holding System:
• Only electrically conductive work materials can be machined by this process.
• The chemical properties of anode (work) material largely govern the MRR.
• Work holding device are made of electrically non-conductive materials having good thermal stability,
and low moisture absorption properties.
Advantages:
1. ECM is simple, fast and versatile method.
2. There are no cutting forces and the workpiece is left in an undisturbed, stress free state.
3. If proper electrolyte are used, there is no tool wear at all.
4. Surface finish can be extremely good.
5. Fairly good tolerance can be obtained.
6. The process can be easily automated.
Limitations:
1. Large power consumption.
2. Sharp internal corners can not be achieved.
3. Post machining cleaning is a must, to reduce the corrosion of the workpieces.
4. Tool design is complicated and needs cut and try method to achieve the final shape.
5. Sometimes this process is costly because the equipments are expensive.
6. Continuous supply of electrolytic solution is mandatory.
7. Rigid fixturing is required to withstood the high flow rate of electrolytes.
Applications
1. Wide application in rocket, aircraft and gas turbine industries.

2. It is a standard methods for machining gas turbine blades.
3. It is increasingly being used in airframe component fabrication, die sinking and the manufacture of
general machine parts.
4. Product applications of ECM include producing simple to complex cavities (die sinking), embossed
surfaces, blind holes, through holes etc.
5. Honey-combing aircraft panels,
6. Jet engine blade air foils,
7. Pump impeller gears.

Applications
Turbine Blades Manufacturing

Die Sinking

Examples of the Parts Manufacturing by ECM Methods

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
Introduction
“Whenever sparking takes place between two electrical contacts a small amount of material is removed
from each of the contacts”
“EDM is a thermoelectric process in which heat energy of a spark is used to remove material from the
workpiece”
“EDM process involves a controlled erosion of electrically conductive materials by the initiation of
rapid and repetitive spark discharge between electrode tool (cathode) and workpiece (anode)”

Working Principle of EDM

Working Principle of EDM

Components of EDM
• RC Pulse Generator
• Power Supply
• Dielectric System
• Electrodes
• Servo System
• Electrode Refeeding

Components of EDM
• RC Pulse Generator:
• The RC pulse generator has the following characteristics:

• Low material removal rate (MRR) because of long idle time (or charging time) and very short spark time.
• Improved surface finish, achieved during finish machining, is associated with further reduction in MRR.
• High tool wear rate.
• Peak current attained in RC circuit is very high. (High temperature and Damage to the electrodes).
• Controlled Pulse Generator: Low peak current; short idle time and desired length of pulse.
• Rough machining condition (high energy and low frequency of sparking).
• Finish machining condition (low energy and high frequency).

• RC Pulse Generator:

• Power Supply:
• It convert the AC into pulsed direct current (DC): Solid state rectifier is used for this purpose.
• Used to produce the sparks between tool and workpiece.
• EDM power supply sense the voltage between electrode and send the relevant signals to the servo
systems.
• Power supply should be able to control the parameters like voltage, current, duration and frequency
of a pulse and duty cycle (ratio of on-time to pulse time).
• Dielectric System: (Dielectric fluid; reservoir, filters, pump and delivery device)
• Dielectric Fluids and characteristics: (Transformer oil; paraffin oil; kerosene, lubricating and
deionized water)
• Have high dielectric strength,
• Deionize the gap immediately after the spark has occurred.
• Serve as cooling effective medium
• Have high degree of fluidity

• Electrodes: (Tool and workpiece both are electrodes)
• Desirable properties of the electrode material:
• Easily Machinable,
• Low wear rate,
• Good conductor of electricity and heat,
• Cheap,
• Readily available,
• Graphite (easily machinable, low wear rate and high conductivity),
• Copper and brass (highly stable and relatively low wear rate).
• Copper tungsten (low wear rate, expensive and cannot be easily shaped).
• Cast aluminium, copper boron, and silver tungsten are some of the other electrode materials.
• Graphite electrode with finer grains results in lower tool wear rate; better surface finish and high
MRR
“Erosion of the electrode is investable”
Various methods for dielectric flushing:
a) Suction through tool

b) Suction through workpiece
c) Pressure through electrode

d) Pressure through workpiece
e) Jet flushing
f) Periodic cycle of electrode

Applications
• EDM can be employed to machine any material (hard, tough, brittle, exotic etc.).
• The manufacturing of hardened steel dies is the field of application.
• Making dies for moulding, casting, forging, stamping, coining and forming etc.
• One of the common applications of EDM is the removal of broken taps, drills, studs, reamers,
pins etc.
• It can be used to produce the shapes which are extremely difficult to make otherwise, viz squares,
D holes, splines, narrow slots and grooves etc.
• EDM can be employed to machine thin and fragile components without any danger of a damage
due to such forces.

Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Introduction
“Electron Beam Machining (EBM) process is classified into two categories, Thermal Type and
Non- Thermal Type”
“The kinetic energy of the electrons converts into heat which is responsible for melting and
vaporization of the workpiece material”
“This process can produce any shape of hole; round holes are usually drilled in metals,
ceramics, plastics etc.”
“Before machining starts, vacuum is created in the machining chamber…one of the limitation of
this process.”

Components of EBM System
• Electron Beam Gun
• Power Supply
• Vacuum System and Machining Chamber
• Process Parameters: Beam current, duration of pulse, lens current and signals for the deflection of beam.
• Beam current varies from 100 µA to 1A,
• Pulse duration varies in the range of 50 µs to 10ms.


• Electron Beam Gun:
• A cathode which is a hot tungsten filament (2500OC) emitting high negative potential electrons.
• A grid cup, negatively based with respect to the filament.
• An anode at ground potential through which the electrons pass.
• The electrons passing through the anode are accelerated to 75% of the speed of light by applying
50-150 kV at he anode.
• A variable strength electromagnetic field is used to re-focus the beam to any desired diameter up
to 0.02 mm or less.
• The electron having a cross sectional diameter of 0.01-0.02mm with a power density of 1.5
billion W/cm2
• A built-in microscope with a magnification of 40 on the equipment enables the operator
accurately locate the beam impact point.

• Power Supply:
• High-power current is usually in the range of 100-1000 µA, with continuous power output of
100-1150 W.
• Pulse duration is about 4-64000 µsec at frequency which can be varied from 1 to 16000 cps.
• The power density at the work surface is too high that is why it is capable to melt and vaporize
the work material.
• Vacuum System and Machining Chamber:
• The vacuum does not allow the rapid oxidation od incandescent filament.
• The vacuum in the chamber is of the order of 10-4 to 10-5 torr.

Process Parameters
• Beam Current and Pulse Duration:

• A beam governs the energy/pulse being supplied to the workpiece.
• Higher the energy/pulse more rapidly the hole can be drilled.
• Pulse duration during EBM varies in the range of 50 µs to 10ms depending upon the depth and
diameter of the hole to be drilled.
• It also affect the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) as well as the thickness of recast layer.
• The working distance and the focussed beam size are determined by the magnitude of lens
current.
• The shape of the hole along its axis (straight and tapered etc.) is determined by the position of
focal point below the top surface of the workpiece.
• To obtain the hole shape other than circular, the movement of the beam can be programmed.

Process Parameters
• Material removal Rate (MRR): at which the workpiece material is vaporized can be calculated as
P
MRR = η
W
• η is the cutting efficiency
• P is the power J/s
• W specific energy J/cm3 where W = CPs Tm − Ti + CPl t b − t m +Hf +Hv
• CP is the specific heat where, s for solid and l for liquid states
• Tm and Ti are melting and initial temperature of the workpiece.
• Hf and Hv are the latent of fusion and vaporization.

Gear and Thread Manufacturing
Basic Purpose of Use of Gears

Gears are widely used in various mechanisms and devices to transmit power and motion
positively (without slip) between parallel, intersecting ( axis) or non-intersecting non parallel
shafts,
• without change in the direction of rotation
• with change in the direction of rotation
• without change of speed (of rotation)
• with change in speed at any desired ratio
Often some gearing system (rack – and – pinion) is also used to transform rotary motion into
linear motion and vice-versa.

Basic Purpose of Use of Gears

General Applications of Gears
Gears of various type, size and material are widely used in several machines and systems
requiring positive and stepped drive. The major applications are :
• Speed gear box, feed gear box and some other kinematic units of machine tools
• Speed drives in textile, jute and similar machineries
• Gear boxes of automobiles
• Speed and / or feed drives of several metal forming machines
• Machineries for mining, tea processing etc.
• Large and heavy duty gear boxes used in cement industries, sugar industries, cranes, conveyors etc.
• Precision equipments, clocks and watches
• Industrial robots and toys.

Types of Gears and Their Characteristics
Gears are broadly classified
(a) According to configuration

• External gear
• Internal gear

(b) According to axes of transmission
• Spur gears – transmitting rotation between parallel shafts.
• Straight toothed
• Helical toothed
⎯ Single helical
⎯ double helical (herringbone)

(b) According to axes of transmission
• Bevel gears – transmitting motion between intersecting shafts.
• Straight toothed
• Helical toothed
⎯ Spiral bevel gear
⎯ Hypoid gear
“Helical toothed bevel gears are used for smoother and larger torque transmission”.
• Gears transmitting motion and power between non-parallel non-intersecting shafts.

• Worm and worm wheel
• Spiral gears
• Skewed or hypoid bevel gears

Bevel gears; (a) straight toothed, (b) spiral and hypoid gears

Gears transmitting power between non-parallel non intersecting shafts. (a) worm and
worm wheel, (b) hypoid gear and (c) spiral gears.

Specification Of Gears
Gears are generally specified by their

• Type; e.g. spur, bevel, spiral etc.
• Material (Ferrous for High Load and Non ferrous materials for Light Load)
• Size or dimensions (number of teeth, z ⎯ module, m ⎯ helix angle, if any (θ)⎯ width (b))
•
• Geometry (Pressure angle and Addendum & dedendum)
• Special features, if any

Manufacture of Gears
Manufacture of gears needs several processing operations in sequential stages depending upon
the material and type of the gears and quality desired.
Those stages generally are :
• Preforming the blank without or with teeth,
• Annealing of the blank, if required, as in case of forged or cast steels,
• Preparation of the gear blank to the required dimensions by machining ,
• Producing teeth or finishing the preformed teeth by machining,
• Full or surface hardening of the machined gear (teeth), if required,
• Finishing teeth, if required, by shaving, grinding etc.
• Inspection of the finished gears.

The following factors must be usually considered in the final choice of the method.
• Size of the gear
• Configuration of integral sections
• Quantity requirements
• Accuracy requirements
• Cost.
Gear production by machining can be classified mainly as follows:
• Gear milling
• Gear hobbing
• Gear shaping
• Shear cutting of gears
• Gear broaching

Gear production by the use of dies can be grouped as follows:
• Gear stamping
• Cold drawing process
• Injection moulding process
• Rolling process
• Sintering process
Gear finishing operations is classified as follows:
• Gear shaving
• Gear grinding
• Gear lapping
• Gear honing
• Gear burnishing

Gear production by machining (Milling)

• Spur, helical, worms, worm wheels and bevel gears can be manufactured by milling.
• Two types of cutters are used:
• Form cutter: used for pinions of large pitch.
• Disc type form cutter: used for heavy stock removal.
• Gear Milling is a less costlier and less accurate process and it is employed for:
• Coarse pitch gears,
• Racks of all pitches,
• Segment gears,
• Worms,
• Toothed parts as sprockets and ratchets.
• The production capacity in this method is low because:
• Each tooth space is machine separately,
• Time is lost in returning the job to its initial position.
• As the tooth depends upon the module, pressure angle and number of teeth: have tool with a
special profile for each gear with different number of teeth and module.
• Time is lost in returning the job to its initial position.
• Worm Gear milling
• Worm Milling

Gear Milling Machine

Gear production by machining (Gear hobbing)

• Hobbing uses a helically fluted cutting tool called a “hob” (multipoint cutting tool called gear
hob).
• Both the hob and the workpiece rotate as the hob is fed axially across the gear blank.
• Hobbing is limited to producing external gear teeth on spur and helical gears.
• Hobbing can be performed on a single gear blank, but also allows for stacking of multiple
workpieces, increasing production rates.

• Hobbing with Axial Feed
In this process the gear hob is fed against the gear blank along the face of the blank and parallel
to its axis. This is used to make spur and helical gears.
• Hobbing with Radial Feed

In this method the hob and gear blanks are set with their axis normal to each other. The rotating
hob is fed against the gear blank in radial direction or perpendicular to the axis of gear blank.
This method is used to make the worm wheels.
• Hobbing with Tangential Feed

This is also used for cutting teeth on worm wheel. In this case, the hob is held with its axis
horizontal but at right angle to the axis of the blank. The hob is set at full depth of the tooth and
then fed forward axially. The hob is fed tangential to the face of gear blank.

Advantages and Limitations of Gear Hobbing Process
1. Gear hobbing is a fast and continuous process so it is realized as economical process as compared
to other gear generation processes.
2. Lower production cycle time, i.e. faster production rate.
3. Several gear blanks, mounted on the same arbor, can be processed simultaneously.
4. Hob is multipoint cutting tool having multi cutting teeth or edges at a time few number of cutting
edges work so lots of time is available to dissipate the generated heat. There is no over heating and
cutting tool.
5. Capable to make wide variety of gears like spur gear, helical gears, worms, splines, sprockets, etc.

Powder Metallurgy
• Powder metallurgy, P/M is a manufacturing process in which components are directly

produced by bringing a powder of the starting material into the desired shape by compressing
the powder in dies.
• It is one of the cheapest mass production process for manufacturing high quality, high
strength, complex parts with high degree of accuracy.
• Porous parts as well as parts with high density structures may be produced.
• The process is commercially and economically adaptable only to mass production, due to
expensive dies and machines.

Basic Steps of the PM Process
• Preparation of powder/powders of the desired composition.
• Mixing and blending:
• Compacting
• Sintering

Methods of Producing Metal Powders
• Atomization
• Machining
• Reduction
• Crushing and Milling
• Electrolytic Deposition
• Shotting

• Granulation
• Condensation of Metal Powders
• Thermal Decomposition

• Atomization:
• This methods is used to low

melting point metals/alloys
such as brass, bronze, zinc,
tin , lead and aluminium.
• Used for producing powders

of other materials such as,
stainless steel, nickel-based
super alloys, titanium alloys
etc.

• Machining: It produces coarse powder particles and is used mainly for producing
magnesium powder

• Reduction: Pure metal is obtained by reducing its oxide with a suitable reducing gas at an elevated temperature
(below melting point)
Fe3O4 + 4Co ------------Heat------------3 Fe + 4 CO2
• Hydrogen Reduction:
Cu2O + H2 ------------Heat------------2 Cu + H2O

• Reduction: Pure metal is obtained by reducing its oxide with a suitable reducing gas at an elevated temperature
(below melting point)
Fe3O4 + 4Co ------------Heat------------3 Fe + 4 CO2
• Hydrogen Reduction:
Cu2O + H2 ------------Heat------------2 Cu + H2O

Metal Powder Characteristics
• Surface Area: This is the area per unit mass of the powder,
• Compressibility and Compression Ratio: It depends on the shape, size and size distribution of the powder
particles.
• Flow Rate: It is defined as the time required for a measured quantity of powder to flow out of a standard orifice.
• Particle Shape, Size and Size Distribution
• Density:
• Theoretical: It is the mass per unit volume of the solid material. It the highest possible density (100%) of a material.
• Apparent: It defines the actual volume filled out by the loose powder.
• Tap: This is obtained by tapping or vibrating the container.
• Green:



Compacting (Briquetting)
• The powders are compacted in moulds by the application of pressure to form a so called green compact (a
compact without permanent bonding)
• The compacting pressure may range from 80 to 1600 MPa with more commonly used pressure being 320 to
800 MPa.
• For soft powders such as brass, bronze and aluminium the compacting pressure may range from 100 to 350
MPa.
• Fro Iron, steel and Ni alloys, the range in 400 to 700 MPa.
• The pressure range is still higher for harder materials such WC.

Compacting (Briquetting) Cont.….
• During compacting, the green strength of a compact is achieved due to the following factors:-
• Sliding with combined pressure promotes adhesion.
• Cold welding with some powders.
• Mechanical interlocking of particles: irregular shape (high), spherical shape (low)
• By the addition of bonding agents; which evaporate during sintering.
• The compacting equipment consists of

• Die or container
• Upper Punch (top)
• Lower Punch (bottom)

Compacting (Briquetting) Cont.….

Other Methods of Compacting
• Impact Compaction
• Rolling and Extrusion
• Centrifugal Compacting
• Cold Isostatic Pressing

Sintering
“Green compact as obtained after compacting operation is not very strong and is very brittle
and can’t be used as it is.”
The first stage of the in the sintering operation is the purging or drying stage;
Compact is heated at low temperature to drive off liquid constituents (lubricants, water etc.)
After first stage the, the actual sintering operation start at an elevated temperature.(below the
melting point of the powder)

Sintering Time and Temperature


Powder Metallurgy
Assignment
Describe the secondary operations in the powder metallurgy.
Discuss the comparison of powder metallurgy with other processes.

Processing of Plastics and Composite Materials
Introduction:
• Plastic can be mould , cast , formed, machined and joined.
• Plastic melt or cure at relatively low temperatures; hence, unlike metals, they are easy to handle and require less
energy to process.
• The properties of parts and components are , however, influenced greatly by the method of manufacturing and
by the processing parameters.
• Plastics are usually shipped to manufacturing plants as pellets or powders, and they are melted (for
thermoplastics) just before the shaping process.
• Plastics are also available as sheet, plate, rod and tubing; which may be formed into variety of products. Liquid
plastics are used especially in the making of reinforced-plastic parts.


Extrusion

Injection Moulding:
• It is essentially the same process as hot-chamber die casting.

Injection Molding

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Lecture Notes

Dr. Manish Rawat

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Issues in Conventional Machining

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Issues in Conventional Machining

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

• Limitation of conventional machining methods

• Product Requirements i.e.

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

• High production rate

• Low cost of production

• Precisions & Ultraprecision machining

• Precisions & Ultraprecision machining

Requires material removal in the form of atoms or molecules

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

• Use different kinds of energy in direct form

• In general, low MRR but better quality products

• Precisions & Ultraprecision machining

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Mechanical Energy Thermo-electric Energy Electrochemical and Chemical

• Abrasive Water Jet Machining • Electric Discharge Machining

• Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM) • Ion Bean Machining (IBM)

• Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (AFM)

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

1. Micro-machining and Drilling: LBM and EBM

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Abrasive Jet Machining

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

• Abrasive feeder: To supply the

• Machining Chamber with

• AJM Nozzle (Tungsten carbide or

• Abrasives: Al2o3, SiC, glass

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

• Abrasive: composition, strength, shape,

• Carrier gas: composition, pressure and

• Nozzle: geometry, composition, nozzle-tip

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

• Cleaning of metallic smears on ceramics oxides on metals, resistive coating etc.

• Cutting and machining of fragile material like germanium, silicon etc.

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Water Jet Machining

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

• Low metal removal rate.

• High initial cost.

• Thick material cannot be machined easily.

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur

Dr. Manish Rawat, Assistant Professor@ Manipal University Jaipur