Corliss, Cindy L.

(2017) The established and the outsiders: cyberbullying

as an exclusionary process. PhD thesis.

http://theses.gla.ac.uk/8175/

Copyright and moral rights for this work are retained by the author

A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior
permission or charge

This work cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining
permission in writing from the author

The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or
medium without the formal permission of the author

When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title,
awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given

Enlighten:Theses
http://theses.gla.ac.uk/
theses@gla.ac.uk
 The Established and the Outsiders:
Cyberbullying as an Exclusionary Process

Cindy L. Corliss

B.A, M.Ed, M.Sc

Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

School of Education
College of Social Sciences
University of Glasgow

Supervisors: Prof. Andy Furlong and Dr. Lesley Doyle

September 2016
 Abstract

Cyberbullying has become increasingly problematic over the past decade with
extreme instances of young people committing suicide due to their victimisation.
While the prevalence of cyberbullying along with its effects have been
researched and identified, the theoretical underpinnings for determining why
young people engage in these behaviours has been under researched. A clear
understanding behind the motivations into cyberbullying as exclusion is
necessary in order to help decrease the behaviours as well as addressing
deficiencies in defining what cyberbullying is.

This study used a mixed methods design, first using quantitative data via a
survey designed to target pupils (n=450) in three Catholic Secondary schools in
Glasgow, Scotland. Second, qualitative data was collected through interviews
with educational professionals (n=13; nine teachers, four non-teacher
educators). The discussion of findings focuses on the perceptions of
cyberbullying through the eyes of educators and how they understand and
recognise the exclusionary process. To facilitate understanding cyberbullying as
exclusion, the results of this study were explored through the lens of the
Established and Outsiders framework.

The research finds that while teachers are undereducated and uninformed on
social media and cyberbullying, young people continue to increase their
knowledge and access to these sites for both socialisation and exclusion, which
is having a significant effect on their physical and metal well being. While most
young people surveyed claim not to have been victims of cyberbullying, the
evidence from both the survey and interviews agree that girls were more likely
to engage in cyberbullying as both victim and bully. Teachers from the three
participating schools experienced challenges in understanding and recognising
cyberbullying and the usage of social media by young people. Their abilities to
recognise these behaviours were often underpinned by their lack of training in
areas of technology in conjunction with their negative attitudes toward social
media.

ii
This study enriches the wider literature by examining cyberbullying as exclusion
through the lens of Elias’s Established and Outsider framework, providing a novel
approach to understanding the exclusionary process. The study also provides
evidence asserting the need for providing in-service teachers education, training
and support in understanding and recognising cyberbullying behaviours.

Keywords: cyberbullying, Established and Outsiders, exclusion, bullying, young

people, social media, teachers, educators

iii
 Table of Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................... ii

Table of Contents ..........................................................................iv

List of Tables .............................................................................. viii

List of Figures .............................................................................. ix

Dedication ................................................................................... x

Acknowledgements ....................................................................... xi

Author’s Declaration ..................................................................... xii

Definition of terms ....................................................................... xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction to the study................................................. 15

1.1 Introduction to the problem .................................................. 15
1.2 Purpose of the research ......................................................... 18
1.3 Research questions................................................................ 18
1.4 Significance ....................................................................... 19
1.5 Research design and methods ................................................ 20
1.6 Scope of the study............................................................... 20
1.7 Structure of the thesis ......................................................... 21
1.8 Conclusion ........................................................................ 21

Chapter 2 Literature Review.......................................................... 23

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 23
2.2 An introduction to bullying .................................................... 24
2.2.1 Defining bullying as an exclusionary process ............................ 24
2.2.2 Defining social exclusion ................................................... 26
2.2.3 Types of bullying ............................................................. 27
2.2.4 Bias bullying .................................................................. 28
2.3 Defining cyberbullying .......................................................... 29
2.3.1 Definitional issues ........................................................... 29
2.3.2 The role of social media .................................................... 32
2.4 Bullies and victims .............................................................. 35
2.4.1 Characteristics of bullies and cyberbullies .............................. 35
2.4.2 Characteristics of victims and cybervictims ............................. 36
2.5 Gender differences .............................................................. 37

iv
 2.6 The prevalence of cyberbullying ............................................. 39
2.6.1 England ........................................................................ 40
2.6.2 Scotland ....................................................................... 41
2.7 The role of the school .......................................................... 42
2.7.1 The Catholic school ethos .................................................. 43
2.7.2 The role of teachers......................................................... 44
2.8 Motivations for cyberbullying ................................................. 46
2.9 Theoretical framework ......................................................... 48
2.9.1 Psychological theories ...................................................... 49
2.9.2 Sociological theories ........................................................ 54
2.10 Conclusion ....................................................................... 66

Chapter 3 Research Methodology .................................................... 68

3.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 68
3.2 Research approach .............................................................. 69
3.2.1 Ontological and epistemological approach .............................. 69
3.2.2 Research aims ................................................................ 70
3.3 Research design .................................................................. 71
3.3.1 Mixed methods design....................................................... 73
3.4 Pupil surveys ..................................................................... 74
3.4.1 Use of surveys ................................................................ 74
3.4.2 Pupil survey design .......................................................... 76
3.4.3 Pupil sample selection ...................................................... 79
3.4.4 Recruitment .................................................................. 79
3.5 Interviews ......................................................................... 82
3.5.1 Interview guide .............................................................. 83
3.5.2 Recruitment .................................................................. 83
3.5.3 Interviewing teachers ....................................................... 84
3.5.4 Interviewing educational professionals .................................. 85
3.6 Data management ............................................................... 86
3.6.1 Surveys ........................................................................ 86
3.6.2 Interviews ..................................................................... 86
3.7 Reliability and Validity ......................................................... 89
3.7.1 Pupil Surveys ................................................................. 89
3.7.2 Educator interviews ......................................................... 90
3.8 Ethical considerations .......................................................... 91

v
 3.9 Role of the researcher and reflexivity ...................................... 92
3.10 Conclusion ....................................................................... 93

Chapter 4 Educators and Cyberbullying: A New Challenge ..................... 95

4.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 95
4.2 Varying degrees of knowledge of cyberbullying by educators ......... 96
4.3 Differing levels of knowledge of social media and technology by
educators................................................................................. 99
4.4 Young people, cyberspace and the culture of social media .......... 103
4.5 The role of the school ........................................................ 107
4.6 Summary of findings .......................................................... 112
4.7 Discussion ....................................................................... 116

Chapter 5 The Impact of Cyberbullying on Young People..................... 119

5.1 Introduction .................................................................... 119
5.2 The emotional impact on young people .................................. 120
5.3 The Catholic ethos and cyberbullying ..................................... 127
5.4 Why do young people engage in cyberbullying? ......................... 129
5.5 Summary of findings .......................................................... 134
5.6 Discussion ....................................................................... 137

Chapter 6 The Prevalence of cyberbullying ..................................... 139

6.1 Introduction .................................................................... 139
6.2 Prevalence of bullying and cyberbullying in surveyed schools ....... 141
6.2.1 Differences according to gender ........................................ 144
6.2.2 Differences by school ..................................................... 146
6.2.3 Differences by age ......................................................... 146
6.3 The usage of social media ................................................... 147
6.3.1 Cyberbullying via text..................................................... 149
6.3.2 Cyberbullying online (via email, Facebook) ........................... 150
6.4 Bias bullying and cyberbullying ............................................. 153
6.5 Opinions on bullying and cyberbullying ................................... 155
6.6 Summary of findings .......................................................... 158
6.7 Discussion ....................................................................... 160

Chapter 7 Discussion ................................................................. 163

7.1 Introduction .................................................................... 163
7.2 Educators and cyberbullying: A new challenge ......................... 165

vi
 7.2.1 The varying degree of knowledge of cyberbullying .................. 165
7.2.2 The varying degrees of knowledge of social media .................. 167
7.2.3 Widespread usage of social media by young people ................. 169
7.2.4 The Role of the School .................................................... 170
7.3 The impact of cyberbullying on young people ........................... 174
7.3.1 The emotional impact of cyberbullying ................................ 174
7.3.2 The Catholic ethos......................................................... 177
7.3.3 Why do young people cyberbully? ....................................... 178
7.4 The prevalence of cyberbullying ........................................... 183
7.4.1 Gender differences ........................................................ 184
7.4.2 Social media usage ........................................................ 187
7.4.3 Bias bullying and cyberbullying .......................................... 187
7.4.4 Student perspectives on school handling of bullying ................. 192
7.4.5 Established and Outsider relations as it relates to this survey ..... 192
7.5 Summary ........................................................................ 197

Chapter 8 Conclusions ................................................................ 200

8.1 Introduction .................................................................... 200
8.2 Why do young people cyberbully? ......................................... 201
8.3 The influence of social media on young people ......................... 202
8.4 Young people, cyberbullying and social media .......................... 204
8.4.1 The impact of cyberbullying and social media usage ................ 204
8.4.2 Prevalence and engagement in cyberbullying ......................... 205
8.5 Educators, cyberbullying and social media ............................... 207
8.6 Established and Outsider relations and cyberbullying ................. 209
8.7 Implications ..................................................................... 211
8.8 Limitations of the study and future recommendations ................ 215
8.8.1 Methodological limitations ............................................... 216
8.8.2 Thematic and theoretical limitations .................................. 218
8.9 Conclusion ...................................................................... 219

Appendices ............................................................................... 221

References................................................................................ 238

vii
 List of Tables

Table 2-1 Differing conceptual definitions of cyberbullying adapted from

Tokunaga (2010) ............................................................................ 30
Table 2-2 A summary of the theoretical approaches ................................. 59
Table 3-1 A breakdown of participating schools ...................................... 79
Table 3-2 Participation rates per school ............................................... 80
Table 3-3 Participant information ....................................................... 84
Table 6-1 Social media usage by school [multiple responses allowed] .......... 148
Table 6-2 Cyberbullying victimisation by age........................................ 151
Table 6-3 Cyberbullying prevalence by gender ...................................... 151
Table 6-4 Percentage of total bias bullying experienced [multiple responses
allowed] ................................................................................... 153
Table 6-5 Total percentage of witnessed bias bullying [multiple responses
allowed] ................................................................................... 154
Table 6-6 How well does your school deal with bullying? .......................... 155
Table 6-7 Does your school care about pupils who are being bullied? ........... 157
Table 6-8 Who would you tell if you were being bullied? [Multiple responses
allowed] ................................................................................... 158
Table 7-1 Number of pupils in School A by year ..................................... 193
Table 7-2 Number of pupils in School B by year ..................................... 194
Table 7-3 Number of pupils in School C by year..................................... 194

viii
 List of Figures

Figure 2-1 The Olweus Bullying Circle .................................................. 25

Figure 2-2 The social-ecological model ................................................. 52
Figure 3-1 Timeline of the quantitative approach .................................... 82
Figure 3-2 Thematic Map.................................................................. 88
Figure 6-1 Have you been bullied IN school during the last 12 months? ......... 142
Figure 6-2 Have you been cyberbullied during the last 12 months? .............. 142
Figure 6-3 How often have you been bullied via text message? .................. 149
Figure 6-4 How often have you been bullied online in the past 12 months? .... 151
Figure 6-5 Have you seen bullying in your school in the past 12 months? ....... 155

ix
 Dedication

For my beloved parents, Linda and Peter, who unfortunately did not live to see
the culmination of this journey. Thank you for always believing in me.

x
 Acknowledgements

First and foremost, my sincerest gratitude and thanks go to my supervisors

Professor Andy Furlong and Dr. Lesley Doyle, for their guidance and assistance
throughout the past four years.

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Stephanie Baker. Thanking

you is not enough for all of the support and love that you have given me on our
journey here in Scotland. I am forever indebted to you.

I would also like to thank my sister Jennifer and her two lovely daughters,
Stephanie and Katie, for their love and texts of encouragement and laughter.

Last, but most certainly not least, I wish to thank Stina, Annette, and Brendan
for their e-mails and valued friendship over these long years.

xi
 Author’s Declaration

I, Cindy L. Corliss, declare that except where explicit reference is made to the
contribution of others, that this doctoral thesis entitled “The Established and
the Outsiders: Cyberbullying as an Exclusionary Process” is the result of my own
work and has not been submitted for any other degree at the University of
Glasgow or any other institution.

Signature __________________________
Printed name ___Cindy L. Corliss______________________
Date ____________04/03/2017___________________

xii
 Definition of terms

Ask.fm: Ask.fm is a social networking site that launched in 2010, where users
create profiles and are able to ask questions of other members.

Facebook: Facebook is an online social media site that launched in 2004, that
was initially limited to access by students attending Harvard University, and
later on other universities. Since 2006, users over the age of thirteen have been
able to create and access accounts on the site.

Instagram: Instagram is an online photo and video sharing service launched in

2010, where users can post photos and videos that are available to the general
public or restricted privately to friends only. Users can comment on the photos
and videos that they can view.

Instant message (IM): Instant messaging or IM is a real-time texting application

between two or more people and can also incorporate other forms of digital
media such as images and videos. Individuals with Blackberry mobile phones (or
those that have another mobile and have the BBM application) can utilise
Blackberry’s IM service called BBM.

IP address: IP address stands for Internet protocol address. It refers to the

numerical address that is assigned to each device (mobile phone, computer,
tablet) that is connected to the Internet.

Sexting: Sexting is the act of texting (forwarding, sending or receiving) sexual

content in the form of text, images and/or videos.

Snapchat: Snapchat is a social media site, launched in 2011, that allows you to
share photos with friends or users of the application as a whole. The images
delete after a set period of time, often seconds, allowing for devious content to
be shared and then quickly removed without consequences.

xiii
Social media: Social media is a form of online technology that allows individuals
to collaborate and share information and views informally (via pictures, videos
and other forms of media expression).

Texting: Texting is the act of sending a text-based message to one or more

mobile phones.

Trolling: Trolling is purposely harassing another person through comments in an

attempt to provoke an argument or altercation (Nadali et al., 2008).

Tumblr: Tumblr is an online social media site, launched in 2007, where

individuals can post various media content and text as a micro-blog, and share
with other users.

Twitter: Twitter is an online social media site where individuals can send and
receive messages up to 140 characters long, along with images and videos. It was
launched in 2006.

xiv
 Chapter 1
Introduction to the study

This chapter provides the background to the study and locates cyberbullying
within a sociological context. The main purpose of this study is to determine why
and how young people are engaging in cyberbullying as a means to exclude their
peers.

1.1 Introduction to the problem

Over the past fifteen years there has been an increase in the number of young
people excluded through cyberbullying1. (Jones, Mitchell, and Finkelhor, 2013).
Those who have been victimised often experience depression, anxiety, and other
behavioural problems (Patchin and Hinduja, 2011; Shariff and Holt, 2007; Ybarra
and Mitchell, 2004). Many victims have been so relentlessly tormented that they
have made the unfortunate decision to commit suicide. Over the years, several
young people including Tyler Clementi in 2010 (Byers, 2013), Phoebe Prince in
2011 (Neiman, Robers and Robers, 2012; O’Higgans Norman and Connolly, 2011;
Ryalls, 2012), and Amanda Todd in 2012 (Davis et al., 2015), have taken their
own lives and their stories have made headlines and influenced public
perceptions of the phenomenon of cyberbullying (Neiman, Robers and Robers,
2012). While an extreme example of the outcomes of cyberbullying, a
correlation has been found between individuals experiencing cyberbullying and
suicidal ideation, also known as having suicidal thoughts (Hinduja and Patchin,
2010).

School bullying is not a new occurrence and traditionally it was not considered a
problem, but as a normal part of childhood and school life (Limber and Small,
2003; Campbell, 2005). Bullying behaviours were often justified with the phrase
“kids will be kids” (Arnette and Walsleben, p. 3, 1998) or considered as
something that naturally happens throughout adolescence (Pellegrini, 2002). It

1
Cyberbullying, as a relatively new term, will be discussed and defined in detail later on in this
thesis in section 2.3.
was not until the 1970s that bullying began to be investigated and defined by
researchers.

Bullying has changed since it first became an object of scientific study in the
late 1970s by Dan Olweus. It is no longer limited to the classroom, corridors, or
schoolyard, but is a degrading and invasive means of aggression and harm
towards young people using technological means (Junoven and Gross, 2008; Hoff
and Mitchell, 2008). This is what is known as cyberbullying.

According to Patchin and Hinduja (2006), cyberbullying is defined as “willful and

repeated harm inflicted through the medium of electronic text” (p. 152).
Cyberbullying can occur in various parts of cyberspace: on online webpages, such
as Facebook, via text message, using instant messages through IM (Instant
Messaging) and BBM (Blackberry Messaging), through the sharing of images and
videos, and through the use of social media websites and mobile applications
including, but not limited to, Twitter, Tumblr, Instagram, Snapchat, and ask.fm
(boyd2, 2014; Chisolm, 2014). Young people actively engage in accessing these
sites for social means and keeping in touch with friends and peers. However,
social media is also being used as a venue for exclusion and denigration of others
through words, images, and videos.

Research has followed the trend of technological development, with an

increasing number of studies being carried out on cyberbullying and its various
aspects (Hinduja and Patchin, 2008; Hoff and Mitchell 2008; Kowalski et al.,
2008; Rivers and Noret, 2010), and with a large focus on investigating its
prevalence. Throughout recent years, despite the continued research into the
prevalence of cyberbullying, a definitive percentage has yet to be obtained
(Hinduja and Patchin, 2014). This has been found to be due to the wide variance
within the research, ranging from the usage of different definitions (Tokunaga,
2010), geographical differences where the studies was undertaken, the ages of
those participating in the research, as well as various theoretical perspectives
and understandings of this phenomenon.

2
The author chooses to use lowercase letters for her name.

16
Both bullying and cyberbullying are generally located within psychological
frameworks (Bauman and Yoon, 2014; Cowie and Jennifer, 2008; Espelage, Holt,
and Henkel, 2003; Espelage and Swearer, 2008; Festl and Quant, 2013; Hoff and
Mitchell, 2008; Olweus, 2013). In this thesis, sociological theory is examined as a
more useful frame for social settings – in this thesis, schools.

This thesis explores cyberbullying using Established and Outsider relations as the
theoretical framework. This framework, first developed by Elias in 1965 in his
research on stigmatisation, has been used to explain and understand conflicts
and power differentials between groups. Elias’s study investigated the figuration
of the neighbourhood studied, a suburban area in central England, known as the
fictitious town of Winston-Parva, and the power relations that occurred between
the longstanding inhabitants and the newcomers in the community. According to
Fletcher, Elias’s work has been used as “a model for social tensions as power
differentials between groups which may or may not generate violent conflict”
(p. 70, 1997).

The theory of Established and Outsider relations has been used to explore power
in relation to dominant and non-dominant groups. Definitions of traditional
bullying have historically included an imbalance of power (Olweus, 1999; Smith
and Sharp, 1994; Rigby, 2002). However, concerning cyberbullying, many
researchers have removed power from the definition (Tokunaga, 2010). This is
due to the difference between traditional bullying and cyberbullying and how
power has been characterised. In traditional bullying, the perceived physical or
psychological power characterises the power differential (Dooley, Pyzalski and
Cross, 2009), whereas in cyberbullying, the power differential is related to the
bully having technological savvy or by the lack of power felt by the victim
(Dooley, Pyzalski and Cross, 2009; Vandebosch and Van Cleemput, 2008). The
power differential was also thought to be a result of anonymous cyberbullying,
however, it has been found that most young people know their perpetrator
(Smith et al., 2008; Smith and Slonje, 2010).

Using Established and Outsider relations to understand exclusion via

cyberbullying addresses the lack of power felt by the victim in addition to using

17
it as an overall framework to understand this exclusionary behaviour3. Elias’s
theory is used to suggest that those who are cyberbullied are the “outsiders” of
their peer or gender group and are excluded by the “established”, in other
words, those who hold greater power, position, and social standing. Established
and Outsider relations is explored further in Chapter 2.

Understanding why young people exclude one another using cyberbullying is

crucial to the current technological environment. As technology continues to
change, expand, and advance at a rapid pace, it is important to be able to
understand the motives behind using technology and social media to exclude, as
well as to gain a better sociological understanding of why young people exclude
others at all. With this better understanding, young people can continue to
access and engage online safely, and teachers and parents can better assist their
charges in maintaining this safety online.

1.2 Purpose of the research

The main purpose of this study is to determine why young people are engaging in
exclusion through cyberbullying behaviours. This research offers an examination
of the theory of Established and Outsider relations and determines whether or
not cyberbullying allows for a greater applicability of Elias’s theory. It offers a
new way to understand cyberbullying from a sociological rather than
psychological perspective. In this study, the school setting has been selected for
the social context. The setting also examines the prevalence of cyberbullying
within a selection of Glasgow schools, as well as determining how both young
people and teachers are dealing with the issues and concerns related to
cyberbullying.

1.3 Research questions

On the basis of the above discussion, the following five questions are examined
in the thesis:
1. Why do young people cyberbully?
2. How do young people utilise social media in relation to cyberbullying?

3
Exclusion as a social process will be discussed in detail in section 2.2.2.

18
 3. How are young people experiencing cyberbullying?
4. How are educators handling the challenges of cyberbullying?
5. To what extent can Elias’s Established and Outsider relations provide a
framework for understanding cyberbullying?

The first question aims to explore why young people cyberbully, while the
second question explores how young people are utilising and engaging with social
media. The third question then links the previous two and aims to understand
how young people experience cyberbullying and how it is being carried out. The
fourth question connects the theoretical framework of Elias’s Established and
Outsider relations and the phenomenon of cyberbullying and aims to determine
if the framework can provide a deeper understanding of cyberbullying. As the
majority of the fieldwork for the analysis takes place in schools or with
individuals with close ties to schools, it is important to ask the final question
about educators to determine how this group is handling the challenges of
cyberbullying. This is due to their pivotal role in working with young people as
well as the ways and means they deal with exclusionary behaviours.

1.4 Significance

This study aims to contribute to the general understanding of why young people
engage in cyberbullying, and whether or not Established and Outsider relations
can be used to explain this behaviour. As such, this analysis adds to the
knowledge base of cyberbullying and why young people choose to engage in this
behaviour. Additionally, it also adds to the literature on how educators
understand and recognise cyberbullying. Therefore, this study makes
recommendations for those involved with young people such as teachers, local
education authorities, youth groups, policy makers, researchers, and those who
work to understand and decrease cyberbullying. The findings of this study are to
be of particular interest to the following:

a) Teachers, schools, and local education authorities

The findings of this study may help teachers, schools, and local education
authorities understand the scope of cyberbullying and how it is affecting both
young people and teachers. Additionally, understanding why young people

19
exclude their peers can help this group address concerns that have arisen with
regard to cyberbullying such as investigation, disciplinary actions, and police
involvement.

b) Anti-bullying campaigners and non-profit organisations

The findings of this study may also assist those that campaign against bullying
and non-profit organisations that work with those who have been affected by
bullying and cyberbullying. Having a wider understanding as to why young people
exclude others using cyberbullying can help educate the wider public as well as
assist those currently in need.

c) Social sciences and educational research

The utilisation of the sociological theory of Established and Outsider relations in
this thesis is a different approach to understanding cyberbullying as exclusionary
behaviour. This may allow further research to take place using the same
theoretical lens and thereby contribute to further educational and sociological
research.

1.5 Research design and methods

This study utilises a mixed methods approach, which combines both qualitative
and quantitative methods. The qualitative findings consist of semi-structured
interviews with nine teachers and four non-teacher educators. The quantitative
research includes an analysis and statistical measures of the data provided by
the 450 pupils who participated in the survey. The qualitative data is compared
with the quantitative results and allows for a deeper understanding of both sets
of results.

1.6 Scope of the study

This study is limited to the city of Glasgow, United Kingdom (UK), and took place
within three Catholic schools. The quantitative portion of the study is limited to
the 450 participants who voluntarily took part in the survey. At the same time,
the qualitative portion of the analysis was limited to the teachers at these
schools who were voluntarily interviewed. Additional interviews took place with
non-teacher educators who worked in youth services within the city of Glasgow.

20
1.7 Structure of the thesis

This thesis is organised into eight chapters, including this introductory chapter,
which has provided a background to the study. Chapter two critiques and
analyses the current research on traditional bullying and cyberbullying, as well
as providing a context concerning how young people and educators are handing
the issue. Chapter two also explores the theoretical framework of Established
and Outsider relations.

Chapter three then provides the methodological approach for the empirical
research. This chapter elaborates on the research design for both the
quantitative and qualitative methods used in this research, methods of data
collection, and the means used to analyse the data in both phases of the
research.

Subsequently, chapters four, five, and six present the findings of this research
using the framework of Established and Outsider relations to explain exclusion
via cyberbullying. Chapter four first addresses the challenges of cyberbullying
faced by both teachers and students. Chapter five then explores the impact of
cyberbullying on young people and chapter six addresses the prevalence of
cyberbullying and social media usage by young people. The main findings are
then presented and analysed with respect to the wider literature and the
theoretical framework at the ends of these chapters and in chapter 7.

Chapter 8 concludes the analysis. This chapter draws conclusions and reflects on
the theoretical framework of Established and Outsider relations as it relates to
this study. Finally, this chapter addresses the implications and limitations of this
study and offers recommendations for further research.

1.8 Conclusion

This thesis seeks to understand why young people engage in exclusion via
cyberbullying behaviours. In doing so, this provides for a greater understanding,
sociologically as well as practically, of this subject and includes practical
applications and implications for teachers and pupils. In the following chapter,

21
the literature on traditional bullying as well as cyberbullying, its characteristics
and its prevalence, are reviewed. Once the foundations of cyberbullying have
been documented, theories that help understand why young people cyberbully
are presented, culminating with Elias’s Established and Outsider relations.

22
 Chapter 2
Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Over the past 20 years, a new form of bullying has permeated the lives of young
people. Cyberbullying is a form of bullying utilising the use of technology
including computers, mobile phones, and social media (Li, 2006; Smith et al.,
2008; Chisolm, 2014). Technology is easily accessible in today’s society, as
computers and other mobile devices are commonly found in homes and schools
(Chisolm and Day, 2013). A recent study showed that 97.5% of surveyed young
people aged 11-14 had been online in the past thirty days (Patchin, 2013). With
the ease of accessibility, young people are able to use these devices, in
conjunction with the Internet, social media sites and mobile applications, to
victimise and harass members of their peer group.

The literature review focuses on studies that have been published within the last
decade as cyberbullying research became more popular. An important feature to
note is the lack of theoretical perspectives found in the literature discussed in
the first half of this chapter. This lack of theoretical scope is discussed and
analysed in the second half of the chapter, which focuses on the theoretical
framework utilised within this research, Elias’s Established and Outsider
Relations. It is this framework that allows a more meaningful understanding of
the behaviours that are delineated in the first half of this chapter by providing a
rationale in which to understand and explore exclusion through the act of
cyberbullying.

This chapter begins with an introduction to bullying, including how bullying has
been identified as an exclusionary process (2.2), followed by cyberbullying in the
third section (2.3), which includes definitional issues that have arisen. The
fourth section (2.4) then provides profiles of bullying and cyberbullying
behaviours. The fifth section (2.5) describes the similarities and differences
found between males and females in terms of engaging in cyberbullying
behaviours. Following this, the sixth section (2.6) explores the prevalence of
bullying and cyberbullying, while the seventh section (2.7) discusses the role of

23
the school and the role of teachers. The eighth section (2.8) explores potential
motivations into why young people cyberbully. Finally, section nine (2.9)
discusses a range of theoretical perspectives, which help explain cyberbullying,
and identifies and justifies the particular sociological lens selected for this
thesis.

2.2 An introduction to bullying

This section provides a historical background of bullying, a precursor to

cyberbullying, considers some of the definitions of bullying and cyberbullying,
and also addresses some of the larger definitional issues within the research.
When bullying research was in its infancy, it was primarily devoted to
determining prevalence and working towards solutions to combat it in schools
(Olweus, 1978). Since then, the research has evolved into exploring definitional
issues as well as understanding the differences between traditional bullying and
cyberbullying, and the effects that bullying has on both the perpetrator and
victim.

2.2.1 Defining bullying as an exclusionary process

In the late 1970s, Dan Olweus published Aggression in Schools: Bullies and
Whipping Boys. Olweus (p. 318, 1993) defined bullying as: “a student is being
bullied or victimized when he or she is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to
negative actions on the part of one or more students.” He later modified this to
“a person is being bullied when he or she is exposed, repeatedly and over time,
to negative actions on the part of one or more other persons” (p. 10, 1999). The
definition of bullying that is used in current research (Beckman et al., 2012;
Brank et al., 2012; Espelage and Swearer, 2003; Forsberg et al., 2014; Tokunaga,
2010) is rooted in Olweus’s initial and subsequent research on bullying and
aggression in schools.

Olweus’s work concentrated primarily on the psychological aspects of bullying

and on describing and analysing the “anatomy of peer harassment” (Olweus,
2013), with a focus on individual behaviour. This is not to say that the group
processes or sociological construct of bullying is not important – Olweus
acknowledges this in his oeuvre of 2013, referring to the Bullying Circle (see

24
Figure 2-1) that he developed in 2001. This depicts the group processes involved
in bullying and the roles that young people play in the phenomenon. Olweus’s
research has tended to focus on the causes of peer aggression from the
perspective of the individual, focusing on behavioural concerns using the Olweus
Bullying Questionnaire (OBQ) in his empirical research. When his study delved
into sociological constructs, it has been more about the influence of family and
school on bullying behaviours; the group perspective remains limited to the
specific context of the perpetrating individual, rather than the involvement of
greater societal factors.

Figure 2-1 The Olweus Bullying Circle

As bullying research has advanced, it has evolved in a way that is similar to

Durkheim’s approach to suicide. Suicide was initially understood and explained
in individual terms, but Durkheim believed that suicide was related to social
factors, that individual explanations were inadequate and that suicide is based
on “social causes and is itself a collective phenomenon” (Durkheim, p. 145,
1951). Those researching bullying and cyberbullying are now moving towards
furthering the conceptual and theoretical frameworks as to why young people
are bullied and which groups are more vulnerable to social exclusion.

25
2.2.2 Defining social exclusion

Social exclusion has been defined as a form of indirect or relational bullying that
involves “social isolation and intentional exclusion from a group” (Olweus, p.
496, 1997). This is the definition that will be used to understand social exclusion
throughout this thesis. It occurs when one is deliberately denied access to group
activities in person (Smith et al., 2002) or online (Wang et al., 2010) by a
perpetrator who perceives the victim as weak or inferior (Williams and Guerra,
2007).

There have been several permutations of the definition of social exclusion since
Olweus’s in 1993 (see Table). In most cases, social exclusion as it pertains to
traditional bullying and cyberbullying includes intentional exclusion from group
activities and the spreading of rumours through indirect means.

Study (by year) Definition

Olweus, p.87, Social exclusion has been defined as a form of indirect or relational
1993 bullying that involves “social isolation and exclusion from a
group.”

Olweus, p. 496, Social exclusion is a negative action including “spreading rumours

1997 and intentional exclusion from a group.”

Lagerspetz, Bullying includes indirect aggression which can be covert in nature

Bjorkvist and and can involve gossiping, spreading rumours and social exclusion.
Peltonen, 1998

Smith et al., p. “Indirect aggression, characterised by its somewhat covert nature

1120, 2002 and use of third parties, had principal forms of gossiping and
spreading rumors and social exclusion (deliberately not allowing a
person into a group).”

Silver, p. 15, Social exclusion is “a multidimensional process of progressive

2007 social rupture, detaching groups and individuals from social
relations and institutions and preventing them from full
participation in the normal, normatively prescribed activities of the
society in which they live.”

Wang et al., p. “Social exclusion and spreading rumors are often considered an
1103, 2010 indirect or relational form of bullying.”

26
The addition of the word ‘intentional’ to the terms used between the 1993 and
1997 definitions provided by Olweus was significant. It makes clear that the
intent must be there in order for social exclusion to occur; it is not a passive
act.

In contrast the definitions provided by Lagerspetz, Bjorkvist and Peltonen in

1998, Smith et al., in 2002 and Wang et al., in 2010 all contain the main aspects
of both 1993 and 1997 definitions provided by Olweus with the exception of the
declaration of intent. However, Smith et al., do include the caveat of deliberate
action but is not entirely explicit in intent.

While the definition provided by Silver in 2007 is founded in exclusion as it

pertains to society as a whole, and is not specific to traditional bullying or
cyberbullying, it is relevant to this body of work. It has been found that both
forms of bullying cause a severe impact on those who are victimised (see
section 2.4) and the Silver definition explores these effects by delineating that
those involved are detached from their groups and peers by the action and are
left unable to participate fully in normative activities.

As is discussed further on in this chapter related to the definition of

cyberbullying, it may be necessary to address the deficiencies in the operational
definitions of social exclusion as they pertain to the act of cyberbullying (See
section 2.3.1). While Olweus’s 1997 definition is the one that is utilised as part
of this thesis, a new operational definition may need to be developed to
incorporate the addition of cyberbullying. For example, exclusion, or social
exclusion as it is also known as, is a negative action intended to exclude, isolate,
or cause harm to another individual or group through the usage of rumour
spreading, denigration, or exclusion from social activities or relations either in
person or online.

2.2.3 Types of bullying

Research on bullying has found that it occurs in several ways including, physical,
verbal, and indirect bullying. Physical bullying is an overt type of bullying as it
involves a direct attack on the victim by the perpetrator (Olweus, 1993; Shariff,

27
2009). It can involve physical contact such as hitting (Nansel et al., 2001),
kicking or punching or, in more extreme cases, using weapons or other serious
forms of violence (Shariff, 2009). Boys traditionally have involved themselves
more in physical bullying than girls (Nansel et al., 2001; Colaroso, 2002).

At the same time, physical bullying can also be covert, when it occurs out of the
sight of other individuals. This normally occurs in situations involving sexual
harassment, homophobic bullying, and racial attacks (Shariff, 2009). While all
three of these types of bullying can also be coupled with verbal bullying, there is
a physical nature involved. When it comes to sexual harassment, the perpetrator
may physically assault another person by touching or exposing their genitals or
by forcing someone into performing a sexual act (Shariff, 2009). It can also
involve “using sexual terms (e.g “slut,” “bitch”) to put someone down” (Dupper,
p. 10, 2013), in addition to exposure, and physical and inappropriate contact.

Furthermore, verbal bullying is a type of bullying where the terms of abuse are
chosen by the instigator. This can involve name-calling and threats (Nansel et
al., 2001) vocally as well as in written form. Additionally, it can involve
taunting, threats, and malicious teasing (Dupper, 2013). This can occur both in
person and online (see section 2.3).

Moreover, indirect or relational bullying is done to cause harm to an individual

through gossip and exclusion. Additionally, it “includes the spreading of vicious
rumours intended to damage one’s reputation, rejecting and humiliating the
victim, and manipulating friendships” (Dupper, p. 10, 2013). Again, this type of
bullying can also occur online as cyberbullying, as is discussed in the following
section.

2.2.4 Bias bullying

Bias bullying is also known as identity based bullying or prejudice bullying and
can take place utilising any of the aforementioned types of bullying (physical,
verbal, indirect, cyberbullying). While this type of bullying is not specified in
much of the wider research literature, it is necessary to be mentioned. Forms of
bias bullying include race, sexual orientation, gender based, including sexual
and sexist forms, and social status (Bucchianeri, Eisenberg and Neumark-

28
Sztainer, 2013; Carragher and Rivers, 2002; Ditch the Label, 2014; Eslea and
Mukhtar, 2000; Hunt and Jensen, 2007; Renold, 2006) forms of exclusion. . Other
Additional risk factors for bias bullying include weight, hair colour, or wearing
glasses (Farrington and Ttofi, 2009).

2.3 Defining cyberbullying

In this section, cyberbullying is discussed, along with issues that have arisen in
undertaking and conceptualising a definition for the phenomenon. According to
Tokunaga (2010), cyberbullying is “any behaviour performed through electronic
or digital media by individuals or groups that repeatedly communicates hostile or
aggressive messages intended to inflict harm or discomfort on others” (p. 278).
The definition developed by Tokunaga is the working definition that will be used
to understand and explain cyberbullying behaviours throughout this thesis.
Cyberbullying behaviours can range from stalking, exclusion, outing,
impersonation, denigration, harassment, and trickery (Kowalski et al., 2008;
Willard, 2007). The behaviours can differ based on the technological means used
to exclude, such as texting, social media, photos and videos, or email. Not all
behaviour can occur on all platforms and are subject to change as technology
advances (Heirman and Walrave, 2008). These behaviours, especially exclusion,
occur when young people actively engage in denying others access to their
online groups and activities or by participating in forms of gossip (Chisolm and
Day, 2013), and occur on various social media sites (See 2.3.2).

Similar to traditional bullying, power can be a factor in cyberbullying. Pieschl et

al., (2013) found that power relative to the popularity of the cyberbully was a
factor. Participants experienced more psychological side effects to cyberbullying
when victimised by someone with increased perceived popularity.

2.3.1 Definitional issues

There is currently no universal definition for cyberbullying (see Table 2.1 for
definitions). Young people and teachers may have different ideas as to what
constitutes bullying or cyberbullying behaviours (Naylor et al., 2006).
Additionally, young people of different ages may also have different ideas about
what bullying specifically involves (Smith et al., 2002). This difference in

29
understanding between ages can impact investigations into bullying and
cyberbullying (Naylor et al., 2006; Craig and Pepler, 2007).
Deschamps and McNutt (2016) stated, that defining cyberbullying is compounded
by “issues of measurement around prevalence, predictors, and outcomes” (p.
46). In this vein, Tokunaga (2010) argued that without a universal definition,
studies and their results are left open to question and debate, as each study may
be investigating something different, depending on the definition or
interpretation of the definition used. Moreover, Notar et al. (2013) state,
absence of a single definition can lead respondents astray and invalidate
subsequent findings since most people lack an even rudimentary understanding
of cyberbullying and conclusions and eliminates the possibility of drawing
meaningful cross-study comparisons”(p. 2, 2013). Table 2-1 explores the various
differences found in the conceptual definitions of cyberbullying from 2000
onwards, demonstrating that studies using different definitions may have been
measuring different experiences.

Table 2-1 Differing conceptual definitions of cyberbullying adapted from Tokunaga (2010)

Study (by year) Definition

Finkelhor et Online harassment: Threats or other offensive behavior (not sexual
al., (2000) solicitation) sent online to the youth or posted online about the youth for
others to see (p. x)

Ybarra and Internet harassment: An overt, intentional act of aggression towards

Mitchell another person online

(2004)

Patchin and Willful and repeated harm inflicted through the medium of electronic
Hinduja (2006) text (p. 152)

Slonje and Aggression that occurs through modern technological devices and
Smith (2008) specifically mobile phones or the Internet (p. 147)

Willard (2007) Sending or posting harmful or cruel texts or images using the Internet or
other digital communication devices (p. 1)

Juvoven and The use of the Internet or other digital communication devices to insult
Gross (2008) or threaten someone (p. 497)

30
Li (2008) Bullying via electronic communication tools such as e-mail, cell phone,
personal digital assistant (PDA), instant messaging, or the World Wide
Web (p. 224)

Smith et al., An aggressive, intentional act carried out by a group or individual, using
(2008) electronic forms of contact, repeatedly or over time against a victim who
cannot easily defend him or herself (p. 376)

Besley (2009) The use of information and communication technologies to support

deliberate, repeated, and hostile behavior by an individual or group, that
is intended to harm others

All of the definitions listed have one similar component, which is the use of the
Internet or electronic means in which to instigate harm. There have been
changes over time, as technology has advanced. Initially, Finkelhor et al., (2000)
included youth in their definition, whereas the other authors do not include an
age demographic as part of their definitions, as it is not only youth who involve
themselves in cyberbullying behaviours. Moreover, only three of the nine
definitions listed mention that the cyberbullying act needs to be repeated in
order for it to be considered cyberbullying. This is an important distinction, as
repetition has often been found to play an integral role in cyberbullying and is
discussed further on in this chapter.

Again, it may be that the speed of technological development is outpacing

research output in this field (Kessel Schneider et al., 2012) and there is a gap
between definitions and understandings. Similarly, Law et al., (2011) argued
that as the construct of bullying is not fully understood or defined, it is difficult
to conceive of the entire scope of the term.

There are other issues that are still being explored when it comes to both the
widely accepted definition of bullying by Olweus and the definition of
cyberbullying, as given by Tokunaga at the beginning of this section. The issue of
repetition is one such issue. In instances of traditional bullying the repetition is
easily pinpointed, whereas in cyberbullying the repetition may not be occurring
by the initial perpetrator. According to Slonje, Smith and Frisen (2013), “a single

31
act by one perpetrator may be repeated many times by others, and experienced
many times by the victim. If the repetition is not carried out by the perpetrator,
is this still cyberbullying?” (p. 27).

An important part of the former definition states that it occurs “over time”
(Olweus, p. 10, 1999). Interestingly, it has been argued that long-lasting
anxieties over a bullying incident may make it feel repetitive (Tattum, 1989).
Additionally, it was found that young people did not consider the frequency
when deciding whether or not a bullying act had occurred, and that once or
twice was enough (Guerin and Hennessy, 2002) to be thought of as bullying.

This is increasingly important when applied to the pervasive and repetitive

nature of cyberbullying; even if young people turn off their computers or mobile
devices, when they are turned back on, the victimisation begins anew, or
continues on from where it left off (Kowalski et al., 2008). It has been suggested
that young people who are cyberbullied suffer from an increase in symptoms of
anxiety and depression over those who have not been similarly victimised
(Kowalski and Limber, 2013). In order to further explore the damaging, pervasive
and repetitive nature of cyberbullying, it is necessary to investigate the online
media through which young people engage in these activities.

2.3.2 The role of social media

According to boyd (2007) social media refers to the phenomenon of Internet

based applications that allow people to create and exchange content using
digital network technology. Social media websites and applications allow users
to socialise, engage with peers and acquire knowledge (Hamm et al., 2015).
These can be accessed from a computer, tablet device, or mobile phone.

Early usage of social media occurred on sites such as Myspace (boyd, 2007;
Hinduja and Patchin, 2008), as well as through the use of texting and e-mail
(Hoff and Mitchell, 2008). Today, websites and social media applications
including Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat (Chisolm, 2014; Marwick
and boyd, 2014) are used by young people and adults the world over. 81% of
American youth were found to use social media in 2012 (Hamm et al., 2012) and
according to Pew Research, 94% of young people in the UK use social media as

32
well (2012). Additionally, 93% of teenagers use Facebook (Lenhart, 2012;
Purcell, 2012) and the average adolescent has 300 friends on their social media
accounts (Madden et al., 2013).

Young people use social media as an extension of their social life and it is a part
of their quotidian activities (boyd, 2014). Instagram, Twitter and Facebook are
all used to connect with peers socially when they are unable to connect in
person. Social media is the mall of the digital generation allowing for young
people to maintain connections and socialise and ‘hang out’ (boyd, 2014) with
one another. The usage of social media allows for numerous opportunities to
connect with friends and peers and others with similar interests (O’Keefe et al.,
2011).

Young people use social media to construct their persona by setting up their
profile to allow aspects of their personality to be shared (Livingstone, 2008).
This is often done by sharing their likes and dislikes in conjunction with profile
pictures and status updates. Peers then can comment on these profiles and
pictures, which allows for “a reciprocal exchange of mutual support”
(Livingstone, p. 399, 2008).

This was most explicit on the now less popular MySpace, where users could
change and update their profiles and backgrounds easily. Profile pictures
associated with a user account are often used to emphasise assets and to de-
emphasise body size, especially by girls. In addition, these images are given
value by their friends and peers ‘liking’ their pictures in addition to comments
given on sites and applications, like Facebook, Twitter and Instagram (Ringrose
et al., 2013).

As young people are often likely to ‘friend’ the majority of students in their year
or school, this opens up the possibility for a larger audience to witness messages
and images of those who were not the original participants of the conversation,
especially on Facebook (Marwick and boyd, 2014). Conflict and drama may
ensue, among girls in particular (boyd, 2014).

33
Social media is now an important part of the social lives of young people and
quickly developed significant cultural resonance (boyd, 2007) in a short period of
time. According to Livingstone, Mascheroni and Staksrud (2016), “today’s
children are - or wish to be – ‘always on,’ with both they and their families and
their schools relying on the Internet for any and all dimensions of childhood”
(p2).

The attraction of various platforms of social media, according to boyd (2014) is

that each form of mobile technology is used for a different purpose. For
example, Facebook is often used to connect with friends and share photographs
after an event. While young people use multiple forms of social media, often at
once, it has been found that one application does not replace another, “but,
rather, becomes integrated into a bundle of media use that includes online and
offline forms of communication” (Quan-Haase and Young, p. 350, 2010). Each
form of social media communication has unique communication needs that other
forms cannot fill (Quan-Haase and Young, 2010).

While social media can be used for both socialisation and education, it has also
become a venue for cyberbullying behaviours. It can be used to exclude,
denigrate, and ridicule through the usage of behaviours such as posting a public
message or threat on someone’s Facebook wall, or deleting someone from their
friends list (Chisolm and Day, 2013). Furthermore, there is a range of articles
that have begun to focus on young people and the ways in which they use social
media for nefarious purposes. A multitude of them focus on the negative aspects
of social media and exclusion, including issues related to body image, sexting
and sexual identities, which was not a focal point of the research undertaken in
this thesis, but are important to mention.

As mentioned before, images are given value by the number of likes and
comments pertaining to each. In order to find ways to increase the value of their
images, it has been found that girls often utilise provocative images, despite the
inappropriate attention that such an image may garner. Those taking such
pictures may face slut-shaming from peers or legal consequences as a result
(Ringrose et al., 2013). In addition, platforms such as Facebook and BBM allow
for body objectification and sexting to occur, which then provides a further

34
means of quantifying which peer is better looking via the number of likes on a
picture posted therein (boyd, 2007; Ringrose et al, 2013).

Social media has replaced the “the street or coffee shop as the ‘place’ where
much discussion, interaction, and ‘hanging out’ between teens goes on” (boyd,
p. 5, 2014). It is an important part of their daily lives and is used to help model
their identities (boyd, 2007). While it is a way for young people to maintain
contact with one another, it is also used for devious and nefarious purposes such
as cyberbullying. In the next section, what characterises both victims and bullies
as related to traditional and cyberbullying will be discussed.

2.4 Bullies and victims

Building on the concept and definitions of bullying, this section illustrates the
various characteristics of both bullies and cyberbullies. This section also
addresses the traits that victims possess in both traditional and cyber form, and
concludes with a discussion of the effects of cyberbullying.

2.4.1 Characteristics of bullies and cyberbullies

Research has shown that traditional bullies share predictors of bullying

behaviours including anger, depression, anxiety (Crawford and Manassis, 2011),
substance abuse, fighting, below average academic achievement, and early
school termination (Ericson, 2001; Nansel et al., 2001; Ybarra and Mitchell,
2004). Young people who are involved in cyberbullying, share similar
characteristics to their traditional counterparts (Festl and Quant, 2013). While
some studies have contended that cyberbullies tend to be males (Li, 2006;
Slonje and Smith, 2008), several others have found either no gender difference
(Patchin and Hinduja, 2006; Smith et al., 2008) or have found girls to be more
actively involved than boys (Kowalski and Limber, 2007). Moreover, Hinduja and
Patchin (2006) found that gender and race were not significant characteristics
and that youth who maintained an online presence were more likely to be
targeted. This suggests that addressing online activities overall is the key to
addressing cyberbullying, rather than a gendered approach aimed at prevention.

35
2.4.2 Characteristics of victims and cybervictims

According to O’Higgins-Norman and Connelly (2011), bullying “transcends social

boundaries and can result in psychological and emotional trauma, including low
self-esteem, poor academic performance, depression, and in some cases,
violence and suicide" (p. 287). While cyberbullying occurs in the virtual realm,
the physical and emotional responses have a devastating effect on young people
(Connell et al., 2013). Victims report being depressed, anxious, lonely (Beran
and Li, 2007; O’Moore, 2012; Patchin and Hinduja, 2006; Ybarra, Mitchell, Wolak
and Finkelhor, 2006) as well as rejected (Hinduja and Patchin, 2007).

While cyberbullying is relatively new compared to traditional bullying, its effects

are similar. Young people who are on the receiving end experience anxiety and
depression, as well as a long list of physical and mental issues such as anger and
frustration (Hinduja and Patchin, 2007). It can also cause insomnia (Murray et
al., 2012), isolation (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2013), and difficulties in school (Hoff
and Mitchell, 2009), including a reduction in attendance and performance
(Bauman and Yoon, 2014), abuse of drugs and alcohol, and suicidal ideation (Hay
et al., 2010; Marr and Field, 2011; Sabella et al., 2013; Wölfer et al., 2014).
Consequences are not limited to those who are victims as research has found
that cyber victims, bullies and bystanders have all experienced psychological
issues in being involved cyberbullying activities (Junoven and Gross, 2008; Rivers
and Noret, 2013).

Having established that young people experience a wide range of physical and
mental issues after experiencing cyberbullying, we must also now consider how
young people respond to instances of bullying and cyberbullying. Pupils are more
likely to report instances of traditional bullying to their teachers rather than
issues of cyberbullying (Cross et al., 2010). This is often due to the fact that
young people believe that a positive outcome may occur when reporting
traditional in school bullying than they would in reporting cyberbullying (Hunter
et al., 2004). Moreover, young people tend not to report cyberbullying to their
teachers as they believe that there is a lack of understanding about what is
occurring in cyberspace (Cassidy, Brown and Jackson, 2012). Research has also
found that young people are reluctant to report incidents of cyberbullying at all

36
in fear of losing access to technology and the Internet as well as fearing
recrimination from their cyber perpetrator (Yilmaz, 2010).

For the purpose of gaining insight into the characteristics of bullies and victims,
the use of research favouring psychological factors is important. Specifically, it
is critical to understand who is more likely to bully or cyberbully. In addition, it
is just as valuable to understand what happens to those who are victims. These
predictors and outcomes can then be used to determine trends and patterns that
can lead to a sociological approach. For example, General Strain Theory (see
section 2.9.2) is a theory that is used to understand why people turn to crime or
acts of violence. It has been shown that both bullies and victims may be acting
in response to this strain. However, without the understanding of the
psychological stressors, the patterns that emerge may pass unnoticed.

2.5 Gender differences

In this section, differences in gender as it relates to both bullying and

cyberbullying will be discussed. Despite increasing numbers of research on
cyberbullying, there continues to be contradicting information available
regarding gender differences and how it pertains to the phenomenon. In terms of
traditional bullying, boys tended to be the ones involved in physical and more
forceful forms of bullying (Boulton and Smith, 1994; Boulton and Underwood,
1992; Olweus, 1993) and girls tended to favour relational and verbal attacks
(Connell et al., 2014; Craig and Pepler, 2003; Rigby 2002; Sullivan, 2000).

Research into cyberbullying and gender has had mixed results. According to
Shariff (2008), “sufficient research suggests that girls, internationally, are
increasingly found to perpetrate cyber-bullying in groups and are more frequent
users of social networking tools” (p. 40). Many other studies have also found that
girls engage in cyberbullying more (Connell et al., 2013; Jones et al., 2013;
Merrill and Hanson, 2016; Schenk and Frewmou), whereas others have found that
males are more involved in the behaviour (Ackers, 2012; Anderson and Hunter,
2012; Edur-Baker, 2010; Hinduja and Patchin, 2009). Additionally, research has
also found that there is no gender difference at all (Beran and Li, 2007; Hinduja
and Patchin, 2008; Jolliffe and Farrington, 2006; Monks et al., 2012; Smith et

37
al., 2008). As cyberbullying continues to be an investigated phenomenon,
researchers are still determining how gender plays a role in cyberbullying (Ang
and Goh, 2010; Connell et al., 2014).

There are varying differences when it comes to cyberbullying and females. In a

four-year study undertaken in the UK, it was found that girls were being
cyberbullied more frequently via text and email as the duration of the study
went on (Rivers and Noret, 2010). However, this particular study began before
the advent of social media sites such as Facebook and MySpace, and focused on
email, text, and chatrooms.

Similarly, in 2008, Smith et al., found that females were more likely to be cyber
victims but that there was no gender difference when it came to cyberbullying
others. It was also found that girls might be likely to instigate cyberbullying due
to disinhibition (Ang and Goh, 2010). The online disinhibition effect is the
tendency for a young person to say and do things online that they would not do
if they were in the victim’s presence (Bauman, 2013; Suler, 2004). According to
Lapidot-Lefler and Barak (2012), “many of the human behaviors that are
witnessed in cyberspace, including violence, incitement, flaming, and verbal
attacks, on the one hand, and self-disclosure, philanthropy, and the dispensing
of help and advice, on the other, may be attributed to the online disinhibition
effect” (p. 434).

In 2006, Li found that 22% of males and 11% of females (n=256) were cyber
bullies and that 25% of males and 25.6% of females were cyber victims (p. 163),
illustrating that gender effected perpetration rather than victimisation. The
study took place in an urban area and may not be applicable to other regions as
is stated in the conclusion of the article. In a related study, Wang et al. (2009)
had similar results where boys were more likely to be cyber bullies and girls
were more likely to be cyber victims.

Furthermore, in 2011, Mark and Ratliffe found that the greatest discrepancy in
terms of gender and cyberbullying was in victimisation rates. They found that
out of those surveyed that 25% of females and 15% of males (n=247) were cyber
victims (Mark and Ratliffe, 2011). Moreover, recent studies have shown that boys

38
tend to cyberbully more than girls (Tarabulus, Heiman and Olenik-Shmesh, 2015)
but there was no correlation between gender and victim or gender and audience
(Lapidot-Lefler and Dolev-Cohen, 2015).

While more research is necessary in understanding gender differences in

cyberbullying, it is clear that cyberbullying is an increasing issue and gender may
play a role in the behaviour. Akin to the prevalence rates reported throughout
the research, as there are such a wide variety of studies being undertaken
worldwide, and using different questionnaires and definitions, it is hard to
determine a consensus on the issue of gender in cyberbullying research, leading
Patchin and Hinduja (2006) to state that engaging online is what leaves young
people vulnerable to cyberbullying, rather than differences in gender.

2.6 The prevalence of cyberbullying

Building on the discussion of prevalence rates in relation to gender, the overall

prevalence of cyberbullying will be discussed in this section. As stated in section
2.3 cyberbullying is “any behaviour performed through electronic or digital
media by individuals or groups that repeatedly communicates hostile or
aggressive messages intended to inflict harm or discomfort on others”
(Tokunaga, p. 278, 2010). As research interest has increased in this area,
reported prevalence rates for victims have been varied, ranging as low as 2% and
as high as 72% (Hinduja and Patchin, 2014). Additionally, according to Li (2007),
over half of the pupils surveyed knew someone who had been cyberbullied.

In terms of perpetration, the offender rate averaged out to be approximately

15%, but has a range of 2% to 44% (Hinduja and Patchin, 2014). However, due to
self-reporting, these figures could vary due to reluctance to report negative
behaviours (Swearer et al., 2014) and the challenges of defining and
comprehending the definition, as well as researchers using differing definitions
(Naylor et al., 2006; Palfrey et al., 2008). Other factors to take into
consideration are the increase in use and popularity of mobile devices that do
more than allow one to make a phone call, and the increase in Internet and
social media access (Junoven and Gross, 2008; Chisolm, 2014).

39
While the global average for cyberbullying appears to be at 15% (Hinduja and
Patchin, 2014), it is necessary to explore the rates of cyberbullying within the
UK, and additionally Scotland, as a means of comparison to the empirical data
that is discussed in chapter 6. It is important to note that data from the UK is
not as prevalent in academic research as in the United States (US) and that
studies outside of the UK may need to be applied.

2.6.1 England

In 2005, a study by the National Children’s Home (NCH) reported 20% of young
people surveyed had been cyberbullied (Slonje and Smith, 2008). After
additional research, the study actually found that the 20% referred to “digital
bullying,” as these specifically mention “e-mail, Internet chatroom or text”
(NCH, 2005). While this study has been mentioned widely in the research, it is
important to note that it was not an academic study, as it was sponsored by
Tesco Mobile.

In 2010, Rivers and Noret published a paper reporting the findings of their five-
year study, which focused on young people in the north of England and the
receipt of pernicious or threatening emails and/or texts. The findings concluded
that over the five-year period, pupils receiving “one or more nasty or
threatening text messages or emails” (p. 643) increased, especially among girls.
However, the receipt of these messages in general remained stagnant.

While these findings are useful, they tend to be lost among the dramatic changes
that came about with regards to the ways that young people cyberbully. The
study originated before the invention of Facebook and MySpace, and therefore
were not included as part of the study parameters or results. It is also important
to note that this study used a short version of the Olweus Bully/Victim
questionnaire, along with a definition of bullying to explain to the respondents
what bullying is. This definition failed to mention cyberbullying or the use of
technology in bullying, which may have led to a lack of understanding by the
respondents.

Furthermore, in 2008, Smith et al. published the results of two mixed-methods

studies. Both studies found that cyberbullying was less prevalent than traditional

40
bullying, that it occurred outside of schools more than inside schools, and that
phone call and text cyberbullying were the most frequent kinds that occurred. It
was found that in both studies, 5-10% of young people reported being
cyberbullied in the last few months or term (p. 382).

In addition, statistics compiled in March 2013 by nobullying.com stated that 38%

of young people in the UK have been victims of cyberbullying. According to
ChildLine, 4,507 cases were reported in the past year. This indicates that the
number of individuals experiencing bullying nearly doubled from the previous
year, where the reported cases numbered 2,410 in total (Sellgren, 2014).

2.6.2 Scotland

Overall, academic research on bullying and cyberbullying in Scotland is lacking.

In 2005, a paper by Sophie Johnston, with support from LGBT Youth Scotland,
surveyed seventy-six young people in Edinburgh in order to explore the
experience of homophobic bullying among 13-19 year olds. The small-scale
study, focusing on LBGT youth, found that of those surveyed 74% experienced
homophobic bullying (Johnston, 2005).

The academic research specific to cyberbullying in Scotland is even more limited

than the academic research on bullying. A paper published by Scotland’s
Commissioner for Children and Young People, gave an overview of bullying and
cyberbullying including the definition, types, and ways to work toward
prevention. It also stated that 16% of youth reported being cyberbullied, which
was taken from a study by Respect Me, the Scottish Anti-bullying service (2011).
Other studies such as Ditch the Label (2014) had Scottish youth participating,
but they were not a considerable part of the population surveyed. While these
selected studies show that there continues to be widespread bullying and
cyberbullying in UK schools, further on-going studies are required to monitor the
levels and assist those working towards its reduction, as well as to add to the
body of knowledge concerning why young people engage in cyberbullying
behaviours.

41
2.7 The role of the school

In the previous sections, the definitions of bullying and cyberbullying have been
presented along with the ways in which the behaviours impact young people. As
cyberbullying has been found to affect young people inside and outside of
school, it is necessary to address the role of the school as it pertains to
cyberbullying. In this section the role of the school will be addressed, in addition
to how the Catholic ethos impacts the school. In addition, teachers and their
perceptions of cyberbullying behaviours will be explored.

The role of the school in issues of cyberbullying has been found to be mixed
(Cross et al, 2009). Studies have found that cyberbullying can cause problems
with learning and attainment in school (Hoff and Mitchell, 2009) and that the
emotional and psychological effects of cyberbullying carry over from the
victimisation and into schools (Patchin and Hinduja, 2006). While cyberbullying
occurs primarily outside of the school day, research has found that events at
school often precipitate cyberbullying occurring (Cassidy, Jackson, and Brown,
2009). However, questions remain in how schools address issues of cyberbullying
ranging from punishment to jurisdiction (Addington, 2013; Hoff and Mitchell,
2009; Kowalski et al., 2008; Shariff, 2009).

In order to combat issues of cyberbullying, schools have attempted to ban

mobile phone usage in schools. Despite this, Smith et al., (2008) found that
young people would still attempt to use them secretly or continue the
victimisation after school hours. Even if banning mobile usage during the school
day was to occur, cyberbullying will continue outside of school and the
predicaments that relate to cyberbullying will continue to affect young people
throughout their daily lives, including while they are attending school (Smith et
al., 2008).

Further research showed that young people who were victimised were reluctant
to report the cyberbullying for fear of retribution from their bully (Cassidy et
al., 2008) in addition to believing that there would not be a feasible outcome
(Hunter et al., 2004) or that their teachers were unable or ill equipped to handle
the issue (Eden, Heiman and Olenik-Sherman, 2013).

42
The U.K government recommended that all schools have cyberbullying
incorporated within their anti-bullying policies, yet only 32% of schools had done
so by 2008 (Smith et al., 2012). The study concluded that the policies evaluated
had a reasonable establishment of sanctions that included involving parents,
however there was little mention in evaluating practices, or explanations of how
to address continued victimisation.

2.7.1 The Catholic school ethos

Having established the role of the school, it is important to also consider the
role of the Catholic school ethos as the research that has taken place as part of
this thesis occurred within Catholic schools. In the UK, faith based schools are
state-funded (McKinney and Conroy, 2014). In Scotland, Catholic schools make
up most of the faith based schools providing education (McKinney and Conroy,
2014; The Scottish Government, 2013). Within these schools, teachers wish to
instil faith and respect in their pupils through the use of the Gospel (Johnson and
Castelli, 2000; Sullivan and McKinney, 2013).

According to Rutter et al., (1979) ethos is the embodiment of values, attitudes

and behaviours that make up a school in its entirety. In a Catholic School, this is
embodied in its mission and teachings. In Gravissimum Educationis, Paul VI
(1965) stated:
So, indeed the Catholic school, while it is open, as it must be, to
the situation of the contemporary world, leads its students to
promote efficaciously the good of the earthly city and also
prepares them for service in the spread of the Kingdom of God, so
that by leading an exemplary apostolic life they become, as it
were, a saving leaven in the human community (8).

This statement suggests that the learning environment of the Catholic school is
founded in the Gospel teachings, yet open to the considerations of the secular
world.

The purpose of the Catholic school “is fundamentally a synthesis of culture and
faith, and a synthesis of faith and life” (Congregation for Catholic Education, n.
37, 1977). Catholic schools should be endeavouring to focus on these
relationships and relationship building (Cook and Simonds, 2011; O’ Neill, 1979).

43
This would mean having respect for oneself, God, and others. Therefore, this
relationship in conjunction with the school ethos should lead to decreased
instances of bullying activities.

The overall mission of the Catholic Church is to continue the work of Jesus
Christ. Furthermore, the “mission of the Church to all people means that the
Church must be concerned with all aspects of the life of humanity, including
education” (McKinney, p. 149, 2011). Therefore, the ethos of the Catholic school
involves the creation of an environment where “a special atmosphere animated
by the gospel spirit of freedom and charity (Paul VI, 8)” exists.

While the ethos of the school is built upon these religious foundations, the
Church has provided statements that address the concerns of the secular world,
including issues of the Internet. The Pontifical Council for Social
Communications stated In Church and the Internet (2002):
The Internet places in the grasp of young people at an unusually
early age an immense capacity for doing good and doing harm, to
themselves and others. It can enrich their lives beyond the dreams
of earlier generations and empower them to enrich others' lives in
turn. It also can plunge them into consumerism, pornographic and
violent fantasy, and pathological isolation.

While not specifically stated, this statement can be applied to issues related to
cyberbullying as it alludes to the dangers that can be experienced engaging in
online activities.

2.7.2 The role of teachers

As both the school and the Catholic ethos have been considered, it is also
important to address the role of the teachers and their role in working with
young people and how they recognise, understand, and address cyberbullying
incidents.

A small-scale study on bullying and efficacy in intervening in bullying was

undertaken by Byers, Caltabiano and Caltabiano (2011). Sixty-two Catholic
schoolteachers in Australia participated and the results found that overall,
teachers found overt incidents of bullying (such as physical and verbal
altercations) were more serious than covert acts of bullying. Furthermore,

44
teachers often believed that acts of social exclusion were not considered
bullying, and they were more likely to intervene in overt incidents of bullying
over covert. Teachers also reported having a lack of training related to
addressing and recognising bullying apart from classroom management strategies
that were obtained during teacher training.

Very few studies have focused on the role of educators and perceptions of
cyberbullying. Most research has focused on pre-service teachers rather than
those who are currently teaching. One such study was conducted by Li (2008)
where it was found that the majority of teachers who responded did not feel
confident in identifying or managing issues of cyberbullying within their
classrooms.

In a replication of Li’s 2008 study, Yilmaz (2010) found that more than half of
the respondents felt confident in handling and managing issues of cyberbullying.
This was a surprising find, as was the finding that the majority of teachers were
willing to learn more about cyberbullying. This was a contradiction of Li’s
findings where less than half of those who responded were willing to learn more
about cyberbullying. Moreover, in a study by Altricher and Posch (2009), it was
found that few teachers (23%) felt they were equipped to handle cyberbullying.
This may be due to not being aware of the victimisation, unlike with traditional
bullying, which teachers have more awareness of (Eden, Heiman and Olenik-
Shemesh, 2013).

Eden, Heiman and Olenik-Shemesh (2013) found that teachers strongly agreed
that cyberbullying is a problem and that they are concerned about it. However,
only 20-38% agreed that they felt confident in identifying and managing it, which
is in alignment with previous findings. In addition, teachers felt that schools
need a strict policy regarding cyberbullying and agreed that more knowledge and
education was necessary in order to be prepared to deal with these behaviours.
Furthermore, Cassidy, Brown and Jackson (2012) found that the knowledgebase
regarding cyberbullying was lacking. Teachers were unfamiliar with the main
means of cyberbullying occurring and older teachers did not understand the
technology (Greenhow, Robelia and Hughes, 2009).

45
Overall, it has been found that teachers are unsure when faced with issues of
cyberbullying (De Smet et al., 2015) and are often uncertain if they can legally
intervene in these issues that have been brought to their attention (Festl et al.,
2014). Others have argued for the suggestion of partnerships between schools
and the wider community (Mason, 2008; Vandebosch, Poels and Deboutte, 2014)
to address the wider implications of cyberbullying.

Cross et al. (2012) found that teachers were addressing cyberbullying issues
regularly in their classrooms, not only with regard to their pupils, but also
concerning instances of bullying of other teachers as well. They found that
pupils were dealing with abusive messages on social media and via text, and
teachers who experienced victimisation were victimised via Facebook and a
website called RateMyTeacher.com.

In conclusion, research has identified that teachers need to be prepared for

issues of bullying and cyberbullying prior to entering the classroom (Stauffer et
al, 2002). Once they are teaching, they need professional development to assist
them in addressing issues of cyberbullying.

2.8 Motivations for cyberbullying

This section explores some of the reasons that young people engage in the act of
cyberbullying. While the majority of research has been cross-sectional data
acquisition focused on measuring rates of cyberbullying, prevalence, and
comparing it to traditional bullying, studies also tend to focus on preventative
measures and their effectiveness as part of their efforts. Gaining insights into
and understanding why young people use electronic devices and social media to
inflict harm on others would help determine the root cause of bullying and
cyberbullying and work towards its eradication.

According to Tokunaga (2010), the majority of research on cyberbullying has

been conducted without the use of theoretical frameworks. Moreover, there
have also been few studies conducted to determine the motivation for
cyberbullying. Motivation in cyberbullying has been found to be for fun (Mishna

46
et al., 2010), revenge (Hinduja and Patchin, 2009), and to improve self-esteem
(Wilson and Campbell, 2011).

Cyberbullying is a relevant societal issue, yet most of the empirical research

that has been done has focused on the psychological aspects (Festl and Quandt,
2013). In 2011, Wilton and Campbell published a paper that explored the reasons
why young people, specifically adolescents, engaged in bullying activities and
behaviours. The study measured the attitudes of 400 pupils, ranging in age from
twelve to seventeen. The results found that the majority of responses for both
bullying traditionally and online were “to get attention from others, making
themselves feel better, to get their own way, and picking on someone who was
different” (p.13). Due to the size limitations of the population involved in the
study, it was found that there were no significant reasons for engaging in
cyberbullying from those individuals who self-reported as a cyberbully (p.13).
Though the data collected is useful the study only focused on the psychological
factors, which in this case was the disinhibition effect, where young people
using the Internet may say things that they would not normally say in person
(Suler, 2004; Wilton and Campbell, 2011). In order to extend this to the
sociological, it would be important to inquire why this disinhibition effect occurs
and, from the social perspective, what is causing young people to act in this
manner.

Notar et al., (2013) provide a comprehensive list of reasons for why young
people cyberbully, including envy, prejudice, religion, gender, and anger. It has
also been found that young people engage in cyberbullying as a need for power
and dominance over another, as well as to raise their own status within their
peer group (Kowalski et al., 2008). Additionally, victimisation has been found to
occur due to appearance, especially body size (Frisen et al., 2007) and obesity
(Griffiths et al., 2012). Young people who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual,
transgender or queer (GLBTQ) are also particularly subjected to bullying and
cyberbullying (Pascoe, 2013).

All but one of these inquiries focused on the psychological. Pascoe (2013) wrote:
A sociology of bullying would shift the unit of analysis from the
individual to the aggressive interaction itself, attend to the social
contexts in which bullying occurs, ask questions about meanings

47
 produced by such interactions and understand these interactions as
not solely the province of young people (p. 89).

This shift in focus would allow the way in which bullying and cyberbullying to be
understood from the sociological rather than the psychological perspective,
allowing for a broader conception of the phenomenon. If 38% of young people in
the UK have been cyberbullied, then the cause is greater than the individual
factors listed above. What societal pressures are causing young people to act in
this way? Is it due to structural and cultural inequalities that make up society,
causing young people to become involved in bullying and cyberbullying
behaviours?

In addition to the issues surrounding the definition, prevalence and gender issues
in relation to cyberbullying, is the lack of a unified conceptual or theoretical
framework. The majority of the research has focused on the psychological and
the demographic issues of the phenomenon (Festl and Quant, 2013). As
addressed in the following section, 51 papers analysed in this thesis explicitly
mentioned a theoretical or conceptual framework. Of these, the theories ranged
from the biological to the psychological, the sociological or a combination of
both perspectives.

2.9 Theoretical framework

The focus of this thesis is to employ a theoretical framework grounded in

sociology in order to understand the complexity of cyberbullying as a form of
exclusion. In particular, this study seeks to elucidate why young people exclude
others to the point of alienation and utilise bullying and cyberbullying
behaviours as a means of exclusion.

In this section, the theoretical approach to position cyberbullying sociologically

is explored with particular reference to social exclusion. A greater explanation
and understanding is necessary of this phenomenon, particularly in light of the
increased media reports on young people, cyberbullying and suicide (Hinduja and
Patchin, 2010).

48
As stated in the Introduction, the theoretical approach that is utilised in this
thesis is Elias’s Established and Outsider relations and will be presented further
on in this section. Prior to addressing this framework, the other theoretical
frameworks that have been utilised in cyberbullying research and that were also
considered for this paper, as well as used to address the deficiencies of
Established and Outsider relations will be explored.

There are various theories that have potential value for understanding
cyberbullying. These theories come from the fields of both psychology and
sociology. Throughout the survey of literature undertaken here, 51 had explicitly
stated theoretical frameworks. In reviewing these studies, there was an overlap
in theories utilised, thus offering a starting point for addressing the various
theories and concepts that are used to understand and/or explain bullying and
cyberbullying. Despite this, the majority of the research undertaken has been
completed without a theoretical agenda according to Tokunaga (2010). While
numerous frameworks have been utilised and recommended, few scholars have
shared similar theoretical underpinnings, while the majority of the scholarship
that is available fails to include a theoretical approach.

In order to explain and understand the causes of cyberbullying and social

exclusion, it was important to view the phenomenon using various psychological
and sociological theories. This does not mean that a single theory approach
should be employed, even if possible, but rather a common approach would be
prudent in providing a conceptualised framework that researchers can draw on,
compare, and refer to in future research undertakings.

2.9.1 Psychological theories

When investigating the motives behind cyberbullying and social exclusion, using
psychological theories is heavily favoured in the research (Tokunaga, 2010; Festl
and Quant, 2013; Olweus, 2013). Psychological theories focus on the perspective
of the individual and their internal motivations to engage in these behaviours.
Social identity theory, for one, was selected in part due to its incorporation of
the social groups that make up the lives of young people. In addition, socio-
ecological theory was selected as it was widely used in the literature because,
by its nature, many other theories are rooted in this overarching framework

49
(Bauman and Yoon, 2014), and due to the fact that bullying and cyberbullying
can be explored with a greater context related to the individual.

Social identity theory

Social identity theory assesses the connections between the social groups that
make up the lives of young people. Henri Tajfel initially defined social identity
as “the individual’s knowledge that he belongs to certain social groups together
with some emotional and value significance to him of this group membership”
(p. 292, 1972). These group memberships help shape a young person’s identity
and the “group identity becomes an integral part of their self-concept and how
that individual perceives him- or herself within the social world” (Killen and
Rutland, p. 62, 2013). At the same time, social identity is linked to how we
perceive group membership (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). When an individual joins
a group, they become labelled as a member, or a part of the group and it
becomes part of their identity.

Young people use bullying, cyberbullying, and social exclusion to maintain group
status and to foster their sense of identity (Espelage, Holt, and Henkel, 2003).
They also use their status within a group (especially one with a higher social or
popular standing) to exert power over others and exclude those that they find
less desirable (Craig and Pepler, 2003).

Hoff and Mitchell (2008) studied the causes and frequency of cyberbullying in
addition to exploring the psychological impact that it had on young people using
social identity theory as their theoretical lens. The study took place over an
academic year and involved 351 students and employed a mixed-methods
approach. It was found that over 56 % of respondents were affected by
cyberbullying, with females experiencing a significantly higher rate at 72.1%
versus 27.9% of males (Hoff and Mitchell, 2008). They found that cyberbullying
emerged from relationship issues between peers; that victims experienced
negative effects on their self-esteem; and the responses from other young
people and schools were ineffectual (p 654-5). Additionally, it was found that
the exclusion that occurred (in terms of relationship issues) fell into four
categories: “break-ups, envy, intolerance, and ganging up” (p. 656).

50
It is within this categorical exclusion that Hoff and Mitchell (2008) were able to
classify the exclusionary behaviour as “out-group abuse” and “object abuse.”
“Out-group abuse is cruelty to anyone not in “the in group.” The term “out-
group” comes from social identity theory” (p. 656-7). Coming from a
psychological perspective, they found this connected well with their original
premise. In terms of exclusion and cyberbullying related to “out-group abuse,” it
was found that females were more likely to experience this in terms of
popularity and appearance. Males also experienced abuse related to appearance,
usually related to physical ability (p. 657) as well as receiving abuse related to
sexual orientation, perceived or otherwise.

While the results are well within the parameters of the established norm in
terms of rates of cyberbullying (see section 2.4), the method employed in
obtaining the data appears to be flawed as it asked respondents to reflect back
on experiences that occurred in earlier years of schooling, rather than what was
currently occurring. Moreover, this data ends up being widespread, rather than
targeted to a specific locality, as the population in question was attending
university and the responses relate to earlier experiences in elementary and
secondary schools across the country. In addition, the survey asked the
respondents to relay past acts and information, which may not be reliable or
valid, as it relies on individual recollections of past events (Himmelweit,
Biberian, and Stockdale, 1978).

In conclusion, young people use their sense of self to foster a sense of identity
within and outside of the group by excluding others from the group through
cyberbullying. In doing so, they are protecting the group and maintaining their
group status or even increasing it. While this framework is useful in analysing the
empirical data of this thesis, and would be helpful in understanding why young
people join certain groups, social identity theory has not at this time been used
to determine why young people engage in social exclusion and cyberbullying.

Social-ecological approach

51
Espelage and Swearer (2004) and Cowie and Jennifer (2008) favour an ecological
model for understanding bullying behaviours, similar to the one used by
Bronfenbrenner, a developmental psychologist, as a way of examining bullying
and cyberbullying behaviours. “This framework views youth behaviour as shaped
by individual characteristics and a range of nested contextual systems of
schools, adults, neighborhoods, and society” (Swearer et al., p. 42, 2010). This
model places the individual at the centre and society as the overarching feature
surrounding it. The reciprocal model endeavours to clarify how young people
situate themselves and behave within the society to which they belong. It was
developed to help understand the interactions between personal and
environmental factors.
As Swearer and Doll (2001) explain:
Bronfenbrenner (1977) describes this eco-system with his classic
diagram resembling a target, with the child at the center and
concentric, reciprocal circles representing contexts from those
closest to the child (family) to those furthest away (community) (p.
10).

Figure 2-2 The social-ecological model

The studies favouring the socio-ecological model have focused on the application
of the model in a theoretical sense, rather than focusing on an investigative
approach. First, Swearer and Doll (2001) believe bullying is an ecological
phenomenon that has emerged from individual, social, physical, institutional,
and community contexts (p.9). Once bullying is understood in this way, the
results can go on to shape and change policy and procedures in schools in order
to lessen the degree of bullying and social exclusion occurring.

4
From http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/overview/social-ecologicalmodel.html

52
While the research by Swearer and Doll focuses solely on bullying, it would be
interesting to find out if cyberbullying can be conceptualised in the same
manner that traditional bullying was and if so, what kinds of conclusions would
be presented. Swearer and Doll (2001) conclude that partnerships need to occur
between families and schools in order to intervene in bullying behaviours. As
cyberbullying takes place online, this would require getting online agencies like
Facebook, for example, to cooperate with any recommendations along with
schools and parents in order to facilitate such partnerships.

Similar to Swearer and Doll’s (2001) perspective, Espelage (2014) focuses on

peer victimisation rather than social exclusion. Once again, the socio-ecological
model is used as a framework, rather than a conduit for empirical research. The
outcome favours additional investigation into the chronosystem, which includes
the family structure and changes to it as well, including the family history.

As mentioned earlier, there would be an impact if additional research and

exploration were to occur with regard to the socio-ecological system and
cyberbullying. Perhaps another layer would need to be added to the system to
include social media and its ilk, or the current model could be modified to fit it
within the chronosystem, which has historically been positioned to include the
societal perspective.

In conclusion, socio-ecological theory is an intricate system of interplaying

facets. This allows for an understanding of the causes of social exclusion through
the interaction of the different levels or risk factors that make up the
foundation of the model. While this model may have its uses in gaining an
understanding of social exclusion, it has only been used in one empirical study.
In a study by Festl and Quandt (2013), the socio-ecological approach was used to
explain and explore the socio-demographics (the groups and classes) of the
schools involved. Results showed that boys tended to be perpetrators and girls
and younger students tended to be victims.

Both social identity theory and socio-ecological theory are frameworks that
could be useful in various aspects of social exclusion and cyberbullying.
However, neither of these perspectives accurately provides a reliable framework

53
to address the reasons why young people engage in cyberbullying and social
exclusion. The model has been used to help address the causes of school bullying
and violence (Cowie and Jennifer, 2008), as well as assist in the understanding
of school bullying and violence and future implications and prevention
programmes (Swearer and Doll, 2001).

2.9.2 Sociological theories

Sociology is the study of social problems, which thus include cyberbullying and
social exclusion. The aim of this section is to offer a theoretical model allowing
for a greater understanding of social exclusion and cyberbullying. The
sociological perspective has not been prevalent in research into bullying and
cyberbullying thus far, but recently some researchers have become interested in
the sociology of bullying (Bansel et al., 2009; Neves and Pinheiro, 2010; Pascoe,
2013; Søndergaard, 2012).

Furthermore, Chatzitheochari et al., (2016) and Faris and Felmlee (2014) have
explored the sociological perspective of bullying and cyberbullying. These
approaches have begun to focus on “asymmetric power relationships and the
role of bullying for social climbing” (Chatzitheochari, Parsons and Platt (p. 4) as
opposed to focusing on the motivation of the individual in engaging in
victimisation and exclusionary practices.

Following this framework, bullying behaviours are seen as a means of attaining

social status within the peer group at school. Victimisation therefore occurs in
order to reinforce the aforementioned power relationships and maintain their
position within the group hierarchical structure. The victimisation and bullying
often occurs by means of exclusion and denigration as described earlier in this
chapter. It also often occurs toward those who are described as ‘easy targets,’
or who are weak and vulnerable (Chatzitheochari, et al., (2016). In addition, it is
those who do not fit the established norms of the peer group that are more
likely to be targeted (Olweus, 1993; Sweeting and West 2001; Wang, Iannotti,
and Luk, 2010).

While the research undertaken by Chatzitheochari, et al.,(2016) focused on the

experiences of young people who are disabled, the research could apply to other

54
marginalised groups who are seen as ‘others’ or ‘outsiders’, as they are the
populations that are frequently victimised (Faris and Felmlee, 2014). This would
include any of the groups or reasons discussed earlier in this chapter, in section
2.8, such as those who identify as GLBTQ (Pascoe, 2013).

Understanding bullying and cyberbullying sociologically means understanding the

“normalised practices of power in schools” (Bansel et al., 2009). This power
clash usually involves those who are viewed as strong engaging in exclusionary
and denigrating practices in order to gain status (Faris and Felmlee, 2014).
Young people will readily exclude others in person or online using both overt and
covert behaviours, including but not limited to taunting and text messaging
(Faris and Felmlee, 2014). Furthermore, this bullying may evolve out of the
panic of anxiety faced by an individual or group member toward another peer
who “displays the vulnerability and exposure that group members share and
most fear” (Søndergaard, p. 362, 2012).

This sociological framework of bullying is strongly connected with the

theoretical framework employed in understanding cyberbullying, Elias’s
Established and Outsider relations, was selected due its ability to help
understand the inequalities, power dynamics, and social exclusion that make up
bullying and cyberbullying behaviours which will be discussed further on in this
section. Despite this, Elias’s theory does have its shortcomings for understanding
social exclusion and cyberbullying, in particular issues with anonymity and
exclusion between peers for revenge. For these reasons, General Strain Theory
was selected as it helps address issues with peer exclusion in addition to helping
understand the emotional aspects behind cyberbullying with a sociological
framework. A further reason is that it has received a great of attention in the
literature.

General Strain Theory

General Strain Theory (GST) is a theory of criminology developed by Robert

Agnew in 1992. The theory states “individuals who experience strains or
stressors often become upset and sometimes cope with crime” (Agnew, p. 169,
2010). Agnew describes strains as the following: “Strains are said to be most

55
likely to result in crime when they (1) are seen as unjust, (2) are seen as high in
magnitude, (3) are associated with low social control, and (4) create some
pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping” (Agnew, p. 319, 2001). Such
individuals may engage in crime to “end or escape from their strains” (Agnew, p.
169, 2010). We can thus interpret crime as acts of exclusion.

Furthermore, Agnew states that “a student may assault the peers who are
harassing him” (Agnew, 2010), and we can interpret assault as a verbal,
physical, or cyberbullying attack. We can infer that the student was
experiencing stress or multiple stressors from being harassed and turned to
assault (a crime) to alleviate the stress or stressors. Moreover, Agnew (2006) also
argues that “they become upset, experiencing a range of negative emotions,
including anger, frustration, and depression. And they cope with their strains
and negative emotions through crime. Crime may be a way to reduce or escape
from strains” (p. 2-3). This can be interpreted from the perspective of both the
bully and the victim.

There are many thoughts as to why students bully. Bullies are thought of as the
dominant figure in the bully/victim dynamic. It has been thought that bullies are
aggressive, prone to violence, and do not suffer from a lack of self-esteem.
Bullies may be combative toward both peers and adults. According to Olweus,
“[g]enerally, bullies have a more positive attitude toward violence than students
in general. Further, they are often characterized by impulsivity and a strong
need to dominate others” (p. 1180, 1994). This definition resonates strongly with
Agnew’s GST. Bullies are experiencing some type of strain, be it trouble at
home, school, and clearly with peers. They bully and/or turn to violence,
aggression, or acts of crime to alleviate this strain.

At the same time, victims can also cope with strains through crime. Victims of
bullying experience a wide range of emotional complexities. Olweus states that
victims are “more anxious and insecure than other students in general. Further,
they are often cautious, sensitive, and quiet. When attacked by other students
they commonly react by crying (at least in the lower grades) and withdrawal.
Also, victims suffer from low self-esteem, they have a negative view of
themselves, and their situation; they often look upon themselves as failures and
feel stupid, ashamed and unattractive” (Olweus, p, 1178, 1994). Compounded by

56
all of these negative emotions, victims also show a predisposition to mental
health issues. These issues arise as a result of the constant strain of torment,
including depression, anxiety, parasuicide, self-harm (cutting), and suicide (Marr
and Field, 2011).

Hay, Meldrum, and Mann surveyed approximately 400 young people in the US in
2008. They were interested in the criminogenic effects of bullying, the effects of
bullying on criminal and non-criminal behaviour, and whether or not there were
differences in the effects of bullying on males and females. The results showed
that cyberbullying was a source of strain that can lead to other forms of
victimisation, but it did not explain why young people engage in cyberbullying.

In 2011 Patchin and Hinduja published an article analysing the study of bullying
and cyberbullying behaviours using GST. They were looking to determine
whether or not young people experiencing strain were more likely to engage in
bullying behaviours.

Using both traditional and non-traditional types of bullying Patchin and Hinduja
(2011) surveyed approximately 2,000 students of middle school age. The findings
showed that a significant portion of middle school students were involved in
both types of bullying. It was also found that there was a direct relationship
between strain and both traditional and cyberbullying; more strain led to more
engagement in both traditional and cyberbullying behaviours. As a result,
Patchin and Hinduja hypothesized that young people may engage in bullying
activities as a response to strain in their lives (2011).

As this study was specific to the sample surveyed, it would be interesting to find
if the results would replicate to young people in other parts of the world. It
would also be thought provoking to find if the results would be similar if
measured again in a year, especially with the older students. As this study was
done using a middle school population with an average age of twelve, seeing if
the results surrounding strain changed as they moved further into adolescence
would be helpful in understanding cyberbullying and its causes.

It was found that there was a direct relationship between strain and both
traditional bullying and cyberbullying. The more strain experienced by youth
equalled more engagement in bullying and cyber bullying behaviours. It could be

57
inferred that engagement in bullying behaviours could lead to further delinquent
behaviours.

In a related study by Cullen et al. (2008), GST was used as a basis of their
investigation and survey of 2,437 middle school students on bullying behaviours
and their relationship to involvement in juvenile delinquency. They specifically
looked at whether or not being bullied led to juvenile delinquency and whether
or not age and gender played a role.

School bullying had a significant but small effect on delinquency across the
board and that the more victimisation occurred so did the likelihood of
misbehaviour and criminal acts. There were no significant differences in terms
of gender and delinquency (Cullen et al., 2008). However, males were more
likely to use drugs and alcohol as a result of bullying.

The data analysis showed that “school bullying victimisation has a small but
significant direct effect on delinquency,” and that peer victimisation plays a role
in “fostering wayward conduct” (p. 356). However, just because a small effect
may be shown, it does not necessarily mean that there is no association or
connection. This study took place over a short period of time, and bullying
happens over time. Had the study been conducted later on, or as part of a
longitudinal study, results could be different.

The studies by Hinduja and Patchin (2011) and Cullen and colleagues (2008) both
show a distinct correlation between bullying victimization and delinquency as a
result of strain. Strain can be thought of as a variety of different concepts
including, as stated in Cullen et al., (2008) issues with parents, self-esteem
issues, low self-control, aggression, and social bonds with the school and peers.

In conclusion, GST is when individuals experience strain or stress and to deal

with this they engage in “crime.” For the purposes of this thesis, crime here
would be the act of engaging in cyberbullying as an act of social exclusion.
Young people who are experiencing strain in their lives will act out and one of
those ways is to act out and engage in cyberbullying to cope. GST focuses more
on "types of strain rather than sources of strain" (Agnew 1992), which is a

58
limitation of this particular theory. It also does not help explain why young
people engage in cyberbullying and social exclusion; rather that “peer abuse”
was a “strain that should be especially consequential for delinquency” (Hay et
al., p. 131, 2010). Also, not all young people that experience strain go on to
engage in deviant acts, including cyberbullying, and the reverse is most likely
the same.

Table 2-2 A summary of the theoretical approaches

Theory Definition Strength Weakness

Social Identity “The individual’s Helps explains young Does not explain
Theory knowledge that he person’s sense of self. why young people
belongs to certain would engage in
social groups cyberbullying.
together with some
emotional and
value significance
to him of this group
membership”
(Tajfel, p. 292,
1972).
Socio-ecological “This framework Helps explain Does not explain
approach views youth bullying/cyberbullying why young people
behaviour as as part of a societal would engage in
shaped by approach. cyberbullying.
individual
characteristics and
a range of nested
contextual systems
of schools, adults,
neighborhoods, and
society” (Swearer
et al., p. 42, 2010).
General Strain “Individuals who Explains why a young Focuses more on
Theory experience strains person may get the types of strain,
or stressors often involved with rather than the
become upset and cyberbullying as a cause of the strain.
sometimes cope result of experiencing
with crime” strain.
(Agnew, p. 169,
2010).
Established and “Provides a model Explains why young May not address
Outsider Relations for social tensions people engage in issues with
as power cyberbullying due to anonymity in
differentials challenge in power by cyberbullying. Also
between groups another group or may not explain
which may or may individual and helps why peers/friends
not generate violent explain stigmatisation, fall out and
conflict” (Fletcher, marginalisation, and bully/cyberbully

59
 p. 70, 1997). power differentials one another.
within schools.

Table 2-2 provides an overview of the theoretical approaches considered. This

includes the definitions, as well as strengths and weaknesses of each theory as
they relate to understanding cyberbullying as exclusion. Strengths to the above
approaches allow for a deeper understanding of the motivations of young people
and why they engage in the practice of exclusion through understanding sense of
self in the case of SIT. SIT is drawn on later in this thesis in sections 7.3.1 and
7.5 to help explain the distraction of social media and how group involvement in
engaging in cyberbullying can help young people maintain their sense of self.
The socio-ecological approach provides an understanding of the individual as it
relates to themselves and the rest of the world. For both the sociological
theories, GST and Established and Outsider relations help explain the
motivations for engaging in cyberbullying behaviours. Both SIT and the socio-
ecological approach do not provide a rationale as to why young people engage in
exclusionary practices. GST provides a foundation as to why young people may
engage in cyberbullying, but as a response to strain rather than its cause. The
GST framework is utilised later in this thesis in sections 7.3.1 and 7.5 to help
further explain the emotional impact of cyberbullying. It is also used in the
discussion in section 8.6 as an additional approach to help understand
cyberbullying in conjunction with the Established and Outsider framework.

While Established and Outsider relations (the approach utilised in this thesis and
discussed in the following section) helps understand why young people engage in
exclusionary practices, the theory does have its limitations. These limitations
include issues with anonymity in cyberbullying as well as cyberbullying between
specific individuals as there are often other motivations involved in engaging in
cyberbullying, such as psychological factors. While an individual may carry out
exclusionary tactics as part of an established group, there may also be other
motivations or causes that lead to these behaviours. Synthesising the Established
and Outsider framework with GST, for example, allows for the understanding of
cyberbullying and exclusion where psychological factors are also part of the
situation. For example, if a young person is already experiencing strain due to
being cyberbullied or due to other mental health or psychological reasons and

60
then engages in cyberbullying toward another individual group in order to cope
with the strain and stress (Patchin and Hinduja, 2011). Additionally, the
Established and Outsider framework was synthesised with SIT to help understand
group identity as it pertains to cyberbullying behaviours. When young people
have a strong group identity, they are also likely to have a stronger sense of self,
based on group membership and identity. Therefore, these group members may
be more likely to engage in cyberbullying as part of a group. In doing so, they
may find themselves increasingly distracted by, and engaged in, social media
and acts of exclusion of other groups and individuals online (boyd, 2014; Elias
and Scotson, 1994; Espinoza and Junoven, 2011; Tokunaga, 2010).

Established and outsider relations

Established and Outsider relations is the framework that is used in this thesis to
help explain the sociological phenomenon of cyberbullying. In this section, the
origins of Established and Outsider relations are explored, as well as how it has
been used in other sociological research, and how the theory is applied to the
empirical data in this thesis. It has not, to date, been used in research
surrounding the phenomenon of bullying and cyberbullying, but has been used to
explore issues of inequality and power between groups and communities.

This theory could be extremely useful in explaining sociologically, the reasons,

motivations, and driving forces behind social exclusion as it occurs through the
medium of cyberbullying. The outcomes of this research, using established and
the outsiders can provide an expanded understanding of social exclusion and
marginalisation of young people not just within the context of this small study,
but could be applied to larger scale research projects and case studies of
victimised youth.

The initial study by Elias and Scotson endeavoured to examine delinquency and
the differing rates that were occurring between the established community and
the two newer settlements that made up Winston-Parva. As the study
developed, the focus changed from delinquency to a study on the community of
Winston-Parva and its internal relationships. The community became a paradigm
for group behaviour and power conflicts (Elias and Scotson, 1994). It has been

61
used as a model to explore the power differentials, social inequalities, and
conflicts between groups in sociological research since the 1970s.

First, the community, Winston-Parva, as it was known for the purposes of the
study, was made up of three separate communities: one a long standing
settlement and two more recently established ones (Elias and Scotson, 1994).
The three communities had similar demographics with regard, but not limited,
to class, religion and ethnicity (Elias and Scotson, 1994; Powell, 2008). The
primary difference between the groups was related to the amount of time that
they had lived in the community (Loyal and Quilley, 2004; Powell, 2008). In
addition, the established, tightly cohesive group, held greater cultural and social
capital over the outsiders (Lake, 2013). Throughout the duration of the study, it
was found that the established group had stigmatised the newer neighbourhood
due to the high rate of delinquency found in the community. However, by the
third year into the project, the delinquency was no longer an issue; despite that,
the established neighbourhood continued with its practice of stigmatisation
(Elias and Scotson, 1994).

This exclusion and stigmatisation allowed them to regard themselves (the

established) as superior to the newcomers, blaming them for any social disorder
within the community (Scott, Carrington, and McIntosh, 2011), as well as going
so far as to not have any contact with them, unless it was required by their
occupations (Elias and Scotson, 1994). The established group felt that the
perceived power that they held due to their longevity within the community was
in danger of being usurped by the “outsiders”. They felt that the “outsiders”
were less worthy than they were, despite no factual basis to support their
assertions (Sutton and Vertigans, 2002). In order to establish their power and
superiority, they used stigmatisation, exclusion, and gossip as weapons to tarnish
the reputation of the outsiders, relying on the cohesion that the established
group had with one another due to their longevity in the community (Elias and
Scotson, 1994; Dunning and Hughes, 2013).

Elias found that the differences in status of established and outsider groups were
rooted in differences in power, notably inequalities of power (Van Krieken,
1998). Moreover, Elias and Scotson (1994) state:

62
 In Winston-Parva, as elsewhere, one found members of one group casting
a slur on those of another, not because of their qualities as individual
people, but because they were members of a group which they considered
collectively as different from, and as inferior to, their own group. (p. xx).

Established and outsider groups are reinforced by the unequal power dynamics
between them, and without this dynamic, the characterisations of the outsiders
would not have merit and influence. Additionally, according to Sutton and
Vertigans (2002), “when outsider groups are seen as a threat, competitors for
available work, for instance, established groups respond by exaggerating their
own positive aspects and the outsiders’ negative ones (p. 60).

This unequal balance of power left the outsiders at a disadvantage within social
and employment networks within the community. Moreover, the lack of power
left them “vulnerable to the gossip and stigmatization of the more powerful
groups, and over time, members of the outsiders came to accept and take on
the stigmatized form of identity created for them by the established” (Sutton
and Vertigans, p. 61, 2002). Their consequent internalisation of the stigma
pressured the group, causing them to see themselves as inferior, thus reducing
their power in the community even further. Elias and Scotson add that:

their own conscience was on the side of the detractors. They themselves
agreed with the ‘village’ people that it was bad not to be able to control
one’s children or to get drunk and noisy and violent. Even if none of these
reproaches could be applied to themselves personally, they knew only too
well that they did apply to some of their neighbours. They could be
shamed by allusion to this bad behaviour of their neighbours because …
the bad name attached to it … was automatically applied to them too.
(Elias and Scotson, p. 101, 1994).

It is this unequal balance of power between the two groups where the issue is
ultimately rooted. It is not to say that other factors are not an issue when it
comes to power, stigmatisation, or marginalisation. Instead, Elias chooses to
prioritise the power dynamic over other sociological conventions such as class,
race, and religion (Loyal, 2011).

Using the Established and Outsiders as a framework is one way in which social
exclusion can be explained. The established group actively excludes in order to
“maintain their identity, to assert their superiority, keeping others firmly in
their place” (Elias and Scotson, p. xviii, 1994). Additionally, it allows an
understanding of the changes in power dynamics between groups and how these

63
differences manifest in terms of group superiority and inferiority and how
exclusion occurs. This once again shows the strong connection to the sociology of
bullying frameworks mentioned at the beginning of this section and Elias’s
framework.

Elias’s work has thus been used to explain exclusion and stigmatisation. One
such study focused on social exclusion within British tennis clubs. An
ethnographic study was conducted at one specific tennis club to determine
whether or not social exclusion was occurring and at what levels. Lake (2011)
found that despite earlier changes in policy having to do with exclusivity and
clothing, new members were stigmatised by those who had been members of the
club for some time. Lake spent ten months conducting ethnographic research
and was affected by how “precisely and decisively the club was divided” (p. 4).

Using Elias’s framework, Lake (2011) discovered that established club members,
who formed a large cohesive group, actively excluded the new club members by
taking up locker room space, utilising court space at peak times, and ignoring
newer members (p. 7-8). Established members (EM) even went as far as
supporting one another against issues with newer members (NM), as well as
“ignoring breaches of conduct by EMs and siding with each other in
disagreements with NMs” (p. 9).

The tennis club in question was very similar to the figuration of established-
outsider relations found in Winston-Parva. Both the EM and NM groups acted in
similar ways to the established and outsider groups as documented by Elias and
Scotson. Lake’s study illustrated the use and validity of using such a framework
to show how exclusionary tactics both legitimised the EM’s position and
weakened and stigmatised the NM’s position.

In addition to Lake’s study, Loyal (2011) explored established and outsider

relations in Ireland. Between 1999-2008, Ireland’s population increased by 18%,
with immigrants to the country increasing by more than 10% (p. 181). Moreover,
exclusionary tactics experienced by immigrants in Ireland also increased with
the change to the population and culture of the country.

Utilising the Established and Outsider framework, Loyal examined the exclusion
and discrimination faced by the outsiders, the recent immigrant population, by

64
the established group of predominantly Irish citizens. Not unlike the situation
described in Lake’s tennis account, the established group was the one that held
the power and knew the social norms (p. 191). They were also the ones who
discriminated against the immigrants, providing low wages, long working hours
and unfair tactics in their hiring practices.

Loyal’s study differs from Elias’s work in that an entire country is being used as
opposed to a smaller community. Issues related to race and ethnicity are also
being explored that were not a focus in Elias’s work. These issues do not detract
from the basic premise that the established citizens held power and used it to
stigmatise the other, the outsiders, using verbal abuse in some cases. In other
cases, the established group made it increasingly difficult for skilled immigrants
to find employment to improve their status and station. Often immigrants were
left with no choice but to take unskilled labour positions that they were
overqualified for (p. 190), rather than being hired for positions that they had
qualifications for.

Loyal recognises that there were both differences along and similarities between
the Irish situation and Winston-Parva. There are issues of class, social position,
and racism here, issues that were not present in the original study.
Nevertheless, there are still clear and significant barriers between the two
groups that justify the use of the established-outsiders framework in this
context. Loyal expands on the similarities in stating that “the newcomers are
bent on improving their position and the established groups are bent on
maintaining theirs. The newcomers resent, and often try to rise from, the
inferior status attributed to them; and the established try to preserve their
superior status, which the newcomers appear to threaten” (p. 198).

In conclusion, Loyal’s study was far more expansive and covered a great deal
more ground than that of Elias and Scotson. For one, it was no longer a dual
model scenario, but rather one that was comprised of many facets (p. 197). This
does not mean that the established-outsider framework was not useful in the
analysis of the Irish situation. It merely means that, as Elias intended, that the
model could be interpreted to change and adapt as needed according to changes
in society, and according to changes power and stigmatisation as well.

While there are other social theories that could be applied to this particular

65
study, the Established and Outsiders framework is extremely effective in
understanding cyberbullying as an exclusionary process. This study consequently
begins with a focus on three schools in Glasgow, all of which statistically are
similar in terms of demographics, population, and league tables. Elias’s model
can be used to explore how stigmatisation, marginalisation and power
differentials are employed between young people in these three schools.

The Established and Outsiders framework is first used to show how social
exclusion occurs. While in the case of this particular study, established and
outsiders could be replaced by those that are perceived to have power or status
or a lack thereof, or those that have a high perceived social status versus those
with a perceived lower status (Maguire and Mansfield, 1998; Velija, 2012), or
just by being perceived as different, as long as there is a perceived imbalance of
power between individuals or groups that are involved. Young people exclude
and marginalise through the medium of bullying and cyberbullying, a modern
technique of using victimisation and social exclusion (Wang et al., 2010), similar
to how gossip was used to marginalise the outsiders in Winston-Parva.

Utilising Established and Outsider theory, however, entails some difficulties. For
one, it may not address issues regarding cyberbullying with anonymity. It also
may not explain how peers within a group may exclude one another. As such,
other theoretical perspectives, such as Social Identity Theory and GST, may be
employed to address the gaps within Established and Outsider relations.

2.10 Conclusion

Cyberbullying is a form of social exclusion with an imbalance of power that

affects the lives of many young people. Throughout the past 35 years, bullying
research has focused on various aspects of the phenomenon ranging from
prevalence in schools to the establishment and critique of the anti-bullying
programmes that are being used in schools today.

This paper argues that it is only the medium that has changed, not the power
dynamics, especially as cyberbullying is an extension of traditional bullying in
many cases. Bullying is thus being carried over into the cyber world and young
people no longer can count on being outside of school as a safe haven (Olweus,
1978; Dooley, et al. 2009). With technology easily accessible (O’Higgans Norman

66
and Connolly, 2011), it now allows the individuals who would have been
characterised as weak in the past to be those who have the power if they have
access to the necessary technology (computers and mobile phones). Recent
statistics confirm that young people do use computers and mobiles, with 97.5%
stating they have been online in the past five days, 63% owning a mobile device
(Hinduja and Patchin, 2013) and 75% of young people using social media sites
(nobullying.com) and knowledge of how to use them to their advantage (Law et
al., 2011). It is the behaviour that is the issue being addressed here, rather than
the medium through which this behaviour is occurring.

Understanding the relationship between power and status, using the established
and outsiders theory, and applying it to cyberbullying as social exclusion is
crucial in assisting prevention efforts and working toward reducing bullying and
cyberbullying behaviours. Given this rationale, and combined with the critical
review of the literature, this study is conducted through questionnaires
circulated among young people in three Glasgow schools and combined along
with the interviews and perspectives of teachers and educational professionals.

67
 Chapter 3
Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the methodological approach that was applied in this
study. Methodology, according to Billig (1988), involves the procedure
concerning the collection of data and the subsequent analysis of this data.
Moreover, methodology also refers to how a researcher chooses to address their
research overall, including their ontological and epistemological stances.

In the first section (3.2) the research approach is outlined, including both the
ontological and epistemological approaches. Additionally, the research aims and
questions that guided and drove this study are elaborated. In the third section of
the chapter (3.3), the research design is addressed, which explores how the
research project evolved from a quantitative methods study to a mixed methods
approach. The factors that led to this change are outlined in detail.

The following section (3.4) details the first phase of the study, namely the pupil
survey. It explores how the survey was developed, in addition to addressing
sampling and recruitment. It also explores the benefits and limitations of the
survey development and usage.

In section 3.5 the second phase of the study, the educational professional
interviews, is explained. This includes the development of the survey,
recruitment, as well as the interview process itself. The benefits and limitations
of the developed interview guide are also illustrated.

Section 3.6 discusses data management and handling of the data, including the
methods of analysis used in both the quantitative and qualitative phases of
research. In section 3.7, the overall reliability and validity of the study are
discussed. In section 3.8, the relevant ethical considerations are discussed and
lastly, in section 3.9 the role of the researcher concludes the chapter.

68
3.2 Research approach

In this section the approach to the research project is illustrated, including the
ontological and epistemological approaches used. These philosophical
approaches to inquiry helped determine the approach that was utilised in this
research project.

Research into cyberbullying is constantly changing and evolving, especially as
technology continues to advance. While the majority of research on
cyberbullying has been found to be quantitative in nature, there has been an
increase in qualitative and mixed methods research focusing on motive, means,
and opportunity, rather than prevalence. The focus of this research has also
evolved from a focus on prevalence to a focus on understanding motivations
behind the phenomenon of cyberbullying. In order to do so, the detailed
conception of the object of study and how the analysis was to be done, needed
to be defined at the outset.

3.2.1 Ontological and epistemological approach

In social research there are two approaches that can be undertaken,

quantitative and qualitative research. Each has its own framework. Research
methods are influenced by their own philosophical stance as well as the
methodologies employed within the research itself. Quantitative research is an
objective way to measure reality using statistical measures, facts, figures, and
experiments. Qualitative research emerged from a naturalistic or interpretive
paradigm, where the data is collected from a wide-ranging variety of methods
including interviews and focus groups. Once the data is collected, it is analysed
into themes and the findings and theory emerge.

Before the research approach can be determined, a research paradigm needs to
be selected. A paradigm represents the worldview, which includes the nature of
the world, the place of the individual within that world and the range of
relationships to the world and its parts (Guba and Lincoln, 1994). The choice of
paradigm guides the inquiry. From this paradigm, methodology emerges, which
is consistent with the choice that has been made.

69
The first paradigm that was considered was that of the positivist approach. A
positivist approach is consistent with that of scientific inquiry. Knowledge can be
measured empirically and the results replicated through experiments and
analysed quantitatively. The researcher is independent from the research and
does not influence the research process (Waring, 2012).

The second paradigm that was considered was interpretivism. This study takes
an interpretivist approach, a perspective which acknowledges that reality and
social phenomena are in a constant state of flux (Bryman, 2012). Moreover,
these phenomena are based on the individual’s own experiences and
circumstances (Guba and Lincoln, 1994), which is a key part of the qualitative
aspect of the research outcomes.

The interpretivist paradigm stipulates that there are multiple realities (Lincoln
and Guba, 1985) and that these realities emerge from those participating in the
research, rather than being driven by the researcher (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998).
Moreover, this approach seeks to understand “the world of human experience”
(Cohen and Manion, p. 36, 1994). In addition, those who follow an interpretivist
paradigm, allow the data collected to guide their research (Cresswell, 2009).
While initially this research project would have aimed for a more positivist
paradigm, once the initial data was analysed it was clear that interpretivism
would be more appropriate. The project evolved to a mixed methods approach,
which is explored later in this chapter.

3.2.2 Research aims

Out of this inquiry, the aims of the research were developed. The aims of the
research are as follows, in addition to the research questions as introduced in
Chapter 1. In order to provide context to the methods used throughout the
research, this will be summarised here. The research aims are:

1. To determine whether or not cyberbullying is a relevant issue in the
Glasgow schools that participated in this research and whether or not the
results apply to the population at large.
2. To explore the perspective of educational professionals as it relates to
cyberbullying among young people.

70
 3. To determine the nature of cyberbullying.

Once the aims were ascertained, it was then necessary to narrow the
perspective of research by the production of research questions. In this case,
along with the aims, I wished to generalise the findings to the population
(Glasgow), while also examining the findings on a more specific individual level.

According to Bryman (2012), research questions should have focus and should
also be related to one another. Moreover, they should be clear, researchable,
connected to theory and research, and allow the researcher to make an original
contribution to the field of research (p. 90). The research questions (See
Chapter 1) were developed after careful study and after extensive reading and
research into the topics of cyberbullying and exclusion.

As these questions focus on experiences as well as opinions, it was necessary for
the research to be flexible in design, rather than taking a fixed approach.
Flexible design allows for changes and encourages revisiting all phases of the
research design as the process continues, allowing the framework of the study to
emerge as it progresses (Robson, 2011).

3.3 Research design

In this section, the research design is discussed. This includes the change from
quantitative methods to a mixed methods approach.

Initially, the study began as a purely quantitative study (Phase One), but soon
evolved to a mixed methods approach comprised of an online survey and semi-
structured interviews with educational professionals (Phase Two). The survey
was utilised to inform the study, beginning with measures to obtain information
from students. Moreover, the interviews were conducted to elicit information
from educational professionals on the impact of cyberbullying on young people.
A third phase was proposed and approved by the ethics committee, but
ultimately was unsuccessful (See Chapter 8 for the discussion of limitations of
this study).

71
The research aims were established in order to gain a greater understanding of
cyberbullying as exclusion in Glasgow secondary schools due to the limited
research that has taken place regarding cyberbullying and why young people
engage in the behaviour. While the initial aims of the research were purely
quantitative, it was determined that a different methodological approach would
be needed in order to explore research aims two and three. A mixed methods
design was implemented that applied both quantitative methods and qualitative
methods. A mixed methods approach allows the researcher to utilise
quantitative and qualitative information as well as all tools of data collection.

This approach has become more popular and prevalent in social research over
the past twenty years (Robson, 2011). While there have been criticisms over
combining the two methods such as timing issues in completing research, and
difficulty integrating findings (Bryman, 2004), there are also benefits in using a
mixed methods approach. Mixed methods allows for the integration of both
methods to assist in gaining a greater appreciation for the research aims and
questions. Moreover, they are complimentary and allow for the researcher to
obtain a more robust analysis when used together (Ivankova, Cresswell and Stick,
2006).

In the case of this research project, the utilisation of only one method was not
advantageous. In order to gain a greater understanding of the research aims, the
addition of a qualitative study was necessary. It has been found that one
research approach, for example a quantitative study that did not yield
anticipated conclusions, found value added to the data when adding in a
qualitative approach such as a case study. This approach is identified as ‘salvage
qualitative work’ (Weinholtz et al., 1995), where the mixed methods approach is
used consecutively. This research follows such an approach, where the second
research method employed is informed by the first, which is known as the
‘priority sequence model’ (Morgan, 1998).

Using the salvage qualitative work approach allowed for the small qualitative
study to be utilised to help understand, evaluate and interpret the quantitative
results (Morgan, 1998). This further enabled the interpretation of the
differences between the rates of traditional bullying and cyberbullying within

72
the schools surveyed and a wider understanding of the original premise that
cyberbullying was the primary way in which young people engaged in
exclusionary practices.

While this research used qualitative methods as the second approach, it was
necessary to include it pragmatically rather than as ‘salvage’ research in order
to answer the aims and questions of the study accurately. Therefore, the
utilisation of the quantitative survey provided validity, reliability, and
generalisibility and the qualitative interviews provided credibility (Bryman,
2006). Moreover, the benefits of using both approaches include being able to
answer different research questions, explaining findings, and dealing with
complex phenomena and situations (Bryman, 2006).

To inform this research, one quantitative survey was developed for pupils (see
appendix) that aimed at determining prevalence of bullying, cyberbullying and
bias bullying and cyberbullying within a selection of Glasgow Secondary Schools.
The survey obtained information from 450 pupil participants. The interview
protocol that followed, aimed at a greater understanding of cyberbullying
behaviour, attitudes and perceptions of cyberbullying. These interviews were
conducted with educators. The interview protocol was informed by the data
deemed missing from the quantitative survey results and allowed for stronger
conclusions to be deduced from the research as a whole.

3.3.1 Mixed methods design

As the mixed methods approach was determined after the quantitative data was
collected, using explanatory design was the best way for design and analysis.
Explanatory design, according to Ivankova, Cresswell and Stick (2006) allows for
the collection and analysing of quantitative data followed by the collection and
analysing of qualitative data consecutively as part of one research study. This
research utilised the explanatory approach adapted from Cresswell and Clark (p.
218-9, 2011):

1. Collect the quantitative data.
2. Analyse the quantitative data.
3. Design the qualitative strand based on the quantitative results.

73
 4. Collect the qualitative data.
5. Analyse the qualitative data.
6. Interpret how the connected results answer the research questions.

In following this approach, I was able to determine what information was missing
from the quantitative approach and what needed to be collected in the
interviews. Moreover, I was able to use the qualitative results to better explain
what was found in the surveys (Cresswell and Clark, 2011).

3.4 Pupil surveys

In this section, the pupil surveys that were undertaken are discussed, including
the use of surveys, the survey design, the sample selection, and the recruitment
of participants. Surveys are designed to collect information. This survey set out
to collect information on young people in Glasgow schools with regard to how
they are experiencing and perceiving cyberbullying in their schools.

3.4.1 Use of surveys

As previously stated, the initial research question was designed to determine the
prevalence of cyberbullying in Glasgow schools. In order to measure the
occurrence of cyberbullying through texts and social media, a short survey was
developed, which was the most appropriate way to gather this data on
prevalence. Survey usage allowed for reaching a wider sample of students, which
was initially hoped for. A web-based survey was created for this purpose for ease
of access and anonymity. It was also used to allow students to access the survey
at school in a supervised location in order to ensure an adequate response rate.

The survey was designed to describe, as part of the objective along with
collecting data during a given period of time, to gather views on a particular
issue (Creswell, 2008; Hedges, 2012). The study was developed as a cross-
sectional analysis, which is easier to administer and allows results to be analysed
in a “short amount of time” (Cresswell, 2003, p. 398). This contrasts with
longitudinal studies, which are designed to measure individuals or attitudes over
time (Cresswell, 2003). As I was interested in cyberbullying behaviours six

74
months prior to the study, through to when the survey was completed, a cross-
sectional study was best suited for this approach.

Advantages for the use of online surveys are ease of access, low cost, and
flexibility (Ary et al., 2010; Roberts and Allen, 2015; Wright, 2005). Surveys are
easily analysed and are a cost efficient method of obtaining information
(Zohrabi, 2013). Limitations of surveys have been found to include inaccuracies
in responses, wording of surveys causing misunderstanding, and issues in self-
reporting (Zohrabi, 2013). Participants may have been less than truthful or
frightened to answer truthfully for fear of retaliation, despite the anonymity of
the survey. As the survey was administered at school during a time when
multiple students would be accessing the survey website at the same time, this
is a possibility. Additionally, as the target population was comprised of young
people who use social media and technology with ease, the use of an online
survey was a prudent approach. The cost to administer the site (SurveyGizmo)
was low and allowed for the data to be easily downloaded and imported into the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for the researcher to analyse,
saving time and effort.

Disadvantages for the use of online surveys have found to be low response rates
as well as ethical considerations, such as breaches of privacy and anonymity that
are still being researched (Roberts and Allen, 2015). In order to address breach
of privacy issues, the head teacher or school contact disseminated the survey
URL to the teachers who administered the survey in small groups at the two
schools that utilised the online survey. Additionally, a further disadvantage is
subject to access to technology by respondents (Tymms, 2012). While the
response rate was adequate, there were schools who were unable to guarantee
responses due to computer availability, which would not have occurred in a
traditional or mailed, self-administered survey. Ethically speaking, the concerns
that have arisen have mostly been related to university ethics committees not
understanding the role or usage of online surveys and the potential for issues
surrounding consent (Roberts and Allen, 2015). In this case, the ethics
committee was given a full documented research plan, complete with the survey
and how the survey was to be administered. Moreover, the Glasgow City Council
also had to approve the research project (see Appendix 2-3), as well as each

75
school (See Appendix 4) that was involved in disseminating the survey. Pupils
who accessed the survey had a full explanation (See Appendix 5) of what was
being asked of them, and it was emphasised that they could opt out at any time
and that the survey was completely anonymous.

3.4.2 Pupil survey design

In developing a quantitative survey, consideration was given to validity and

reliability, in addition to ensuring that the survey was accessible to the
population responding to them. This meant warranting that the language used
was appropriate for the audience. The quantitative data aimed at reaching a
large audience, of upwards of 1000 individuals. Moreover, it allowed for the
collection of data that would allow for comparisons between groups (school,
year, gender). These comparisons could then be used to draw wider conclusions
about the larger population from which the sample was produced.

The quantitative portion of this study began with the development of a survey
designed to gather information on pupils’ attitudes and opinions on bullying and
cyberbullying in their schools. The survey was researcher developed, according
to a cross-sectional comparative survey design. Additionally, it was developed
for usage at the secondary school level. Moreover, the issues it addressed were
attitudes and problems surrounding bullying and cyberbullying in the
respondents’ schools. A standard definition of cyberbullying was provided from
Willard (2004), which explained that cyberbullying is a form of bullying through
electronic means (See Appendix 6).

Validity in survey data collection refers to the agreement of what is being asked
by both the researcher and the participant. The interpretation of data is
reflected by the responses that are given. Questions asked regarding both
bullying and cyberbullying were asked in similar ways and used the same
verbiage for each, allowing for the respondents to construe the questions
similarly, maintaining validity.

In developing the survey for distribution, the use of a checklist of questions for
designing a survey, such as the one advocated by Cresswell (2014), would have
been a more advantageous approach for this researcher. This would have

76
ensured that certain steps in the research process were undertaken, such as a
pilot study. A pilot study was not utilised in this study. Had one been
undertaken, the types of responses could have been checked for accuracy, thus
making sure that each questions meaning was clear to those responding. Also,
this would have allowed for a reduction of questions, especially in the case
where there was a repeated question. Moreover, allowing for the use of age
selection by the respondent would have been an important addition to the
survey results.

No pilot study was utilised because as it transpired, gaining permission from

schools to participate was extremely difficult. Had the first participating school
(School A) been used as the pilot, this would have reduced the population of the
entire study by 128, therefore bringing the total participants to just 322, which
would have made the study far less feasible and acceptable.

There were limitations in using a survey. Questionnaires and surveys are used in
order to “establish a general pattern across a population” (Tymms, p. 231,
2012). The survey was constituted by multiple-choice questions, with Likert-type
scale options, single-choice, and multiple-choice options, depending on the
question with no open-ended questions. In doing so, these questions were unable
to have stronger statistical tests performed. A Chi-square test proved to be the
valuable choice in analysing the data. Analysis occurred with version 21 of SPSS.
The research analysis from the survey appears primarily in Chapter 6.

While the questionnaire accomplished the task of surveying this population, a

better-designed survey, or the utilisation of an established survey or
questionnaire such as the Olweus Bullying Questionnaire in the realm of bullying
and cyberbullying research would have been a more prudent option. The use of
established questionnaires and surveys have led to increased reliability and
validity of the research conducted and are often designed to better meet the
needs of researchers.

The survey did not collect any biometric data (only gender, school, and the
school year were collected as “identifiers”), resulting in total anonymity of the
subjects participating. Once the online data had been downloaded, the survey

77
was removed from the Internet and the files deleted. Similarly, once the paper
copies that were used in School C had been manually input, they were destroyed
(See section 3.4.4 for further explanation).

Ethical concerns in dealing with a younger population led to the established
survey parameters. This was due to the increasing concerns in universities
allowing research to be conducted with young people as the focal point (Morrow
and Richards, 1996; Skelton, 2008). Moreover, there should be particular care
when dealing with young people according to the British Sociological Association
(BSA) and their statement of Ethical Practice (2002), which states, “Special care
should be taken where research participants are particularly vulnerable by virtue
of factors of age, social status, and powerlessness.” Furthermore, according to
the British Educational Research Association (BERA), “care should be taken with
interviewing children and students up to school leaving age [i.e 16 years]” (Balen
et al, 2006). As the subjects involved would be under the age of sixteen, it
would have necessitated further approval from the council, the schools, the
parents, and the students themselves to allow participants. It would have set
the time scale back on the research further in order to obtain the appropriate
permissions.

Age and vulnerability were the primary reasons that the second phase of the
research, the interviews, were conducted with adults, rather than young people.
After discussions with members of the ethics committee, it was suggested that
conducting interviews with adults involved in the lives of young people would be
more appropriate in consideration of the vulnerability of the population of young
people of interest to the study who had been victimised and cyberbullied, and
who therefore needed to be protected from further potential stress and harm.

Williamson et al., (2005) found that in bullying and child protection-related
research the “the notion of harm which is frequently used in this context, does
not necessarily translate to an understanding of child protection” (p. 400). This
is because the notion of harm has been defined as “‘ill-treatment or the
impairment of health or development” (p. 401) according to the Children Act
1989. Furthermore, the researchers found that children did not recognise harm
in this manner, leading to further difficulties in determining the abilities of

78
 young people to maintain informed consent. Due to the vulnerability of the
young people in question, issues with informed consent, and time constraints, it
was determined that discussing these sensitive issues would be more appropriate
with adults who worked with, and had close ties to, young people.

3.4.3 Pupil sample selection

Quantitative research encourages a randomly selected sample. As the research

was initially interested in prevalence of cyberbullying in Glasgow schools, this
resulted in all 30 public secondary schools in Glasgow being approached to
survey students in years S2-S4. This was a manageable sample size and once
approval had been obtained by both the University of Glasgow’s ethics
committee and the Glasgow City Council, a letter of introduction to the
research, along with a copy of the survey questions, and the council approval
were sent to head teachers at all 30 secondary schools at the end of August 2012
with my contact details in full. The aim was to obtain 750-1000 respondents.

3.4.4 Recruitment

A month after the letters were sent out, in September 2012, there had been no
response from any of the schools that were contacted. A second batch of letters
were sent out in late September 2012 via both post and email and two schools
wrote back stating that they were unable to assist.

Once again, letters (See Appendix 4) were sent out to all Glasgow secondary
schools for a third time at the beginning of January 2013 (See Figure 3-1 for a
timeline of events). Personal contacts and connections at the University of
Glasgow were also employed to attempt to make contact. At this time three
schools wrote back stating that they were unable to assist, and three responded
that they would be interested in participating.

Table 3-1 A breakdown of participating schools

School Type Years Total Number

Surveyed of
Participants

79
A Catholic S1, S2, S3, S4 128
Secondary
B Catholic S1, S2 82
Secondary
C Catholic S2, S3, S4 240
Secondary


The selection of schools was based on which school was willing to participate
rather than a theoretical approach to selecting schools based on demographics,
for example. The three schools that participated were random, but extremely
similar concerning their resulting demographics, including their place in the
league tables. Additionally, the three schools that participated were Catholic
schools. This may be due to random chance, or perhaps the participating schools
were more interested in learning about cyberbullying prevalence within their
schools.

Glasgow Public Schools constitutes 30 secondary schools. The three schools that
participated are referred to throughout this research as A, B and C for reasons of
anonymity (See Table 3-1). The participation rate of Glasgow secondary schools
came to 10%. Out of the schools that participated, the participation rate overall
came to 38%, which is low given that a minimum of 60% is seen as acceptable
(Robson, 2004). Other studies, such as Baruch (1999), found that the average
response rate in academic surveys is 55%, whereas Nulty (2008) found that the
average response rate for online/web based surveys was 33%, over 20% lower
than paper-based ones. While the response rate was low (see Table 3-2), this did
appear to be due to time constraints at the schools, as well as limited access to
technology.

Table 3-2 Participation rates per school

School A # of students # of respondents % completed

S2 148 64 44%
S3 139 55 37%
S4 158 7 5%

80
All 445 126 30%
School B # of students # of respondents % completed
S1 77 36 46%
S2 70 46 66%
S3 81 0 0
S4 n/a n/a n/a
All 228 82 36%
School C # of students # of respondents % completed
S2 170 94 55%
S3 167 69 41%
S4 167 77 46%
All 504 240 48%

Meetings took place with heads and deputy heads at each school to explain the
process of surveying young people, in addition to what would be required of
each school. Schools A and B had difficulties in encouraging all students to
participate due to time constraints and as a result, response rates were low.
School C was the most reluctant to participate and subsequently requested to
complete the survey on paper rather than online, which the survey was designed
for. This required an extended period of time to manually enter 250 surveys into
the system. The data collection and data entry concluded in June 2013. Once all
the data was entered, it was then analysed and reports were generated and sent
to each school.

The survey was conducted in the spring of 2013, at the end of the school year
using a secure online survey tool (SurveyGizmo).

81
Figure 3-1 Timeline of the quantitative approach

May-June 2013-
August 2012- January 2013- Surveys
First batch of Third batch of undertaken at 3
letters sent out. letters sent out schools

Late September January/

2012- Second Februrary
batch of letters 2013- Contacts
sent out at University of
Glasgow
attempt
involvement

The link was provided to the contacts at School A and School B, and the students
who participated accessed the survey during appointed class times. It took
approximately 15-20 minutes to complete. School C requested that the survey be
done on paper. The survey was typed up, printed, and delivered to School C.
Two weeks later, the completed surveys were collected. In total, three schools
participated, with a total of 450 respondents.

3.5 Interviews

In this section interviews are discussed, including survey design, recruitment,

and the procedure of interviewing teachers and educational professionals. Once I
was aware that the quantitative data was not robust enough, this second phase
of research was developed, thus creating a mixed methods study. It was
understood that there would be difficulties in obtaining ethical approval to
discuss cyberbullying with a representative sample of young people who had
participated in the previous portion of the research. Therefore, it was decided
that interviewing teachers with regard to their experience with cyberbullying
would be the best possible solution. It was also decided that other educational
professionals, such as youth workers, would also be approached in order to
obtain a wider variety of responses and attitudes. The interviews would be the

82
best possible way to understand the point of view of the persons interviewed
(Bryman, 2012).

In March 2014, I submitted my request to the University of Glasgow ethics (See
Appendix 7) committee to interview teachers and other educational
professionals on their experiences and attitudes towards cyberbullying. For
reasons often outside of my control, the project was not approved until
September 2014, six months later. Once approved, the recruitment and contact
with the schools that were utilised in the first phase as well as with youth
agencies were initiated, and interview appointments were made for November
and December 2014.

3.5.1 Interview guide

According to Bryman (2012), producing a questionnaire or interview guide for

interviews “allows the interviewer to glean the ways in which research
participants view their social world” (p. 473). The questionnaire was designed to
help answer the research questions, but also allowed for flexibility. This allowed
for responses elicited from the initial questions, which then could be elaborated
on further by participants (Bryman, 2012).

3.5.2 Recruitment

The purpose of the interviews of teachers and educational professionals was to

explore the experiences of young people as witnessed and observed by them.
The participants were selected using purposive sampling, allowing for those
involved to represent individuals who have experience with the subject matter
(Lincoln and Guba, 1985), in other words, dealing with cyberbullying and young
people in this case.

Interview participants were recruited following a two-fold process. Head
teachers or deputy head teachers in the schools (A-C) that participated in the
initial survey were contacted and selected participants based on their
availability and interest.

83
 Recruitment for those who participated from outside agencies was conducted by
utilising contacts within the University of Glasgow and through word of mouth.
This allowed for the additional interviews of four individuals working in youth
services (see Table 3-3 for participant information).

Table 3-3 Participant information

Teacher School/Agency Role Recent CB

Pseudonym training
Mr. Smith School A PT Pastoral Care Yes
Ms. Jones School A Teacher of Yes
Business/Computing
Mr. James School B PT Pastoral Care No
Ms. Price School B PT Pastoral Care No
Ms. Watson School B Head of Creative Arts No
Ms. Holmes School B PT Pupil Support No
Ms. Betts School C PT Pastoral Care No
Ms. Hill School C PT Pastoral Care No
Ms. Holt School C Pastoral Care No
Mr. Morgan Catholic Liaison Director No
Agency
Ms. Barnes Youth Work Young People Yes
Coordinator
Ms. Young Youth Work Support Worker Yes
Mr. Wright Youth Work Youth Worker Yes

3.5.3 Interviewing teachers

Once the schools arranged for participants to take part, a time was set and I
travelled to each school for the interviews. Interviews were conducted with the
use of an electronic recorder (Cresswell, 2007) in order to record what was being
said with their expressed permission. They were carried out face-to-face in
order to ensure any non-verbal communication was not missed (Cresswell, 2007).
At the beginning of each session, each participant read the Plain Language
Statement (See Appendix 10) and signed the consent form (See Appendix 11).

84
When this research project was developed, it was intended that teachers would
be interviewed one at a time. However, when I arrived at each participating
school, this was not possible and interviews at the schools were held with all
teachers participating at the same time due to the time constraints of those
taking part. For the same reason, these group interviews could take no longer
than forty minutes.

Group interviews, such as focus groups are interactive group interviews, where
the opinion of the group is as important as each individual group member. In
addition, “the group itself may take on a life of its own not anticipated or
initiated by the researcher” (Gibbs, p. 186, 2012). Focus groups also allow for
the collection of a large amount of data in a relatively small amount of time,
which was paramount in this particular case. While a questionnaire was used in
order to guide the interviews (which became focus groups) (See Appendix 9), it
was semi-structured to fulfil the research interest and inquiry (Kvale, 1996;
Lincoln and Guba, 1985).

3.5.4 Interviewing educational professionals

Once the research had been approved, I made contact with a liaison at the
University of Glasgow who had contact with various youth work agencies within
the city of Glasgow. A request for assistance was e-mailed out, and respondents
were asked to contact me if they wished to participate in the research. I made
contact with several individuals and was able to make arrangements to interview
four individual respondents. Given the way that respondents chose to be
involved, this may affect generalisabilty, the way that the results can be
generalised to the greater population.

I travelled to the workplace of two of the interviewees, and the other two were
met at a mutually arranged location. Interviewees were recorded, personally
interviewed, and all read the Plain Language Statement and signed the consent
form to participate. Again, the questionnaire was used as a guide for the
interviews and any school-specific questions were not addressed with these
participants.

85
3.6 Data management

In this section, data management is examined. Furthermore, the ways and

means that the mixed methods approach was analysed are outlined.

3.6.1 Surveys

Once the surveys were completed, the data was downloaded and transferred to
a computer. A backup copy was saved on a memory stick for data protection in
case of loss. All files were stored and backed up on password-protected devices.
A copy of the results by school was generated from SurveyGizmo, which was
provided to the contact person at each school (see appendix). Once this was
completed, the survey was deactivated and deleted. The data was downloaded
to SPSS to be analysed by the researcher. Chapter six details the results of the
statistical analysis in full.

Frequencies and descriptive statistics were easily correlated within SPSS by
exploring the differences between schools, years within schools, and gender.
Without having age as an independent variable, this made generating higher-
level statistics like Chi-squares difficult. Two new variables were recoded:
younger (S1 and S2) and older (S3 and S4) to assist in statistical measures.

3.6.2 Interviews

The interviews were recorded using a digital recording device and were then
downloaded to computer. A backup copy was saved on a memory stick for data
protection in case of loss. All files were stored and backed up on password-
protected devices. Due to time constraints, as well as assisting the researcher in
understanding the verbiage and accents spoken, a paid transcriber was employed
to transcribe the interviews in verbatim.

Due to the small sample size, the interview transcripts were analysed by hand.
This was accomplished by initially identifying categories and themes (Merriam,
2002). Once these initial categories and themes were developed, it was
determined that a second more formal approach should be undertaken. Using
the phases of thematic analysis as illustrated by Braun and Clarke (2006), the

86
sequential list detailed by Miles and Huberman (1994), as well as the phases of
coding as explained by Robson (2011), I was able to analyse, code, and develop
the corresponding themes that emerged from the interview data. Coding allows
for the examination of what has emerged from the data as well as the definition
of the findings (Gibbs, 2007; Robson, 2011).

First, repeated readings of the transcripts were undertaken to ensure accuracy
and understanding of the materials. This continued throughout the entire
analysis process. I then began to take notes and highlight key words and phrases.
This coding process was completed manually. NVIVO, a computer software
package that is used to analyse qualitative data was not utilised in this research
due to the small sample size involved.

Second, with each subsequent re-reading of the transcripts and the code words
checked for accuracy, codes began to emerge from the coded data. Repeated
readings were conducted for clarity and understanding. Codes were then
grouped together and themes began to emerge. These themes were then
reviewed. 12 themes were reduced to the seven that were developed into
chapters four and five, by having some themes be categorised and utilised as
sub-themes.

Then, a thematic map (see Figure 3-2) was created to help show how the themes
and subthemes were interconnected. This also allowed for a visual
representation of the process, and additional changes and moves were made to
ensure the flow of the connected themes and subthemes.

87
Figure 3-2 Thematic Map

Theme 1: Knowledge of cyberbullying by

educational professionals

Understanding Recognition

Theme 2: Differing levels of knowledge of

social media/technology by respondents

“Correct” usage of social Does professional

Fear and apprehension of
media development impact
social media
knowledge?

Theme 3: Widespread use of social media by

young people

Dangers due to a lack of

Culture of social media Safety concerns understanding by young
people

Theme 4: Role of the school

How to address Responsibility/legality Proactivity/reactivity

Cyberbullying

Theme 5: Emotional impact on young people

Lack of school
Mental health Extreme reactions
engagement

Theme 6: The Catholic Ethos of the School

The school as family Values Dignity/respect

Theme 7: Why do young people cyberbully?

Pressures on young
people Unhappiness/insecurity Power

88
Lastly, the report was written up. The themes that were developed as part of
this process were connected with the research questions, the relevant literature
described in chapter 2, as well as the theoretical underpinnings of the research
as also delineated in chapter 2.


3.7 Reliability and Validity

In this section, the reliability and validity for both the quantitative and
qualitative portions of the research are determined.

3.7.1 Pupil Surveys

Online surveys are useful as they can collect information quickly and are cost-
effective. The information can be collected and then analysed in an objective
and scientific manner. The results obtained can then be used to compare with
other empirical research within the field of study.

Researchers, according to Cresswell and Clark (2011) must design their research
to reduce threats to both internal and external validity. Internal validity refers
to the cause and effect relationship among variables. One threat to internal
validity has to do with self-reporting on surveys. Participants may be untruthful,
and may not self-report as a cyberbully, for example. Another threat to internal
validity in cyberbullying research according to Vandebosh and VanCleemput
(2008) is respondents may not consider definitions of cyberbullying. In order to
improve internal validity, a common definition was provided at the outset.

External validity has to do with the extent of the results being applied to a
larger population (Cresswell and Clark, 2011). As a result, in part due to the
small sample size and the non-diverse sample of all pupils being from Catholic
Secondary Schools, the findings in this study may not be able to be generalised
to the larger population, but may be generalised to other Catholic Secondary
Schools.

Using the results obtained from the survey along with the results of the
interviews increased the construct validity of the research. The survey questions

89
were analysed in conjunction with the transcripts of the interviews, thus
allowing for the comparability of data, which is known as triangulation
(Cresswell and Clark, 2011), increasing the validity of the overall data.

According to Bryman (2012), reliability refers to the “consistency of measures”
(p. 168). One way to determine reliability of a survey or questionnaire would be
to re-test the sample as a measure of stability. This was not done due to time
constraints and the difficulty that occurred in obtaining the initial sample.

Reliability also can be referred to as both internal and external reliability.
Internal reliability was calculated using Cronbach’s Alpha, the industry standard
in determining internal reliability of the data. While .80 is accepted as a sample
having internal reliability, Westergaard et al., (1989) consider a value of .70 as
satisfactory (p. 93). Three sets of questions were compared that utilised the
same scale measure in their responses. The first set of questions that were
compared were whether one experienced bullying at school versus being
cyberbullied and resulted in Cronbach’s Alpha of .72. The second set of
questions compared measured bullying via text versus bullying via email or
online and resulted in Cronbach’s Alpha of .86. Lastly, being victimised by text
versus bullying via email and online was compared and resulted in Cronbach’s
Alpha of .79. With scores over the aforementioned .70, it can be assumed that
there is internal reliability.

3.7.2 Educator interviews

Throughout the interview process the information was obtained first-hand and
was obtained in both group and one-on-one settings. This allowed for the
measuring of attitudes, obtaining the information in depth, and high response
rates of those interviewed. Both settings allowed for both individual points of
view as well as a collective view of the information being collected.

According to Cresswell and Clark (2011) qualitative validity means, “assessing
whether the information obtained from the qualitative data collection is
accurate” (p. 211). There are several procedures that can be utilised for
qualitative validity. One such procedure is triangulation, where the data is
collected via multiple methods. In this study, the interviews were carried out

90
with both teachers and youth workers, allowing for the triangulation of the data.
Another approach is to have others examine the data (Cresswell and Clark, 2011)
once it has been collected and transcribed, which was also done for this
research by an individual not affiliated with the research. As stated in 3.7.1, the
quantitative data was also triangulated with the interview transcripts.

Furthermore, validity in qualitative research also refers to establishing

trustworthiness (Guba and Lincoln, 1985). Trustworthiness incorporates the
following aspects in determining validity: credibility, transferability,
dependability, and confirmability. Credibility allows that the findings have
reflected the views of those interviewed, rather than that of the researcher
(Guba and Lincoln, 1985). Credibility was accomplished through member checks
of the data and transcripts ensuring that there was an understanding between
the researcher and the “constructed realities” (Guba and Lincoln, p. 237, 1985)
of the respondents. Transferability refers to how the findings can be applied to
other contexts. In this case, given the small sample size and the fact that that
the research was conducted in within Catholic Secondary schools, it can be
speculated that these results may not be applicable to other secondary schools,
but would be applicable to other Catholic Secondary Schools. Dependability
allows for consistent findings and was done by keeping a “detailed chronology of
research activities and processes” (Morrow, p.252, 2005) throughout the
research process. Finally, confirmability allows that the “findings should
represent, as far as is (humanly) possible, the situation being researched rather
than the beliefs, pet theories, or biases of the researcher” (Gasson, 2004, p.
93). This was accomplished through the rigorous thematic analysis process as
described in 3.6.2.

3.8 Ethical considerations

In this section, the ethical concerns and considerations that were undertaken
are elaborated. When undertaking any research project, it is necessary to follow
ethical guidelines that are set out by the researcher’s establishment (Bryman,
2014; Cresswell, 2014). In this case, the researcher first applied to the
Institutional Review Board (IRB) (Cresswell, 2014) of the University of Glasgow
for ethical approval for both phases of the research. This involved completion of

91
the ethics application forms, which guaranteed compliance in data handling,
privacy, and issues of informed consent of participants. Second, approval was
also necessary from Glasgow City Council in order to approach the schools, and
took place after the university had approved the research project.

Survey participants were assured that they could choose to opt out of doing the
survey at any time, and that all responses were anonymous. As no identifying
markers were collected in the survey, the Glasgow City Council and the three
schools that participated were assured that privacy would be respected. With
regard to the paper surveys that were employed at School C, it was assured that
once the copies had been entered into the survey database they would be
shredded and destroyed. Points of contact at each school also received a copy of
the summarised data points for their own use.

Lastly, interview participants were provided with a copy of the Plain Language
Statement (See Appendix 10), which they were allowed to keep for reference.
They also signed and dated the consent form (See Appendix 11) and they were
assured that any responses quoted within the context of this research would be
kept anonymous and they would be provided with a pseudonym. They were also
assured that at the conclusion of this research project and subsequent thesis
write up and defence, these consent forms would also be destroyed.

3.9 Role of the researcher and reflexivity

While reflexivity has often been found to be problematic (Finlay, 2002), it is also
necessary when reflecting on the research process. While undertaking the study
in Glasgow made geographical sense, it also put me in a position of not having
insider status. Insider status in research refers to being a part of the group that
one is studying and is frequently found to have both positive and negative
connotations, especially with regard to qualitative research (Dwyer and Buckle,
2009).

As I am not a native to the UK or Glasgow, I was unaware of the local power
structure and school organisational hierarchy, and who to contact to get the
initial research started. I spent a lot of time and effort sending emails and

92
letters, and not enough time asking questions and making phone calls. Without
this insider status, I spent more than six months trying to make contact,
something that with insider status would have taken far less time..

On the one hand, this lack of insider status resulted in the change to a mixed
methods approach, which improved the project overall. However, the lack of
insider status with regard to the qualitative portion of the research led to
further issues, such as difficulty in understanding the speech patterns of
respondents. This ultimately led to the necessity of hiring an outside contractor
to transcribe the interviews, as frequently the language was hard to decipher.

Additionally, I believe it is also important to consider reflexivity as
introspection. While I have personal experience in both issues of bullying and
cyberbullying, I worked diligently to not allow my personal feelings and bias to
contribute or influence the outcome of this study. This was particularly
challenging when conducting the interviews, as I often felt a kinship or
connection with the stories being shared. Therefore, I attempted to focus on
what was being said, rather than allowing my own voice to take over the
experiences being shared (Finlay, 2002).

Finally, I believe that while being an outsider of the subject community was a
hindrance at the outset, it also served me well as the research process
continued and evolved. It allowed me to maintain subjectivity in analysing the
quantitative data and allowed me to step back as far as possible when it came to
listening to the qualitative interviewees, as well as analysing and coding the
interview transcripts.

3.10 Conclusion

The purpose of this chapter was to explore research methods and methodologies
and issues that impact on research design.

This chapter introduced the paradigm selection of the researcher, which

influenced the subsequent choice of method, quantitative methods. This then
emerged to a mixed methods design. Following that, the design of the
quantitative portion of the research, the survey was illustrated, including the

93
creation of the survey, obtaining approval to conduct the research, and survey
administration. Once the conduction of the survey concluded and the discovery
of the initial findings emerged, it was clear that a second phase of research
would need to be carried out. This led to the qualitative data portion of
research; the semi-structured interviews. An explanation of the design and
process of carrying out the research was described, followed by how the data
was transcribed and analysed for discussion in Chapters 4 and 5.

The following chapter details the first themes that emerged from the qualitative
data. The qualitative data is being presented first, despite the fact the research
was conducted after the survey, due to its ability to help understand and explain
the survey data more fully.

94
 Chapter 4
Educators and Cyberbullying: A New Challenge

4.1 Introduction

While the act of cyberbullying usually occurs during out of school hours (Beale
and Hall, 2010; Shariff, 2008; Smith et al., 2008), the harmful effects of this
form of exclusion are visible throughout the school day (Willard, 2007). The
widespread utilisation of social media as part of the exclusionary process
enables young people to victimise those who are seen as others or outsiders by
stigmatising them (Elias and Scotson, 1994) online. Teachers are not just
teaching, but they may also face the challenges of young people who are
distracted by exclusion via cyberbullying, social media and technology, thus
affecting them academically and socially (Li, 2008). Furthermore, given their
experience in engaging on social media sites, young people are able to use this
knowledge, making them the technologically “established” group who are able
to engage in online activities that their teachers have limited knowledge and
experience in understanding.

In this chapter the findings are presented on educators and cyberbullying and
how they are handling the challenge. This chapter addresses research questions
two and three that are both concerned with how young people use social media
in relation to cyberbullying and how they experience cyberbullying. This chapter
also addresses research question five which focuses on how educators handle the
challenges of cyberbullying. While the interviews were conducted after the
survey data was collected (See Chapter 6) it was important to present the
findings that arose from the interviews at the outset as they help explain and
support the quantitative findings. Several main themes emerged from the
analysis of the data collected through interviews with teachers from the three
schools in this study (see Chapter 3) and educational professionals employed by
local youth resource agencies to further enrich the data collection, as explained
in Chapter 3.

95
This chapter addresses how technology is influencing cyberbullying and how
educators are handling the challenges of cyberbullying. It begins with an analysis
of the first main theme (4.2), the varying degrees of knowledge concerning
cyberbullying of educational professionals. The subthemes addressed under this
include the differing approaches to understanding and recognising cyberbullying
behaviours.

The second theme explores the differing levels of knowledge of social media and
technology (4.3), as used by young people today. The subthemes addressed
include fear and apprehension of social media, “correct” usage of social media,
and how professional development and training courses have affected educator
understandings of social media.

The third theme (4.4) further examines the widespread usage of social media as
it relates to cyberbullying and how and why young people have adopted this
particular approach today. The subthemes addressed include the culture of
social media and its importance in the lives of young people, safety concerns,
and how a lack of understanding of social media by young people could impact
their lives.

The final theme addressed in this chapter (4.5) is the role of the school in
addressing issues of cyberbullying and social media abuse. The subthemes
include how schools deal with issues of cyberbullying, issues of responsibility and
legality, and how schools can be proactive rather than reactive.

4.2 Varying degrees of knowledge of cyberbullying by

educators

As was seen in Chapter 2, understanding, recognising, and defining cyberbullying

has not been an easy task. There are many definitions in the literature, not to
mention the changing face of the technology and social media landscape, which
leads to difficulties in understanding and recognising cyberbullying related
incidents. Therefore, it was important to explore participants’ knowledge of
cyberbullying and how they were able to recognise issues related cyberbullying,
such as usage of social media.

96
As stated previously, cyberbullying is “any behaviour performed through
electronic or digital media by individuals or groups that repeatedly
communicates hostile or aggressive messages intended to inflict harm or
discomfort on others” (Tokunaga, p. 278, 2010). Cyberbullying was seen as an
extension of traditional bullying by the participants. It was perceived as a
prevalent and pervasive part of the lives of the young people whom they work
with on a daily basis. While it was found to be an issue of high importance, the
way in which it was perceived differed in terms of the philosophical and the
practical aspects. Teachers and non-teacher educators also perceived
cyberbullying differently. In this section, the varying attitudes of teachers and
non-teacher educators are discussed concerning their understanding and
recognition of cyberbullying.

Out of all of those who participated, only one respondent provided a definitional
answer to the first question that was asked: “How do you understand and
recognise cyberbullying?” This suggests that interviewee understandings and,
subsequently, their recognition of cyberbullying is rooted in their own
experiences in dealing with the phenomenon in school, their personal
experiences, as well as how cyberbullying is portrayed in the media.

Between the two groups, there were varying levels of understanding of what
constitutes cyberbullying. Some teachers and non-teacher educators were clear
in their explanations of how they understand and recognise cyberbullying.

Ms. Jones (School A):

It’s just the same as an ordinary bullying incident, but it’s done through
the mobile.

Ms. Barnes (outside agency):

It’s bullying that occurs on an online format or at some point in the
bullying process occurs in an online format because obviously it can
progress.

Mr. Smith (School A):

It’s very easy for somebody to fire away a quick comment and start
chipping away at their self-esteem and their confidence.

97
Ms. Price (School B):
Pupils can approach any member of staff if they feel they’re being
bullied, whether it’s cyberbullying or other types of bullying.

Ms. Hill (School C):

We often deal with incidents relating to bullying or comments that have
been made on social media sites maybe over the weekend or during the
evening.

With the exception of Ms. Barnes, who works with youth at an outside agency,
there was no explicitly stated definition of what cyberbullying is by teachers or
other youth workers. However, it is clear from the responses that the act of
cyberbullying itself is understood as something that is brought to their attention
by students and sometimes parents, and that takes place online on social media
and is connected to this technology. While these views show understanding, it
was surprising that a more operational definition was not given, as a clear
definition of what constitutes cyberbullying is a part of all of the relevant
materials related to bullying and cyberbullying at each school. These include
bullyproofing materials and as well as materials related to the Glasgow schools’
anti-bullying policy.

Despite the lack of explicitly stated definitional understandings, teachers were

able to recognise cyberbullying, especially when it was brought directly to their
attention, which was a common and frequent occurrence. It is clear from the
responses that their ability to recognise cyberbullying was heavily influenced by
the information given to them by their students as these excerpts illustrate.

Ms. Watson (School B):

You’re relying on the pupil telling us what they think’s happened. They
might say ‘somebody has text me with this’ or ‘something is on
Facebook.’

Ms. Holt (School C):

Young people, quite often girls, are the ones that bring our attention to
cyberbullying.

Mr. Wright (outside agency):

I’ve had a handful of reports in the past six months. You know, maybe one
a month that they are actually coming to me. This is because I’m

98
 preparing young people with the told to where they actually go for help
when it happens. So more young people are probably more equipped to go
to their teachers when it happens.

The way in which recognition occurs has an impact on both student and teacher.
Students who report issues of cyberbullying felt comfortable approaching
teachers with the incident that had occurred or is occurring. However, what
stood out was the fact that not one educator stated that they were concerned
about a young person who had withdrawn or were experiencing issues within
school or outside of school, as was discussed in Chapter 2. It is unclear from the
interviews why this was the case. However, the way in which cyberbullying was
pointed out to teachers may be related to this, along with the way that they
understand and perceive cyberbullying, social media, and technology.

4.3 Differing levels of knowledge of social media and

technology by educators

In this section, the differing levels of understanding of social media and

technology are discussed. The impact of the manner that cyberbullying is
recognised is closely tied to the way in which social media usage is understood
and, to a lesser extent, used by teachers. The following excerpts illustrate
educator knowledge regarding social media.

Overall, teacher knowledge and understanding of social media was low. Many
expressed a lack of knowledge of some of the more popular sites and terms that
are being used by young people, as well as terminology regarding social media
and technology related to social media and Internet usage.

Mr. James (School B):

You mentioned ASK.FM. Well, I’ve had a couple of incidents. I don’t know
about yourself, Ms. Price.

Ms. Price, Ms. Holmes, Ms. Watson (School B):

I’ve never heard of that.

Ms. Watson (School B):

99
 What’s IP?

While it is understandable that teachers may not be aware of all of the social
media sites and terminology being used by young people, the discrepancies are
wide. These statements made by teachers are also problematic when taking into
account their own understanding of social media, which is generally low to
average.

Mr. James (School B):

I think it’s just gone too far; maybe it’s my age.

Ms. Watson (School B):

We don’t understand it, really.

Ms. Betts (School C):

They text or they Facebook or the MS-. I don’t know half of the sites now.

Three quarters of the teachers at School B were unfamiliar with most social
media; only one had heard of ask.fm and none of them had heard of Tumblr.
Moreover, none of them used social media themselves, though teachers at
Schools A and C were more familiar with sites like Facebook and Twitter.

Ms. Betts (School C):

We really maybe should be kept up to date because it’s massive.

They acknowledge that they have a lack of understanding, yet there was no
mention of any initiative taken to alleviate this knowledge gap, despite the
awareness of the problem. The implications due to the suggested knowledge gap
are clear from the responses, as teachers are aware of the continuing concerns
of technology and social media usage.

In contrast, non-teacher educators understood how social media sites worked as

they themselves used them and encouraged young people to be safe while using
social media. They spoke with familiarity about Facebook, ask.fm, Instagram and
other social networking sites. Mr. Wright, for example, explained how he had
been conducting workshops on Internet safety to primary school students, and

100
Ms. Barnes had also been involved in training young people on Internet safety.

Mr. Wright:
Technology and social media, and other forms of communication or
instant communication, is now more widely available to young people
than it’s ever been, even going back to 2002.

While all teachers were not completely knowledgeable of social media, they did
understand that there was reason to be concerned for young people regarding its
usage. Teachers expressed their fear and apprehension over social media,
showing their concern and warning of its usage by their students.

Mr. Smith (School A):

You know, you say to the kids, ‘don’t go near Snapchat. It’s, as the
campus officer will say, it’s ‘full of bad folk’ because it’s instant. And we
try and say, ‘stay away.’

Ms. Hill (School C):

We warn them that they are distancing themselves using social media.

Ms. Holt (School C):

You could end up being on these websites like the Lad Bible and stuff
like that that comes up on Facebook.

Respondents illustrated the impact of this fear in two ways. First, they
perceived the usage of social media sites such as Snapchat as being dangerous
and filled with people who wish young people harm. Second, the extensive usage
of social media by young people is also causing them to distance themselves by
focusing on Internet and social media communication as the primary way in
which they communicate with one another.

Additionally, teachers also brought up “correct” usage of social media as a

concern.

Ms. Holmes (School B):

Facebook’s a great thing but only if it’s used correctly.

Ms. Hill (School C):

They put photos up of people and get people to comment on them or
saying nasty things about, I’ve had that as well.

101
Ms. Holt (School C):
They use the sites but they don’t really understand the sites. [ . . .] And
they are very surprised to see photos of themselves coming up in Google
images and links to all sorts of things that they’re involved in because
they forget how much they’re joining up things, putting their names to
things.

The issue with educators’ emphasis on the correct usage of social media is that
this is a subjective judgment. Young people may believe that they are using
these sites correctly, despite their educators’ opinions.

Understanding how social media sites work in addition to how theses sites are
used in cyberbullying and the exclusion of younger people appears to be
correlated with training. Cyberbullying awareness training for both teachers and
non-teacher educators was split between those that had no training at all and
those who had undergone recent training. Teachers at School A had recently
completed Child Exploitation and Online Projection (CEOP) training. CEOP
training is provided to teachers and others who work with young people to help
increase child safety online. Teachers at Schools B and C had experienced no
training in recent years. It is worth mentioning that the two teachers from
School A also were familiar with social networks and technology.

While their experiences with young people were vastly different, those who
worked for youth organisations had received training concerning cyberbullying
and were familiar with social media and technology. Ms. Young had recently
undergone CEOP training at her place of employment at the time of the
interview, while Ms. Barnes had taken several professional development courses
and was also trained to teach others about issues pertaining to cyberbullying.

There was awareness by some outside agency respondents that training has not
caught up with the pace of technology.

Mr. Morgan (outside agency):

From my understanding, which isn’t full, but I can compare it to my own
teaching background that technology has moved faster than teacher
training and education.

102
Dealing with cyberbullying and its many different facets is a challenge that both
teachers and students are being confronted with. Students are often wary to
approach teachers about these issues because they are unsure if there is
anything that they can do, and often because teachers are unfamiliar with the
means and the technology. One teacher shared, “and they [Glasgow City
Council] were telling us about the changes to some of these websites. And
maybe teachers need a wee bit training regularly about the different sites,
because we don’t use them.” They continued to discuss some of the more
popular sites, Facebook and Twitter, and most confirmed they did not use them
personally or professionally. The combination of lack of training as well as not
using social media in their personal or professional lives appears to be a factor
affecting their unfamiliarity.

Having addressed the differing levels of understanding of social media, along

with the differences in training that respondents have attended, the next
section addresses young people and the culture of social media and how it has
permeated their lives.

4.4 Young people, cyberspace and the culture of social

media

In this section, the theme of young people, cyberspace and social media is
examined. The subthemes addressed in this section comprise the culture of
social media and its importance to young people, safety concerns, and how
young people’s lack of understanding of social media can seriously impact their
lives. Throughout the interviews conducted, it was evident that respondents felt
that young people were interacting primarily through the use of social media, a
change that has occurred within this younger generation of students. It was clear
that many of those interviewed did not understand the reasoning behind this,
nor was there a lot of familiarity of the sites being used to socialise and engage
in cyberbullying behaviours. However, these changes in the ways that young
people interact with one another are occurring and it is up to professionals to be
able to recognise these changes and how they impact the lives of young people.

103
Despite not always fully understanding the technology and terms, as explored in
the previous section, teachers were able to understand the importance of the
role that social media and technology has in the lives of young people.

Mr. Smith (School A):

We do recognise that given today’s kids with their gadgets, their phones,
iPods, mobile, laptops, all that kind of thing, they’re on Facebook,
Snapchat.

Ms. Jones (School A):

The phones are attached to them.

Ms. Watson (School B):

They’ve never known a world or anything different.

Ms. Price (School B):

I think if they could, they would have their phones in their hands twenty-
four/seven if they could.

Ms. Hill (School C):

Young people are much more au-fait with these sites and how to access
other people than we are. It’s a different culture nowadays and it’s very
much a part of their world.

Ms. Holt (School C):

It’s very difficult for them to escape from that culture even if they want
to because a lot of it is the way they contact one another nowadays.

As such, the responses indicate that educators are aware that this new culture
has come hand in hand with different concerns that need to be addressed, such
as safety.

Ms. Jones (School A):

Although they have access to all these things they don’t really know how
to use them and set up the security that should be on it. It’s trying to
educate the kids and keep them safe from being potential victims.

Ms. Holt (School C):

We warn them that they should never say anything that they wouldn’t
actually be brave enough to say to someone’s face.

104
Additionally, teachers were concerned about how young people engage with
each other online, especially when they feel that it was being used
inappropriately or in ways that caused harm to others. They often faced
scenarios where they were put into the position of having to explain and educate
why the interaction that had been carried out was unsuitable, unsafe, and was
considered cyberbullying.

Mr. Smith (School A):

A lot of our senior children have had fake websites set up in their name.
And a lot of cyberbullying is taking place. A lot of fake websites, I think
Mr. X’s dealing with it. And there’s about three that I know of with the
personal details on it and it’s obviously someone that knows them. And
saying really horrible things like rest in peace.

Ms. Watson (School B):

It was everybody else jumping on the bandwagon and everyone having an
opinion and everybody taking this slight really personally. It literally
snowballed; it was a post on Facebook and then the friends of the pupil in
the show tagged that person (and he had never even met her). Because he
was tagged they all [his friends] saw it. And people then tagged each
other saying ‘Have you seen this?’ ‘Who does she think she is? I’m going to
kick her head in!’

Ms. Betts (School C):

It was a really inappropriate page. And he was naming people on it. And
we spoke to him about it and we warmed him. We did say it was going to
become a police matter. I think that it was reported to the police and the
page was taken down, but the boy in question couldn’t quite understand
why it was such a big issue.

Quite often these discussions led to dealing with parents, the police or both, in
order to make sure that the victims were being assisted properly and being kept
safe, and that the perpetrators were also being dealt with appropriately.

Ms. Holmes (School B):

They had all got carried away with sitting in their bedrooms on their
phones. It wasn’t typical of what their personality would be, but they let
the heat of the moment take over them, and the things they were writing
were quite awful. Really quite threatening that if you said it to a young
person, you’d get some form of repercussion; it was a threat. And I don’t
think the young people realised that it could be traced back to them.
They got carried away with themselves but they were responsible for
these comments of a quite threatening nature. [. . .} We had to involve

105
 parents and the parents were astounded that was what their son or
daughter had written.

Ms. Holt (School C):

We have to make it clear that we don’t have a lot of control over what
they [the students] are doing in their homes and the parent might need to
monitor their use of Facebook or whatever sites they’re on. Sometimes
we have to advise the parent it may be a cause of blocking and deleting
and if that isn’t working then it’s a case of raising it with the police,
because our hands are tied.

From the responses, there is a clear indication of frustration and concern about
the online activities of young people. At the same time, there is also an
understanding that this is the way in which young people communicate with one
another today. However, teachers acknowledged that their control is limited, as
they are unable to monitor the online lives of their students. There was a strong
indication that parents needed to take a greater part in monitoring the online
activities of young people. While the scope of this research did not involve
parental roles, there was a concern about the roles and activities of parents as
they relate to cyberbullying and the online lives of young people. It was
suggested by educators that either parents have a limited role in monitoring
young people, or they are also engaging in similar behaviours as their children.

It was also felt that young people were so wrapped up in their online lives that
they were not communicating with their parents about issues that were
occurring.

Ms. Holmes (School B):

I think as well it’d be interesting to know if all the parents of these young
people know all these sites they’re on. Because how many parents go in
and check their kids Facebook account?

Ms. Hill (School C):

Their parents don’t know and they won’t tell their parents because they
don’t want their phone taken from them or their computer taken from
them.

As such, it is clear that young people are protective of their online lives. They
also want to maintain their connection to their friends and the outside world
through the use of their mobile devices and their computers. However, when it

106
comes to issues of safety, there is evidence for keeping communication open
with their parents and teachers.

4.5 The role of the school

As explained in the previous section, the culture of cyberbullying has permeated

the lives of young people and is having an impact on their daily lives, including
their academic experience. Given that the culture of the lives of young people
has changed and will continue to change as technology evolves, it is important
to look at the role of the school regarding social media and cyberbullying,
especially concerning issues of legality and proactivity in dealing with arising
concerns.

Addressing who is responsible for handling cyberbullying has been a point of

contention due to the fact that in most cases, cyberbullying is occurring outside
of school. Nevertheless, teachers are called on to deal with the issues that have
been brought to their attention by students, and in some cases, parents.

Mr. James (School B):

A parent would contact you if there have been incidents over the course
of the weekend. And they’re contacting us because it may impact on the
children’s interaction when they come to school.

Ms. Hill (School C):

We often deal with incidents relating to bullying or comments that have
been made on social media sites, maybe over the weekend or during the
evening.

Additionally, those working in outside agencies often suggested bringing issues

regarding cyberbullying to teachers in order to have them investigate and
address these concerns.

Mr. Wright (outside agency):

The advice I give young people is not to be quiet and to speak to an
appropriate adult. [ . . .] Generally most times it would be go to
the school teachers.

107
Once an issue had been reported to them, teachers felt it was necessary to
address the issue. This was true of incidents occurring outside of the school day,
which is generally the time during which cyberbullying occurs, as students are
not allowed to use their mobiles during the school day.

Ms. Hill (School C):

We take it very seriously and deal with it in the same way as we would
deal with a bullying incident in school. We write it up in our bully proofing
policy sheet. And then we would involve all of the people named and
investigate it the way we would investigate other matters, and contact
the parent.

Once teachers are made aware of the cyberbullying incident, school and city
procedure states that it must be investigated. While it was expressed that all
bullying and cyberbullying incidents were investigated, those interviewed
ultimately believed that in addition to teachers, other agencies need to share
the responsibility of handling these situations. Teachers clearly felt pressured to
deal with the issues of cyberbullying that were brought to their attention, but
felt that it should not be solely their responsibility. They understand that it has
become their responsibility due to school policy; however, they felt parents,
police, and the companies who own social media sites should be the ones
responsible for dealing with these issues.

Mr. James (School B):

I mean responsibility of parents, good parenting. Parents have got to have
a role as well.

Ms. Price (School B):

And also the responsibility of these companies. They are pulling in mega
money. They’re making absolute fortunes, you know.

Mr. James (School B):

And what are they doing about, what’s the government doing about it?

Ms. Hill (School C):

It’s not the school’s responsibility at this stage anyway. To punish people
who are using Facebook; it’s not a school issue. It’s not about school. It’s
about what’s been said out there.

How Internet and social media companies handle cyberbullying is not addressed
as part of this research. However, it is evident that there are concerns regarding

108
how these companies are protecting young people from victimisation, and
perhaps why they do not have a greater role in handling these matters. It could
be suggested that perhaps the respondents felt that it was easier to lay blame
on the sites used by young people, rather than address the shortcomings in their
own knowledge and training as described in the previous sections.

Respondents were also concerned about issues of legality. While teachers

understood it was necessary to address issues of cyberbullying when they were
brought to their attention (following the anti-bullying policy) there were
concerns about who was ultimately responsible for dealing with these issues
overall: the police, the government, or the companies that own social media
sites. Any incident that was inflicted in order to cause harm, based on disability,
sexual orientation or transgender identity, should have been reported to the
authorities on the basis of the Offences (Aggravation by Prejudice) (Scotland)
Act 2009. Additionally, the Communications Act of 2003 protects against any
cyberbullying act:
Sending by means of the Internet a message or other matter that is grossly
offensive or of an indecent, obscene or menacing character; or sending a
false message by means of or persistently making use of the Internet for
the purpose of causing annoyance, inconvenience or needless anxiety is
guilty of an offence liable, on conviction, to imprisonment. This wording
is important because an offence is complete as soon as the message has
been sent: there is no need to prove any intent or purpose.5

Despite this, teachers were vague about bullying incidents and how they were
handled, police involvement or not.

Mr. Smith (School A):

And with cases of cyberbullying, nine times out of ten, you know, you’re
involving the police, you know, cause they, they want to get and crack
down on it as well. . . . If they want to pursue it, they will go down the
line and use the campus officer to help them. Nine times out of ten the
kids will just say, ‘do you know what, I’ll just block them from my site.’
And blocked, they can’t get access to me, and it stops.

When asked later about the repercussions of cyberbullying, the police were
again mentioned.

5
http://www.gov.scot/Topics/Education/Schools/HLivi/behaviour/legislation

109
Ms. Jones (School A):
I think it’s cautions now that the police are trying to do rather than…

Mr. Smith (School A):

They’ll get a talk about, how they shouldn’t be doing it. And how it can
affect their future if they were to get a police record.

Particularly when discussing a matter of cyberbullying that had occurred at their

school, teachers brought up police involvement.

Ms. Betts (School C):

And so we spoke to him about that and we warned him. And we did say it
was going to become a police matter. Now I’ve got to be honest I think
that it was reported to the police and the page was taken down.

Ms. Hill (School C):

I often recommend the police. Do you know what I mean because it’s an
offence?

Those working with outside agencies also shared their concerns over issues of
campus police and the legal issues within their organisations.

Mr. Wright (outside agency):

I think it’s sad that there has to be a case where there is an actual police
officer based on site. However, the few instances that I’ve got to know a
campus police officer, they are there in the right reasons. They are
supportive of young people. . . . .And then the legal structure round
about where if a boy does get caught sending a photograph, let’s just say,
of his girlfriend, to another boy, it’s then a sex offenders cause because
he’s passing on imagery of a child.

Ms. Young (outside agency):

I think that’s what they were stressing here, is the police can become
involved in this as well. It is serious enough to warrant in doing that. But
people don’t really realise that. They think, ‘oh it’s just kids. It’s just
young people.’ But it’s not, really.

While the role of the authorities was not a focus of this research, it can be
speculated that the involvement of the police was not meant as a means to
punish the perpetrator of cyberbullying, but to address issues of safety for the
young people in their care.

110
When I asked what the impact was on the young people experiencing these
issues, I was told that as far as they knew, if it had become a police matter, that
was where the responsibility of the school ended and if they had any additional
information, the teachers were not forthcoming. This seemed to be the case at
all three schools. Once the issue had been dealt with, especially if the police
had been involved, the school officially stepped back from the issue. In cases
where the issue did not warrant authority involvement, the teachers try to sit
down with the affected parties and have an open discussion. Mr. Smith (School
A) elaborated:
You’re looking at your parents being brought in and you’re discussing it
with the parents, ‘look this is what your, your son or daughter is done’. As
I say they think, they’re pretty horrified at the fact that they’ve done
that or didn’t realise you could do that. That’s, that’s what tends to
happen. And if required, they would get an exclusion or a suspension.
That’s extreme. Or if the other parents or the other pupils want to, you’ll
involve the police and they’ll get a talk from the, the campus officer or
charged, I would imagine.

Once the issue was deemed to be resolved either by those involved or the
school, the schools felt they no longer had a role in dealing with the issue. A
teacher at School C said that it was out of their hands once the issue was
resolved.

In terms of proactivity, the focus was on assisting young people in remaining safe
online by educating them to the best of their abilities.

Mr. Smith (School A):

So we do recognise it is a problem and we try and educate the kids as best
we can to say, ‘Look this is happening. Keep the evidence, there’s people
that can help you.’

Ms. Jones (School A):

I decided this year to develop a new unit for S2 because listening to their
conversations last year and the kind of things that I overheard; I thought
‘they don’t know enough.’ Mr. Smith and I both went on a CEOP course
and I brought some of that back to the classroom.

Ms. Betts (School C):

As part of the Health and Wellbeing course we will cover cyberbullying.

111
Mr. Morgan (outside agency):
I think there needs to be more systematic education of children and young
people so that they realise the harm and so that they are able to resist
joining in [to cyberbullying].

While there was evidence of some proactivity, most respondents felt they were
reacting to the incidents of cyberbullying reported to them, rather than getting
ahead of them before they started.

Mr. James (School B):

You’re then having to pick up what’s happened at the weekend and try
and make sure that the children are not falling out within the school.

Ms. Holt (School C):

Young people, quite often girls are the ones that being our attention to
cyberbullying.

Ms. Hill (School C):

An awful lot of our time is spent trying to make sure what’s going on out
there on Facebook doesn’t come into the school.

Mr. Wright (outside agency):

The teachers get the young people involved immediately the next
morning, even though this [cyberbullying] was happening outside of school
hours. It was curbed pretty quickly. They’ve got the network of support
and the way of dealing with it in place.

Reacting to the challenges of cyberbullying appears to be the case in most

situations, as they appear to continually occur. While the respondents were not
fully proactive, they do represent a small percentage of teachers who are
working with young people in these schools and the instruction of cybersafety is
perhaps beyond their realm of responsibility. There was evidence that best
practices were being used to the best of their abilities, although the lack of
training for teachers may also be a factor in this area as well.

4.6 Summary of findings

This chapter has addressed the experience of cyberbullying from the perspective
of educational professionals. There is evidence that educators are able to
understand and recognise cyberbullying, but the scope appears to be limited to

112
having the issues brought directly to their attention, rather than actively
deducing that a young person is experiencing difficulties and that it may be
related to online victimisation. It has also addressed varying degrees of
knowledge of social media by educators, the wide spread usage of social media
by young people, as well as the role of the school in dealing with both
cyberbullying and social media.

First, participants expressed varying levels of knowledge regarding

cyberbullying. Levels of understanding differed between all demographics of
participants: by age, by school and between school personnel and educational
professional personnel. Out of all respondents, only one provided a definitional
response, however, this may be related to the way the question was worded
rather than the lack of knowledge by those interviewed.

Following the teacher responses, evidence showed that all teachers had
familiarity and general awareness and understanding of what constitutes
cyberbullying. However, teachers at School A had by far the most knowledge and
understanding of cyberbullying out of the teachers who were interviewed.
Moreover, with exception of the teachers at School A, older teachers appeared
to have limited knowledge of cyberbullying and frequently relied on pupils to
bring their concerns to them, rather than being able to recognise these without
prompting.

On the other hand, educational professionals from outside agencies had a

greater knowledge of cyberbullying and were able to discuss the issues fluently.
While they may have had less day-to-day experience with handling the issues
themselves, they were able to both understand and recognise the issues clearly.

Furthermore, there were varying degrees of social media knowledge and

understanding. All respondents had an understanding of social media and how
young people generally used it. There is also evidence, however, to show that
teachers had a great deal of fear and apprehension when it comes to social
media and online activities. It was also understood that social media was used
for communication and photo sharing amongst peer groups and friends.
However, knowledge about specific sites and applications used by young people

113
was limited overall, especially concerning teachers. Many of the popular sites
and applications were not known or heard of by teachers, nor did they
understand why they were being used apart from the aforementioned reasons.
Despite the general lack of knowledge, surprisingly, teachers often felt that
there was a correct way to engage in these sites and activities.

Moreover, misconceptions were prevalent among teachers. They often were

unfamiliar with basic terminology like internet protocol address (IP), in addition
to not knowing how easy it is to set up a fake Facebook profile or establish a
blog or a website, as these things take little technical knowledge in the present
climate. Additionally, there was widespread fear around social media usage by
young people.

In contrast, it appeared that those who work outside of the school involved in
youth work have greater knowledge of social media and the online activities of
young people today. There are indications that less professional development
training concerning cyberbullying and technology of respondents correlated with
a lack of understanding and knowledge of student usage of social media, and
social media and technology in general. It was also found that both students and
professionals could benefit more training in the dangers of cyberbullying and
how to use social media safely and appropriately.

The majority of teachers had not experienced training and were very aware that
the lack of training had an impact on their knowledge of cyberbullying and their
ability to recognise social media sites and applications. Moreover, they
understood that young people held the upper hand in experience and usage of
social media and technology.

While many interviewees did not understand the logic and reasoning behind their
students’ use of social media, they were able to recognise the importance that
social media and technology plays in their lives. Teachers especially felt the
cultural difference between themselves and their students and their pre-
occupation with social media.

114
The school has a role in addressing these issues and maintaining the safety of the
pupils in attendance. Schools need to continue to be proactive rather than
reactive in handling issues surrounding cybersafety and work with other
shareholders in the lives of young people to meet the needs of both school and
pupil. The teachers appeared to be aware of this issue. Despite the difference in
“digital nativeness” between teachers and young people, there was still a
concern for their online safety and well-being of their pupils. Teachers
especially were frequently put into a position where they needed to explain that
the online interactions that were occurring were not appropriate. Teachers
often had to take action, which frequently included contacting parents and in
some case the authorities, in order to ensure online safety.

Finally, the role of the school was discussed, particularly its part in issues of
responsibility, legality, reactivity and proactivity. While it was found that most
instances of cyberbullying and exclusion took place outside of school, teachers
were often pressured to deal with them by students, parents, and other
educational professionals who encouraged young people to bring these issues to
the attention of their teachers. Moreover, teachers often felt pressured to deal
with these issues, even when they felt they were out of their purview, and that
parents, police, and the companies that run social media and technology sites
needed to have a greater role in dealing with issues of cyberbullying.

With this comes an issue of legality. This is a particularly complex issue, as

determining who is ultimately responsible for dealing with cyberbullying is
circumspect. As young people have often gone to their teachers for issues
related to traditional in-school bullying, cyberbullying has followed a similar
path.

More complexities are added to this when dealing with issues surrounding
disability, sexuality, sexual orientation, and transgender identity according to
the Offences (Aggravation by Prejudice) (Scotland) Act 2009. Despite this being
the law since 2009, respondents were vague about how issues brought to their
attention may or many not have been handled with respect to the law.

115
While teachers were also able to pinpoint where they were proactively
addressing issues of cyberbullying, such as in health and wellbeing courses, it
was evident from responses that the majority of the cases are handled in a
reactive manner. Incidents are usually brought to their attention, pupils and
parents, if necessary, are interviewed, the police are involved, if necessary, and
then the issue is considered and dealt with.

The majority of the research surrounding teachers and social media is related to
those who actively use social media in the classroom to engage their students.
There is little data regarding knowledge of social media and technology and
much of what is available refers to teachers who engage in collaborative
practices with their pupils and other educators in the classroom.

4.7 Discussion

This chapter examined the experience of cyberbullying from the perspective of

educators. Issues related to knowledge, recognition and understanding of
cyberbullying and social media were explored, along with how young people
engage on social media. The findings suggest that the Established and Outsider
framework can be applied as a means to understand the possible motivations
behind the exclusionary practices. Elias and Scotson (1994) imply that gossip and
stigmatisation are used to tarnish the reputation of those considered outsiders; a
similar process utilised by young people engaging in exclusion and gossip on
Facebook.

The role of the school as it pertains to cyberbullying was also presented.

Although cyberbullying is a phenomenon that is widely recognised due to its
portrayal in the media (Davis et al., 2015), the findings show that teachers
especially have limited knowledge and understanding of both cyberbullying and
social media, unlike their educational professional counterparts. It is clear from
the interviews that this is due to a lack of training. There were also negative
perspectives and portrayals of social media utilisation, which again appeared to
be due to a combination of factors including lack of knowledge and training.

116
Teachers were upfront about how cyberbullying incidents were handled by the
school. However, they were vague about any repercussions, such as emotional or
behavioural issues resulting from a young person being involved in a
cyberbullying incident (Cassidy, Brown and Jackson, 2012). The findings also
suggest that teachers interviewed believe that the school should not be as
involved in addressing issues of cyberbullying, rather that it was a matter for the
police, the government, or social media corporations.

These findings have revealed that issues of cyberbullying are greater than the
interpersonal or intergroup struggles of young people. Teachers especially play a
role in the lives of young people and if they are unable to conceptualise and
understand the issues being faced (Byers, Caltabiano and Caltabiano, 2011), this
may increase the already significant levels of young people either not reporting
or underreporting victimisation (Prince and Dagleish, 2010; Stauffer, Heath,
Coyne and Ferrin, 2012; Yilmaz, 2010).

While the victimisation may be occurring outside of the school day, as many
interviewees expressed, the effects of the cybervictimisation are carrying over
into the school day (Willard, 2007). It has been suggested that the school
community is an important factor in combating issues of exclusion and the school
should be playing a crucial role in combating cyberbullying (Eden, Heiman, and
Olenik-Sherman, 2013) rather than foisting the issues to the police or outside
agencies.

It is evident from the interviews that the lack of training is the crucial factor in
addressing all of the aforementioned issues. Providing training in cyberbullying
prevention strategies as well in how cyberbullying is perpetuated (Cross et al.,
2009) would provide the background that was missing by the majority of
interviewees.

Following the Established and Outsider framework, it is the young people who
hold the established position, due to the fact that young people are digital
natives who increasingly live their lives online and on social media; a digital gap
(Greenhow, Robelia, and Hughes, 2009). This allows young people to continue to
perpetuate cyberbullying and engage on social media furtively, as teachers are

117
often unaware of these activities. In contrast, you have teachers who are
uncomfortable with or are reluctant to use technology and social media, and as
a result find it difficult to understand the jargon that is being used by young
people in addition to the frequently changing social media sites that they use as
well, making them “outsiders.”

The next chapter builds upon these findings with the exploration of the impact
of cyberbullying on young people from the perspective of these educational
professionals and further expands on the theories discussed in chapter two to
help explain and understand why cyberbullying is occurring among young people.

118
 Chapter 5
The Impact of Cyberbullying on Young People

5.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter, the findings on Educators and Cyberbullying: A New

Challenge were presented and discussed. The purpose of this chapter is to
address the remaining themes that were identified through the interviews
conducted with teachers from the three schools that were utilised in the
quantitative results, as well as through the interviews that were carried out at
local youth work and resource agencies.

The impact that cyberbullying has on young people has been found to be varied
throughout the literature. It has been found that young people may experience
depression, anxiety (Patchin and Hinduja, 2011; Shariff and Holt, 2007; Ybarra
and Mitchell, 2004), and poor academic achievement (Hinduja and Patchin,
2007; Smith et al., 2008) as well as many other symptoms related to being both
cyberbullies and cybervictims. Elias’s research offers insight into those engaging
in cyberbullying as exclusion. Young people find themselves distracted by the
lure of social media as a way of maintaining their established position, while
victims may experience emotional difficulties as a result of being stigmatised.
While the respondents interviewed could not specify the long-term impact on
their students in many of these cases, they were able to give their perspectives
on how the young people in their classes cope with cyberbullying as well as the
impact that the exclusionary behaviour has on their mental health. There may
be some repetition carried over from Chapter 4, as it is necessary to revisit some
aspects of cyberbullying in order to discuss its impact thoroughly.

This chapter seeks to evaluate the impact of cyberbullying on young people from
the perspective of educational professionals. It addresses the following research
questions: Why do young people cyberbully? How do young people utilise social
media in relation to cyberbullying? How are young people experiencing
cyberbullying? How are educators handling the challenges of cyberbullying? The

119
beginning of this chapter focuses on the themes that emerged from the
interview data dealing with the emotional impact on young people today (5.2),
including issues of mental health, lack of school engagement, and extreme
reactions to cyberbullying. Second, (5.3) the ways in which the Catholic Ethos of
the school has shaped the responses to cyberbullying is examined. Last, this
chapter addresses why young people engage in cyberbullying and exclusionary
behaviours (5.4). Why young people engage in exclusionary behaviours is
presented in this chapter as it concludes the qualitative research and
understanding the motivations that lead to cyberbullying can lead to greater
understanding of the impact of the behaviour. The themes that emerged
regarding why young people exclude one another include the pressures on young
people, including peer and societal pressure, unhappiness and insecurity, and
power.

5.2 The emotional impact on young people

In this section the impact on the wellbeing and mental health of those affected
by cyberbullying is discussed. While teachers were seeing the daily impact of
exclusion, non-teacher educators seemed to take a greater interest in the
wellbeing of the young people they worked with, perhaps because they could
see the situations differently, especially since their roles were different to that
of teachers. They also seemed to be more aware of the emotional and long-term
impact on those involved in bullying and cyberbullying activities. For reasons of
confidentiality, the scenarios that were brought up in the interviews were vague
and at no time were any identifying markers mentioned about the individuals
who had experienced cyberbullying.

Cyberbullying largely is thought to have an impact on the mental health of the

victim as well as the bully. Those who have experienced cyberbullying as a bully
or victim have often experienced deterioration of their mental health, including
depression, anxiety, and instances of self-harm. The following excerpts from
teachers illustrate some of the ways that young people have had their mental
health impacted through cyberbullying.

Ms. Betts (School C):

120
 I would say we’ve got several young people under pressures. I think we’ve
seen an increase in self-harming.

Ms. Holt (School C):

It’s at the stage where it consumes their thoughts for a large part of the
day.

Ms. Hill (School C);

There’s a cry for help going out a lot with young people.

Ms. Betts (School C):

It’s often vulnerable children who are targeted or vulnerable young
people are targeted on these sites.

Teachers witness the impact that cyberbullying and victimisation is having on

the mental health and wellbeing of their students. Young people are affected by
cyberbullying victimisation and it is causing emotional upheaval, anxiety, self-
harm, and sleep disturbances. This is especially a concern for young people who
may already be particularly at risk for such behaviours beforehand. Perhaps due
to issues of confidentiality, respondents seemed to be reluctant to share more
details about how young people fared after issues of cyberbullying. It may also
be due to the fact that after the issues were resolved, teachers felt they had to
recover and overcome what had happened. Whether or not mental health issues
occurred after the fact is not known in this case, however, it has been found
throughout the research (see Chapter 2) that these issues may take time to
develop after experiencing cyberbullying.

On the other hand, non-teacher educators were able to elaborate more on some
of the mental health issues that young people were experiencing. In a more
detailed scenario, Mr. Wright (outside agency) discussed a cyberbullying
situation that he had been made aware of. He encouraged the victim to bring it
up at school, which she did. He said that both parties were spoken to and their
families were called in to discuss the situation, and that the entire situation was
resolved within twenty-four hours. When I asked if there were any repercussions
after the fact, he said that the issue ended up highlighting the fact that this
incident of cyberbullying was an extension of the physical bullying that had been
going on in school. He concurred that there were issues that remained after the

121
case was technically closed, ones that were affecting the mental health of the
victim.

It’s the whole mental health deterioration of it. It’s the symptoms that
you can’t see. It’s the negative effect of how it affects them and their,
and every aspect of their life, be it their confidence, be it their self-
esteem, be it their ability to want to go to school. Be it their ability to
learn. Be it their ability to mix with others.

It is again evident that young people are experiencing issues with mental health
as a consequence of victimisation. These mental health issues have long lasting
effects that range from confidence issues to school attendance and often
continue long after the bullying or cyberbullying has ended. Mr. Wright and
those who work for outside agencies are witnessing this deterioration and how it
is impacting young people after the school day is over, and have been able to
see first hand that the impact is greater than the incident that has occurred.

Ms. Young (outside agency) also was very concerned about mental health effects
on those that were bullied, especially her son who had been victimised both in
school and online. She reiterated that the impact was long-term and on going,
especially as the issues were not being addressed fully by the school. She
explained:
But you’re keeping an eye on, but there are obviously changes and
different things, mood swings, whatever else. Then I had the extensive,
which had never occurred before, bedwetting [. . .] And they said this was
their coping mechanism, or not coping with what was actually going on
with them.

Her son became withdrawn, depressed, and began to wet the bed at night,
something that had never occurred before. Stakeholders in her son’s mental
health explained that this was a way that young people cope with the strain that
they are experiencing when they have been bullied. This example illustrates the
toll that cyberbullying takes on the mental heath and wellbeing of young people
who have been cyberbullied.

Increasingly, it has been found that young people have been having more
extreme reactions to cyberbullying in addition to self-harm, as mentioned in the
previous section. Some have attempted suicide, while some have actually

122
committed the act. While this had not occurred at the three schools that
participated, they were aware that these issues were occurring.

Ms. Watson (School B):

I mean let’s be truthful, when you get to the situation of suicide and stuff
like that, it’s not on.

On the other hand, those who worked for outside agencies had some experience
with young people who had attempted suicide or experienced suicidal ideation. .

Ms. Young (outside agency):

Another incident I’m thinking of, somebody I dealt with at a young age
was near enough suicidal because they were in a relationship and
something got posted on Youtube.

The most extreme illustration was that of a young girl that Ms. Barnes (outside
agency) worked with. The young person in question had been bullied at school
and online through the social media site ask.fm. This situation unfortunately
escalated due to the anonymous nature of the site, combined with its ability to
be linked to individuals’ personal social media accounts if they so chose to allow
this. Ms. Barnes explained how the cyberbullying occurred:
. . .everything that you have on ask.fm; all these social networks are all
kind of linked now. So if I post something on my Twitter it goes on to my
Facebook. So if I post something on ask.fm it’ll go on to my Facebook. So
therefore it can then spill over to people who don’t use ask.fm but see it
on Facebook. And they had commented on individuals going in and kind of
fanning the flames a wee bit.

The information was shared across multiple platforms (ask.fm, Twitter,

Facebook); therefore, the risk to the young person increased as many
individuals, including people she knew directly, witnessed the victimisation. Ms.
Barnes elaborated further about what happened to the young victim:

And the girl had spent an extended period of, I think it was, about three
or four months in hospital after she’d attempted suicide as a result of
bullying through the ask.fm site.

This was clearly an extreme reaction to the victimisation that occurred. Young
people are clearly experiencing cyberbullying and the repercussions of this
exclusionary behaviour. However, the majority of these young people were

123
shown to persevere after the bullying occurred. While suicide and parasuicidal
thoughts do occur in young people who have been cyberbullied (see Chapter 2),
this appeared to be an isolated incident with respect to these interviews.

This incident did have an impact on the victim, her family, and her friends. Once
she had recovered, the victim did not return to school. Ms. Barnes shared that
“the school didn’t feel the need to continue to provide support for her.” She felt
that the school should have done more in supporting this student and in getting
her the assistance and support she needed to return to school. She also felt that
the school had done a disservice to this young person and that there needed to
be more awareness of the impact of cyberbullying. Additionally, Ms. Barnes
shared that the victim’s group of friends were badly affected by the
cyberbullying and suicide attempt, as well as her family.

As in the above scenario, many interviewees were concerned with how social
media usage and cyberbullying was effecting school engagement. The students
are so distracted by their mobile phones and Facebook pages that their focus is
not on their academic work. Young people were also coming into school
exhausted because they were staying up late on their mobiles and tablets.

Ms. Betts (School C):

They can’t concentrate in school because the phone is such a temptation.

Ms. Price (School B):

In the first weeks of school we spoke about attendance and how it’s
important to look after yourself and sleep and everything like that. So we
were having a general conversation and it’s like what do you do when you
are in your rooms at night, and your mum and dad think you’re sleep?
They were on their phones. They were on tablets. I mean it’s twenty four
seven.

Ms. Hill (School C):

You can see why young people are stressed to the max sometimes. And
it’s because they cannot get away from it. They don’t get a minute’s
peace. And partly it’s because they won’t allow themselves but I think it’s
a very difficult thing for them to deal with cause they’re naturally going
to check who’s saying what. And that just creates absolutely mayhem
sometimes.

124
Mr. Wright (outside agency):

It’s following into their home life, into their bed routine. And it’s
affecting them as soon as they open their eyes before they even get to
school.

These findings illustrate the distracting effect that social media usage and
cyberbullying is having on young people. Social media usage has become rooted
in their lives and is affecting them when they check their email and texts in the
morning and throughout the day, and continues to impact them after school
when they return home.

Additionally, when young people are experiencing cyberbullying they often

withdraw from school, peers, and family. Teachers shared that they had pupils
who did not want to attend school due to the online harassment they were
facing. The cyberbullying was clearly having an impact on both their mental
health and education by the distraction of their mobiles and social media
accounts.

Ms. Holt (School C):

I have pupils who are saying…they’re not coming into school because
they’re being bullied. And when you dig in, the person that’s maybe doing
the bullying doesn’t even come into school either. They’re doing it over
Facebook and social media. So…it’s also about…anxiety and…I think an
awful lot of them are under more pressure because it’s constantly there.
It’s the bit that I was saying, they don’t get away from it. It’s always with
them.

Teachers are also seeing the changes and distractions of social media and
cyberbullying as young people are continually pressured and distracted by the
allure of texts and Facebook. As it is such a large part of their lives in addition
to how they communicate with their peers, many are unable to part from the
distraction. They find themselves sneaking their phones out during or between
classes. This in turn causes issues with school engagement as they are distracted
and unable to focus in school, or are continually distracted with what occurred
online the previous evening.

Mr. Smith (School A):

It’s like Pavolv’s dogs, the phone goes, they pick it up automatically and
then we’re saying ‘What are you doing with that in class?’

125
Mr. James (School B):
They are not allowed to use their phones during classroom time.
Technically, a lot of them do use it at, during the breaks. But they don’t
have access to the Internet in the school.

Ms. Watson (School B):

It’s such a natural thing for them that they probably do it subconsciously.
They would have their phones out in every class if we allowed them to.
You know, you see them walking down the stairs from class and they’ve
got their phones in their hands checking it.

Whether subconscious or not, young people are engaged in social media and
their mobile phones that has been likened to addictive behaviour by
respondents. The distractions are clearly prevalent and pervasive and are
another challenge that both students and teachers must deal with on a daily
basis.

Overall, it is evident from the interviews that young people are increasingly
involved in online communities and social media. They are especially vulnerable
to the pressures of what they experience online, in addition to pressures of their
peers and the pressures of society. The impact goes beyond hurt feelings caused
by a comment on their Facebook wall, but to depression, anxiety, withdrawal
from every day situations and school, as well as suicide in the most extreme
cases.

It is clear from the responses given that the distractions caused by social media
are concerning to the educators who are dealing with these issues every day.
Some of them described their students’ behaviour as addictive, as young people
were reluctant to let their mobile phones out of their sight as well as staying up
into the early hours of the morning using social media. These behaviours are
most concerning to respondents. As will be seen later, some of these behaviours
can be linked to why young people engage in exclusionary behaviours.

Having discussed the emotional impact of cyberbullying on young people, the

next section addresses how the Catholic ethos of the school impacts how the
schools and participants handle issues of cyberbullying.

126
5.3 The Catholic ethos and cyberbullying

The three schools that participated in this research were Catholic schools.
Additionally, one of the individuals from the outside agencies was a former
Catholic Head Teacher. It was important to determine whether or not being a
Catholic school or the Catholic ethos itself, as the interviewees described it, was
a factor that could impact how cyberbullying was handled and treated within
these schools.

Despite the differences found in faith-based schools versus state schools, none of
the respondents felt that the fact that the schools were religious schools
affected their approach to addressing cyberbullying in particular. Rather, it was
suggested by the interviewees that the Catholic ethos of the school was what
affected their approach to all challenges that young people were facing.

One contributing factor was that the school community is akin to a family.

Mr. Smith (School A):

It’s got to do with the whole school ethos and how we approach things.
That’s all the way through the year groups. And it’s about the kids
recognizing that ‘ok, you’re here during the day and that we’re a family.’

This may allow young people, who are feeling particularly vulnerable or
experiencing issues of cyberbullying, to appreciate their school as a safe place
where they can talk about the issues that they are facing. Mr. Smith elaborated
further:
It’s how we approach it in here with the kids. And I think the kids might
appreciate it. They realise that ‘ok things might be a bit chaotic at home
or my mum and dad’s at work.’ They appreciate the fact that the staff
will talk to them and the teachers will talk to them and treat them the
same as they would treat their own kids.

The view here is that the school is an extension of the family for the young
people it serves. Teachers and staff are there to help counsel young people who
may be experiencing issues that they feel they cannot address at home. While
these sentiments may seem to differ from some of the comments that were
made in regard to dealing with issues of cyberbullying in Chapter 4, it is evident
that the teachers interviewed genuinely cared for the students that they worked

127
with. This spirit was echoed and recognised by the other two schools, showing
that they still aimed to instil respect as a core value in the lives of their
students.

Mr. James (School B):

It’s the Catholic ethos that you’re trying to instil in the children, you
know. They talk about gospel values and how to treat people and stuff
like that.

Ms. Hill (School C):

But certainly everything that drives the way we operate within the
Catholic sector is adherence to the gospel, values about respect, and
about nurture. Nurture is one of the things that this school is moving
forward on. And it’s about respecting the individual. Helping to bring the
individual to a realisation of what other peoples needs are, that type of
thing. And that’s very much what comes with, within the Catholic sector.
But that’s not to say it doesn’t happen in other schools as well.

Mr. Morgan also felt that it was about dignity and respect, and that these are
the values that should be emphasised when it came to dealing with issues of
cyberbullying.
In the Catholic school, the way that should be explained and understood is
that the, is that there are reasons why it’s wrong. And it’s not just wrong
because it’s wrong. It’s wrong because it, it contradicts the basic
understanding that we have that every, every person’s life is precious.
That each person as a child of God, if we use the language that we would
use, and is made in God’s own image and likeness. And because of that
deserves absolute respect. We’re not naive enough to, to teach that we
would all love each other consistently but irrespective of that, we should
respect other people and we should certainly not be harming them in any
way. Every person deserves to have their dignity protected. So that kind
of language is quite important in that young people kind of understand
it’s not just a school rule. It’s because the nature of what it is to be
human.

Respondents illustrated that the ethos and values were present within the school
and shared with young people through the curriculum, and in the ways in which
issues were handled within the school. Whether or not the young people chose
to act and live the message of the school ethos was the challenge.

Mr. James (School B):

128
 You’re at least mentioning that [the ethos and gospel values] to the
children. You’re trying to get them to live their lives that way. Whether
they actually do and whether it impacts on cyberbullying, maybe that’s a
grand claim. But it’s a possibility.

This viewpoint shows that there is an understanding of the fact that teachers are
trying to instil these values within their students; however, they are not too
naive to realise that their values may not be shared by young people today. Ms.
Watson elaborated further:

I think it’s very much a generational thing. And although as Mr. James
says that you’re trying to instil that ethos and gospel values, the way of
the world now is technology. And I don’t even know if young people have
that thought process before they do whatever they are going to do.

This statement symbolizes what is occurring in these schools. Teachers are doing
their best to instil the Catholic ethos and gospel values in to young people today.
However, young people today are focused on technology and their thought
processes may not involve thinking about respect and dignity before replying to
a comment on Facebook or Twitter.

Finally, all three schools felt that it was part of their ethos, as well as their
inherent values to deal with cyberbullying from a position of compassion,
dignity, and respect. Despite the Catholic ethos found in the schools that took
part in this research, it seemed that a focus on respect in general was key in
helping address any issues of bullying or cyberbullying in schools.

In the next section, why young people engage in these behaviours is discussed. In
doing so, it is important to keep in mind the impact that exclusion has, as the
motivations behind young people’s participation in exclusionary tactics, such as
cyberbullying, is addressed.

5.4 Why do young people engage in cyberbullying?

The last question asked in each interview was “Why do you think young people
bully and cyberbully?” This question evoked a lot of discussion and a variety of
responses from both the teachers and educational professionals. The consensus
among participants was that this was a difficult and profound question that had

129
more than one answer. In this section, why young people engage in bullying
behaviours is determined, with a focus on the themes and subthemes that
emerged from the interviews.

As was stated in Chapter 2, determining the reasons why young people bully is a
complex and multifaceted problem. One of the themes that emerged related to
the pressures that young people are facing today. They are facing pressures to
look a certain way, behave a certain way, and attain status symbols, such as
certain mobile phones or brands of clothing and shoes in order to gain approval
from peers. These beliefs were shared both by teachers and educational
professionals.

The pressures for young people to look a certain way have an impact on their
behaviour. These pressures come from the media as well as their peers, who
may even be in competition with one another to meet certain standards.

Mr. Wright (outside agency):

You’ve got to look a certain way. You’ve got to have a certain thing to be;
you’re under pressure to have Addidas trainers, to have Nike trainers.

If young people fail to meet these standards or choose to stand out, they often
face ridicule and bullying.

Mr. Morgan (outside agency):

I can think of a couple of young women in schools who were being bullied
because of their appearance. At the time they were dressing as moshers.
They wanted to dress and wear makeup and so on. And they had a really
difficult time with that. It was for them a kind of badge of identity that
they were establishing for themselves. They were deliberately putting
themselves apart from the others and didn’t like the adverse reaction
understandably.

These standards are not limited to the clothes that young people wear.
Frequently, the status symbol that is used is the mobile phone.

Ms. Holmes (School B):

I can’t believe first and second years in this school have the same phone
as me. I’ve got the latest technology. And you think ‘you’re twelve years
old and you’ve got a £600 phone in your hand.’

130
Ms. Holt (School C):
They have to be seen with the latest phones and the latest gadgets.

The argument presented illustrates that young people experience increasing

pressures to acquiesce to the pressures of both peers and society. These
pressures do not solely pertain to the acquisition of technology and status
symbols, but also to how young people use technology. While pressures may
differ for boys and girls, the need to conform to these pressures is similar.

Mr. Wright (outside agency):

The sexting issue is hugely on the increase. And you know what, I could be
here another four hours talking about that to do with the pressures on
young girls to why they feel the need to be having to send the images on
in the first place.

Mr. Wright’s view, which was shared by others, is that girls are increasingly
pressured to send provocative images. He was unclear as to who was pressuring
them to do so overall, female or male peers. While it may be a combination of
both, it was clear that the pressure was found to be increasingly from males, as
Mr. Wright elaborated further.
I could go on hugely to do with why young women feel the need and the
pressure to be portrayed in a certain way or to send images onto young
men and how young men depict females in general.

Both young men and women are pressured to conform to these behaviours within
their peer groups by sharing inappropriate images online. The pressure that
young people felt from their peers appeared to be far-reaching and widespread.

Mr. Morgan (outside agency):

In today’s world peer pressure seems to be the dominant factor that
determines behaviour.

Ms. Barnes (outside agency):

However there is, in my opinion, a massive peer pressure to participate
within bullying.

Ms. Watson (School B):

131
 I think there’s a gratification with it as well because sometimes bullying is
seen as you’re dead cool and to inflate your own ego perhaps or to make
your peers, sometimes young people, hopefully not adults but they might
think that they will get some form of sort of pat on the back.

Mr. Wright (outside agency):

Kids get brought up in it with so many pressures put on them to look and
behave in certain ways. And if you stand out from that it’s easy, you’re
easily picked upon.

Moreover, they are also pressured by society to behave in these ways.

Mr. Wright (outside agency):

Let’s just say that the availability of porn and the state of advertising and
society and the way it portrays women and society putting on these
pressures.

Ms. Barnes (outside agency):

Because they look at the media and they look at the twisted perceptions
of females in the media. And that’s where this is coming from. It’s coming
from a place of low self esteem and self confidence because people are
taught now to fit into a system and be part of a system and not be an
individual within a society and to not give themselves any more value
than they would give anyone else.

As such, it was felt that cyberbullying, as a form of exclusion was an issue that
had to do with society as a whole. Respondents felt that the bullying behaviours
exhibited were learned outside of school, be it from parents, peers, or society.

Ms. Young (outside agency):

It can be a bit of learned behaviour, what they’re seeing at home.

Mr. Wright (outside agency):

Generally the way, society makes us competitive. Generally the way, we
live in a greedy look after number one society that kids look for
weaknesses in others. To be better than other people in some way or
other.

With society and technology changing and evolving, Ms. Barnes believed that
something was missing in the lives of young people as “it’s about the social and
emotional; the holistic approach to parenting. Something’s missing somewhere
for those children to end up bullies.”

132
Unhappiness and insecurity was also seen as motivation for engaging in
cyberbullying behaviour. Some respondents believed that exclusion occurred as
part of a survival instinct, especially if the young person had been bullied
before. Some thus felt that adolescents resort to bullying due to unhappiness.

Ms. Young (outside agency) felt that bullies were unhappy:

So if something’s not right in their life and they, I feel that…something
they’ve no got control over or whatever, for whatever reason or
something that’s going on in their life that’s affecting them. So they then
translate that out in another form. And quite often it comes out in the
form of bullying.

Insecurity was another possible reason considered by the respondents. “It’s

insecurity for a lot of them,” shared a teacher at School C. Ms. Barnes
elaborated and said that it was “because they’ve not had their own support and
stuff like that that they needed in their lives.” Similarly, Mr. Morgan felt that it
is done “out of a sense of vulnerability themselves or inadequacy in order to
assert a position out of fear that they might be bullied” and in doing so, they
felt that “to get in first, you strike first.” From these comments, it is clear that
the interviewees felt that the young people that they had worked with were
often vulnerable and at risk, leading them to believe they that they needed to
act out in order to keep from being bullied, or to assert their dominant position
among their peer group.

One way in which young people are able to assert their dominance is through the
use of power. Power is a key concept within the dynamic of both bullying and
cyberbullying.

Mr. Morgan (outside agency):

What the technology has done, as I said, has made it easier to get the
word out quicker because if someone is only bullying really when, they
exert that power and then they proclaim it to somebody else, they share
it with somebody else. They encourage others to join in.

Power in the cyberbullying dynamic shows a form of inequality between the

victim and the perpetrator.

Mr. Wright (outside agency):

133
 We don’t live in a society where everyone is equal.

This power is often lauded over in the forms that have already been discussed,
such as societal pressures on young people. These pressures yield the behaviour
of exclusion.

Mr. Morgan (outside agency):

The reasons for the behaviour are just the same. It’s about me imposing
my behaviour and my authority over you, and trying to render you
helpless, really.

As stated in Chapter 2, power and how it is yielded is important in dealing and

understanding issues of bullying and cyberbullying. This power, perceived or
otherwise, is another component of the bullying and cyberbullying dynamic and
is used as another way to denigrate.

Overall, the respondents felt that this was a challenging question brought forth,
as it was considered a complex problem with many variables, and that each
bullying or cyberbullying occurrence has different motivations. Generally, it was
believed that there was most likely more than one possible reason that
cyberbullying was occurring and that a combination of factors is responsible for
the phenomenon.

5.5 Summary of findings

This chapter has explored the impact of cyberbullying from the perspective of
teachers and education professionals. Again, the schools involved (Schools A, B,
and C) were the same schools where the original research took place, as
illustrated in Chapter 4. Others who were interviewed came from youth
organisations and outreach programmes. These youth organisations and outreach
programmes serve young people in Glasgow in a variety of ways, for example, by
offering sports activities and supporting vulnerable youth. Insights into what
young people are experiencing were discussed and much of what was said
confirmed what is already known. Overall, it is ascertained that young people
are dealing with cyberbullying on a daily basis and that it is invasive as well as
pervasive.

134
The first section addressed the emotional impact on young people in relation to
cyberbullying. This included the subthemes of mental health impact, lack of
school engagement and extreme reactions to cyberbullying, including suicide.
While all of the information was garnered from the interviews with teachers and
educational professionals, it is still clearly evident that cyberbullying has an
impact on all of those involved, especially the victim.

This impact can range from general malaise and upset to depression, anxiety,
and self-harm. The emotional impact affected their lives overall, not just at
school. It was also found that the mental health impact was not something short
lived, but had a long-reaching impact on the lives of young people, and ranged
from depression to self-harm to suicidal ideation.

The most severe reactions from cyberbullying were those of suicide and suicidal
ideation. There were a few occasions where this was addressed by the
interviewees. This is troubling, showing that the impact of cyberbullying is
severe and can be costly to the lives of young people. However, following the
accounts of the interviewees, incidents concerning suicide have been found to
be isolated.

Out of numerous concerns that were raised, the issue of school engagement was
one that was considered most prevalent. Young people were found to be
extremely distracted by their mobiles and social media accounts. This
distraction was found to be impacting their sleep, as they would be online late
into the night, which would in turn affect their ability to pay attention and focus
throughout the school day. This affects their academic lives, as young people are
spending an increased amount of time online and/or worrying about what is
occurring on social media at home and during the school day.

Furthermore, as the three schools involved were Catholic schools, investigating

whether or not the Catholic ethos had any impact was necessary. However, this
was much more difficult to determine. It was felt by respondents that the ethos
and community of the schools made teachers more approachable in the eyes of
students. Moreover, respondents felt that the school was a community akin to a

135
family where young people had many they could reach out to if they were in
need. It was also felt that the values of dignity and respect were being instilled
via the curriculum and the ethos of the school to the best of their abilities.
However, the unknown factor in this is whether or not young people are
recognising the ethos and values instilled by the school before engaging in
exclusionary behaviours.

Finally, there were diverse and varied responses from the educational
professionals concerning why young people bully. Pressures on young people
accounted for one of the reasons it was felt that young people exclude their
peers via cyberbullying. These pressures ranged from those that are placed on
them by peers, such as looking a certain way or having a certain type of mobile
phone. Media and social media also play a role in the way pressure impacts
young people. It influences their behaviour and the status symbols such as
mobile phones, which they use. These status symbols, or lack thereof, are often
used as reasons to exclude. This is similar to the way traditional bullying took
place, only now the exclusion is being carried out on Facebook walls.

Another subtheme as to why young people cyberbully is unhappiness and

insecurity. Whether this is a result of societal changes or individual problems, it
was felt that young people were unhappy and perhaps engaged in bullying to
feel better about themselves or to improve their station in their peer group.
Similarly, insecurity was also mentioned, where respondents felt that young
people may fear exclusion and strike out first, as a bully, instead.

Finally, power was another subtheme concerning why young people cyberbully.
It was felt that power was used against another individual in the bullying
dynamic, that a young person would be attempting to impose their will over the
victim through exclusionary tactics and cyberbullying.

Most respondents agreed that a combination of one or more of these factors was
most likely the case. It was also felt that this was an on-going issue that was not
limited to this generation of students. Bullying has been around for centuries:
only the ways and means to do so have changed.

136
These educators face challenges of educating young people, while
simultaneously dealing with the challenges of cyberbullying in their classrooms.
Often, victims are troubled or fearful, and teachers have to take time away from
learning activities to address these issues (Eden, Heiman, and Olenik-Sherman,
2013; Li, 2008; Yilmaz, 2010).

Overall, those interviewed felt that the young people in their care were good
people and teachers especially felt that the Catholic ethos of the school helped
them to develop into caring young adults. Those who worked for outside
agencies saw young people in a different way, as they experienced them in an
setting external to the school environment, and saw them dealing with these
issues without any religious connotation, but navigating a complex world that, as
adolescents, they may not understand fully.

5.6 Discussion

Again, this chapter explored how cyberbullying impacts young people from an
educator perspective. The analysis of the impact has revealed that the
implications for cyberbullying are associated with a lack of school engagement
(Darden, 2009; Espinoza and Junoven, 2011; Hinduja and Patchin, 2007; Price
and Dagleish, 2010; Shariff and Strong-Wilson, 2005; Smith et al., 2008), mental
health issues (Beran and Li, 2005; Huang and Chou, 2010; Kowalski, Giumetti,
Schroeder and Lattaner, 2014; Patchin and Hinduja, 2006; Patchin and Hinduja,
2011; Shariff and Holt, 2007), and in some cases suicidal ideation (Hinduja and
Patchin, 2010; Patchin and Hinduja, 2012; Schneider, O’Donnell, Stueve and
Coulter, 2012). Furthermore, young people are distracted by their involvement
in social media for both socialisation and exclusion. It can be surmised that
those involved in acts of exclusion via social media feel the need to connect with
other established members, not just to exclude those considered outsiders, but
to continue to reinforce their established personalities with each other. This
appeared to be occurring to those considered outsiders, such as vulnerable
pupils or those perceived as different in some manner (Elias and Scotson, 1994).

Respondents felt that the Catholic ethos of the schools involved allowed for the
spirit of the Gospel driven community to be available to young people. Whether

137
pupils shared these values is unknown, although respondents understood that
pupils might not share these values they attempted to instil.

The findings show that the motivations for engaging in bullying behaviours were
wide ranging and most likely due to a combination of factors including pressures
on young people, (including peer pressure), unhappiness and insecurity (Hoff and
Mitchell, 2009), and power (Dooley et al., 2009; Kowalski et al., 2008; Olweus,
1993; Olweus et al., 2007). While no psychological or sociological theories were
directly purported by interviewees, given the discussions that arose regarding
the causes of bullying behaviours, the findings reinforce the established versus
the outsiders (Elias and Scotson, 1994) in addition to out-group abuse (Hoff and
Mitchell, 2009), as being means to understand these behaviours, especially in
the realm of girl escalated bullying.

In the following chapter, the quantitative data will be presented and analysed.
The survey findings will also be compared with the results found in this chapter
and from Chapter 4.

138
 Chapter 6
The Prevalence of cyberbullying

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the results of the survey on cyberbullying that was
administered for this research. It addresses the following research questions:
How do young people utilise social media in relation to cyberbullying? How are
young people experiencing cyberbullying? How are educators handling the
challenge of cyberbullying? The data focuses on the outcomes that were
obtained through data analysis using SPSS. While this portion of the research was
conducted first, it is being presented in this chapter so that the results that
were obtained from the qualitative research as described in Chapters four and
five can be combined with the survey results to provide confirmation and further
elaboration of the findings.

The prevalence of cyberbullying has been found to be varied throughout

research. The victimisation rate has been reported from as low as 2% to as high
as 72%, and rate of cyberbullying as a whole globally has been found to be 15%
(Hinduja and Patchin, 2014). In 2013, it was reported that the victimisation rate
in the UK was 38% (Sellgren, 2014), whereas in Scotland specifically, the rate
was found to be 16% according to Respect Me, the Scottish Anti-bullying service
(2011).

Despite the magnitude of research conducted on cyberbullying prevalence,

determining whether males (Ackers, 2012; Anderson and Hunter, 2012; Edur-
Baker, 2010; Hinduja and Patchin, 2009) or females (Connell et al., 2013; Jones
et al., 2013; Merrill and Hanson, 2016; Schenk and Frewmou, 2012) are more
involved in the behaviour is uncertain. From the perspective of those
interviewed in the previous two chapters, girls are the ones who have engaged
more frequently in exclusionary practices. Through the theoretical lens of Elias’s
Established and Outsider relations, understanding cyberbullying as exclusion as it
relates to gender can be employed.

139
The chapter begins with a (6.2) focus on the prevalence of cyberbullying in the
three schools, including how it compares with rates of traditional bullying. The
following section addresses the social media and technology (6.3) that young
people are accessing. The fourth section (6.4) addresses the instances of bias
bullying and cyberbullying reported, including bullying related to religion, race,
gender, and sexual orientation. The fifth section (6.5) addresses attitudes and
opinions that young people have in regard to cyberbullying, including how they
think their schools are dealing with the challenge.

Three Catholic secondary schools in Glasgow allowed their pupils to take part in
the survey portion of this research project. The total population of the schools
came to 1157 pupils, and 450 surveys were returned. There were 128
respondents from School A (28%), 82 respondents from School B (18%), and 240
respondents from School C (53%). Of these respondents, 210 were male (47%)
and 240 were female (53%).

Students from years S1-S4 took part and out of the 450: 36 were from S1 (8%),
206 were from S2 (45%), 124 were from S3 (28%), and 84 were from S4 (19%).
While age was not a demographic that was recorded by the survey, the variables
were recoded to obtain a better picture of the ages of the respondents using the
age ranges provided by the Scottish Government. The age range that is utilised is
11-15 years.

According to Education Scotland, at the start of the school year, School A had
148 pupils in S2, 139 in S3, and 158 in S4. The total percentage of pupils
registered for free meals was 35%, compared to the average of 27% in the city of
Glasgow, and 16% within Scotland. There were a total of 60 staff members.
School B had 77 pupils in S1 at the start of the year, 70 pupils in S2, and 81 in
S3. The total percentage of pupils registered for free meals was 48%. There were
a total of 35 staff members. Finally, School C had 170 pupils in S2 at the start of
the year, 167 in S3, and 167 in S4. The total percentage of pupils registered for
free meals was 30%. There were a total of 61.8 staff members.

140
6.2 Prevalence of bullying and cyberbullying in
surveyed schools

This section assesses the prevalence rates of both bullying and cyberbullying as
it relates to this study. The overall results for traditional bullying are first
evaluated. Following these results, the prevalence rates related to cyberbullying
are presented.

Overall, most students reported not being bullied in school over the past 12
months, with 76% reporting this, as illustrated in Figure 6-1. On the other hand,
12% of students reported being bullied once or twice, while 3% of students
reported being bullied 2-3 times per month, 1% of students reported being
bullied once per week, and 7% of students reported being bullied more than
once per week.

The results show that most pupils are not being bullied. However, when they
are, it occurs once or twice most often. It could be speculated that it is an
isolated incident or that a parent, teacher or friend intervenes and the bullying
comes to an end.

The second highest per cent of incidents occurs more than once per week at 7%.
These are not isolated incidents; in fact, they occur more than once per week
and are perhaps not being intercepted by bystanders or school personnel.

141
Figure 6-1 Have you been bullied IN school during the last 12 months?

With regard to cyberbullying, most students reported that they had not been
cyberbullied, with 82% reporting this, as shown in Figure 6-2. Conversely, 8% of
students reported being cyberbullied once or twice, while 2% of students
reported being cyberbullied 2-3 times per month as well as once per week. In
addition, 6% of students reported being cyberbullied more than once per week.

Figure 6-2 Have you been cyberbullied during the last 12 months?

142
Eight per cent of respondents were being cyberbullied in incidents that occurred
once or twice. These may be isolated incidents of cyberbullying. The victim may
have known their attacker and blocked them on social media or blocked their
mobile number, keeping the incidents from occurring further. At the same time,
the issue may have been reported to a parent, adult or teacher, also ceasing the
victimisation. However, the second highest percentage within this sample
indicates that 6% of young people are being cyberbullied more than once per
week. Whether or not one or more individuals are perpetrating cyberbullying
behaviour in these cases is unknown. However, if the incidents are occurring
more than once per week it can be assumed that the victim has not blocked the
perpetrator, nor have they been able to get an adult involved in stopping the
exclusionary behaviour as it is continuing to occur.

Students reported experiencing more traditional bullying than cyberbullying.

However, in both instances of traditional and cyberbullying, young people are
being bullied more than once per week compared to those experiencing bullying
two to three times per month or once per week. This may be due to the fact
that once the bullying has begun it becomes increasingly difficult to stop. Young
people also may be afraid of the perpetrator, especially if they are being
harassed by the same individual both online and physically in school.

In a related question, respondents were asked to state when within the past year
they had been cyberbullied. Once again the majority of respondents stated that
they had not been victims of cyberbullying at a rate of 84%. Those that
experienced cyberbullying the most reported it occurring either within the last
week (5%) or within the last 12 months (6%.) The latter results correlate with
what teachers shared during the interviews: that incidents are being reported to
them frequently.

In a follow-up question, respondents were asked to state what type of bullying

they had experienced: physical, verbal, or indirect. Physical bullying refers to
bullying where they have been physically attacked by being hit, kicked or
punched. Verbal bullying refers to being bullied by the use of words, either in
person or online. Indirect bullying refers to being excluded or ostracised, having
rumours spread, or notes passed about you, and can occur both in person and

143
online. Respondents were able to select more than one option. 5% responded
saying they had been physically bullied, 22% said they had been verbally bullied,
and 10% said they had experienced indirect bullying.

Within this sample, the subtype of bullying that occurred the most was verbal
bullying. It can be speculated that higher levels of verbal bullying imply that
students are engaged in behaviours such as name-calling and ridiculing both
online and in person. It can also be speculated that verbal bullying occurs the
most as it is the easiest type of exclusion to engage in, and can be done both in
person and online. It is also difficult to prove, as it is the word of the victim
against the word of the perpetrator.

Verbal and indirect bullying could refer to either bullying or cyberbullying

activities, as both subtypes fit into these bullying categories. It is impossible to
determine which type of bullying was occurring from this question, with the
exception of physical bullying, which occurs with traditional bullying behaviours.
Again, this data correlates with what the interviewed teachers were
experiencing.

6.2.1 Differences according to gender

While most young people reported not being bullied in school, there are
differences in the gender breakdown. To determine whether or not there were
relationships between bullying and cyberbullying victimisation and another
variable, such as gender in this case, Pearson’s chi-square test was used. This
test is based on comparing frequencies observed in the data to the frequencies
that could be expected by chance. Assumptions for the chi-square tests were
met in all instances.

Females reported higher instances of bullying in school in all categories except

once per week. Overall, 20% of males reported traditional bullying compared
with 27% of females. To determine whether there was any statistical
significance, the data was recoded for a yes or no response to whether
traditional bullying had occurred. A chi-square test was performed, and no
relationship was found, X2 (1, N=450)=2.674 p=.96.

144
With regard to cyberbullying, females reported a higher overall rate of
cyberbullying of 21%, compared with 14% of males [not statistically significant
Include chi square]. To determine whether there was any statistical significance,
the data was recoded for a yes or no response to whether cyberbullying had
occurred. A chi-square test was performed, X2 (1, N=450)=3.818 p=.51 and no
significance was found between the two variables.

Additionally, the question denoting “Have you been cyberbullied in the last 12
months,” where the responses were related to time (last week, last month, last
term, last 12 months), the answers were recoded into yes or no options. 11% of
males and 21% of females reported being cyberbullied. A chi-square test was
performed and was found to have significance, X2 (1, N=450)=8.644 p=.03. This
indicates that gender plays a role in the case of cyberbullying.

These results are pertinent, especially in respect to the wider literature.

Historically, it has been found that males are typically involved in traditional
bullying behaviours over females (Olweus, 1993). However, these results within
the literature often focused on physical bullying behaviours, rather than
traditional bullying as a whole. For females to be involved at a higher rate of
traditional bullying than males, it can be speculated that girls have become
more aggressive and involved in exclusionary behaviours over the course of
twenty years of research literature. Teachers at all three schools stated that in
terms of both bullying and cyberbullying, girls were the ones who were involved
the most and who reported issues of bullying and cyberbullying to them.

Moreover, concerning cyberbullying, again females had a higher rate of reported

incidents at 21% versus 14% for males. Previous research has had mixed results
with respect to gender and cyberbullying prevalence rates. It has found that
males tend to be more likely to report cyberbullying (Li, 2006), whereas Mark
and Ratliffe (2011) had similar results to this analysis. This also correlates with
what teachers at the schools stated – in other words, that girls were the ones
most involved in issues of cyberbullying. This was illustrated by a comment
shared by one of the teachers at School B. “ . . .and it was all girls. Girls had
just got really quite carried away with themselves. And I think they were all
egging each other in in various houses around Castlemilk.”

145
6.2.2 Differences by school

While all three schools are very similar in the sense that they are Catholic
schools and serve similar catchment areas, there were differences to be found
within reporting on bullying and cyberbullying. School C had a higher percentage
of students reporting traditional bullying at 28% overall, compared with 21% of
students at School A, and 13% of students at School B. A chi-square test was
performed, X2 (2, N=450)=8.156, p=.17 and no significance was found between
the two variables.

School B had the lowest instances of traditional bullying at 13%. While all three
schools are Catholic, it could be speculated that the particular ethos of the
school is encouraging young people to be more inclusive than excluding. This is a
particularly interesting finding regarding School B. Teachers interviewed at this
particular school were found to be the least involved and educated concerning
bullying and cyberbullying out of those interviewed. Is it due to their lack of
competence that pupils chose not to report instances of bullying, therefore
allowing the reporting rate to be lower?

With respect to cyberbullying, again School C had an overall higher reporting

rate of 23% compared with 12% of School A and 12% of School B. A chi-square
test was performed, X2 (2, N=450)=8.695, p=.13 and no significance was found
between the two variables. This revealed that School C had nearly twice the
number of cyberbullying cases than the other two schools.

6.2.3 Differences by age

In addition to differences between the schools, there were also differences

found in reporting with regard to age. In particular, younger students reported
being traditionally bullied more than older students at a rate of 27% versus 20%
overall. A chi-square test was performed, X2 (1, N=450)=3.361, p=.67. When this
was further analysed according to the specific school years, students in S2
experienced the highest rate of traditional bullying overall, at 28%. A further
chi-square test was performed, X2 (3, N=450)=4.652, p=.19 and no significance
was found between the two variables.

146
As such, the results revealed that younger pupils are much more involved in
traditional bullying compared to their older counterparts. Perhaps these younger
pupils are more impulsive in their actions and tend to think less about their
actions before engaging in bullying activities.

Pupils in S2 had the highest rate of traditional bullying at nearly 30%. These
pupils would have spent an entire year in their school and should therefore have
felt comfortable with their surroundings, as they were no longer new to the
school. As such, the question to be asked is whether students from other year
groups are bullying them, or if their own peer group is targeting them.

With respect to cyberbullying, younger students reported an overall higher rate

of cyberbullying at 20% compared to 15% of older students. A chi-square test was
performed, X2 (1, N=450)=1.358, p=.24 and no significance was found between
the two variables. When broken down by individual school year, students in
years S1 and S4 experienced the highest rates of cyberbullying at approximately
21%. On the other hand, students in year S3 had a much lower rate of 11%. A chi-
square test was performed, X2 (3, N=450)=4.899, p=.17 and no significance was
found between the two variables.

It can be expected that younger pupils are experiencing bullying because they
are new to the school and are easy targets for older, more established pupils
within the school. Why there is an increase in bullying in S4 is unknown, but it
may be due to issues developing within the peer groups or other unknown
factors.

6.3 The usage of social media

In this section, the usage of social media by those surveyed is determined. The
survey asked questions in regard to text messaging, e-mail, and other online
activities, such as on Facebook, which could be used to cyberbully. Respondents
were also asked which forms of online technology they used. Respondents were
able to select “Text messaging,” “Facebook,” “Twitter,” “Instant Messaging,”
“Blogging,” “other,” or “none.”

147
Overall, respondents reported using Facebook at 84%, texting at 79%, Twitter at
48%, Instant Messaging at 48%, other at 34%, blogging at 11% and none at 3%.
Older pupils were more likely to text, Facebook, Twitter, and instant message,
whereas younger pupils were more likely to use “other”. “Other” may refer to
social media applications such as Instagram, Secret (which was used for a short
period of time), online games, and Tumblr, all of which were thought to be used
by pupils according to teachers at the three schools. Additionally, those that
were older were twice as likely to blog than younger pupils. This may be due to
the fact that older pupils are more familiar with technologically, which has also
been found in the wider research literature (Boyd, 2007).

Moreover, Facebook is the most popular social media site among those surveyed.
This correlates with research, which has shown that the majority of young
people have profiles on the site (Lenhart, 2012; Purcell, 2012). This also
correlated with what teachers shared during the interviews: that Facebook was
the primary site used for social media and for much of the cyberbullying that
they were aware of.

As students went on through school, their Internet usage increased up to S4,

where it often peaked or dropped slightly, as shown in the following table (6-1).
It can be speculated that social media usage may decrease due to increased
demands on pupils’ time due to schoolwork, employment, and preparation for
future educational endeavours.

Table 6-1 Social media usage by school [multiple responses allowed]

Text Facebook Twitter IM Blog Other None

S1 68 79 30 41 16 41 0
S2 78 81 45 43 5 38 7
S3 82 88 51 57 13 29 2
S4 84 87 61 49 18 28 3
Total % 79 84 48 48 11 34 3

148
6.3.1 Cyberbullying via text

As was found in the previous section, the majority of pupils reported not being
cyberbullied via text at 84%. Overall, 8% were bullied once or twice via text, 3%
two to three times per month, and 5% experienced being bullied by text a few
times per week, as shown in Figure 6-3.

Figure 6-3 How often have you been bullied via text message?

It was found that those that were younger in age and those that were female
were more likely to have experienced this type of cyber harassment. 18% of
positive responses came from younger respondents and 20% of females reported
having experienced cyberbullying by text. Teachers interviewed did not provide
details of the age of the pupils involved in issues of cyberbullying, but they did
share that it was girls that were most likely to be involved, as described in
Chapters 4 and 5.

In the follow-up question, which asked if the individual has initiated bullying
behaviour by text, overall respondents reported cyberbullying by text at 6%.

149
There was no difference in response rate between gender or age, as there was
an even breakdown between both demographics. A chi-square test was
performed, X2 (1, N=450)=0.03, p=.95. Similar results were found when the same
test was performed as compared to age, X2 (1, N=450)=0.01, p=.97.

However, those in years S1 and S4 experience the highest rate of bullying via
text at just over 11%. Students from both Schools A and C reported engaging in
cyberbullying behaviour at a rate of 6%. A chi-square test was performed, X2 (2,
N=450)=.827, p=.66 and no significance was found between the two variables.
Moreover, the same test was performed to test the relationship between the
school year and whether or not cyberbullying by text occurred – no statistical
significance was found, X2 (3, N=450)=8.191, p=.42.

Generally, younger pupils may be more vulnerable to both bullying and

cyberbullying due to the fact that they are new to the school and are easy
targets for established pupils. As to why there is an increase in traditional and
cyberbullying amongst individuals in S4 is unknown. It is possible that the
increased demands on pupils’ lives lead to increased victimisation via
cyberbullying.

6.3.2 Cyberbullying online (via email, Facebook)

Eighty-three per cent of respondents stated not being cyberbullied via email or
other online means (See Figure 6-4). However, nearly 8% responded that they
had been cyberbullied online once or twice in the past 12 months. As was stated
previously, it can be speculated that these incidents occurred and did not
reoccur, as they were either isolated incidents, or the cybervictim blocked the
cyberbully or had an adult intervene, thus ceasing the victimisation.

150
Figure 6-4 How often have you been bullied online in the past 12 months?

In response to being bullied online, it was once again found that those who
reported being younger in age (See Table 6-2) and female (See Table 6-3) were
more likely to be cyberbullied online. 19% of positive responses came from
younger pupils and 21% of females reported being victimised online overall.

Table 6-2 Cyberbullying victimisation by age

Once or 2-3 times/ A few times/ None

twice week week
Younger 9 5 5 90
Older 6 6 3 85
Total % 8 6 4 83

Table 6-3 Cyberbullying prevalence by gender

Once or 2-3 times/ A few times/ None

twice week week
Male 6 5 2 87
Female 10 6 5 79
Total % 8 6 4 83

151
In the follow-up question, which asked if the respondent had bullied someone
online, the responses were very similar to the texting responses with 6% of
positive responses. However, in this case, 8% of males reported being online
bullies compared to 4% of females. This is the only area where males had a
higher perpetration rate than that of females. A chi-square test was performed,
X2 (1, N=450)=2.493, p=.11 and no significance was found between the two
variables.

Pupils in S1 and S4 again reported the highest rates of cyber perpetration at just
over 8%. A chi-square test was performed, X2 (3, N=450)=2.12, p=.54 and no
significance was found between the two variables.

In addition, it was found that males were more likely to cyberbully online rather
than by text. It is unknown why within this sample males were more likely to be
online perpetrators. Li (2006) found this to be the case in their study, but
research that followed either found that females were more likely to be
perpetrators, or that there was no difference between males and females in
terms of engaging in cyberbullying activities.

In conclusion, those that were cyberbullied via text had an overall victimisation
rate of 16% of positive responses. In addition, younger pupils and females were
more likely to be victims of cyberbullying via text than other respondents.
Nearly 6% of respondents were perpetrators of cyberbullying via text message.
Yet no significance was found between age and gender in perpetration rates.
However, the very youngest and oldest pupils had the highest rates of
perpetration.

Overall, 17% of pupils had a positive response rate to being cyberbullied via
online means. Again, younger females were more likely to be victims of online
cyberbullying. Nearly 6% of respondents were perpetrators of online
cyberbullying; however in this case, males had the highest indices at 8%.

152
6.4 Bias bullying and cyberbullying

This section discusses bias bullying and cyberbullying and the issues therein. Bias
bullying and cyberbullying comes in various forms and can be found within
different subtypes of bullying. Those who responded to the survey were asked to
report on the types of bullying or cyberbullying that they had experienced
themselves, as well as bullying or cyberbullying they witnessed. The respondents
could choose from the following options: “cyberbullying,” “racist,” “religious,”
“homophobic,” “sexual,” “sexist,” “none of the above,” or “n/a (not
applicable).”

The rates for bias bullying were low and the largest percentage of respondents
reported not experiencing any type of bullying at 70%. Approximately 3% of
students experienced racial bullying, 4% of students experienced homophobic
bullying, and 5% experienced sexually inappropriate bullying, comments or
actions.

At the same time, nearly 14% of students experienced bullying or cyberbullying

that did not fit into the categories provided (See Table 6-4). The bullying or
cyberbullying that was experienced may have been related to appearance,
weight, interest, grades, disability, or culture.

Table 6-4 Percentage of total bias bullying experienced [multiple responses allowed]

CB Religious Racial Homophobic Sexual Sexist Social None Not

status of the bullied
above
Total% 13 1 3 4 5 2 2 14 70

These results are on par with what has been found in previous research (see
Chapter 2, Chapter 7 and the discussion section of this chapter). However, when
compared with the bullying or cyberbullying that was witnessed in school, there
is a glaring discrepancy between self-reported bullying and
cyberbullying/bullying that was witnessed.

153
Table 6-5 Total percentage of witnessed bias bullying [multiple responses allowed]

CB Religious Racial Homophobic Sexual Sexist None Not

of the seen
above bullying
Total% 17 12 4 15 12 3 41 31

There seems to be an extreme difference in self-reporting bullying and

cyberbullying behaviours, and reporting what kinds of bullying were witnessed
within these three schools (Table 6-5). According to the data presented here,
young people observed four times as much racial and homophobic bullying or
cyberbullying, more than double the number of sexual bullying or cyberbullying,
and nearly double the number of bullying or cyberbullying that fit into the
category “none of the above.” These findings suggest that either more bullying
or cyberbullying is occurring than was self-reported, or the question was not
understood. One reason for this discrepancy is perhaps young people felt more
comfortable stating what was witnessed, rather than what was experienced by
them personally. Another possibility is that the bullying or cyberbullying
witnessed was related to issues that were not mentioned in the questionnaire,
such as issues relating to transphobia, weight, or appearance, all of which were
found to be issues of concern in the survey conducted by Ditch the Label (2014).

Moreover, when compared with the information obtained in the initial question
“Have you seen bullying in your school in the past 12 months,” it is entirely
possible that this data is correct (Figure 6-5), as nearly 60% of students have
witnessed bullying or cyberbullying within their schools in the past 12 months.

154
Figure 6-5 Have you seen bullying in your school in the past 12 months?

6.5 Opinions on bullying and cyberbullying

In the previous chapters (4 and 5), bullying and cyberbullying in these schools
were discussed with teachers and educational professionals. A group of three
questions was asked at the end of the survey inquiring about student attitudes
towards exclusionary behaviours in their school. The first question asked: “How
well do you think your school deals with bullying?” The answer choices were:
“very well,” “quite well,” “not very well,” “badly,” “bullying is not a problem in
my school,” and “do not know.”

Most respondents were unsure how their school handles bullying with an average
response rate of 29%. Younger pupils felt that their school handled the challenge
well; other than that, there is little distinction between the age groups.

Table 6-6 How well does your school deal with bullying?

Very Quite Not very Poor Not a I don’t

well well well problem know
A 15 16 17 16 3 34
B 28 29 10 7 2 23

155
C 9 29 19 13 1 29
All 14 25 17 13 2 29

Concerning the differences between schools (See Table 6-6), School B scored the
highest on very well, with 28% of students believing that their school handled
bullying very well and 29% felt it was handled quite well. School A had the
highest rate of being unsure at 34%. School C had similar results for the
responses of “quite well” and “I don’t know.”

Comparatively, in 2010, School A underwent a governmental inspection. As part

of the inspection, questionnaires were handed out to parents, students, and
teachers. Most students attending School A stated that they felt safe and cared
for in their school, with 95% of students agreeing or strongly agreeing to the
statement. While the populations surveyed are different, there is a degree of
difference in response to feeling safe, especially if it is believed that handling
issues of bullying promotes safety.

In 2012, School B underwent the same inspection. 84% of the pupils surveyed
agreed or strongly agreed that they felt safe or cared for in school.

The follow up question then asked “Does your school care for pupils who are
worried or sad about bullying?” The responses were “yes, all the time,” “yes,
some of the time,” “no,” and “not sure.” Overall, most students believed that
their school cared about pupils who were worried or sad about bullying, with a
positive response rate of 36%. However, the second most popular response was
“not sure,” at 28% (See Table 6-7).

Moreover, male respondents were more likely to be unsure about how the school
cared for pupils at 31%. Also, older pupils were unsure at 30%. This is an
interesting development, as the older the pupil, the better they should know
how the school handles issues such as bullying.

156
Table 6-7 Does your school care about pupils who are being bullied?

Yes, all Yes, some No Not sure

A 27 25 14 34
B 53 26 7 14
C 35 25 10 29
All 36 26 11 28

Additionally, nearly half of those in year S1 felt that the school handled bullying
well all the time, but nearly half of those in S2 responded “no” or “not sure”.
This is a puzzling response, as those new to the school in year S1 would most
likely have the greatest chance of being unsure, as opposed to students who had
been enrolled in the school for a year or longer.

Comparatively, according to a government report as part of the school

inspection for School B in 2012, the same year that the survey was administered,
72% of pupils agreed or strongly agreed that staff dealt with bullying issues well.
Additionally, 8% disagreed, 3% strongly disagreed, and 16% did not know how
well the staff dealt with bullying. Results were similar for School A, where 74%
of pupils agreed or strongly agreed that staff dealt well with bullying issues, 8%
disagreed, 1% strongly disagreed, and 18% did not know.

The next question asked, “Who would you tell if you were being bullied?”
Respondents could choose from the following and were able to select more than
one option: “no one,” “a teacher or member of staff at school,” “a friend,” “a
parent or caregiver,” “another adult (police officer, youth worker),” “brother or
sister,” or “an online community.” The responses that achieved the highest
percentages were “parent” (57%) or “friend” (53%). Males and females were
nearly equivalent concerning informing a teacher or staff member (35% versus
32%) (See Table 6-8). Yet overall, both older and younger respondents were
more likely to tell a friend or parent over a teacher. However, respondents from
School B were less likely to inform their teachers about issues of bullying, which
is interesting, as students from School B felt that their teachers and school cared
for pupils who were concerned with issues of bullying.

157
Table 6-8 Who would you tell if you were being bullied? [Multiple responses allowed]

No one Teacher Friend Parent Another Sibling Online

adult comm.
A 19 33 50 57 16 31 7
B 9 28 56 65 16 24 5
C 18 36 53 54 13 22 3
All 16 34 53 57 14 25 4

Within the HMIE (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Education) reports, pupils were
asked if they had adults to talk to at school. 82% of pupils surveyed at School B
agreed or strongly agreed, whereas 10% disagreed, 1% strongly disagreed, and 7%
did not know (Timmons, 2012). The number of pupils who agreed or strongly
agreed from School A was 94%, a significantly higher percentage (Ritchie, 2010)6.
While students may have agreed that they had teachers and staff to speak to
regarding their concerns, this does not mean that they would necessarily
approach them for issues such as bullying.

Additionally, students from S1 were less likely to tell teachers about issues of
bullying. As they are new to the school, perhaps they were uncertain how to
approach their teachers with these issues. However, this did change and
increase slightly in years S2 and S3.

In conclusion, most students felt unsure about how their school handles issues of
bullying or cyberbullying at 29%. In response to pupil care, most felt that the
school cared for those concerned with issues of bullying or cyberbullying at
approximately 36%. When stating whom they would turn to if they were being
victimised, most respondents stated that they would tell a parent or a friend.

6.6 Summary of findings

Four hundred fifty pupils in three Catholic, Glasgow Secondary Schools took part
in the survey portion of the research project. Approximately 47% of the
respondents were male and 53% were female. Most respondents were from year

6
The report for School C was published in 2007 and has not been updated since and does not
contain any pupil, teacher or parent survey results wherein (Robertston, 2007).

158
S2 at approximately 45%. More than half of the pupils who took part were from
School C at approximately 53%.

Twenty-four per cent of students reported experiencing any traditional bullying

and 18% reported experiencing any cyberbullying over the twelve months prior
to the questionnaire distribution. The majority of respondents reported not
having been a victim of either type of bullying. Of those that experienced
cyberbullying, nearly 5% reported it occurring with in the past week and
approximately 6% within the last 12 months. Verbal bullying was the type of
bullying or cyberbullying that was experienced the most at approximately 21%.

Females experienced more traditional bullying (27%) and cyberbullying (21%). No

statistical significance was found, with the exception of the question “Have you
been cyberbullied in the last 12 months” where gender was found to have had a
role in the recoded response.

School C had a higher rate of both traditional bullying (28%) and cyberbullying
(23%). There was no statistical significance found between school membership
and bullying rates.

Younger students were found to have a higher rate of both traditional bullying
(27%) and cyberbullying (20%). Again, there was no statistical significance found
between age and bullying rates.

The majority of students were active with online technology and social media.
Only approximately 3% of respondents stated that they did not use any forms of
technology. Most students used Facebook at approximately 84%, followed by
texting, Twitter, and instant messaging (IM). As age increased, so did Internet
technology usage up to S4, where it peaked or dropped off slightly in terms of
use.

Sixteen per cent of respondents reported being victims in being cyberbullied by

text message. Younger females were once again more likely to be victims of this
type of cyberbullying. Of those who reported being cyber perpetrators

159
(approximately 6%), there was no difference in age or gender. No statistical
significance was found.

Seventeen per cent of respondents reported being cyber victims of online,

email, or Facebook cyberbullying. Again, those who were younger and female
were more likely to be victims of this type of cyberbullying. Of those who
reported being cyber perpetrators, (approximately 6%), the majority reported
being male at nearly 8%.

In regards to bias bullying, most pupils reported not experiencing any type of
bias bullying at approximately 70%. Most significantly is the 14% who reported
bias bullying in “none of the above” category. In the following section, the types
of bullying or cyberbullying this could have been categorised will be touched
upon which includes appearance, weight, interests, grades, disability, or
culture.

While the respondent rates for other types of bias bullying or cyberbullying are
on par with research, which will be detailed below, the reported bullying that
was witnessed was often double the number self-reported. This leads to
questions relating to reliability and validity of self-reporting as well as issues
related to the clarity of the questions utilised in the survey.

Finally, most pupils were unsure how their school handles issues of bullying or
cyberbullying, yet the majority felt their school cared for pupils who were
concerned with issues of bullying. However, most respondents stated that they
would tell a parent or a friend over telling a teacher if they were being
victimised.

6.7 Discussion

This chapter addressed the pupil perspectives on cyberbullying and social media.
The analysis of the prevalence of both traditional bullying and cyberbullying
revealed that while most young people surveyed were not victims, those that
were were more likely to be victims of traditional forms of bullying. Of those
that experienced cyberbullying, it was usually verbal in nature and was more

160
likely to be experienced by younger pupils, those who were female, and those
attending School C. An overwhelming majority utilised social media, with
Facebook being the most popular. Lastly, young people were overall unsure as to
how their school handled issues of bullying. However, they also felt that the
school cared for those with concerns related to bullying. To further confound the
results, pupils stated that they would approach a parent or friend over a teacher
if they were being victimised.

The findings show that while cyberbullying is an issue of concern, traditional

bullying is the most prevalent, reinforcing Olweus’s 2012 claims that traditional
bullying is utilised more by young people. Prevalence for both forms of bullying
were found to fall within establised research (Modecki and Minchin, 2013).
Additionally, this can also be said about the usage of social media by those
surveyed (Lenhart, 2012; Marwick and boyd, 2014; Purcell, 2012).

As the results stated, females were more likely to be involved in cyberbullying

activities. This evidence is also supported by the qualitative research, which
indicated a higher female participation rate in exclusionary practices. While
wider research findings have been mixed on this topic, there is ample evidence
to support these findings (Connell et al., 2013; Jones et al., 2013; Merrill and
Hanson, 2016; Rivers and Noret, 2010; Schenk and Fremouw, 2012).

Elias and Scotson (1994) suggest that the established group used gossip to
exclude and denigrate the outsiders on the estate in Winston-Parva. This in turn
allowed others to also think negatively upon the outsiders, and elevated the
social position of established members of the estate. As indicated by the
findings, girls engaged in such behaviours on social media using Facebook as a
means of gossiping about and excluding others in order to marginalise them,
while elavating their own social position in doing so.

Younger pupils were also found to have experienced more cybebullying than
older pupils. Younger pupils were believed to be within the age range of eleven
to thirteen years of age (Years S1 and S2). This corresponds to research which
has found that cyberbullying reaches its peak during what is often referred to as
the middle school years (Williams and Guerra, 2007).

161
While pupils were unsure about how their school handled and addressed
bullying, they also believed that the school supported young people who were
victimised. Lastly, pupils surveyed stated that they would approach a parent or a
friend (Vandebosch and VanCleemput, 2009; Waasdorp and Bradshaw, 2011)
rather than a teacher if they were being bullied. Again, wider research is mixed
on this topic, with findings ranging from the aforementiond to stating that the
majority of young people do not disclose to anyone if they are being
cyberbullied (Junoven and Gross, 2009; Yilmaz, 2010).

In the following chapter, the discussion of the results found in Chapters 4, 5, and
6 will be conducted and examined within the wider literature.

162
 Chapter 7
Discussion

7.1 Introduction

The overall purpose of this research was to employ a theoretical framework

grounded in sociology to gain a deeper understanding of cyberbullying as an
exclusionary process. Understanding and determining why young people exclude
(Heirman and Walrave, 2012; Smith et al., 2008) through cyberbullying may
assist in reducing the behaviours and provide insights into the motivations that
drive young people to engaging in them. Furthermore, these insights may allow
teachers and schools to better recognise the tensions that occur through
exclusion, and potentially alleviate them through establishing appropriate
programmes in schools (Cassidy, Faucher and Jackson, 2013).

This research adds to the understanding of cyberbullying as an exclusionary

process by aiming to determine the motives behind the behaviours, in addition
to obtaining a picture of what is occurring in schools from the educator point of
view. The sociological theory of Established and Outsider relations proposed by
Elias and Scotson (1994) was selected for its potential in understanding the
motivations and possible reasons that young people engage in behaviours which
exclude one another. Obtaining a wider, unified theoretical perspective has
been found to be an area lacking in research (Smith, 2015; Tokunaga, 2010),
which has contributed to the varied results in determining prevalence of
cyberbullying.

The framework was critically applied to the challenges educators face in dealing
with cyberbullying in the schools identified for the study. While Established and
Outsider relations is the primary framework utilised in this research, other
theories, including Social Identity Theory and General Strain Theory will be
incorporated as necessary, as explained in Chapter 2. The impact of
cyberbullying on young people, and the prevalence of cyberbullying were
explored.

163
Using a sociological construct such as Established and Outsider relations is
traditionally not the norm, with researchers choosing to utilise psychological
theories to understand why young people exclude (Cowie and Jennifer, 2008;
Espelage, Holt, and Henkel, 2003; Espelage and Swearer, 2004; Hoff and
Mitchell, 2008). While some have used sociological theories to understand
exclusion, (Agnew, 2010; Cullen et al., 2008; Hay et al., 2010; Patchin and
Hinduja, 2011) they have tended to be focused on the behaviours rather than
the motivations behind the actions. Despite this, these additional theories have
been supplied as possible frameworks in which to view cyberbullying as
exclusion, when the application of Established and Outsider relations is not
appropriate.

The purpose of this chapter and the chapter that follows is to critically discuss
the findings of the research. Section 7.2 summarises the main findings of the
themes presented in Chapters 4, which addresses cyberbullying as a challenge
that both educators and young people are facing daily. The themes that
emerged include the varying degree of knowledge of cyberbullying and social
media by educators, discussed in 7.2.1, which includes the concerning finding
that the majority of teachers interviewed had not undergone any training
related to cyberbullying or technology. Furthermore, the widespread usage of
social media by young people, which is discussed in 7.2.3, and how teachers
perceive it, may be connected to this lack of training. The role of the school in
dealing with cyberbullying is presented in 7.2.4 and addresses concerns that
educators had relating to handling exclusion overall, including whom ultimately
should be addressing cyberbullying.

Section 7.3 addresses the main findings of the themes presented in Chapter 5,
on the impact of cyberbullying on young people from the point of view of
teachers and educators. The themes that emerged include the emotional impact
of cyberbullying on young people in 7.3.1, where the concerns and stressors that
arise from being involved in cyberbullying are discussed. The Catholic Ethos, and
the atmosphere of the school are explored in 7.3.2. Lastly, in section 7.3.3, the
question into why young people cyberbully is discussed from the viewpoints of

164
those interviewed and examined through the various theoretical frameworks
presented in Chapter 2.

Section 7.4 discusses the findings on the prevalence of cyberbullying and social
media usage via the results of the quantitative data analysis reported in Chapter
6. These findings are also connected with what was discussed in the interviews
and are further examined in relation to the wider research literature.

Finally, Chapter 8 will provide conclusions to these findings as well as address

practical implications of the research. Limitations to the study and future
recommendations will also be explored.

7.2 Educators and cyberbullying: A new challenge

This section discusses the main findings and themes from Chapter 4, as well as
the research questions it sought to answer: How do young people utilise social
media in relation to cyberbullying? and How are educators handling the
challenges of cyberbullying? These questions focused on determining how the
use of technology and social media by young people influenced cyberbullying as
well as establishing how educators were handling the challenges within their
schools.

7.2.1 The varying degree of knowledge of cyberbullying

The findings of this study illustrated varying levels of knowledge and

understanding of cyberbullying among the participants, highlighting a moderate
difference between teachers and non-teacher educators. Teachers were able to
understand and recognise cyberbullying to an extent as they stated that the
majority of incidents were brought to their attention directly or indirectly,
rather than them deducing or witnessing any occurrences. While non-teacher
educators had less direct experience, they all were able to fluently discuss the
issue of cyberbullying with significant understanding.

This is relevant because it backs up what was also found in relation to teachers;
a lack of training. The majority of teachers interviewed had not received any
training in understanding, recognising, or addressing cyberbullying. Given this

165
lack of training, the evidence is suggestive that the lack of training (Mason,
2008) is connected with their lack of ability to recognise cyberbullying.
However, it is unknown if this can be applied to all teachers at these schools.
Research on teachers and cyberbullying knowledge has been mostly confined to
pre-service teachers, where it has been found that they have limited confidence
and competence in the area (Craig, Bell, and Leschied, 2011; Li, 2008; Ryan and
Kariuki, 2011;Yilmaz, 2010). While the lack of identifying cyberbullying has been
widely discussed in the literature, there is evidence that it may be the type of
exclusion that teachers find problematic, as they are able to perceive overt
violence as a key factor in bullying behaviours (Byers, Caltabiano and
Caltabiano, 2011), as it is physical and tangible. Teachers may have issues with
relational types of bullying as they determine it to be bickering and exclusion
and avoid addressing the behaviours (Byers, Caltabiano and Caltabiano, 2011;
Cassidy, Brown, and Jackson, 2012; Ryan et al., 2011).

If new, younger teachers are entering the profession, who have more practical
experience with the Internet and social media landscape, and are feeling that
they are unable to deal with issues of cyberbullying, it can be surmised that
older, experienced teachers may feel even less confident (Ryan, Kariuki and
Yilmaz, 2011). Moreover, participants from this aforementioned study strongly
felt that professional development days should be used to train staff on dealing
with cyberbullying, and curricula should be developed to further educate
students on cyberbullying.

In contrast, a recent study by Spears et al., (2015) found that the majority of
pre-service teachers felt confident in addressing and recognising cyberbullying.
These new findings may be impacted by the fact that young, pre-service
teachers are products of the digital age and have not known a time without
technological advances, mobile phones and social media, making their abilities
to recognise and understand cyberbullying and technology far easier than their
older counterparts.

What has been discovered throughout this research is that there is a need for
awareness, understanding, and training for both pre-service and current
teachers regarding cyberbullying. This was made evident throughout the

166
interviews, as many teachers stated that they had little to no training in
technology or cyberbullying (Li, 2008), which made it difficult for them to
understand the terminology being used by young people as well as being able to
comprehend the issues being brought forth by their students. While they
acknowledged that they had little training as a whole, there was little indication
that they attempted to obtain or arrange training or encourage the school to
provide it. This is contrary to what was found by Eden, Heiman, and Olenik-
Shemesh (2013) where teachers who were surveyed overwhelmingly were for
training, further education and study of cyberbullying.

Mason (2008) argued that teachers were generally more aware of traditional
bullying over cyberbullying and that they were unaware to the extent that it
(cyberbullying) was occurring. This may be due to the fact that the majority of
cyberbullying occurs outside of the school day (Yilmaz, 2010) and may be
additionally confounded by pupils choosing not to report incidents as they are
fearful of the perpetrator (Eden, Heiman, and Olenik-Sherman, 2013) as well as
not believing that teachers would have an understanding of what was occurring
(Yilmaz, 2010). Throughout these interviews, it was felt that teachers were
aware cyberbullying was happening, but were generally unaware of the specifics
(Eden, Heiman and Olenik-Sherman, 2013) unless the issue was brought directly
to them.

7.2.2 The varying degrees of knowledge of social media

There is little current research about the attitudes that teachers have towards
social media as it relates to teaching practices and its use in general. A study
conducted in the US showed that 58% of teachers surveyed used a smartphone,
78% used social networking sites such as Google+, Facebook or Linked In, and
26% used Twitter. Additionally, 42% of them felt that their students were more
social media and Internet savvy (Purcell et al., 2013) than they were.

This aforementioned knowledge gap was not found solely in levels of

understanding and recognition of cyberbullying, but in regards to social media
sites, their usage, and technology overall (Cassidy, Brown, and Jackson, 2012).
Most teachers interviewed viewed social media negatively. They were also far
less likely to use social media for themselves, unlike the majority of non-teacher

167
educators. Moreover, teachers often found the reasons young people used social
media lacking; not understanding why it was something to be engaged with,
which many stated was due to age or a generational gap. Furthermore, it has
also been determined that the perceptions held by teachers affects their
behaviours (Li, 2008; Pepler et al., 2004). If they perceive social media in a
negative light, they may avoid addressing issues that are brought to their
attention or avoid obtaining education related to it. These results somewhat
support the findings of Purcell et al., (2013) where it was found that younger
teachers were more confident in using digital technologies, as opposed to their
older counterparts.

Few teachers interviewed admitted to using Facebook personally as social media

in addition to texting, with most preferring traditional methods of contacting
others, such as making a phone call. Again, there is little within the current
research in regards to teachers and social media usage with the exception of
teachers who actively engage with technology and social media in the classroom
as part of pilot or collaborative practices. However, these results deviated from
the findings of Purcell et al., (2013) where 78% of teachers surveyed used social
media.

Regarding age, O’Bannon and Thomas (2014) found that teachers older than 50
were less likely to own or use smartphones and perceived usage of mobiles more
problematic. They also found that all age groups were opposed to the use of
mobiles as part of classroom usage and engagement for reasons including but not
limited to disruptions, cyberbullying, and lack of training and issues with
technology integration. It has also been found that teachers who have a greater
technological knowledge, which is often related to age, are better able to
handle issues of cyberbullying in the classroom (Woodward, 2011).

The Established and Outsider framework could be tangentially applied to this

tenuous relationship between pupils and teachers. Pupils would take on the role
of the established, where they have the wider understanding of technology and
social media and have not known a time in their lives when it was not available.
Teachers, on the other hand, appear to be the outsiders in this case. While they
are in a position of authority over pupils, they do not have the technological

168
understanding or knowledge to circumvent what is occurring in schools. Due to
this, young people are able to continue to carry out acts of exclusion toward
their peers and even towards teachers (Strom and Strom, 2006) due to this
digital divide.

7.2.3 Widespread usage of social media by young people

Those interviewed were in agreement that young people were using social media
as a means to exclude. While the motivations for exclusion were not always
clear, the application of Elias’s Established and Outsiders provides a framework
in which to understand the motivations behind these activities. In light of the
examples provided it can be surmised that an individual or group of young
people acted or behaved in a way that the “established” peer group took
exception to and as a result engaged in practices of exclusion and blame-gossip.
However, in these instances, instead of engaging in these practices in person (as
occurred in Winston-Parva) it occurred online in real time. This immediately
enforced their established position over those seen as outsiders or “other.”
Furthermore, this immediately diminished the outsiders, as they were able to
witness the exclusion and denigration immediately as it occurred on Facebook.

While teachers and non-teacher educators agreed that social media was being
used extensively, this is where the similarities end. The majority of teachers did
not use or engage with social media and were on the whole uninformed about
the applications and their purpose. Those who were employed outside the school
actively used and engaged with social media and technology on a regular basis
and were familiar with its uses and functions.

In addition to having lesser knowledge, there was also a degree of fear and
apprehension of the sites used by their pupils, which was not shared by their
non-teacher counterparts. This apprehension appeared to lead to uncertainty
when encountering a pupil who has experienced cyberbullying. While teachers
interviewed followed school policy in addressing issues of cyberbullying, there
was a great deal of indecision about who should be addressing these issues,
which appeared to be intensified by their lack of knowledge about how
cyberbullying was occurring over social media. Similar results were found by

169
Bhat (2008) in a study of Australian teachers who lacked familiarity and
knowledge about cyberbullying and technology.

While schools may not be the place to address issues of cyberbullying, given the
fact that many teachers expressed spending a lot of time dealing with issues
surrounding incidents that had occurred, their understanding of social media and
how young people were bullying and excluding was limited. This concurs with
much of the research showing that teachers generally feel unconfident in
identifying and managing issues of cyberbullying (Eden, Heiman and Olenik-
Sherman, 2013; Li, 2008). Moreover, it has been found that many of those in
education are unfamiliar with newer forms of technology, and are most familiar
with email and mobiles (Cassidy, Brown, and Jackson, 2012), which was the case
among many of the teachers interviewed, who were unfamiliar with Facebook
and newer forms of social media such as Snapchat and Tumblr.

7.2.4 The Role of the School

Teachers and the school have a crucial role in addressing issues of exclusion
(Eden, Heiman, and Olenek-Shmesh, 2013). Training is one of the issues that was
discussed. Issues surrounding training may be connected to staff uncertainty
about legally intervening in cyberbullying issues brought to their attention, as
they most frequently occur outside of school hours (Festl, Scharkow, and
Quandt, 2014). It can be surmised that this is why teachers interviewed often
recommended going to the authorities as opposed to investigating the issues
themselves. It is unknown how many of the incidents that teachers encouraged
pupils to bring to campus police or the authorities actually were undertaken. A
study by Hinduja and Patchin (2009) showed that only 2.7% of young people
reported incidents to the police. In contrast to what was mentioned by teachers,
Addington (2013) found that there is only anecdotal evidence to suggest that
schools suggest going to the police and that school officials tend to be reluctant
to directly contact authorities themselves (Kowalski et al, 2008).

Furthermore, as pupils, other staff, and parents brought the majority of

victimisation situations directly to staff attention, rather than having the ability
to recognise of the effects of cyberbullying young people may experience after
victimisation, it gives them little additional motivation to gain awareness. Cross

170
et al., (2009) found that both teachers and young people need to be aware of
how cyberbullying can be perpetuated so that the incidents can be more easily
recognised. If both students and teachers are more aware of how cyberbullying
is carried out, the instances may decrease.

As stated earlier in this chapter, the findings of this research imply overall that
teachers are not sufficiently trained when it comes to issues of technology,
Internet, social media, and to an extent, cyberbullying. Few teachers felt that
they had the tools or were equipped to handle these issues that appeared to be
on the increase (De Smet et al., 2015). They need to be more proactive in
educating themselves about cyberbullying and social media (Altrichler and
Posch, 2009), rather than allowing fear and misconceptions to cloud their
judgement, as the findings suggest. Moreover, it also indicates that teachers are
less likely to pursue addressing this knowledge gap on their own. Therefore, the
schools need to make sure that educators are obtaining the tools and resources
needed in a digital world and must provide their staff with appropriate training
(De Smet et al., 2015) and keep them updated to changes that effect the young
people they serve. The digital gap that was found between these educators and
pupils (Greenhow, Robelia and Hughes, 2009) needs to be reduced. By ensuring
staff are educated in dealing with cyberbullying and issues related to it, allows
for a more proactive rather than reactive stance as the findings imply is
currently occurring within these particular schools. This would also assist
educators understand motivations in engaging in cyberbullying and exclusionary
behaviours.

While issues of responsibility and legality were of concern throughout the

interviews, it is important to remember that any changes in policy regarding the
handling of cyberbullying is not going to be changed or implemented any time
soon. Teachers should instead be focusing on being proactive in their dealings
with cyberbullying rather than reactive.

In the UK, the Department for Education guidelines stress that if a young person
is a victim of cyberbullying then they should save the information and contact
“your school in the first place or someone you trust if it happens outside school,
e.g. in a club or online” (Bullying at School, 2015). This is certainly where

171
teachers felt concerned, as they do not often feel that they have appropriate or
adequate training to deal with these issues and that parents and police need to
have a greater role in dealing with these situations.

Tokunaga (2010) found that while most cyberbullying occurs outside of school, it
has sufficient impact on students to affect the school environment. Moreover,
Welker (2010) found that teachers recognise this impact. Therefore, schools
should be more proactive in dealing with cyberbullying from prevention to
recognition and follow-up of cyberbullying incidents. This was not occurring
according to interviewees, who explained that once an incident had been
investigated, it was closed and not revisited.

It has also been found that there must be parental involvement in dealing with
such issues in helping to monitor the online activities that young people engage
in, in order to prevent cyberbullying as well as dealing with any victimisation
that has occurred. Additionally, Internet service providers and social media sites
need to be involved in prevention and detection of cyberbullying behaviours
(Vandebosch, Poels, and Deboutte, 2014). There have been suggestions that
partnerships should be developed between schools, parents and Internet service
providers (Mason, 2008; Vandebosch, Poels, and Deboutte, 2014) so that a
communal approach can be undertaken in dealing with the issue of
cyberbullying, which supports the assertions of teachers involved in this study.

Teachers expressed that they were often reacting to the cyberbullying incidents
and dealing with conflicts, rather than educating students about what
cyberbullying is. Taking steps, such as explaining the dangers of cyberbullying
and providing clear rules and guidelines in classrooms and the school at large,
are approaches that teachers can initiate to be proactive against cyberbullying,
rather than only reacting to the specific incidents brought to their attention.

In terms of law in regard to duty of care, both British and North American law
gives teachers the right of duty of care in place of their parents, also known as
“a duty of care in loco parentis” (Shariff, p. 89, 2009). Additionally, in the
Scottish Government publication, A National Approach to Anti-Bullying for

172
Scotland’s Children and Young People, the following guidelines were provided
(Stone, 2014):
“Raising awareness of rights and responsibilities.

Inclusive, supportive school cultures where bullying and discrimination are

not accepted.

Prosocial approaches in the classroom and wider school.

Restorative practices.”

Not once in these guidelines was there a mention of either the Communications
Act 2003 or the Offences (Aggravation by Prejudice) (Scotland) Act 2009, both of
which state that engaging in these behaviours is a criminal act. However, “The
case of DPP v Connolly [2008] 1 W.L.R. 276 established that the persons to whom
the message was directed would have to be grossly offended for a prosecution to
be made as opposed to the message being grossly offensive to those who were
not the intended recipients” (Bishop, 2013). This may be why, while young
people were encouraged to alert campus police and other authorities when
dealing with issues of cyberbullying, young people chose to block7 (Parris et al,
2012) the individuals causing harm or to not pursue the matter further. As so
little detail was provided in the interviews in order to preserve issues of
anonymity, it is difficult to determine the possible reasons why young people
may choose to follow either route.

The unanswered question is ultimately who is responsible for dealing with issues
of cyberbullying. For now, it appears that teachers, parents, and police (when
necessary) will continue to work together to address the needs of those who
have been victimised. However, this does lead to considerations of change to
current policy and involving companies like Facebook. This would be an area for
future research. Additionally, it could also lead to addressing the motivations
behind the reasons that young people engage in these behaviours along with the
fact that personal responsibility also needs to be factored in, which was
surprisingly not mentioned throughout the course of the interviews.

7
Blocking refers to blocking a person’s mobile number from contacting you or deleting someone
from social media accounts.

173
In conclusion, educator knowledge and understanding needs to be improved and
increased (Stauffer et al., 2002) to allow for greater proactivity and overall
reduction of cyberbullying victimisation in schools. This would keep with the
favourable school ethos, which will be discussed in the next section. This
environment would allow for students to continue feeling comfortable and safe
and therefore more likely to approach staff with cyberbullying related issues
(Tosolt, 2008).

7.3 The impact of cyberbullying on young people

This section discusses the findings in Chapter 5, The Impact of Cyberbullying on

Young People. The chapter addressed the following research questions: Why do
young people cyberbully? How do young people utilise social media in relation
to cyberbullying? How are young people experiencing cyberbullying? To what
extent can Elias’s Established and Outsider Relations provide a deeper
understanding of cyberbullying? In addressing these research questions,
interviews with teachers and educational professionals were undertaken,
analysed, and categorised into themes.

7.3.1 The emotional impact of cyberbullying

This study revealed that young people are strongly impacted by cyberbullying.
Participants expressed that young people were impacted by any cyberbullying
that was experienced. The impact was found to range from depression and
anxiety symptoms (Patchin and Hinduja, 2011; Shariff and Holt, 2007; Ybarra
and Mitchell, 2004), sleep disturbances (Kowalski, Giametti, Schroeder and
Lattaner, 2014), school attainment and achievement issues (Hinduja and
Patchin, 2007; Smith et al., 2008), inadequacy socially and academically (Hoff
and Mitchell, 2009), and in extreme cases, suicidal thoughts and attempts
(Hinduja and Patchin, 2010; Patchin and Hinduja, 2012; Schneider, O’Donnell,
Stueve and Coulter, 2012). In addition, it has been found that cyber victims,
bullies and bystanders all experience emotional and psychological issues as a
result of being involved (Junoven and Gross, 2008; Rivers and Noret, 2013).

While all who were interviewed were concerned about the impact that
cyberbullying had on young people, the non-teacher educators shared the

174
majority of incidents that resulted in severe psychological issues. Furthermore,
non-teacher educators also felt that the teachers and schools were lacking in
their responsibility in providing a duty of care in regard to specific incidents.

In the two specific incidents shared, the schools did not take the incidents
seriously; both young people in question went on to have psychological issues
that have greatly impacted their lives. While the schools that participated in this
research were not the ones that were involved in these two specific cases, it did
leave the commentary provided by the educators as open to interpretation. It is
entirely feasible that there were incidents like the ones described by Ms. Young
and Ms. Barnes occurring at these schools; perhaps the teachers were not privy
to this information, or the incidents had been reported to other pastoral care
teachers. At the same time, they may have been apprehensive in speaking about
any major issues, especially if serious issues had occurred as a result.

It is also entirely possible that the teachers who had been involved with the
cyberbullying experienced by Ms. Young’s son and the young person that Ms.
Barnes mentioned were reluctant to get involved due to being apprehensive
about student and or parent retaliation (Stauffer et al., 2012). However,
contrary to this, Shariff (2009) found that when victims reported instances of
cyberbullying that school staff “put up a wall of defence” (p. 461) and often
believed that victims made up or exaggerated claims. They may also be
disinclined to involve themselves in issues that they perceive to be beyond their
authority or responsibility, as cyberbullying mostly occurs outside of the school
day (Yilmaz, 2010).

The findings regarding emotional impact lend themselves to analysis with GST,
which was the other sociological theory that was presented in Chapter 2.
Depression, anxiety, and other related psychological components in addition to
school avoidance, could be related to GST. GST is a theory that explains how
young people and others cope with stressors. A young person, who has come
under strain by experiencing cyberbullying behaviours, may react by engaging in
similar behaviours toward others. Moreover, young people who have experienced
strain outside of cyberbullying, where they are already experiencing depression,

175
anxiety, and other symptoms, may also be likely to react similarly (Patchin and
Hinduja, 2011) and engage in behaviours that help alleviate strain.

Another reaction that was mentioned throughout the course of the interviews
was that young people are extremely distracted by the lure of their mobile
phones, tablets, and social media accounts, often to the point of keeping them
up late into the night. In addition, they are often reaching for them in school,
despite their presence not being allowed. This analysis connects distraction to a
decrease in academic achievement (Hinduja and Patchin, 2007).

This distraction could be related to SIT. As discussed in Chapter 2, SIT explains a

young person’s sense of self in being a member of a group. Once young people
have established themselves as part of a group and have a group identity, they
are bonded and it helps them maintain a sense of self and belonging to the
group.

Staying up late engaging in social media; sharing images on Facebook, Instagram,

and Snapchat helps them keep and enforces their group membership, even if it is
to the detriment to their health by staying up late into the evening engaging
with their peers. Espinoza and Junoven (2011) found that social media had
impacted and interfered with sleep patterns in young people. Additionally,
Tokunaga (2010) found that it is difficult for young people to detach from social
media despite the fact it may be causing them serious distress. Similarly, they
may not be able to avoid the lure of social media during the school day; if they
get a notification they want to check it, in order to see what is going on. This
constant checking of social media has become almost a compulsion among young
people (Lewis and West, 2009). Teachers expressed that pupils had difficulties
concentrating in school due to the fact that their mobile phones were both a
temptation and a distraction.

This could also extend to the Established and Outsider relations framework. As
introduced in Chapter 2, Established and Outsider relations is a sociological
framework used to explain exclusion. Established members of a group may want
to connect with other members in order to exclude or ostracise outsiders (Elias
and Scotson, 1994). It may not necessarily be a compulsion, but a way to keep in

176
contact in a media driven society. While there are differences between Winston-
Parva, the community studied by Elias and Scotson (See Chapter 2) and the
online communities that young people build and engage in today, the means that
they use to establish their position are the same, via stigmatisation, exclusion
and gossip (Elias and Scotson, 1994; Dunning and Hughes, 2013). Young people
today are able to extend any exclusion that occurs in school by engaging in
cyberbullying. As mentioned previously, Facebook has become an extension of
the school day (boyd, 2014) and can be used for both social and nefarious
purposes.

7.3.2 The Catholic ethos

In seeking to determine the extent to which the cyberbullying was impacting on

young people, the Catholic School ethos was also thought to have an impact, but
it was difficult to determine without additional data from the pupils themselves.
The ethos of the school, as delineated in Chapter 2, allowed for the creation of
an environment where a “special atmosphere animated by the gospel spirit of
freedom and charity” (Pope Paul VI, 1965) exists. Teachers felt that the ethos
made the schools more community oriented (O’Neill, 1979) and that pupils were
more likely to approach them when in need. This was not correlated with the
pupil survey data, where pupils stated they would go to parents and friends
before alerting teachers.

Catholic school teachers are called to spread the word of the gospel and are
involved in communicating those values to young people, leading them to the
Truth (McKinney, 2011). This was confirmed in a study of Catholic school head
teachers by Johnson and Castelli (2000), who found that the teachers and the
school by extension wanted to instil faith and respect and support their pupils in
their endeavours through the Gospel. In addition, Catholic schools are spaces
where teachers can assist pupils in developing their faith and making it
applicable to their lives (Sullivan and McKinney, 2013). However, it has often
been found that young people today are disconcerted by the changes of modern
life and have rejected these values that are being espoused by their teachers
(McKinney, 2011). It can be surmised from the results that the young people

177
involved in this research study may not feel comfortable alerting their teachers
because of the heavy gospel presence involved.

Furthermore, wider research has mixed results in determining whom young

people approach regarding bullying and cyberbullying. Stauffer et al., (2012)
found in a study of high school teachers that if cyberbullying happened during
the school day, it was reported. However, if it occurred outside of the school
day it was less likely to be reported or dealt with by school staff. This was
correlated by Festl, Scharkow, and Quandt (2014) who found that staff was
uncertain in intervening when cyberbullying incidents occurred outside of
school.

Whether or not the gospel values were being instilled in these young people is
unknown. While young people today have often rejected these values as stated
above (McKinney, 2011), O’Neill (1979) argued that the school community is not
impaired by students who do not share the same beliefs, but helps others enrich
and broaden their perspectives. While O’Neill was speaking about non-Catholics
attending Catholic schools, this could apply to those students who are Catholic
by baptism, but who have rejected the values of the Church.

7.3.3 Why do young people cyberbully?

There were varying understandings provided by educator respondents as to why

young people engage in bullying, cyberbullying and exclusionary behaviours.
Pressures on young people ranging from stresses related to appearance to media
and social media influences were discussed. Status symbols and societal
pressures were motivations for engaging in exclusionary practices. Additionally,
survival, unhappiness and insecurity were also found to be a cause for such
behaviour, and were used to assist the perpetrator improve their own self-
esteem. These symptoms could possibly be a result of GST, where the young
person is experiencing strain and then engages in cyberbullying as a coping
mechanism (Agnew, 2010).

Pressures on young people

178
Pressures on young people incorporate a wide range of factors including societal
pressure, the need to belong, as well as pressures that young people place on
themselves including issues of self-worth. Several respondents mentioned peer
pressure as a factor triggering cyberbullying. Those interviewed found it
significant enough to mention that young people were instrumental in
persuading their peers and friends to engage in cyberbullying behaviours. This
was illustrated when teachers at School C discussed how one girl convinced
another girl to ask a third girl questions about the first girl. While there has not
been substantial research on peer pressure and cyberbullying, a recent study by
Shim and Shin (2016) showed that young people who engaged in group chats on
social media applications such as Facebook and WhatsApp may more willingly
engage in cyberbullying behaviours in “an effort to maintain a sense of belonging
to a group by supporting the dominant values, beliefs and attitudes of group
members” (p.21). This need for belonging featured in many interviews. It was
thought by several respondents that the drive to cyberbully was due to a lack of
support and the need for validation, in addition to peer pressure.

Shim and Shin’s (2016) paper is particularly relevant to this study, especially as
it intersects with the theoretical underpinnings of this thesis. Cyberbullying, in
this thesis, is a proxy of social exclusion, which is viewed through the lens of
Established and Outsider relations as a theoretical framework. Previous research
has focused on the interactions of group members and exclusion through
traditional means of gossip and ostracism (e.g. Lake 2011). In this vein, what is
happening in peer group-related and peer group cyberbullying is that young
people are maintaining their group membership by excluding others via
cyberbullying, be it on Facebook, Twitter, or any other social media application
that allows for group participation or group tagging. Furthermore, Bauman,
Toomey and Walker found that young people were excluded to maintain or gain
social status by excluding others from their social groups. It was mentioned in
several interviews that the posting of photos on various forms of social media
(Instagram, Facebook, Twitter) was used to target, exclude, and ridicule others
as a means of exclusion and denigration. Through the use of social media and
online technology it is merely the 21st century’s way of actively participating in
blame gossip, rumour mongering, and exclusion that were used in Scotson and
Elias’s Winston-Parva (Elias and Scotson, 1994). Technology has not changed

179
bullying; it has merely offered new avenues for young people to exclude and
victimise one another.

It is this new way that young people relate to one another via Facebook
comments and texts that contributes to this behaviour. In some cases, it may be
that their peers are encouraging such behaviours, especially if they are being
encouraged online. As it was elaborated on throughout the interviews, the
nature of exclusion is wielding power over someone perceived to be weaker,
which is at the centre of Established and Outsider relations.

Those in power are the ones that are pointing out those who are standing out
from the crowd or who have not fallen to the pressure of looking and behaving a
certain way. Young people notice the differences between each other and they
use that to their advantage to exclude those who do not fit within the
parameters that they have established. The power and authority that is being
held over young people in regard to cyberbullying is thus twofold. First, it can be
held over another individual by having technology that is more costly and of a
higher value as a status symbol. Second, it can also be about who has more
friends on Facebook or Twitter, for example, in the social circle of the victim.

Throughout the interviews, respondents alluded to or explicitly stated that it

was vulnerable young people who were targeted. While not specifically
mentioned wider research has found that homophobia, racial intolerance, and
revenge are all possible motivators in engaging in exclusionary behaviours
(Hinduja and Patchin, 2007; Shariff, 2008). These outsiders were the ones who
experienced cyberbullying, and were sometimes unaware that what was
happening was unacceptable or inappropriate. Whether or not this was due to
being a part of a vulnerable population or because of the culture that makes up
social media is unknown. Moreover, they often have little recourse, as they are
afraid to involve their parents in fear of losing usage of their mobile phone or
computer. This is not dissimilar to those attending the tennis club in Lake’s
(2011) study. Those being excluded could either deal with the segregation or
choose not to attend, thus having to give up something that was enjoyable to
them (Lake, 2011).

180
Survival

Survival was a theme that emerged to illustrate how those that engage in
cyberbullying endeavour to keep from being attacked themselves, or to protect
themselves if they have already been victimised. If a young person has been
cyberbullied, they have experienced strain according to Hinduja and Patchin
(2007). In response to that strain, they may act out and engage in the same
behaviours they experienced in order to relieve strain (Thaxton and Agnew,
2004). Cyberbullying as a survival tactic may be a way for young people to
protect themselves from potential aggressors, especially if they have
experienced bullying or cyberbullying in the past. This is often found in what is
called proactive cyberbullying (Wingate, Minney, and Guadagno, 2013), when an
individual may create a website impersonating another, or when an individual
disseminates personal information about someone who has victimised them as
means of retaliation or in order to protect themselves from further retaliation.

Power

An issue that was only touched upon once in the interviews, which has known to
be integral to bullying and cyberbullying, is the issue of power. In traditional
bullying scenarios, the bully is often depicted as being stronger or more
physically powerful than the victim, or uses his or her power to physically harm,
verbally denigrate, or exclude another individual (Olweus, 1997; Swearer and
Doll, 2001). In cyberbullying, the issue of power usually is a matter of
perception, in terms of social exclusion. Yet it also could pertain to matters of
technological sophistication and savvy (Patchin and Hinduja, 2006). Moreover,
power between groups was found to be a factor in stigmatisation (Elias and
Scotson, 1994; Powell, 2008). The group that has the inherent power over the
other is the one that is in the established position.

The fact that it was not brought up or considered by teachers and other
educational professionals implies that the issue of power has either been
overlooked by those dealing with it as a potential issue, or it has been found to
have importance within the research literature, where it possibly may not be as
relevant as previously thought. Issues of power in regard to cyberbullying have

181
been uncovered, especially concerning the definition, as it has been found that a
power imbalance may be implied in cases where the perpetrator has increased
technological savvy over the victim (Thomas, Connor, and Scott, 2015). In a
study by Nocentini et al., (2010), it was found that the imbalance of power
might be less relevant when it comes to cyberbullying. Moreover, the discussion
of power has been addressed in issues of defining cyberbullying. As previously
discussed in Chapter 2, many widely utilised definitions of cyberbullying to not
address the issue of power, instead focusing on the use of online and digital
media use. In this case, it can be understood why those interviewed did not
mention it as a reason why young people engage in these behaviours, as it
frequently is not utilised in the most commonly used operational cyberbullying
definitions.

However, the definition used to define bullying as part of the Glasgow City
Council anti-bullying policy does feature power. It states bullying is:
. . .any behaviour in which an individual or group exerts power in an
abusive or negative way which results in the harming or demeaning of
another individual or group. It is normally, but not necessarily, a process
that is repeated over a period of time and people can feel bullied even
when those displaying bullying behaviour are not conscious of the harm
they are causing or are wilfully seeking to hurt or demean. [p. 4
Emphasis theirs.]

This definition is available as part of the anti-bullying policy guidelines online,

but does not feature on the incident reporting sheet that teachers use to
document issues of bullying and cyberbullying. There is also no mention of power
as it relates to bullying or cyberbullying on the anti-bullying policies that each
school has published on their websites.

Unhappiness and insecurity

Unhappiness and insecurity, in addition to societal pressures, can all lead young
people to engage in exclusionary practices. There has been some correlation
found between loneliness, unhappiness and cyberbullying and cyber victimisation
(Sahin, 2012). In a study of university age students, Hoff and Mitchell (2009)
found that insecurity was a predictor of cyberbullying. Moreover, it has also
been argued that these types of feelings produce a negative effect leading to
strain (Hinduja and Patchin, 2007), which has found to be a predictor of both

182
engaging in cyberbullying and becoming a cybervictim (Patchin and Hinduja,
2011).

On the contrary, wider research has found that the unhappiness leading to
exclusion had foundations in relationship problems such as a breakup (Hoff and
Mitchell, 2009) or issues within the peer group, and that insecurity related
victimisation might be related to issues surrounding the life situation of the
perpetrator (Levine, 2006). As the specific motivations are unknown, the
evidence from the quantitative data and interviews is suggestive of that those
engaging in bullying and cyberbullying behaviours, especially girls, could be
using Established and Outsider relations in order to exclude. The quantitative
data ascertained that younger pupils and girls were more likely to be involved in
these behaviours. Girls tend to establish groups and cliques and actively exclude
others who do not fit the mould using exclusionary practices to maintain their
social position as “established” versus “the outsiders.” This is done through
gossip and other exclusionary tactics that take place on Facebook and other
social media outlets by ridiculing, exclusion, and name-calling.

Lastly, it was surmised by respondents that one likely cause of bullying and
cyberbullying is unlikely and that it was likely a combination of factors that
drove young people to exclude. It was also felt that this was not a novel problem
as bullying and victimisation have been occurring for a long time, historically
speaking. From the responses obtained, it can be speculated that there is not
one theory or approach that can fully explain bullying and cyberbullying
behaviours in young people. Respondents each had their own take and opinion as
to why these behaviours were occurring and they were subsequently a product of
information garnered from the media in addition to their own personal
experiences as a young person or as a parent facing these issues with their own
child.

7.4 The prevalence of cyberbullying

This section summarises the findings in Chapter 6, The Prevalance of

Cyberbullying. This chapter addressed the following research questions: How
prevalent is cyberbullying within these schools? How is technology influencing

183
cyberbullying? How are educators handling the challenge according to pupils?
How are young people experiencing cyberbullying? In addressing these questions
a survey was designed and sent out to the three participating schools with a 450
pupils in total participating.

While most young people completing the survey were not victimised, this study
found that more young people surveyed experienced traditional bullying than
experienced cyberbullying at some point during the twelve months prior to the
survey being administered. This indicates that within this sample, that
traditional bullying is still the primary way young people exclude one another.
As stated in Section 6.7, this reinforces Olweus’s 2012 claims that traditional
bullying is still the primary way that young people exclude one another. This can
be correlated with other research studies (Lapidot-Lefler and Dolev-Cohen,
2015; Schneider, O’Donnell and Smith, 2015; Sjurso, Fandrem and Roland, 2016).
However, while responses to Olweus’s claims agree that traditional bullying is
more prevalent than cyberbullying (Hinduja and Patchin, 2012; Smith, 2012), the
figures that Olweus (2012) presented regarding overall cyberbullying prevalence
(4.1%-5% for cybervictims and 2.5-3.2% for cyberbullies) are not in agreement
with wider evidence (Bauman, 2013; Hinduja and Patchin, 2012; Hinduja and
Patchin, 2014; Modecki and Minchin, 2013). Furthermore, there may also be an
indication that the victimisation begins in school as traditional bullying, but then
continues on outside the school as cyberbullying (Cassidy et al., 2009; Olweus,
2012). While cyberbullying prevalence found in this study is within parameters of
other research, it has been found that with self reported studies there may be
issues with the response rates due to the fact that young people worry about
retribution (Junoven and Gross, 2008) in acknowledging being cyberbullied by
their peers in addition to being reluctant to report negative behaviours (Swearer
et al., 2014).

7.4.1 Gender differences

It was found that females experienced both traditional bullying and

cyberbullying in higher numbers than males, with no statistical significance
found. Historically, research has had mixed results with respect to gender and
cyberbullying prevalence rates. Some researchers have found that boys engage
in cyberbullying more (Ackers, 2012; Anderson and Hunter, 2012; Aricak et al.,

184
2008; Beran and Li, 2005; Hoff and Mitchell, 2009; Patchin and Hinduja, 2006;
Slonje and Smith, 2008; Vandebosch and Van Cleemput, 2009) whereas others
have determined that girls engage in cyberbullying more (Connell et al., 2013;
Jones et al., 2013; Schenk and Fremouw, 2012). Others have found that there is
no difference in gender and engaging in cyberbullying behaviours (Li, 2006;
Monks et al., 2012, Smith et al., 2008; Ybarra and Mitchell, 2004).

According to Shariff (2008), “sufficient research suggests that girls,

internationally, are increasingly found to perpetrate cyber-bullying in groups and
are more frequent users of social networking tools” (p. 40). As cyberbullying is a
relatively new phenomenon, researchers are still uncertain as to how gender
plays a role in cyberbullying (Ang and Goh, 2010; Connell et al., 2014).

It was clear from many of the interviews that it was felt that girls were more
likely to be involved with cyberbullying and social exclusion using social media.
While it was not explicitly mentioned in the interviews, research has found that
girls may be more likely to involve themselves in cyberbullying due to its
relational or indirect aspects. Historically, girls have tended to engage in covert
and indirect forms of bullying as it is less likely to be noticed and can be carried
out in ways such as gossip, exclusion, and intimidation (Coloroso, 2002; Kowalski
and Limber, 2007; Nansel et al., 2001).

Again, as stated in 7.3.3, the Established and Outsider framework is effective in

understanding cyberbullying as exclusion as it relates to girls and these
behaviors. As it was illustrated in the interviews, girls were frequently found to
be congregating on social media and actively gossiping and excluding those
outside of their established peer groups for percieved slights or threats (Maguire
and Mansfield, 1998; Sutton and Vertigans, 2002) while maintaining their own
position socially (Elias and Scotson, 1994).

This study found that females were more likely to be have experienced
cyberbullying overall. Females also were cyberbullied by text more frequently,
and were more likely to have been bullied in school overall. They also
experienced more sexual instances of bullying and verbal bullying. The reason
for this is not clear from the data, but may have something to do with the fact

185
that according to Li (2006), females tend to self-report or notify adults about
bullying/cyberbullying at a higher rate than males. While this is contrary to what
Hinduja and Patchin (2009) found, where females were more likely to tell a peer
and boys were more likely to inform a teacher, overall evidence relating to
reporting is an area of research that is widely mixed.

Males were slightly more likely to be cyberbullied online or via email and also
reported being a cyberbully more often than females. Again, while the overall
results related to gender are mixed, research has suggested that males were
more likely to be cyberbullies (Aricak et al., 2008; Slonje and Smith, 2008;
Tarablus, Heiman, and Olenik-Shmesh, 2015; Vandebosch and Van Cleemput,
2009). While 3% difference is small, with a small population that has been
surveyed, that is still thirteen more male victims than female victims, which out
of 450, is significant. The reason for this difference is unclear from the data but
may have something to do with the ease of the use of technology compared to
what it was in research that was conducted previously. All but twelve students
used some form of online technology in these schools, showing that the use is
increasing and widespread. As stated previously, a majority of young people use
the Internet, and of those 80% use social media (Lenhart et al., 2011).

Males also experienced higher rates of homophobic bullying/cyberbullying. It is

unknown whether or not any of the young people experiencing this type of
bullying were gay. However, it has been found that verbal bullying, such as
name calling is frequent, but is not always directed at GLBTQ students and has
been found to be used to build in-group and out-group identities (Minton et al.,
2008). This will be discussed further in section 7.4.4.

Additionally, perpetrators were also accounted for in regards to both types of

cyberbullying. 6% of pupils reported being engaging in both text and online
victimisation. However, this resulted in an interesting finding, as males were
more likely to be online perpetrators at 8%. Perhaps this is due to the way that
males access technology, often engaging in online gaming and other activities
over texting and social media; activities preferred by females (Beckman,
Hagquist and Hellström, 2013; Whittaker and Kowalaski, 2015).

186
7.4.2 Social media usage

Social media refers to Internet based applications that can be used to share
information, text, images, and videos (boyd and Ellison, 2008; Kaplan and
Haenlein, 2010). The use of social media applications was found to be prevalent
among the students surveyed. Compared to the Pew Internet research findings,
pupils surveyed used Twitter far more than the average of 8%. Those surveyed
also texted more often than was found by Pew: 79% compared to 66%. Moreover,
according to both Lenhart (2012) and Purcell (2012), 93% of teens are using
Facebook. Similarly, 83% of those surveyed in this study reported using Facebook
and teachers that were interviewed as part of this research confirmed that
Facebook was used extensively by their pupils for both socialisation and
exclusion. This confirms the assertion by boyd (2014) that Facebook has become
an extension of the school day.

Cyberbullying as exclusion is a complex issue with many components. Since the

outset of this research, avenues used to cyberbully until recently are no longer
applicable and new ones have arisen to take their place. Mobile applications and
social networking sites change frequently and it is important for research to
keep up to date with the changes in technology (Whittaker and Kowalski, 2015)
for greater understanding, as well as for prevention strategies.

7.4.3 Bias bullying and cyberbullying

There is a dearth of research on bias bullying and cyberbullying, also known as

identity-based or prejudice bullying, with researchers appearing to classify the
bullying in terms of physical, verbal, relational, and cyberbullying. Overall, the
self-reporting rates of bullying incidents by the respondents of this survey are
very low. Taken on their own merit, the percentages seem innocuous enough,
even when compared to some of the results found in a recent survey of young
people in the UK, where 13% experienced bullying in regard to social status, 7%
experienced racial bullying, 7% experienced homophobic bullying, 6% were
bullied due to their religion, and 14% experienced bullying of a sexist nature
(Ditch the Label, 2014). While the results from this data are still low
comparatively speaking, the relatively small sample size may have to do with

187
the lower rates. It is also unclear how many students chose more than one
option as was allowed.

Racial bullying/cyberbullying

In this study, 3% of students surveyed reported incidents of bullying related to

race. This number is troublesome, based on the information obtained from the
2011 Census, where 3.7% of Scotland’s population is made up of ethnic
minorities (National Records of Scotland, 2013). Based on population figures
alone, it could be extrapolated that all minorities present within these schools
had experienced some sort of bullying or cyberbullying based on race. The
reason for this is not entirely clear from the data, as racial or ethnic identity
was not obtained. However, in 2011 to 2012, approximately 9700 (15%) of
students enrolled in Glasgow schools had English as an additional language
(Glasgow City Council, 2012). As the majority of bullying and cyberbullying
research has been conducted on Caucasian youth (Low and Espelage, 2012),
there are little additional academic research studies for comparison. That being
said, Bucchianeri, Eisenberg and Neumark-Sztainer (2013) reported that 35% of
youth surveyed experienced race related victimisation. However, this particular
study was composed of over 2700 socio-economic and racially diverse
participants in the United States, where the majority of those surveyed were
non-white. Therefore, these results may not be as applicable to a less ethnically
diverse population.

Homophobic bullying/cyberbullying

Homophobic bullying is directed toward gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered,

and queer (GLBTQ) persons. Homophobic bullying is often conducted via teasing,
name-calling, and rumour spreading (Poteat et al., 2013). 4% of those surveyed
in this study experienced homophobic bullying or cyberbullying in the 12-month
period covered by the questionnaire. Additionally, 15% witnessed homophobic
bullying/cyberbullying in their schools. These findings suggest that this is an area
of concern in these schools. While again, the reason for this is not clear from the
data, as information on sexual orientation was not collected, this may be linked
to homophobia being the underlying cause of such behaviours (Hong and

188
Garabino, 2012), something that might be exacerbated by being in a Catholic
School (Maher and Sever, 2007). Further evidence shows that only 23% of young
LGB people had been informed at school that homophobic bullying was wrong
and over half of respondents never reported the bullying to staff (Hunt and
Jensen, 2007).

In comparison to the above results, 7% of surveyed young people who had

experienced bullying experienced homophobic bullying (Ditch the Label, 2014)
Furthermore, a study of Suffolk youth by Bond and Carter (2013), found similar
results. This number appears to be quite low in contrast to this research and
other sources. For instance, Stonewall Scotland reports that 52% of gay teens
reported that they had experienced homophobic bullying (Stonewall Scotland,
2012). This is a decrease from a previous Stonewall study where 65% of those
who identified as LGB were bullied. However, the percentage increased to 75%
when the pupil was attending a faith-based school (Hunt and Jensen, 2007). That
being said, the data is representative of the population. Stonewall Scotland
reports that around 300,000 Scots are gay, lesbian or bisexual, or about 5% to 7%
of the population (Stonewall Scotland, 2013). This is just an estimate, as no
survey can be entirely accurate due to the fact that those surveyed may not wish
to disclose their orientation (Carragher and Rivers, 2002).

A US based study of Catholic high school students found that especially among
males, violence and bullying against GLBTQ persons was acceptable (Maher,
2103). While attitudes are changing toward GLBTQ individuals, it has been found
that the curriculum of faith based schools may “inculcate intolerant and bigoted
views” (Walford, 2008). These findings suggest that issues concerning GLBTQ
persons should be addressed and made part of any anti-bullying programme or
policies put in place to address the needs of vulnerable youth.

Sexual bullying/cyberbullying

Another form of bias bullying is sexual bullying. This can affect members of
either gender and refers to inappropriate comments or physical contact
regarding another person’s body and/or appearance, and can occur in person or
as cyberbullying. 7% of females and 5% of all students reported experiencing

189
sexual bullying, while 12% stated that they had witnessed sexual bullying over
the past year. As stated in Chapter 2, there is little research evidence on the
prevalence of sexual bullying or cyberbullying. 25% of surveyed by Ditch the
Label (2014), experienced this type of harassment, which is significantly higher
than these findings, suggesting that sexual bullying is not as prevalent in these
schools. Similar results relating to prevalence were found by Bucchianeri,
Eisenberg and Neumark-Sztainer (2013), where again 25% of those surveyed
experienced harassment that was sexual in nature. When the self reported data
is compared with what was witnessed, it does appear to be an area of concern
for these particular schools. The reason for this is not clear from the data, but
may be connected to how sexual identities are formed throughout adolescent
years (Duncan, 1998).

Sexist bullying/cyberbullying

In similar vein, sexist bullying does not appear to be a significant issue here,
with only 2% of positive responses. Sexist bullying is bullying related to the
gender that an individual is identified as having. This does not appear to be an
issue in any of the schools surveyed. Once again, this data contrasts with the
results from Ditch the Label (2014), which reported that 14% of students
surveyed experienced this form of bullying. This could be due to the fact that it
is not an issue for secondary school pupils in these particular schools. However,
in a recent survey of teachers, nearly half of them reported hearing sexist
language between pupils and 38% surveyed were witness to sexist bullying by
pupils (Neill, 2007). It could also be related to pastoral care or religiosity of the
schools, or perhaps students did not feel comfortable sharing this information.
While the teachers interviewed did not mention this type of language, those
working in outside agencies mentioned that it was occurring.

Social status bullying/cyberbullying

Bullying in regard to social status also does not appear to be an area of concern.
One possible reason for this could be that Catholic schools serve the working
class population of Scotland; therefore, the social status makeup of pupils in
Catholic Schools is similar, as they come from similar neighbourhoods and

190
backgrounds. This is especially the case in the three schools in this study, which
serve low-income areas and have a significant number of pupils receiving free
lunch. This was a surprising finding, as it was anticipated that there would be a
higher percentage of pupils experiencing this type of bullying. In contrast,
Bucchianeri, Eisenberg and Neumark-Sztainer (2013) found that 16% of those
surveyed experienced bullying in regard to socio-economic status. After speaking
to members of staff and other people who worked within the schools (see
chapter 5), it was found that, despite the self-reported data, this is an area of
concern: young people still antagonise others who do not fit in to what they
have deemed as “popular” or “in style.” As such, it is possible that the nature of
the question itself, particularly how it was phrased, was the issue, rather than
the fact that it was not occurring according to the survey data. This discrepancy
may also have to do with the way young people understand bullying and other
exclusionary behaviours. In a study by Boulton, Trueman and Flemington (2002)
it was found that a “substantial minority” did not view behaviours construed as
bullying as had been designated by researchers.

Lastly, 24% of young people who responded stated that they were bullied, but
not in a way that fit cyberbullying, racist, religious, homophobic, sexual, or
sexist types of bullying. The reason for this is not clear, but may be linked to a
number of factors. For one, the respondent could have not understood the
question, and clicked “none of the above” as a response. They also could have
experienced types of bullying that were not specifically listed or perhaps they
were unsure how to categorise their experience. There are many types of
bullying that could fill this gap including bullying or cyberbullying targeting
transphobia, (Wolfe, Crooks, Chiodo and Jaffe, 2009), disability (Lindsay,
Dockrell and Mackie, 2008), or weight (Bucchianeri, Eisenberg and Neumark-
Sztainer, 2013; Puhl and Luedicke, 2012) for example.

Bias based bullying or cyberbullying can happen to anyone. While the

experiences of this type of bullying or cyberbullying are relatively low overall
within this sample of schools, it is still occurring. Recommendations to address
these types of peer harassment can be made, including having an inclusive
school climate that accepts all and where diversity is celebrated and challenging
prejudice and stereotypes is valued.

191
7.4.4 Student perspectives on school handling of bullying

There are few studies that delve into the issues of student perspectives on how
the school or teachers handle issues of bullying or cyberbullying. Generally, it
has been found that students are concerned with how bullying will be handled
and therefore avoid reporting issues to school staff (Rigby and Bagshaw, 2003) as
they believe that teachers do not understand (Slonje and Smith, 2008). As a
result, they tend to disclose to friends rather than teachers and staff
(Houndoumadi and Pateraki, 2001; Rigby and Barnes, 2002; Vandebosch and Van
Cleemput, 2009), as was also found in this study. This low percentage rate for
disclosure may be due to the fact that pupils do not believe that staff and
teachers will respond to their claims. While the teachers who were interviewed
as part of this research stated that they addressed every claim that was brought
to their attention, it was clear from the interviews that they had a drastic lack
of knowledge and understanding of cyberbullying as discussed in section 7.2. If
pupils picked up on this, they may have been reluctant to approach teachers
with incidents.

Research has found that as few as 25% of students will report issues of bullying
to staff (Smith and Shu, 2000). This study found that 34% of young people
surveyed would alert a teacher to issues related to bullying, which is
significantly higher than what was discovered by Hoff and Mitchell in 2009,
where only 17% reported instances of victimisation to a teacher. However, in
70% of those cases the school did not act upon the complaint. Furthermore,
Bradshaw et al., (2007) reported that 97% of staff would intervene in bullying
related incidents, yet only 21% of pupils reported bullying to school officials. It
has been found that in order for anti-bullying programmes to be successful,
teachers need to be able to recognise issues of bullying, and students need to
report and disclose bullying to staff (Rigby, 1996).

7.4.5 Established and Outsider relations as it relates to this

survey

In hopes of investigating the findings with the use of the Established and
Outsider framework, the data obtained from the survey was initially analysed

192
according to the different schools, to see if any patterns emerge between victim
and bully rates between the years. Students who are in S1 and S2 would be first
and second year students in these schools, making them outsiders. Students who
are in S3 and S4 would be established students, having attended the school for
several years.

There are several issues in analysing the data in this way. For one, the
questionnaire was not set up for such theoretical underpinnings and the data is
very basic at best. There is little information known about the participants
beyond school, gender, and year. Precise ages are unknown, nor is it clear if the
students have moved from other schools, areas within the UK, or other
countries. There is also no way of knowing if the students were bullied and/or
cyberbullied by students attending the same school.

In addition, using the Established and Outsider framework to approach the data
concerning School A is not feasible, as the available data is limited. There is only
one student from S1 and 6 students from S4, with most of the students making
up years S2 and S3 (See Table 7-1).

Table 7-1 Number of pupils in School A by year

Year Number of pupils % per year

S1 1 1
S2 64 50
S3 55 43
S4 6 5.5

Furthermore, it was found that 9 (7%) young people were involved in traditional
bullying as a bully and 27 (21%) were victims. Once again, there is a substantial
discrepancy in the numbers. Students either felt uncomfortable self-reporting as
a bully or those who have been victims have been bullied by those who were not
part of the survey. In contrast, regarding cyberbullying, 15 (12%) reported being
cyber victims and 17 (13%) reported cyberbullying someone else. Here the
discrepancy is far less pronounced than the numbers pertaining to traditional
bullying.

193
Table 7-2 Number of pupils in School B by year

Year Number of students % per year

S1 36 44
S2 46 56
S3 0 0
S4 0 0

In analysing the data, it was found that 2 (2%) pupils reported being a traditional
bully, and 11 (14%) reported being a traditional victim. Like with School A, there
is a large discrepancy in the numbers. However, as no data from students in S3
and S4 was available (See Table 7-2), students in those grades could have been
the ones involved in the bullying.

With regard to cyberbullying, 9 (11%) reported being a cyber victim and 19 (23%)
indicated that they were involved in the act of cyberbullying. Once again,
utilising the Established and Outsider framework with this particular dataset was
not helpful.

Table 7-3 Number of pupils in School C by year

Year Number of students % per year

S1 0 0
S2 94 39
S3 69 29
S4 77 32

Moreover, 68 (28%) respondents from School C reported being a victim of

traditional bullying. Unfortunately, there is no data on being a bully, as the
question was inadvertently left out of the paper questionnaire. In addition, 54
(23%) reported being a cyber victim and 30 (13%) reported being a cyberbully,
showing that more young people were victims than perpetrators.

While the data does not confirm or deny that older secondary students bully
younger secondary students, it can be inferred from the Established and Outsider

194
framework that newcomers may experience exclusion. Pelligrini and Long (2002)
found that when young people transition from primary to secondary school that
the bullying experienced increased, due in part to changes in the social
hierarchy. While the literature on cyberbullying and age is composed of varied
results, with several studies finding no relationship between age and
victimisation (Beran and Li, 2007; Junoven and Gross, 2008; Patchin and
Hinduja, 2006; Smith et al., 2008) this does not mean that the exclusion has not
occurred, just not reported. Other studies have determined that the majority of
cyberbullying incidents occur mid-adolescence (Cioppa, O’Neil and Craig, 2015)
or peak in the eighth grade, which corresponds with ages 12-13. It has been
found that younger students reported being victimised, while older students
reported being the perpetrators (Mishna et al., 2012). Additionally, Raskaukas
and Stolz (2007) found that older students were more likely to engage in
cyberbullying via text message. These studies all included age markers, whereas
the questionnaire used in this study did not and thus the analysis relies on the
school year, which may not be an accurate indicator of age.

A more useful way of utilising the Established and Outsider framework may be in
terms of gender and exclusion. While we cannot definitively state this, as this
questionnaire data is not sophisticated enough, research has shown that girls
tend to bully other girls, and boys tend to bully other boys (Chisolm, 2006;
Dehue et al. 2008; Kowalski and Limber, 2007; Li, 2007). This is supported by the
interview data where teachers stated that it was girls most involved in bullying
and cyberbullying activities, and that they were largely engaged in the
victimisation of other girls.

In a study focusing on class, gender, and sexuality, Velija (2012) found that the
use of stigmatisation and blame gossip, similar to what occurred in Winston-
Parva, was also occurring in a girls U15 county cricket team. Girls who were
found to be middle-class and secure in their heterosexuality were the insiders,
and girls who were less refined or appeared “butch” in appearance were
considered the outsiders. They were gossiped about (using blame-gossip) in a
way to hold social control over those who were the outsiders. It can be
extrapolated that similar activities are being carried out in the three schools

195
examined in this survey, in the forms of both traditional and cyberbullying,
which was addressed in both Chapters 4 and 5.

In similar vein, racial bullying and cyberbullying can be seen from this
perspective as well. In Loyal’s (2010) research on immigrant issues and relations
in Ireland, it was found that there was a considerable amount of exclusion and
discrimination of immigrant workers (the outsiders) by the resident Irish (the
established). The established Irish made it incredibly difficult for the recent
immigrants to the country to find and obtain work. For example, despite the
fact that “23 per cent of Lithuanians had a third level qualification, only two per
cent of them are working as professionals” (Loyal, 2010, p. 190). The newcomers
sought to improve their lives, but were constantly undercut and overtaken by
the established Irish, who worked to maintain their superior status by the use of
social exclusion and discrimination.

While racial bullying was only reported by 3% of the respondents, Scotland has a
small minority population as it is. This may indicate that racial bullying is a
significant issue for the outsider groups in the case of the three Glasgow schools.
While this is purely speculation, it can be inferred that similar issues are
occurring in these schools.

While the statistical information could be used and compared with similar
studies, we cannot accurately determine the root cause of the social exclusion
occurring. It also makes it difficult to view this data using a theoretical lens, as
there are many inconsistencies and missing variables to consider. The specific
ages of those surveyed are unknown, one school had a very small sample to
offer, and the same applies for students in one of the years selected. This has
rendered making comparisons between years very difficult.

When determining the rates of both cyberbullying and cybervictimisation, it was

found that girls (21%) experienced a higher rate of victimisation than boys (13%)
and that boys (24%) were more likely to experience cyberbullying online than
girls (21%). This is where this comparison ends, however, as the necessary data
to determine who was bullying whom is not available, because the question was
not asked.

196
In conclusion, using Elias’s framework allows for a greater understanding into
why young people choose to socially exclude others using cyberbullying as a
venue to do so. The quantitative data is not sophisticated enough to allow this
to be fully ascertained on its own. However, once combined with the qualitative
data from the interviews, there is compelling evidence that the application of
Established and Outsiders relations as a framework in which to understand
cyberbullying as exclusion can be utilised. This is especially the case in
understanding how girls engage in social exclusion online and how they work as
part of a peer group to carry out these malicious acts. It can also be ascertained
that Elias’s framework would be useful and beneficial in understanding forms of
bias or identity based exclusion, in addition to understanding why exclusion may
be affecting pupils entering secondary school as the perceived outsiders.

7.5 Summary

The purpose of this chapter was to critically discuss the findings of the research.
This chapter has critically analysed the findings of the research and located
them in the cyberbullying literature and research. First, the knowledge and
understanding of educators regarding cyberbullying and social media was
evaluated. It was found that there were varying degrees of knowledge,
understanding, and experience, with teachers having the least understanding of
both cyberbullying and social media. It was found that this was due to a number
of factors, including lack of training as well as disinterest. In addition, educators
elaborated upon their concerns about the extensive use of social media by young
people, how it relates to cyberbullying, and how it is being addressed in school.
It was indicated that wider responsibility was needed in addressing the
behaviours, not just in schools, but in the wider community, government, and
social media corporations as well.

The ways in which teachers understand cyberbullying and social media in

addition to the lack of training raises questions about how young people are
affected by the aforementioned issues. Does this allow them the freedom and
power to engage in exclusionary practices online as they are “the established”
group (in relation to cyberbullying and social media)?

197
Second, the impact of cyberbullying on young people from the educator
perspective was discussed. Findings indicated that while those who have
experienced cyberbullying have been emotionally impacted, and experience
mental health issues as a consequence. Additionally, many young people who
engage in social media are distracted in school due to the lure of their mobile
phones. Additionally, young people are often struggling academically due to the
usage of social media, as its use distracts them from academics and sleep. To
further understand the role of cyberbullying as exclusion, those interviewed
were asked why young people cyberbully. Responses were wide ranging,
including pressure on young people, survival and power. While no theoretical
model was expressed by those interviewed, it was felt that there was not one
solitary reason that young people engaged in exclusionary behaviours, rather
that it was a myriad of reasons that it occurred. This combination of factors
could allow for GST, SIT, or Established and Outsider relations to be foundations
for marginalisation of peers.

Third, the survey data found that traditional bullying is occurring at a slightly
higher rate than cyberbullying, and that younger pupils and females are being
impacted by it the most. Bias bullying and cyberbullying were also being
witnessed at a higher rate than it was self-reported. Those surveyed also shared
that they would go to a friend or parent before reporting incidents of bullying to
their teachers. This brings us back to the beginning of the chapter, where the
lack of training and knowledge of cyberbullying by teachers appears to be
strongly connected to recognising the exclusionary behaviour. This evidence is
suggestive of a disconnect between teachers and pupils, despite the attempts of
teachers to provide a positive school climate.

Finally, the analysis concluded that Established and Outsider relations could be
utilised in understanding why young people engage in exclusionary behaviours.
The prevalence of cyberbullying determined from the survey in conjunction with
the evidence from the educator interviews illustrates that young people are
engaging in exclusionary practices through the medium of cyberbullying.
Furthermore, this evidence is suggestive that girls are engaging in these
practices of exclusion through the modern form of blame-gossip and
stigmatisation: cyberbullying on social media, especially Facebook.

198
The next and final chapter draws conclusions from the study as a whole, as well
as details limitations and provides recommendations and implications.

199
 Chapter 8
Conclusions

8.1 Introduction

The overall purpose of this research was to gain a deeper understanding of

cyberbullying as an exclusionary process and provide a theoretical framework
grounded in education and sociology to better understand this phenomenon.
Understanding and determining why young people exclude (Heirman and
Walrave, 2012; Smith et al., 2008) in such a manner can assist in reducing the
behaviours and establishing programmes in schools to alleviate these tensions
(Cassidy, Faucher and Jackson, 2013). Furthermore, considerations were given to
the understanding and recognition of cyberbullying and social media by
educators, how educators are handling the challenge of cyberbullying, in
addition to exploring how young people are experiencing cyberbullying.

This study was undertaken by utilising a mixed methods approach in which a

survey with 450 pupil responses and thirteen educator interviews were
conducted. The data was analysed and presented highlighting the pertinent
issues relating to cyberbullying and exclusion as faced by both educators and
young people. The research findings were presented, discussed, and analysed in
relation to wider research literature.

This research adds to the understanding of cyberbullying as an exclusionary

process by determining the motives behind the behaviours, in addition to
obtaining a picture of what is occurring in schools from the educators’ point of
view. It has drawn on the sociological theory of Established and Outsider
relations proposed by Elias and Scotson (1994), selected for its potential for
making sense of the motivations and possible reasons that young people engage
in excluding behaviours. Obtaining a wider, unified theoretical perspective has
been found to be an area lacking in this field (Smith, 2015; Tokunaga, 2010),
which has contributed to the varied results in determining the prevalence of
cyberbullying.

200
Using a sociological construct such as Established and Outsider relations in this
field, with researchers largely opting for psychological theories (Cowie and
Jennifer, 2008; Espelage, Holt, and Henkel, 2003; Espelage and Swearer, 2004;
Hoff and Mitchell, 2008) to understand why young people exclude allowed a
different viewpoint to emerge. While some have used sociological theories to
understand exclusion (Agnew, 2010; Cullen et al., 2008; Hay et al., 2010;
Patchin and Hinduja, 2011), they have tended to focus on the behaviours rather
than the motivations behind the actions. Despite this difference in approach,
these additional theories have been used as possible frameworks in which to
view cyberbullying as exclusion in this study, when the application of Established
and Outsider relations was not appropriate.

In order to understand how young people exclude, a quantitative study was

conducted in three schools to determine the level of cyberbullying prevalence.
In addition to these findings, teachers at the same schools, as well as
educational professionals within the city of Glasgow, were interviewed as part of
the qualitative portion of the study to further enrich the survey data, and to
gain a greater understanding of why young people exclude their peers.

8.2 Why do young people cyberbully?

The results showed that educators believed that young people engage in
cyberbullying for a variety of reasons, including but not limited to unhappiness,
insecurity, and power. These findings, while not as theoretical or broad as found
in the wider research literature are practical and deal with the realities that
educators face when addressing issues of cyberbullying.

Unhappiness and insecurity was one such cause for the behaviour, which caused
the perpetrators to improve their own self-esteem through bullying. These
motivations could possibly be a result of a young person experiencing strain and
then engages in cyberbullying as a coping mechanism (Agnew, 2010) (See
sections 2.9.2, 7.3.1, and 7.3.3). Unhappiness and insecurity, in addition to
societal and peer pressures, can also lead young people to engage in
exclusionary practices. Again, this was an area where the results are to an
extent at odds with wider research. Unhappiness and insecurity were not

201
delineated specifically as motivations for engaging in bullying behaviours.
However, issues such as breakups and relationship problems (Hoff and Mitchell,
2009) in addition to problematic life situations such as divorce or illness (Levine,
2006) have been found to be motivations.

In addition, power was brought up as a cause for engaging in cyberbullying,

where the bully would attempt to impose their will upon the victim. However,
this was brought up in a limited fashion and was not a view that was expressed
by all interviewees. Again, this is an area where the findings are at odds with
the wider research in some respects, as power is frequently utilised in
definitional issues regarding cyberbullying as explored in full in 2.3.1.

It can be surmised that the differences between the responses and the wider
research may be related to the lack of knowledge and understanding of
cyberbullying that was possessed by the majority of respondents. That being
said, the analysis of the responses in conjunction with the discussions that
occurred throughout the course of the interviews reinforces the utilisation of
Established and Outsiders as a framework in which to understand the process of
exclusion via cyberbullying.

8.3 The influence of social media on young people

The results of this study highlighted the fact that young people are using social
media extensively. In addition, social media was found to be highly influential
and was used for both socialisation and exclusion.

Both the interviews and survey data demonstrated that there is a widespread
usage of social media applications (Chisolm, 2014; Marwick and boyd, 2014;
Patchin and Hinduja, 2006; Tokunaga 2010) among those surveyed. The majority
of pupils engaged in one or more forms of social media, which increased in usage
as they grew older. The majority of pupils surveyed used Facebook (Lenhart,
2012; Purcell, 2012). This again correlated with the what both teachers and non-
teacher educators shared, which frequently included issues with young people
using this social media site during the school day as well as engaging in
cyberbullying using Facebook.

202
While young people use social media to communicate and share information with
one another, it is also used to for exclusion, denigration, and exaggerating
conflict (Marwick and boyd, 2014) between peers and peer groups. This was
illustrated in many examples by those interviewed, ranging from simple
disagreements to exclusion from Facebook groups, to vicious attacks leading to
young people withdrawing from their peer groups, school, and attempting
suicide. The effects of social media and cyberbullying will be addressed in the
following section.

As young people use these sites with ease, there are concerns, as teachers are
often not familiar with technology or with social media. This allows young
people to actively engage in exclusion, often without teacher and parent
knowledge. While the majority of cyberbullying occurred outside of the school
day (Smith et al., 2008), it carried over into the school day, as the interview
findings illustrated. As a result, young people are frequently concerned about
what has occurred on social media throughout the previous evening or over the
weekend, leading to disruption and distractions that require teacher
intervention (De Smet et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2008). The findings showed that
this was especially the case among girls.

Most teachers interviewed viewed social media negatively in addition to having a

lack of knowledge and understanding surrounding it. They were also far less
likely to use social media for themselves, unlike the majority of non-teacher
educators. Teachers often found the reasons young people used social media
lacking; they did not understand its use, which many felt was due to age or a
generational gap. These findings highlighted that while teachers were concerned
about cyberbullying, these concerns were not enough to encourage them to
inquire about training opportunities or undertake personal investigation on
understanding the social media sites that their pupils were using. It would
appear that this digital gap between teachers and pupils may factor into the
reasoning young people undertake when deciding to whom they should report
instances of cyberbullying.

203
In conclusion, while young people continue to use social media easily, overall
teachers were found to not engage or understand the use of social media. This
may lead to problems when young people approach teachers with concerns
about cyberbullying, as teachers are unable to understand the terminology being
used or the gravity of such behaviour. In the next section, the effects of social
media and cyberbullying will be discussed, especially as it relates to the above
findings.

8.4 Young people, cyberbullying and social media

The analysis of the findings revealed two areas of significant interest related to
young people and cyberbullying. First, the impact of cyberbullying and social
media is extensive. Second, the prevalence of cyberbullying is considered.

8.4.1 The impact of cyberbullying and social media usage

The interview findings provide significant evidence that it is not solely the
engagement in cyberbullying that is impacting young people, but the extensive
utilisation of social media and technology that is having a dramatic impact on
their lives. This is a challenge that both educators and young people face, often
with different understandings.

The online activities of young people, especially as it relates to social media,

was shown to have a serious impact on their lives inside and outside of school.
While wider research has shown that cyberbullying has an extensive impact on
the mental health and well being of young people, the findings of this study
showed that access and utilisation of social media and technology is also having
a detrimental impact. The relative ease of access to mobile phones and social
media has allowed young people to be able to engage with others online at any
time of day. For instance, this accessibility has led to increased reports of sleep
disturbances. Furthermore, the lure of mobile phones and social media has
provided young people with an additional distraction and potential source of
stress and anxiety. In addition, the teachers interviewed overwhelmingly
ascertained that social media distracted students during and outside class, for
example, in the hallways. It was unclear as to whether the social aspect of social

204
media was holding their attention, or the exclusionary behaviours being
perpetrated or instigated by young people.

Along with the impact of social media on young people, being a cyber victim was
found to have serious repercussions on their mental health. The findings showed
that suicidal ideation (Patchin and Hinduja, 2012) was a concern, in addition to
the reported increase in self-harm. While these occurrences were not the norm,
these cases highlight the importance of addressing the mental health impact
that cyberbullying has on young people, especially in light of the suicides that
have been found to be a result of victimisation as illustrated in the Introduction
to this thesis.

While the evidence suggests that those impacted by cyberbullying experience

mental health difficulties, the longevity of those difficulties were not mentioned
by respondents; in fact teachers especially were unable to elaborate fully on this
matter. Once the cyberbullying incident had been resolved, the issue was closed
for discussion. These findings are problematic, as wider research has ascertained
that the impact of cyberbullying on young people may continue long term and
affect their education and mental health (Beran and Li, 2007; Connell et al.,
2013; O’Moore, 2012; Patchin and Hinduja, 2006; Ybarra, Mitchell, Wolak, and
Finkelhor, 2006).

8.4.2 Prevalence and engagement in cyberbullying

The findings of this research show that young people are experiencing
cyberbullying primarily through the medium of the social networking site,
Facebook. However, the most relevant findings to arise from both the survey
data and the interviews are that girls were engaging in this behaviour more than
boys.

Of those that were experiencing cyberbullying, fewer than 20% reported being
victimised both via text and online means (social media, Facebook), and both
younger pupils and females reported higher rates of victimisation in both cases.
These findings are at odds with those who have asserted males to be the ones
experiencing cyberbullying (Ackers, 2012; Anderson and Hunter, 2012; Edur-
Baker, 2010; Hinduja and Patchin, 2009) and support those who have found that

205
females experience cyberbullying at a greater rate (Connell et al., 2013; Jones
et al., 2013; Merrill and Hanson, 2016; Schenk and Frewmou, 2012). Gender and
its relationship to cyberbullying continue to be an area of evaluation and further
research (Ang and Goh, 2010; Connell et al., 2014).

Another important finding related to prevalence verified that traditional bullying

was found to be occurring more frequently within these three schools compared
to cyberbullying (Lapidot-Lefler and Dolev-Cohen, 2015), thus supporting the
work of Olweus (2012). Despite this finding, this study was primarily concerned
with the issues of cyberbullying, and a considerable amount of cyberbullying
occurring in these three schools, as reported in the survey data and by the
teachers interviewed.

In addition to gender and age, bias bullying and cyberbullying also need to be
considered. Young people can and will readily discriminate against another
individual or group based on gender, religion, sexuality or perceived sexuality,
skin and hair colour, nationality, race, and other distinguishing factors (Hoff and
Michell, 2008; Rivers and Noret, 2010). While the results were mixed, as
illustrated in section 6.4, the findings show that there is a significant amount of
exclusion due to such bias occurring. These findings suggest that the utilisation
of the Established and Outsider relations framework could be applied here,
where the dominant or established group constitutes the majority, which in this
case are white, heterosexual young people.

While the issue of bias was not mentioned by teachers, social status bias was
addressed by those employed in outside agencies. It was felt that young people
bully and exclude those who are unlike them, who hold a lower social status
than them due to not having the right markers of prestige, such as correct
trainers, mobile phones, or clothes. This would allow again for the usage of
Established and Outsider relations, with the established being those who have
obtained a higher social status through status symbols, and those who were
excluded as the outsiders (Maguire and Mansfield, 1998). However, the results
from the survey show that the bullying and cyberbullying rate for social status
exclusion was low. While this may be the case, this type of exclusion may still be
occurring, especially if the respondents were unsure as to what social status

206
bullying actually meant. This may explain the large percentage of young people
who witnessed bullying and cyberbullying and selected “none of the above” as
an option on the survey.

While these findings are presented as overall findings, there were areas where
they were differentiated, including by school. This necessitates the need for
each school to individually address the types of bullying and cyberbullying
occurring, while also maintaining the overall anti-bullying policy established by
the Glasgow City Council.

In conclusion, both the utilisation of social media and being a cyber victim
become a source of concern for educators. While the majority of pupils reported
not being victimised online, younger pupils and female pupils experienced
victimisation at a higher rate, with teachers corroborating that girls were the
predominant gender involved in cyberbullying. In addition, there was a large
discrepancy between self-reported bias bullying and witnessed bias bullying.

8.5 Educators, cyberbullying and social media

Recent evidence in research has found that pre-service teachers have confidence
in recognising and addressing cyberbullying in the classroom (Spears et al.,
2015). The results of this study highlighted a substantial deficit in both
knowledge and understanding of cyberbullying and social media by current in-
service teachers. In addition, a significant difference was found between
teachers and non-teacher educators as it pertained to their knowledge of
cyberbullying, social media and technology.

First, these findings illustrate that interviewed teachers are not equipped to
handle issues related to cyberbullying and social media. The overwhelming
evidence of the lack of training provided appears to be an integral part of their
knowledge gap. This is supported both by their statements to the fact, along
with the evidence provided by those who had undertaken training, the non-
teacher educators. Non-teacher educators had undergone training and all had
understanding and experience using social media. However, despite their

207
training, non-teacher educators had significantly less experience in dealing with
issues of cyberbullying.

The evidence presented showed that teachers at the three schools were
overwhelmed by the additional challenge of dealing with issues of cyberbullying.
It can be suggested that this is a direct consequence of their lack of training.
Furthermore, there appears to be a connection with no training and the
assertion that cyberbullying should be handled by entities outside of the school;
the government, police, or social media corporations.

These findings are at odds with Yilmaz’s 2010 replication of Li’s 2008 study,
where more than half of the respondents felt confident in handling cyberbullying
related incidents. While wider research has discovered that the lack of
confidence in recognising and managing cyberbullying could be rectified with
improved training (Cassidy, Brown and Jackson, 2012; Eden, Heiman and Olenik-
Shemesh, 2013) there has been some evidence ascertaining that training has not
always had an impact on addressing issues of cyberbullying. This may be due to
the fact that current programmes aimed at decreasing cyberbullying have not
provided teachers and staff with appropriate guidance in dealing with the
behaviours (Van Cleemput et al., 2013). However, in this case, any training and
assistance would have been beneficial, as the majority of teachers had little
knowledge and understanding of how cyberbullying occurred through the use of
social networks, and of social networking sites themselves (Cassidy, Brown and
Jackson, 2012).

These findings highlight the need for training to be provided to teachers as well
as the need for the schools to ensure that teachers have the training and
assistance that is needed. Furthermore, teachers may need to consider taking
the initiative in addressing any deficiencies in their training on their own.

While this study did not seek to determine the theoretical underpinnings related
to the differences in understanding of social media and technology experienced
by teachers and pupils, it can be suggested that the Established and Outsider
framework might be effective in understanding the knowledge gap, as discussed
in 7.2.2.

208
Given the evidence provided, teachers especially, are experiencing difficulties in
addressing the issue of cyberbullying. As summarised above, the findings provide
clear indications that increased education, knowledge, and professional
development are necessary in order to address these challenges.

8.6 Established and Outsider relations and

cyberbullying

Established and Outsider relations provides a framework for the understanding of

the tensions between dominant and subordinate groups, and how the dominant
group asserts said dominance over the ‘outsiders’ by using various forms of
exclusion.

While the participants were not overly descriptive about the group dynamics or
constructs that existed when discussing issues of cyberbullying, it can be
surmised that exclusionary group dynamics were occurring at the participating
schools. This was most evident in the incident of the prom Facebook group and
the cyberbullying incidents that participants described which for the most part
involved female participants. The quantitative data backs up these assertions
with the findings that females were more likely to be involved in cyberbullying
activities, especially as victims (Connell et al., 2013; Jones et al., 2013; Merrill
and Hanson, 2016; Rivers and Noret, 2010; Schenk and Fremouw, 2012).

What was found through the interviews is that girls were more likely to be
engaging in exclusionary practices online. While few details were provided about
specific incidents that occurred, the evidence is suggestive of how girls tend to
establish groups and cliques and actively exclude others who do not fit
conventional norms. In doing so they use exclusionary practices, such as
gossiping, name-calling, and excluding others on Facebook and other social
media outlets (Marwick and boyd, 2014) to maintain or elevate their social
position and denigrate those seen as the “other.” This gossip and exclusion
carried out by girls towards other girls was found by both Maguire and Mansfield
(1998) and Velija (2011).

209
As demographics such as race and social status were not obtained from the
survey, nor were they mentioned as possible exclusion causes throughout the
interviews with teachers specifically, it must be noted that the use of age and
gender leads to a great deal of speculation. It is unknown whether or not the
young people that took part in this study were cyberbullied by someone of their
own gender, age, or peer group. It has been found with some degree of
reliability that young people know who their perpetrator is (Lapidot-Lefter and
Dolev-Cohen, 2015). Additionally, those who have been victimised via
cyberbullying may have also been victimised at school (Cassidy et al., 2009;
Olweus, 2012; Raskaukas and Stolz, 2007; Tokunaga, 2010).

Established and Outsider relations can also be used to explain the bias bullying
and cyberbullying that was witnessed by young people according to the survey.
Those who were victimised through cyberbullying were part of the ‘outsider’
group. This was illustrated in the example provided by Mr. Morgan, when he
discussed the exclusion of the young women who chose not to conform to the
school uniform standards and therefore were subsequently excluded and
gossiped about because they chose not to fit in. Although these findings are
generally compatible with the work of Elias and Scotson (1994), Lake (2011), and
Loyal (2011), there are areas in which they differ, especially in connection to
the way the power differentials and social inequalities were explored. While
both power and social inequalities were touched upon in the interviews, there is
not enough data to connect this with the cyberbullying occurring, given some of
the anecdotal evidence provided was not current. It can thus be ascertained that
those in the minority group fit within the outsider demographic and therefore
are the ones who were excluded by those in the established position. As
elaborated in Chapter 5, peer group cyberbullying is occurring on social media
and is being used as a way to exclude and ridicule others. Doing so on Facebook,
Instagram and Twitter is the way that today’s young people engage in exclusion
and blame-gossip toward the inferior group. The denigration is the same; it is
only the means that has changed.

Although these findings are generally compatible with the wider research
literature, there are areas where they differ. While cyberbullying is often
thought of as individual-to-individual bullying, results of this research often

210
showed that young people gathered in groups online to actively engage in
exclusionary behaviours (Shim and Shin, 2016). In doing so, it has been supposed
that they are excluding those who do not fit within the mould of their group by
using tools of gossip and ostracism (Lake, 2011; Maguire and Mansfield, 1998;
Powell, 2008). This difference between groups, according to Elias (1994),
“merely serves as a reinforcing shibboleth which makes members of an outside
group more easily recognisable as such” (p. xxx).

In conclusion, the theoretical framework of Established and Outsider relations

can provide a greater understanding of cyberbullying and the group dynamics of
young people, which are established online or in person. It can be suggested that
older established pupils are the ones victimising the younger and that girl groups
are engaging in excluding other girl groups (Thornberg, 2011). While this cannot
be confirmed by the statistical data, the interviews do confirm that girls tended
to exclude and victimise one another through cyberbullying. However, there are
limitations, as not all cyberbullying occurs as part of a group dynamic. This is
where additional theoretical lenses, such as GST, can be applied to gain a better
understanding as to why young people exclude.

8.7 Implications

This section addresses the practical implications of the research as it pertains to

the research questions and how these implications may impact those affected by
such research.

First, determining the motivations into why young people cyberbully is a

complicated issue that is subjective in nature and can be influenced by personal
experience as well as the media. It is evident from speaking to educators that
understanding what cyberbullying is and how it is perpetuated is complicated
and multifaceted. It is suggested to further reduce the lack of understanding and
knowledge about the nature of cyberbullying that comprehensive education
should be provided to educators starting before they enter the classroom. This
should be comprehensive and should encompass both traditional and
cyberbullying behaviours, as well as how to both recognise and address them.
Furthermore, this education should continue as professional development once
they are in the classroom. Supplemental information should also be provided to

211
teachers and schools on a regular basis as social media continues to change and
advance with the advent of new social media sites and applications. In addition,
given that pupils are utilising and engaging with social media on a regular basis,
they could work with schools and teachers in creating and maintaining websites
and a social media presence for school functions and extracurricular activities,
allowing pupils to be mentors.

As determining the motivations into bullying related behaviours is necessary and

relevant, LEAs’, schools’, and teachers’ understanding of these changes would
benefit from contact with researchers and participation in research projects..
Furthermore, teachers should draw on the research that has already been
conducted in order to obtain a greater understanding of the behaviours that they
are witnessing on a daily basis.

Second, social media is being used as a tool for exclusion. It is also used for
friendship and the exchange of information, photos, and videos. However,
traditional bullying should not be neglected in addressing issues of exclusion as it
is still widely utilised and can often be the instigator of further marginalisation
through cyberbullying. The lessons that have been learned from traditional
bullying and cyberbullying should help prepare for the future and any new forms
of exclusion that arise as technology advances.

The results suggest that social media is important to young people and it is
heavily relied upon. While the results offer suggestive evidence that limitations
should be placed on the access of social media, especially in the light of
cyberbullying, issues with school performance, and sleep disturbances, the
practical applicability would not be possible. If access to social media became
restricted to adults eighteen and over, young people would still find ways to
exclude one another, either on illicit sites or in the form of traditional bullying.

In order to ensure that young people are being safe online there should be
adequate supervision of young people both in school and at home. To this end,
the crucial importance of parental and guardian involvement needs to
emphasised and promoted, especially as the results of this study indicate that
young people will reach out to parents over teachers when they have been

212
victimised. Teachers and parents should work together to ensure the safety of
the young people with whom they are entrusted.

Third, the issues that arise from being cyberbullied are serious and have massive
implications for all involved. Improved education and assistance need to be
provided in order to protect the lives of young people.

The evidence suggests that young people, like educators, need training in how to
use social media appropriately and safely. As nearly all teens are using social
media and technology in some form or another (Madden et al., 2013), having
access to education concerning Internet safety is imperative. This would allow
those who use social media to understand how to access and utilise privacy
controls, making sure that their personal information is kept safe, and showing
them how to report issues of cyberbullying and harassment. Additionally, being
educated on the consequences of cyberbullying (Stauffer et al., 2012) may also
allow for a reduction in the activity.

In addition, support and guidance need to be provided to both educators and

pupils, especially in relation to the long-term impacts and effects of
cyberbullying. While not largely touched upon throughout the interviews, the
impact of cyberbullying is long lasting and can have devastating effects on those
involved. While teachers may not best provide this support, guidance through
other avenues including outside agencies and mental health professionals might
be beneficial.

Fourth, teacher education related to technology and cyberbullying needs to be

improved. The evidence is very clear in delineating the lack of training in this
area by teachers. The role of the school in combatting cyberbullying needs to be
explicitly identified by the LEA, and teachers, pupils, parents, and authorities
need to be complicit. Many questions arose from conversations with teachers in
determining who handles issues of cyberbullying. While the policy of the schools
ensures that each issue is investigated and recorded, teachers often felt that
authorities or social media companies should be the ones responsible in dealing
with cyberbullying. If it is determined that all teachers are not responsible, then
there needs to be designated and trained staff available to assist pupils in need.

213
This needs to be stated clearly in the school’s anti-bullying policy as posted on
each school website and in the schools handbook.

Training and education of educators needs to be regular and continuous (Paul,

Smith and Blumberg, 2010), as the nature of cyberbullying through social media
is constantly in flux. Professional development should be given to all educators
and staff in how to recognise warning signs of victimisation and how to support
pupils who have been bullied, and should be reflected in school and LEA policy.
It should also include a primer on Internet and social media usage as well as
ways to incorporate lessons on addressing cyberbullying through the curriculum
and ways to develop “class websites where students and teachers are both users
and producers” (Cassidy, Faucher and Jackson, 2013).

As current programmes have been found to provide little direction for staff and
teachers (Van Cleemput et al., 2013), it has been found that educators need to
educate themselves in these areas (Altricher and Posch, 2009). In doing so, it
would help alleviate the digital gap that has been found between teachers and
young people (Greenhow, Robelia and Hughes, 2009), as well as allowing
educators to recognise how cyberbullying is perpetuated (Cross et al., 2009).

While there is no empirical evidence that supports anti-cyberbullying efforts

(Stauffer et al., 2012), programmes that utilise positive behaviour reinforcement
have been found to be effective in changing the climate of the school and thus
reducing instances of traditional bullying and cyberbullying (Ross and Horner,
2013). With the change in climate and increased understanding by educators,
this may allow for young people to be less reluctant in reporting issues of
cyberbullying to teachers (Slonje and Smith, 2008).

Fifth, policies related to bullying and cyberbullying should be reviewed annually

by LEA’s. This study suggests that the needs of teachers and pupils should be
met when changing or modifying the current anti-bullying policy guidelines. They
also should ensure that all schools have any changes reflected in their handbooks
and websites. These policies should be clear and explicit in addressing how
schools deal with issues of bullying and cyberbullying and who young people
should address their concerns. Furthermore, schools should also continue to

214
utilise or re-establish restorative justice programs in school to help young people
address issues before they escalate into exclusionary or victimising behaviours.

Last, there is a need for increased theoretical understanding into the

motivations behind cyberbullying activities. This study offers suggestive
evidence, as was stated previously in this section that these motivations are
frequently misunderstood and are often not clear. Therefore, this study offers
suggestive evidence that the utilisation of Established and Outsider relations
would be a beneficial framework in which to understand cyberbullying as
exclusion.

Using cyberbullying as a form of blame-gossip is one way the evidence is

suggestive in understanding the relationship between girl groups, age groups,
and those who engage in bias type exclusion. As the ways in which those who
engaged in exclusion did so to maintain or elevate social status and therefore
perceived power, in doing so, they have distanced themselves from the
“outsiders.”

In utilising Established and Outsider relations, this would thereby allow for a
shift in the understanding from motivations for engaging in the behaviours such
as a breakup and more toward the social relationships that are present. As Elias
developed his framework while studying the relatonships that characterised the
neighbourhoods that made up Winston-Parva, this could be applied to the shool
community and the peer groups that have been established by those in
attendance. The results of the quantitative data suggests that this would be
expecially useful in determining the exclusion that occurs as young people
transition from primary to secondary school (Pelligrini and Long, 2002) and how
the established pupils utilise stigmatisation towards the new pupils, the
outsiders.

8.8 Limitations of the study and future

recommendations

While this study has provided empirical and theoretical evidence related to
cyberbullying as exclusion and the utilisation of the usage of Established and
Outsider relations as a framework in which to view it, there are limitations

215
which could be addressed in future research. This section explores both the
methodological and theoretical considerations for future research endeavours.

8.8.1 Methodological limitations

First, had a pilot study been run for this portion of the research, some of the
questions might have been amended, changed, or ultimately removed due to the
way in which responses were answered (Bryman, 2012). This also would have
allowed for the first question “How do you understand and recognise
cyberbullying?” be changed to a question that asked for a more definitional
response, which I was initially looking for.

Second, the initial scope of this research was to focus on prevalence of

cyberbullying within Glasgow schools. As there was limited participation by the
schools, the research scope was modified to incorporate teacher and educational
professionals, their views of cyberbullying and how young people are
experiencing it. The inclusion of these interviews thereby strengthened the
quantitative data. However, the study sample size of thirteen educators could
impact the ability of this research to be applied to other settings. In addition,
the fact that only Catholic Schools were involved could also limit applicability as
well as the type of teacher that was interviewed. It would be beneficial to
explore this area with a variety of schools and teachers, rather than solely
Catholic schools and Pastoral Care teachers, due to homogeneity of these
schools based on catchment area.

Third, the ages of pupils were focused on those in secondary schools and
therefore potentially not applicable to pupils in primary schools. Moreover, the
majority of pupils that took part were in years S2 and S3, therefore the data
may be biased towards those ages and not representative of all pupils in
secondary school.

Fourth, there were concerns related to reliability and validity. One way to
determine reliability of a survey or questionnaire would be to re-test the sample
as a measure of stability. This was not done due to time constraints and the
difficulty that occurred in obtaining the initial sample.

216
According to Joppe (p. 1, 2000), validity “determines whether the research truly
measures that which it was intended to measure or how truthful the research
results are.” Given that there are two questions that pertain to the same issue in
the survey, the validity of the results can be determined based on this indicator.
The same responses were not given in each instance, which consequently
reduced the validity of the survey, as what I intended to measure was not what
the results showed. Moreover, while this sample was as random as possible, due
to constraints, this did limit participant opportunity and may have affected the
validity of the survey (Stanley and Campbell, 1963).

External validity is also a concern given the fact that respondents did have
access to technology (Flatley, 2001) at Schools A and B, unlike School C, where a
print copy was provided in order to increase the sample size. Due to the
convenience factor (Dillman, Smyth and Christian, 2009) of the sample size and
utilising the only schools that chose to respond, the results may not be
applicable to the population at large – in other words, all secondary schools in
Glasgow.

Fifth, as the scope of this research was limited to the three schools and the
teachers and educational professionals who chose to be involved, there are some
elements, which should have been provided for when outlining the parameters
of the study. First, the study was unable to take into consideration the role of
parents and guardians in addressing issues of cyberbullying. An attempt to
rectify this deficiency was made in Phase 3 of the research project, which was
established to obtain evidence from parents online through the use of digital
narratives. Unfortunately, Phase 3 never occurred due to lack of interest.

There are often issues when recruiting parents for educational or sociological
research. While this research was on a purely voluntary basis, it was found that
one of the main reasons for not becoming involved in such projects is intrusion
of privacy (Heinrichs et al., 2005). It may have been perceived to whoever read
the request for information online, that this issue was far too personal to be
shared with a researcher in such an informal manner. Thus, while using the
Internet as a recruitment tool allows for flexibility and access to a wider range

217
of participants, often the response rate has been found to be low (Im and Chee,
2004).

8.8.2 Thematic and theoretical limitations

Teachers and educational professionals pointed out the need for parents to be
involved in this aspect their children’s lives. There have been some studies that
involve parents, such as Wong-Lo and Bullock (2011) and Compton, Campbell and
Mergler (2014). However, how parents perceive the issues of cyberbullying
remains an area requiring further research, where the focus could be on
partnerships between pupils, schools, and parents in reducing exclusionary
practices.

Second, another theme which did not receive enough attention was that of legal
issues in relation to cyberbullying. As this study was focused on why young
people cyberbully, understanding the role of the legal system was not fully
approached. Future research could investigate the role of the police and legal
issues as to how social media companies, such as Facebook, plan to keep young
people safe while using their applications.

Third, gender differences in relation to cyberbullying would be an area for

further inquiry, which could build on this study by assessing a wider range of
schools. The research in this area is vastly mixed with many researchers finding
girls to be more prone to engaging in cyberbullying compared to boys (Connell et
al., 2013; Jones et al., 2013; Schenk and Fremouw, 2012) and many finding the
opposite (Ackers, 2012; Anderson and Hunter, 2012; Aricak et al., 2008; Beran
and Li, 2005; Hoff and Mitchell, 2009; Patchin and Hinduja, 2006; Slonje and
Smith, 2008; Vandebosch and Van Cleemput, 2009). Future research into gender
differences in cyberbullying should not only determine whether or not there is a
difference in perpetration and victimisation, but also determine if age is an
added factor within the confines of gender.

Fourth, while it was determined that race was not a factor within this study,
extending this study to schools that have enrolled young people who have
migrated from Syria and surrounding areas would be an additional area to
investigate. Furthermore, this would also lead to practical applications of the

218
Established and Outsider theory. Determining whether or not newcomers to the
school as the perceived outsiders are facing increased discrimination and
victimisation from the established pupils would benefit from further inquiry.

Last, as a further extension and application of Established and Outsider theory,

determining whether or not youth who identify as GLBTQ are experiencing
greater exclusion and victimisation from those who identify as heterosexual
(Rivers, 2001; Robinson, Espelage, and Rivers, 2013). This was an area of
interest that arose from the survey questionnaire data, but no additional data
was forthcoming from the interviews with teachers and educational
professionals.

8.9 Conclusion

The findings of this study revealed that young people are strongly impacted by
exclusion via cyberbullying. It also highlighted that cyberbullying is a significant
issue in schools, despite, in most cases, taking place outside of school.
Moreover, it was found that educators have a distinct lack of knowledge about
cyberbullying and the media it takes place through.

This raises the question as to whether or not all teachers have a distinct lack of
knowledge and understanding of cyberbullying. Outside educators were found to
be more knowledgeable about cyberbullying as well as social media; therefore,
it is entirely possible that the sample of teachers interviewed for this study
happened to be the least knowledgeable. Further study in this area, as stated
above, would be pivotal in determining if this is the case.

The findings further indicate that Established and Outsider relations is a suitable
sociological framework to support the bases of exclusion via cyberbullying.
However, it should also be stated that certain caveats need to be met for this to
become a solid framework through which to understand cyberbullying as an
exclusionary process. A complete and accurate picture of the gender, sexual,
racial and, the social demographics of the groups to be studied need to be
carried out first and foremost. Once this has occurred, similarly to Dunning’s
(1999) investigations of issues of race, and Lake’s (2011) study of social

219
exclusion at a British tennis club, Established and Outsider relations can be used
as a framework to understand marginalisation via cyberbullying in schools.
Without this background, as was the case of this research overall, only
speculation could occur, mostly with regard to female-female bullying as well as
in regard to age and bullying behaviours related to gender and sexuality. Future
research is therefore required to continue to explore the implications and
recommendations illustrated in this study.

220
 Appendices

Appendix 1: Ethical Approval from University of Glasgow for Phase 1

(quantitative survey data)

Ethics Committee for Non Clinical Research Involving Human Subjects

Postgraduate Research: NOTIFICATION OF ETHICS APPLICATION OUTCOME

Application Details

Application Type: New Application Number:

(select from drop down as appropriate)

Applicant’s Name:

Project Title:

Date Application Reviewed:

Application Outcome

Fully Approved
(select from drop down as appropriate)

Start Date of Approval: 19 June 2012 End Date of Approval: 01 January 2015

If the applicant has been given approval subject to amendments this means they can proceed with
their data collection with effect from the date of approval, however they should note the following
applies to their application:

Approved Subject to Amendments without the need to submit amendments to the

Supervisor

Approved Subject to Amendments made to the satisfaction of the applicant’s Supervisor

Some amendments only need to be submitted to an applicant’s supervisor. This will apply to
essential items that an applicant must address prior to ethical approval being granted, however as
the associated research ethics risks are considered to be low, consequently the applicant’s
response need only be reviewed and cleared by the applicant’s supervisor before the research can
properly begin. If any application is processed under this outcome the Supervisor will need to
inform the College Ethics Secretary that the application has been re-submitted (and include the
final outcome).

Approved Subject to Amendments made to the satisfaction of the College Ethics &
Research Committee

The College Research Ethics Committee expects the applicant to act responsibly in addressing the
recommended amendments.

A covering note (letter or email) must be provided highlighting how the major and minor
recommendations have been addressed.

221
 Application is Not Approved at this Time
Please note the comments below and provide further information where requested. The full
application should then be sent to the College Office via e-mail to Terri.Hume@glasgow.ac.uk. You
must include a covering letter to explain the changes you have made to the application.

Select Option
(select from drop down as appropriate)
This section only applies to applicants whose original application was approved but required
amendments.

Application Comments

Major Recommendations: (where applicable)

Not applicable.

Minor Recommendations: (where applicable)

Not applicable.

If amendments have been recommended, please ensure that copies of amended documents
are provided to the College Office for completion of your ethics file.

Reviewer Comments (other than specific recommendations)

Not applicable.

Please retain this notification for future reference. If you have any queries please do not hesitate to
contact Terri Hume, Ethics Secretary, in Room 104, Florentine House, 53 Hillhead Street, Glasgow
G12 8QF.

End of notification.

222
Appendix 2 Letter to Glasgow City Council seeking approval for Phase 1
(quantitaive data survey)

Wheatley House
25 Cochrane Street
Merchant City
Glasgow, G1 1HL

June 6, 2012

To whom it may concern,

I am writing to introduce myself: my name is Cindy Corliss and I am a Research Post Graduate
Student at The University of Glasgow. I have a B.A in Sociology, a Master of Education in
Elementary Education, and a Master of Science in Educational Studies. I am currently pursuing my
doctorate on the subject of cyber bullying in the early years of secondary school. I am, therefore,
writing to obtain permission to survey students in years 2-4 at schools across the city that would be
interested in participating via a brief questionnaire on their experiences with bullying and cyber
bullying. The schools will be selected at random and will be contacted immediately to ensure
participation in autumn.

I would like to undertake this at the beginning of the next school year (Autumn 2012), as to limit
interference with lessons or activities. The survey would be optional and anonymous and would
ask questions about bullying and cyber bullying experiences and how they are perceived by
themselves, and how they think it is perceived in school. The questionnaire will be done via a
survey on the internet, and the results will only be accessible by me. At no time will students be
asked for any information that could be used to identify them in any way. The study will have gone
through the University’s rigorous ethics committee before proceeding.

I would also be willing to present my findings to you and your administration/colleagues via
presentation or written report once they have been analyzed at a time of your convenience.

I have enclosed the questionnaire questions as well as the plain language statement. A letter for
parents will be made available once I have permission from the schools, as it will be catered to the
specific school needs regarding parental consent.

Sincerely,

Cindy L. Corliss, M.Ed, M.Sc

School of Education
11 Eldon Street, Room 573, Glasgow, G3 6NH
C.corliss.1@research.gla.ac.uk

The University of Glasgow, charity number SC004401

223
Appendix 3: Letter of approval from Glasgow City Council for Phase 1
(quantitative survey data)

Phone Direct Line 0141-287-3556

Fax 0141-287 3795
Email michele.mcclung@education.glasgow.gov.uk

Website www.glasgow.gov.uk
Our Ref : MM/Research
Date 1st August 2012
If phoning please ask for Dr Michele McClung

Cindy Corliss
School of Education
11 Eldon Street
Room 573
Glasgow

Dear Cindy Corliss

Proposed Research Project– Cyber bullying in Glasgow Schools among students in S2-S4

Thank you for your completed research application form in respect of the above.

I now write to advise you that this department has no objection to you seeking assistance with your
project from schools in Glasgow City Council. I would confirm however that it is very much up to
the Heads of Establishments to decide whether or not they participate and assist you in your
research.

A copy of this letter should be sent to the Heads of Establishments when contacting the
schools.

This approval is also on the condition that as there are young people involved regarding this
project, and they are less than 16 years of age, parental/carers consent must be requested, and
given, before such involvement. All researchers must have recently approved Disclosure Scotland
checks.

I hope that this is helpful and that you have success with your project.

Yours sincerely,

Michele McClung
Dr Michele McClung
Principal Officer
Planning, Performance and Research Unit

224
Appendix 4 Letter to Schools seeking access for Phase 1 (quantitative survey
data)

June 6, 2012

To whom it may concern,

I am writing to introduce myself: my name is Cindy Corliss and I am a Research Post Graduate
Student at The University of Glasgow. I have a B.A in Sociology, a Master of Education in
Elementary Education, and a Master of Science in Educational Studies. I am currently pursuing my
doctorate on the subject cyber bullying in the early years of secondary school (Years S2-S4). I am,
therefore, writing to enquire whether your school might be interested in participating in a brief
questionnaire on their experiences with bullying and cyber bullying. This research project has been
approved by Glasgow City Council, and I have attached the approval form with this letter.

I would like to undertake this at your convenience as to limit interference with lessons or
activities. The survey would be optional and anonymous and would ask questions about bullying
and cyber bullying experiences and how they are perceived by themselves, and how they think it is
perceived in school. The questionnaire will be done via a survey on the Internet, and the results
will only be accessible by me. The study has gone through the University’s rigorous ethics
committee and has been approved. I have attached a copy of the questionnaire for your perusal.

I understand that a parental consent letter would be needed before students participate in this
survey. I can provide a basic consent letter, or use one that your school has already created for
such purposes.

I am also willing to present my findings to you and your administration/colleagues via presentation
or written report once they have been analysed at a time of your convenience.

Sincerely,

Cindy L. Corliss, M.Ed, M.Sc

School of Education
11 Eldon Street, Room 573, Glasgow, G3 6NH
C.corliss.1@research.gla.ac.uk

The University of Glasgow, charity number SC004401

225
Appendix 5: Plain Language Statement for pupils Phase 1 (quantitative survey
data)

Plain Language Statement

1. Study title and Researcher Details

The title of the study is “Cyber bullying experiences among year S2-S4 students in Glasgow, UK“
The researcher for the study is Cindy L. Corliss, M.Ed, and M.Sc.
2. Invitation paragraph
Thank you for taking the time to read this. You are being asked to voluntarily participate in this
questionnaire survey. This survey will ask you questions about your experiences with bullying and
cyber bullying. If at any time you decide not to continue, let the administrator know, and your data
will not be saved or used at any time.
Thank you for reading this.
3. What is the purpose of the study?
The purpose of this study is to investigate the phenomenon of cyber bullying and its prevalence in
schools today.
4. Why have I been chosen?
You have been chosen, because you are within the age range and school year that the researcher
is using to obtain data. You also attend one of the schools that has agreed to participate in the
study.
5. Do I have to take part?
No, you are not obliged to take part. However, if you decide that you would like to participate, you
can withdraw at any time and your data will not be included in the study.
6. What will happen to me if I take part?
If you take part, you will be asked to complete a questionnaire electronically. It should take no
longer than 30 minutes to complete.
7. Will my taking part in this study be kept confidential?
Yes, your data will be kept confidential. Only the researcher, Cindy Corliss will have access to your
data.
8. What will happen to the results of the research study?
The results will comprise a part of the researcher’s dissertation for the PhD programme within the
School of Education of the University of Glasgow. The results of this research study may be
published as a journal article or used in conference papers.
9. Who has reviewed the study?
The present study has been reviewed by the School of Education’s Ethics Committee of the
University of Glasgow.
10. Contact for Further Information
If you need any further information, you can contact the researcher through his e-mail address:
c.corliss.1@research.gla.ac.uk

226
If you have any concerns regarding the conduct of the research project, you can contact the
College of Social Sciences Ethics Officer by contacting Dr Valentina Bold at her e-mail address:
valentina.bold@.glasgow.ac.uk

Having read the plain language statement, having understood what is being asked of
me and in the knowledge that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to
withdraw at any time, without giving any reason, I understand that by completing the
questionnaire I am signalling my agreement to participate.

227
Appendix 6: List of questions for Phase 1 (quantitative survey data)

Bullying/Cyber bullying Questionnaire

These questions have to do with bullying and cyber bullying. Bullying is a repeated aggressive intentional
act or behaviour toward another individual that occurs over time. Cyber bullying is the same aggressive
intentional act or behaviour toward another individual that occurs over time using electronic means such as
text messages and the Internet including but not limited to Twitter, Facebook, and MySpace.

Bullying involves acts of exclusion, violence, rumour spreading, and hurtful behaviours over time where the
individual is unable to defend themselves.

Please answer these questions honestly. At any time you can decide to not continue. All of your responses
will be kept confidential.

1. Are you
male
female

2. I am in year
S2
S3
S4

3. Have you been bullied in school during the last 12 months?

No
Once or twice
2-3 times per month
once a week
more than once a week

4. Have you been cyber bullied during the last 12 months?

No
Once or twice
2-3 times per month
once a week
more than once a week

5. When did the bullying last happen?

In the last week
In the last month
In the last term
In the last 12 months
N/A

6. What kind of bullying was it? (check all that are applicable)
Physical (hitting, kicking, pushing)
Verbal (calling names, making threats, teasing, sending threats by phone or over the internet)
Indirect (spreading rumours, excluding you, writing graffiti, passing notes, posting information of
you online)
N/A

7. Would you describe the bullying that you have experienced as (select any of the following that apply)
Cyber bullying (via the computer, internet, or text)
Racist or related to your religion
Homophobic (because you are gay, some one thinks you are gay, or someone calls you gay)
Sexual (saying things about you in a sexual way that makes you uncomfortable)
Sexist (someone bullying you because you are a boy or girl)
None of the above
N/A

8. Where does the bullying usually happen? Select all that apply.

228
 On my way to or from school
In a classroom
In a school corridor
On the school grounds/playground
On my phone or computer
N/A

9. How long has the bullying lasted?

1-2 weeks
a month
up to six months
a year
longer than a year
N/A

10. How often have you been bullied via text messages?
Once or twice
2-3 times per month
A few times a week
N/A

11. Have you bullied anyone via text message in the past 12 months?
Yes
No

12. How often have you been bullied via email or online in the past 12 months?
Once or twice
2-3 times per month
A few times a week
N/A

13. Have you bullied anyone via email or online in the past 12 months?
Yes
No

14. What forms of online technology do you use? Select all that apply.
Text messaging
Facebook
Twitter
Instant Messaging
Blogging
Other

15. Have you seen bullying in your school in the past 12 months?
Yes, a lot
Yes, a little
No
Prefer not to say

16. When did you last see bullying occur?

In the last week
In the last month
In the last term
In the last 12 months
N/A

17. What kind of bullying was it?

Physical (example: punching, hitting, kicking)
Verbal (example: teasing, taunting, ridiculing, name calling)
Indirect (example: exclusion, rumour spreading)

18. Would you describe the bullying in any of the following ways? Select all that apply.
Cyber bullying (via the computer, internet, or text)
Racist or related to your religion

229
 Homophobic (because you are gay, some one thinks you are gay, or someone calls you gay)
Sexual (saying things about you in a sexual way that makes you uncomfortable)
Sexist (someone bullying you because you are a boy or girl)
None of the above
N/A

19. How well do you think your school deals with bullying?
Very well
Quite well
Not very well
Badly
Bullying is not a problem in my school
Do not know

20. Does your school care for pupils who are worried or sad about bullying?
Yes, all the time
Yes, some of the time
No
Not sure

21. Who would you tell if you were being bullied? Select all that apply.
No one
a teacher or member of staff at school
a friend
a parent or care giver
another adult (police officer, youth worker, etc)
brother or sister
an online community

22. What would you do if you saw someone else being bullied? Select all that apply.
Nothing
Walk away
Laugh
join in
Tell a teacher or another adult
try to stop it
comfort the person being bullied

23. What do you think will work best to stop bullying?

An anti bullying policy that makes it clear what bullying is and how it will be stopped.
Clear rules about bullying
An adult you can talk to if you are worried
A friend or peer you can talk to if you are worried
Classroom lessons about bullying
Assemblies about bullying
Parents and carers who are involved
Bullying is not a problem in my school

24. Do you have any additional comments to make regarding bullying or cyber bullying?

Thank you. You have completed questionnaire. As this is confidential, please keep your responses private.

If you have been the victim of bullying or cyber bullying I encourage you to talk to your teachers, parents, or
care givers.

You can also ring Childline at 0800 1111 or visit their website at childline.co.uk.

There are other resources out there regarding bullying that can be accessed by a simple Google search.

Remember you are not alone. Bullying happens to lots of people and you are not the only one this has
happened to. There are people out there who care about you and wish to help.

230
Appendix 7: Ethical Approval for Interviews for Phase 2 (qualitative data)

Ethics Committee for Non-Clinical Research Involving Human Subjects

Staff Research Ethics Application Postgraduate Student Research Ethics
Application

Application Details

Application Number:
Applicant’s Name
Project Title
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________
Application Status Approved

Start Date of Approval (d.m.yr)

(blank if Changes Required/ Rejected)
End Date of Approval of Research Project (d.m.yr)
Only if the applicant has been given approval can they proceed with their data collection with
effect from the date of approval.
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________
Recommendations (where Changes are Required)
• Where changes are required all applicants must respond in the relevant boxes to the
recommendations of the Committee and upload this as the Resubmission Document
online to explain the changes you have made to the application. All resubmitted
application documents should then be uploaded.

• (If application is Rejected a full new application must be submitted via the online system.
Where recommendations are provided, they should be responded to and this document
uploaded as part of the new application. A new reference number will be generated.

(Shaded areas will expand as text is added)

MAJOR RECOMMENDATION OF THE COMMITTEE APPLICANT RESPONSE TO MAJOR
RECOMMENDATIONS

MINOR RECOMMENDATION OF THE COMMITTEE APPLICANT RESPONSE TO MINOR

RECOMMENDATIONS

REVIEWER COMMENTS APPLICANT RESPONSE TO REVIEWER

COMMENTS
(OTHER THAN SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS)

Please retain this notification for future reference. If you have any queries please do not hesitate to
contact Terri Hume, Ethics Administrator.

231
Appendix 8: Letter to schools for interviews for Phase 2 (qualitative data)

Cindy L. Corliss
Room 573
School of Education
St Andrews Building
11 Eldon Street
Glasgow, G3 6NH

30 September 2014
To whom it may concern:

Dear _______________,

In 2012 you allowed me to undertake a questionnaire study with pupils in your school on
cyberbullying. The results were very helpful in better understanding this phenomenon
from the pupil perspective. I am writing to ask if it would be possible to interview a few
members of staff, including yourself, and any pastoral care teachers.

The interviews would last no longer than 45 minutes and can be arranged at the
convenience of your staff. If interviews are not feasible at this time, a questionnaire can be
arranged.

As you know, cyberbullying is of growing concern across the world. It is my hope and
intention that this study on how it is affecting young people in Glasgow will add to
collective efforts in learning about how to deal with its effects and impede its spread.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours sincerely,

Cindy L. Corliss M.Ed, MSc.

Email: c.corliss.1@research.gla.ac.uk

232
Appendix 9: Interview guide for Phase 2 (qualitative data)

According to Willard, cyberbullying is comprised of threatening messages to an

individual, sharing sensitive information about another person, and exclusion of
others (2005). It is easily thought of as bullying via electronic means, using
phone calls, emails, texts, video, IM chatroom conversations, and websites and
mobile phone applications including Ask.FM, Bebo, Facebook, Twitter, and
Snapchat, among countless others.

Keeping in mind this definition, please answer the following questions. If they
are not applicable to your role, please leave the question blank.

1. What is your own understanding of cyber bullying?

2. How common do you believe cyber bullying is? For example, do you think
it is more common or prevalent than traditional bullying in schools
currently? Please can you explain your answer

3. How common is cyber bullying in your school or organisation? How many

reports of cyber bullying do you receive per week?

4. How was the bullying policy created for your school?

5. How were you informed of the policy?

6. How does the policy respond to the issue of cyber bullying?

7. Have you ever had any professional development training on cyber

bullying?

8. Have you been involved with a cyber bullying incident with a student or
young person?

9. How did the incident occur?

10. How long did it take for the school or organisation to become involved?

11. How was the incident managed?

12. What was your understanding of the impact on the victim? The
perpetrator? The school/organisation? The family?

13. Coincidentally, the schools that agreed to take part in this study are all
Catholic schools. In your view, how does being a Catholic school affect a)
the school’s approach to bullying in general and b) the school’s approach
to cyber bullying in particular? c) For illustration, examples from your
experience at the school would be helpful

233
14. For how many years have you been teaching? 1-5; 6-10? 10-15? More than
15?

15. What is your role?

16. For how many years have you been working in your current role? 1-5; 6-
10? 10-15? More than 15?

17. How old are you? 20-30? 30-40? 40-50? 50-60? 60-70?

18. What is your gender?

234
Appendix 10: Plain Language Statement for Interviews for Phase 2
(qualitative data)

Research Study: Cyber bullying experiences among S2-S4 pupils in Glasgow

Plain Language Statement

Researcher Details
The researcher for the study is Cindy L. Corliss, MEd, MSc, a PhD student at the
University of Glasgow c.corliss.1@research.gla.ac.uk

Prof Andy Furlong and Dr. Lesley Doyle are her supervisors
(email: Lesley.doyle@glasgow.ac.uk Tel 0141 330 1805)

Invitation to participate in the study

Before you decide whether you will take part in this research study it is important
for you to understand why it is being done and what it will involve. Please take
time to read the following information carefully and discuss it with others if you
wish. Ask me if there is anything that is not clear or if you would like more
information. Take time to decide whether or not you wish to take part.

Thank you for reading this.

The purpose of the research

The purpose of this study is to understand better the phenomenon of cyber
bullying8 and its impact on young people.

Participation in the research will assist the researcher in gaining information, views
and insights into how young people and the teachers and professionals who work
with them deal with their cyber bullying experiences. Coincidentally, the schools
that agreed to take part in this study are all Catholic schools so you will also be
asked questions relevant to the pastoral care in your school.

Why you have been chosen

You have been chosen to take part either because you have primarily pastoral or
academic responsibility for children in secondary school, or are a member of a
related professional association or because you work with young people in another
professional capacity.
8
Cyber bullying has been described by a leading researcher in the field (Willard, 2005) as comprised of
threatening messages to an individual, sharing sensitive information about another person, and exclusion
of others. It is most easily thought of as bullying via electronic means, using phone calls, emails, texts,
video, IM chatroom conversations, and websites and mobile phone applications including Ask.FM, Bebo,
Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat, among countless others.

235
There is no obligation to take part in this research study and if you decide
later that you wish to withdraw, you can do so without giving a reason

What participation in the project will entail

You will be interviewed in your professional capacity for your perspectives on, and
experiences of, young people and cyber bullying. This will take no longer than 45
minutes. If it is not possible to arrange an interview time, you will asked instead to
complete a questionnaire. This should take no longer than 30 minutes.

Confidentiality
You will be given a pseudonym for the research study so that in the researcher’s
thesis, any publications or reports your participation will be confidential and
anonymous

The results of the research study

The results will comprise a part of the researcher’s thesis for a PhD within the
School of Education of the University of Glasgow. The results of this research
study may be published as a journal article or used in conference papers.

Review of the study

The research plan has been reviewed by the University of Glasgow College of
Social Sciences Ethics Committee

Contact for Further Information

Please contact Cindy Corliss (c.corliss.1@research.gla.ac.uk) if you have any
queries about the study
If you have any further concerns regarding the conduct of the study you can
contact the College of Social Sciences Ethics Officer Dr Muir Houston
muir.houston@glasgow.ac.uk

Thank you for your time and consideration.

Cindy L. Corliss, M.Ed, M.Sc

236
Appendix 11: Interview Consent Form for Phase 2 (qualitative data)

Consent Form

Title of Project: Cyber bullying experiences among S2-S4 pupils in Glasgow

Name of Researcher: Cindy Corliss

1. I confirm that I have read and understand the Plain Language Statement for
the above study and have had the opportunity to ask questions.

2. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw

at any time, without giving any reason.

3. I consent to interviews being audio-taped

4. It has been explained to me that I will be referred to by pseudonym in any

publications arising from the research

5. I agree / do not agree (delete as applicable) to take part in the above study.

__________________________________
_______________________________
Name of Participant Organisation

__________________________ ___________
________________________
Role Date Signature

__________________________ ___________
________________________
Researcher Date Signature

237
 References

Ackers, M. J. (2012). Cyberbullying: through the eyes of children and young

people. Educational Psychology in Practice. 28(2), 141-157.

Addington, L. A. (2013). Reporting and clearance of cyberbullying incidents:

Applying “offline” theories to online victims. Journal of Contemporary
Criminal Justice. 29(4), 454–474.

Ang, R.P., and Goh, D.H. (2010). Cyberbullying among adolescents: The role of
affective and cognitive empathy, and gender. Child Psychiatry and Human
Development. 41(4), 387–397.

Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and

delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47-87.

Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory: Specifying

the types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 319-361.

Agnew, R. (2006). Pressured into crime: An overview of general strain theory.

Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.

Agnew, R. (2010). General Strain Theory. In: Marvin D. Krohn, Alan J. Lizotte,
Gina Penly Hall Handbook on Crime and Deviance. New York: Springer Science
and Business Media. 169-185.

Altrichter, H., and Posch, P. (2009). Action research, professional development

and systemic reform. The SAGE handbook of educational action research, 213-
225.

Anderson, S., and Hunter, S. C. (2012). Cognitive appraisals, emotional

reactions, and their associations with three forms of peer-victimization.
Psicothema. 24(4), 621-627.

Aricak, T., Siyahhan, S., Uzunhasanoglu, A., Saribeyoglu, S., Ciplak, S., Yilmaz,
N., and Memmedov, C. (2008). Cyberbullying among Turkish adolescents.
CyberPsychology and Behavior. 11(3), 253-261.

Arnette, J.L., and Walsleben, M.C. 1998. Combating Fear and Restoring Safety in
Schools. Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice
Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., and Sorensen, C. K. (2010). Introduction to research in

education (8th ed.). Belmot, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Balen, R., Blyth, E., Calabretto, H., Fraser, C., Horrocks, C., and Manby, M.
(2006). Involving Children in Health and Social Research ‘Human becomings’ or
‘active beings’?. Childhood, 13(1), 29-48.

238
Bansel, P., Davies, B., Laws, C., and Linnell, S. (2009). Bullies, bullying and
power in the contexts of schooling. British Journal of Sociology of
Education, 30(1), 59-69.

Baruch, Y. (1999). Response rates in academic studies—a comparative analysis.

Human Relations, 52(4), 421-434.

Bauman, S. (2013). Cyberbullying: What does research tell us?. Theory Into
Practice. 52(4), 249-256.

Bauman, S. and Yoon, J. (2014). Theories of Bullying and Cyberbullying, Theory

Into Practice, 53(4), 253-256.

Beale, A., and Hall, K. (2007) Cyberbullying: What School Administrators (and
Parents) Can Do, The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues
and Ideas, 81(1), 8-12.

Beckman, L., Hagquist, C., and Hellström, L. (2012). Does the association with
psychosomatic health problems differ between cyberbullying and traditional
bullying?, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties. 17(3-4), 421-434.

Beckman, L., Hagquist, C., and Hellström, L. (2013). Discrepant gender patterns
for cyberbullying and traditional bullying–An analysis of Swedish adolescent
data. Computers in Human Behavior. 29(5), 1896-1903.

Beran, T., and Li, Q. (2005). Cyber-harassment: a study of a new method for an
old behavior. Journal of Educational Computing Research. 32(3), 265-277.

Beran, T. and Li, Q. (2007). The Relationship between cyberbullying and school
bullying. Journal of Student Wellbeing. 1(2), 15-33.

Besley, B. (2009). Cyberbullying. Available: http://www.cyberbullying.org/.

Last accessed 23 July 2015.

Bhat, C. S. (2008). Cyber bullying: Overview and strategies for school

counsellors, guidance officers, and all school personnel. Australian Journal of
Guidance and Counseling. 18(1), 53–66.

Bishop, J. (2013). The art of trolling law enforcement: a review and model for
implementing ‘flame trolling' legislation enacted in Great Britain (1981–2012).
International Review of Law, Computers and Technology. 27(3), 301-318.

Bond, E., and Carter, P. J. (2013). The e-Safer Suffolk Cybersurvey 2012-2013
Summary Report. Independant.

Boulton, M. J., and Smith, P. K. (1994). Bully/victim problems in middle school

children: Stability, self–perceived competence, peer acceptance, British Journal
of Developmental Psychology. 12(3), 315-325.

Boulton, M. J., and Underwood, K. (1992). Bully/victim problems among Middle

School children. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 62(1), 73-87.

239
Boulton, M. J., Trueman, L., and Flemington, J. (2002). Associations between
secondary school student’s definitions of bullying, attitudes towards bullying,
and tendencies to engage in bullying: Age and sex differences. Educational
Studies. 28(4), 353–370.

boyd, d. (2007). Why Youth Social Network Sites: The Role of Networked
Publics in Teenage Social Life. In MacArthur foundation series on digital learning
– Youth, identity, and digital media volume, ed. D. Buckingham, 119–42.
Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.

boyd, d. (2014). It’s Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens. New
Haven. Yale University Press.

boyd, d., and Ellison, N. B. (2008). Social network sites: Definition, history, and
scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 13(1), 210−230.

Bradshaw, C. P., Sawyer, A. L., and O'Brennan, L. M. (2007). Bullying and peer
victimization at school: Perceptual differences between students and school
staff. School psychology review. 36(3), 361.

Brank, E., Hoetger, L., and Hazen, K. (2012). Bullying. Annual Review of Law
and Social Science. 8, 213-30.

Braun V. and Clarke V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative

Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.

British Sociological Association. (2002). Statement of Ethical Practice for the

British Sociological Association. Available:
http://www.britsoc.co.uk/media/27107/StatementofEthicalPractice.pdf. Last
accessed 18 July 2016.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human

development. American Psychologist, 32(7), 513–531.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development.

In International Encyclopedia of Education (2nd ed., Vol. 3, 1643-1647). Oxford:
Elsevier.

Bryman, A. (2004) Social Research Methods. 2nd Edition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Bryman, A., (2006). Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: how is it

done?. Qualitative research. 6(1), 97-113.

Bryman, A. (2012). Social research methods: Oxford University Press.

Bucchianeri, M. M., Eisenberg, M. E., and Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2013).

Weightism, Racism, Classism, and Sexism: Shared Forms of Harassment in
Adolescents. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the
Society for Adolescent Medicine. 53(1), 47–53.

240
Byers, D. (2013). “Do They See Nothing Wrong With This?”: Bullying, Bystander
Complicity, and the Role of Homophobic Bias in the Tyler Clementi
Case. Families in Society. 94(4), 251-258.

Byers, D. L., Caltabiano, N. J., and Caltabiano, M. L. (2011). Teachers' attitudes

towards overt and covert bullying, and perceived efficacy to
intervene.Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online). 36(11), 105-119.

Campbell, M. (2005) Cyberbullying: An old problem in a new guise? Australian

Journal of Guidance and Counseling. 15(1), 68-76

Campbell, D. T., and Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental

designs for research on teaching. American Educational Research Association.

Carragher, D.J. and Rivers, I. (2002) Trying to hide: A cross-national study of

growing up for non-identified gay and bisexual male youth. Clinical Child
Psychology and Psychiatry. 7(3), 457-474.

Cassidy, W., Faucher, C., and Jackson, M (2013). Cyberbullying among youth: a
comprehensive review of current international research and its implications and
application to policy and practice. School Psychology International. 34(6), 575–
612.

Cassidy, W., Jackson, M., and Brown, K. N. (2009). Sticks and stones can break
my bones, but how can pixels hurt me? Students experiences with cyber-
bullying. School Psychology International. 30(4), 383-402.

Cassidy, W., Brown, K., and Jackson, M. (2012). ‘Under the radar’: educators
and cyberbullying in schools. School Psychology International. 33(5), 520-532.

Chatzitheochari, S., Parsons, S., and Platt, L. (2016). Bullying experiences

among disabled children and young people in England: Evidence from two
longitudinal studies. Sociology. 50 (4), 695-713.

Chisolm, J. (2014). Review of the Status of Cyberbullying and Cyberbullying

Prevention. Journal of Information Systems Education. 25(1), 77-97.

Chisolm, J. and Day, S. (2013). Current trends in cyberbullying. Journal of Social

Distress and the Homeless. 22(1), 35-57.

Cioppa, V., O'Neil, A., and Craig, W. (2015). Learning from traditional bullying
interventions: a review of research on cyberbullying and best
practice. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 23, 61-68.

Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1994). Research methods in education (4th ed.).

London: Routledge.

Coloroso, B. (2002). The Bully, the Bullied, and the Bystander. New York:
Harper Collins.

Compton, L., Campbell, M. A., and Mergler, A. (2014). Teacher, parent and
student perceptions of the motives of cyberbullies. Social Psychology of
Education. 17(3), 383-400.

241
Congregation for Catholic Education. (1977). The Catholic school. Available:
http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccatheduc/documents/rc_c
on_ccatheduc_doc_19770319_catholic-school_en.html. Last accessed 1
September 2016.

Connell, N., Schell-Busey, N., Pearce, A., Negro, P. (2014). Badgrlz? Exploring
Sex Differences in Cyberbullying Behaviors. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice.
12(3), 209-228.

Cook, T. J., and Simonds, T. A. (2011). The charism of 21st-century Catholic

schools: Building a culture of relationships. Journal of Catholic Education. 14(3),
319-333.

Cowie, H. and Jennifer, D. (2008). New Perspectives on Bullying. Maidenhead:

Open University Press.

Crawford, A. and Manassis, K. (2011). Anxiety, social skills, friendship quality,

and peer victimization: An integrated model. Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 25
(7), 924–931.

Craig, K., Bell, D., and Leschied, A. (2011). Pre-service teachers’ knowledge and
attitudes regarding school-based bullying. Canadian Journal of Education, 34(2),
21–33.

Craig, W., and Pepler, D. (2003). Identifying and targeting risk for involvement
in bullying and victimization. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 48(9), 577-
582.

Craig, W. and Pepler, D. (2007). Understanding Bullying: From Research to

Practice. Canadian Psychology. 48(2), 86-93.

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed

methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J.W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among
five approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and

evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson/Merrill Education.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed

methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed

Methods Approaches (4th ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Creswell, J. W. and Plano Clark, V.L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed
methods research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

242
Cross, D., Shaw, T., Hearn, L., Epstein, M., Monks, H., Lester, L., et al.. (2009).
Australian covert bullying prevalence study. Perth, Western Australia: Child
Health Promotion Research Centre, Edith Cowan University.

Cross, D., Monks, H., Hall, M., Shaw, T., Pintabona, Y., Erceg, E., ... and Lester,
L. (2011). Three-year results of the Friendly Schools whole-of-school
intervention on children’s bullying behaviour. British Educational Research
Journal. 37(1), 105-129.

Cross, E., Piggin, R., Douglas, T., and Vonkaenel-Flatt, J. (2012).VIRTUAL

VIOLENCE II: Progress and Challenges in the Fight against
Cyberbullying. Available: https://www.cybersmile.org/wp-
content/uploads/Virtual-Violence-IIBeatBullying.pdf. Last accessed 18 July 2016.

Cullen, F. T., Unnever, J. D., Hartman, J. L., Turner, M. G., and Agnew, R.
(2008). Gender, bullying victimization and juvenile delinquency: A test of
general strain theory. Victims and Offenders. 3(9), 346–364.

Darden, E. C. (2009). The cyber jungle. American School Board Journal. 196(4),
55–56.

Davis, K., Randall, D. P., Ambrose, A., and Orand, M. (2015). ‘I was bullied too’:
stories of bullying and coping in an online community. Information,
Communication & Society. 18(4), 357-375.

Dehue, F., Bolman, C., and Vollink, T. (2008). Cyberbullying: youngsters'

experiences and parental perception. Cyberpsychology Behavior. 11(2), 217-223.

Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. (1998) Introduction: Enterring the Field of

Qualitative Research. In: Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. (eds.). Collecting and
Interpreting Qualitative Materials. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 1-34.

Deschamps, R. and McNutt, K. (2016), Cyberbullying: What's the problem?.

Canadian Public Administration. 59(1) 45–71.

DeSmet, A., Aelterman, N., Bastiaensens, S., Van Cleemput, K., Poels, K.,
Vandebosch, H., ... and De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2015). Secondary school
educators' perceptions and practices in handling cyberbullying among
adolescents: A cluster analysis. Computers and Education. 88, 192-201.

Dillman, D. A., Smyth, J. D., and Christian, L. M. (2009). Implementation

procedures. Internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys. The tailored design
method. 3rd ed. Hoboken, New Jersey, USA: John Wiley and Sons, 234-99.

Ditch the Label. (2014). The Annual Bullying Survey 2014: UK Bullying
Statistics. Available: http://www.ditchthelabel.org/annual-bullying-survey-
2014/. Last accessed 18 July 2015.

Dooley, J. J., Pyzalski, J., and Cross, D. (2009). Cyberbullying versus face-to-
face bullying: A theoretical and conceptual review. Journal of Psychology.
217(4),182–188.

Duncan, N. (1998). Sexual bullying in secondary schools. Pastoral Care in

243
Education. 16(2), 27-31.

Dunning, E. and Hughes, J. (2013). Norbert Elias and Modern Sociology. London:
Bloomsbury.

Dupper, D.R. (2013). School Bullying: New Perspectives on a Growing Problem.

New York: Oxford University Press.

Durkheim, E. (1951). Suicide: A Study of Sociology. J.A. Spaulding and G.

Simpson (Translators). New York: Free Press.

Dwyer, S., and Buckle, J. (2009). The Space Between: On Being an Insider-
Outsider in Qualitative Research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods.
8(1), 54-65.

Eden, S., Heiman, T., and Olenik-Shemesh, D. (2013). Teachers' perceptions,

beliefs and concerns about cyberbullying. British Journal of Educational
Psychology. 44(6), 1036-1052.

Elias, N. and Scotson, J. (1994). The Established and the Outsiders. 2nd ed.
London: Sage Publications.

Erdur-Baker, Ö. (2010). Cyberbullying and its correlation to traditional bullying,

gender and frequent and risky usage of internet-mediated communication
tools. New media and society. 12(1), 109-125.

Ericson, N. 2001. Addressing the Problem of Juvenile Bullying. Office of Juvenile

Justice and Delinquency Prevention. U.S. Department of Justice.

Eslea, M. and Mukhtar, K. (2000) Bullying and racism among Asian

schoolchildren in Britain. Educational Research. 42(2), pp.207-217.

Espelage, D. (2014). Ecological Theory: Preventing Youth Bullying, Aggression,

and Victimization. Theory Into Practice. 53(4), 257-264.

Espelage, D. L., Holt, M. K., and Henkel, R. R. (2003). Examination of peer-group

contextual effects on aggression during early adolescence. Child Development.
74(1), 205-220.

Espelage, D. L., Mebane, S. E., and Swearer, S. M. (2004). Gender differences in

bullying: Moving beyond mean level differences. In D. L. Espelage and S. M.
Swearer (Eds.), Bullying in American Schools: A Social-Ecological Perspective on
Prevention and Intervention (15-35). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Espelage D. and Swearer, S. (2003). Research on school bullying and

victimization: What have we learned and where do we go from here?. School
Psychology Review. 32(3), 365-383.

Espelage, D. L. and Swearer, S. M. (2004). Bullying in American schools: A social-

ecological perspective on prevention and intervention. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.

244
Farrington, D., and Ttofi, M. (2009). School-Based Programs to Reduce Bullying
and Victimization. Campbell Systematic Reviews. 6.

Festl, R. and Quandt, T. (2013). Social relations and cyberbullying: The influence
of individual and structural attributes on victimization and perpetration via the
Internet. Human Communication Research. 39, 101–126.

Finkelhor, D., Mitchell, K., and Wolak, J. (2000). Online victimization: A report
on the nation’s youth (No. 6-00-020). Alexandria, VA: National Center for Missing
and Exploited Children.

Finlay, L. (2002). Negotiating the swamp: The opportunity and challenge of

reflexivity in qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 2(2), 209-230.

Fletcher, J. (1997). Violence and Civilization: An Introduction to the Work of

Norbert Elias Cambridge: Polity Press.

Forsberg, C., Thornberg, R., and Samuelsson, M. (2014). Bystanders to bullying:

fourth- to seventh-grade students’ perspectives on their reactions, Research
Papers in Education, 29(5), 557-576

Frisén, A., Jonsson, A., and Persson, C. (2007). Adolescents’ Perception of

Bullying: Who is the Victim? Who is the Bully? What Can Be Done to Stop
Bullying?. Adolescence. 42(168), 749-571.

Gámez-Guadix, M., Orue, I., Smith, P., and Calvete, E. (2013). Longitudinal and
Reciprocal Relations of Cyberbullying With Depression, Substance Use, and
Problematic Internet Use Among Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health. 53
(4), 446–452.

Gasson, S. (2004). Rigor in grounded theory research: An interpretive

perspective on generating theory from qualitative field studies. In M. E.
Whitman and A. B. Woszczynski (Eds.), The handbook of information systems
research (79–102).

Gibbs. A. (2012). Focus groups and group interviews. In: Arthur, J., Waring, M.,
Coe, R., and Hedges, L. Research Methods and Methodologies in Education.
London: Sage. 186-192.

Gibbs, G. R., (2007). Thematic coding and categorizing. Analyzing Qualitative

Data. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd.

Glasgow City Council, (2012). Glasgow City Council: Education Services

Standards and Quality Report. Glasgow: Glasgow City Council, pp.1-52.

GOV.UK. (2015). Bullying at School. Available: https://www.gov.uk/bullying-at-

school/reporting-bullying. Last accessed 12 August 2016.

Greenhow, C., Robelia, B., and Hughes, J. E. (2009). Learning, teaching, and
scholarship in a digital age: Web 2.0 and classroom research: what path should
we take now? Educational Researcher. 38 (4), 246-259.

245
Griffiths, L., Wolke, D.,Page, A., and Horwood, J,. (2006). Obesity and Bullying:
Different Effects for Boys and Girls. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 91(2), 121
125.

Guba, E, G. and Lincoln, Y, S. (1994). Competing Paradigms in Qualitative

Research. In Denzin, N, K. , and Lincoln, Y, S. (ed.) Handbook of Qualitative
Research. London: SAGE Publications. p. 105-117.

Guerin, S., and Hennessy, E. (2002). Pupils’ definitions of bullying. European

Journal of Psychology of Education. 17(3), 249–261.

Hamm, M.P., Newton, A.S., Chisholm, A., Shulhan, J., Milne, A., Sundar, P., et
al. (2015). Prevalence and effect of cyberbullying on children and young people
a scoping review of social media studies. JAMA Pediatrics. 169 (8), 770–777.

Hay, C., Meldrum, R., and Mann, K. (2010). Traditional Bullying, Cyberbullying
and Deviance: A General Strain Theory Approach. Journal of Contemporary
Criminal Justice. 26 (2), 130-147.

Hedges, L. (2012). Finding your theoretical position. In: Arthur, J., Waring, M.,
Coe, R., Hedges, L. Research Methods and Methodologies in Education. London:
Sage. 15-19.

Heirman, W. and Walrave, M. (2012). Predicting adolescent perpetration

in cyberbullying: An application of the theory of planned behavior.
Psicothema, 24(4), 614-620.

Himmelweit, H., Biberian, M., and Stockdale, J. (1978). Memory for past vote:
Implications of a study of bias in recall. British Journal of Political Science. 8(3),
365-375.

Hinduja, S. and Patchin, J.W. 2007. Offline Consequences of Online

Victimization: School Violence and Delinquency. Journal of School Violence,
6(3), 89-112.

Hinduja, S. and Patchin, J.W. (2008). Cyberbullying: An exploratory analysis of

factors related to offending and victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29(2), 1–29.

Hinduja, S. and Patchin, J.W. (2009). Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard:

Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Publishing.

Hinduja, S. and Patchin, J.W. (2010). Bullying, Cyberbullying, and

Suicide. Archives of Suicide Research. 14(3), 206-221.

Hinduja, S. and Patchin, J.W. (2012). School climate 2.0: Preventing

cyberbullying and sexting one classroom at a time. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Corwin Press.

Hinduja, S. and Patchin, J. W. (2014). Cyberbullying Glossary: Terms You Need

To Know. Cyberbullying Research Center. Available:
http://www.cyberbullying.us/cyberbullying_glossary.pdf. Last accessed 15
December 2015.

246
Hoff, D. L. and Mitchell, S. N. (2009). Cyberbullying: causes, effects, and
remedies. Journal of Educational Administration, 47(5), 652-665.

Hong, J. S., and Garbarino, J. (2012). Risk and protective factors for
homophobic bullying in schools: An application of the social–ecological
framework. Educational Psychology Review. 24(2), 271-285.

Houndoumadi, A., and Pateraki, L. (2001). Bullying and bullies in Greek

elementary schools: Pupils' attitudes and teachers'/parents' awareness.
Educational Review. 53(1), 19-26.

Huang, Y., and Chou, C. (2010). An analysis of multiple factors of cyberbullying

among junior high school students in Taiwan. Computers in Human Behavior.
26(6), 1581-1590.

Huang, C.J., and Chou, C. (2013). Revisiting cyberbullying: perspectives from

Taiwanese teachers. Computers and Education. 63(6), 227-239.

Hunt, R. and Jensen, J. (2007) The school report: The experiences of young gay
people in Britain’s schools. London: Stonewall.

Hunter, S. C. and Boyle, J. M. E. (2004). Appraisal and coping strategy use in

victims of school bullying. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 74(1), 83-
107.

Im, E. O., and Chee, W. (2004). Recruitment of research participants through

the Internet. CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing. 22(5), 289-297.

Ivankova, N.V., Creswell, J.W., Stick. S.L. (2006). Using mixed-methods

sequential explanatory design: From theory to practice. Field Methods. 18(1), 3-
20.

Johnson, H. and Castelli, M. (2000) Catholic Head Teachers: The importance of

culture building in approaches to spiritual and moral development and the
transmission of faith tradition. International Journal of Children's Spirituality. 5
(1), 75-90.

Johnston, S. (2005). The Experience of Homophobic Bullying amongst Teenagers

in Scotland: A Survey of 13-19 year-olds. Available:
https://lgbteducation.wordpress.com/. Last accessed 23 July 2015.

Jolliffe, D. and Farrington, D. P. (2006). Development and validation of the Basic

Empathy Scale. Journal of adolescence. 29(4), 589-611.

Jones, L. M., Mitchell, K. J., and Finkelhor, D. (2013). Online harassment in

context: Trends from three Youth Internet Safety Surveys (2000, 2005, 2010).
Psychology of Violence. 3, 53– 69.

Joppe, M. (2000). The research process.

Juvonen, J. and Gross, E. (2008). Extending the school grounds: Bullying

experiences in cyberspace. Journal of School Health. 78(9), 496-505.

247
Kaplan, A. M., and Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The
challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business horizons. 53(1), 59-68.

Kessel Schneider, S., O'Donnell, L., and Smith, E. (2015). Trends in Cyberbullying
and School Bullying Victimization in a Regional Census of High School Students,
2006-2012. Journal of school health. 85(9), 611-620.

Kessel Schneider, S., O’Donnell, L., Stueve, A., and Coulter, R. S. (2012).
Cyberbullying, school bullying, and psychological distress: A regional census of
high school students. American Journal of Public Health. 102(1), 171–177.

Killen, M and Rutland, A. (2013). Children and Social Exclusion: Morality,

Prejudice, and Group Identity. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Kowalski, R.M., Giumetti, G.W., Schroeder, A.N., and Lattanner, M.R. (2014).
Bullying in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying
research among youth. Psychological Bulletin. 140(4), 1073–1137.

Kowalksi, R. M. and Limber, S. (2007) Electronic bullying among middle school

students, Journal of Adolescent Health. 41(6, Supplement), 22–30.

Kowalski, R. M., and Limber, S. P. (2013). Psychological, physical, and academic

correlates of cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent
Health. 53, S13–S20.

Kowalski, R. M; Limber, S. P; and Agatston, P. W (2008). Notes on Cyberbullying:

Bullying In The Digital Age. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Kvale, S. (1996) InterViews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research

Interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Bjorkqvist, K., and Peltonen, T. (1988). Is indirect

aggression typical of females? Gender differences in aggressiveness in 11- to 12-
year-old children. Aggressive Behavior. 14, 403–414.

Lake, R. J. (2011). ‘They treat me like I’m scum’: Social exclusion and
established-outsider relations in a British tennis club. International Review for
the Sociology of Sport. 48(1), 112-128.

Lapidot-Lefler, N., and Barak, A. (2012). Effects of anonymity, invisibility, and

lack of eye-contact on toxic online disinhibition. Computers in human
behaviour. 28(2), 434-443.

Lapidot-Lefler, N., and Dolev-Cohen, M. (2015). Comparing cyberbullying and

School bullying among school students: Prevalence, gender, and grade level
differences. Social Psychology of Education. 18(1), 1–16.

Law, D. M., Shapka, J. D., Hymel, S., Olson, B. F., and Waterhouse, T. (2011).
The changing face of bullying: An empirical comparison between traditional and
internet bullying and victimization. Computers in Human Behavior. 28(1), 226–
232.

248
Lenhart, A., M. Madden, A. Smith, K. Purcell, K. Zickuhr, and L. Rainie. (2011).
Teens, Kindness and Cruelty on Social Network Sites. Washington, DC: Pew
Internet and American Life Project.
http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Teens-and-social-media.aspx.

Levine, A. (2006). Educating school teachers. Education Schools Project.

Li, Q. (2006). Cyberbullying in schools: A research of gender differences. School

Psychology International. 27(2), 157-170.

Li, Q. (2007). Bullying in the new playground: Research into cyberbullying and
cyber victimization. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. 23(4), 435–
454.

Li, Q. (2008). A cross-cultural comparison of adolescents' experience related to

cyberbullying. Educational Research. 50(3), 223–234.

Limber, S. P. and Small, M. A. (2003). State laws and policies to address bullying
in schools. School Psychology Review. 32(3), 445-455.

Lincoln, YS. and Guba, EG. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications.

Lindsay, G., Dockrell, J.E. and Mackie, C. (2008). Vulnerability to bullying in

children with a history of specific speech and language difficulties. European
Journal of Special Needs Education. 23(1),1-16.

Livingstone, S. (2008). Taking risky opportunities in youthful content creation:

teenagers’ use of social networking sites for intimacy, privacy and self-
expression. New Media and Society. 10(3), 393-411.

Livingstone, S., Mascheroni, G., and Staksrud, E. (2016). European research on

children’s internet use: Assessing the past and anticipating the future. New
Media and Society. 1-20.

Low, S., and Espelage, D. (2013). Differentiating cyber bullying perpetration

from non-physical bullying: Commonalities across race, individual, and family
predictors. Psychology of Violence. 3(1), 39-52.

Loyal, S. (2011). A land of a hundred thousand welcomes? Understanding

established and outsiders relations in Ireland. The Sociological Review. 59(1),
181-201.

Loyal, S. and Quilley, S. eds (2004). The Sociology of Norbert Elias. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Madden M, Lenhart A, Cortesi S, et al. (2013) Teens, Social Media, and Privacy.
Washington, DC: Pew Internet and American Life Project. Available:
http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2013/Teens-Social-Media-And-
Privacy/Summary-of-Findings.aspx Last accessed 11 July 2016.

Maguire, J., and L. Mansfield. (1998). “No-Body’s Perfect”: Women, Aerobics,

and the Body Beautiful. Sociology of Sport Journal. 15(2), 109–137.

249
Maher, M. (2013). ‘Homophobic Bullying in Catholic High Schools: Five US Studies
in Heterosexism, Authority, Masculinity, and Religion’, in Z. Gross, L. Davies, A.
Diab (eds) Gender, Religion and Education in a Chaotic Postmodern World, pp.
271–84. New York: Springer.

Maher, M. J., and Sever, L. M. (2007). What educators in Catholic schools might
expect when addressing gay and lesbian issues: A study of needs and
barriers. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Issues in Education. 4(3), 79-111.

Mark, L., and Ratliffe, K.T. (2011). Cyber worlds: New playgrounds for bullying.
Computers in the Schools. 28(2), 92-116.

Marwick, A. and boyd, d. (2014). Networked Privacy: How teenagers negotiate

context in social media. New Media and Society. 16(7). 1051-1067.

Marr, N. and Field, T. (2011). Bullycide: Death at Playtime. 2nd. ed. Langley,
BC: BeWrite.

Mason, K. L. (2008), Cyberbullying: A preliminary assessment for school

personnel. Psychology in the Schools. 45(4), 323–348.

McKinney, S. (2011). A rationale for Catholic schools. In: Franchi,

L. and McKinney, S. (eds.) A Companion to Catholic Education. Gracewing:
Leominster, UK.

McKinney, S. J., and Conroy, J. C. (2015). The continued existence of state-

funded Catholics schools in Scotland. Comparative Education. 51(1), 105-117.

McNamara, P. M., and Moynihan, S. (2010). Teachers' experiences, perceptions

of and skills in addressing cyber bullying in Irish schools. In 2nd Global
Conference on Bullying, Prague, Nov. 2010. Available at
http://works.bepress.com/patricia_mannixmcnamara/14. Date accessed 10
August 2016.

Menesini, E., Nocentini, A., and Camodeca, M. (2013). Morality, values,

traditional bullying, and cyberbullying in adolescence. British Journal of
Developmental Psychology. 31(1), 1–14.

Merrill, R., and Hanson, C. (2016). Risk and protective factors associated with
being bullied on school property compared with cyberbullied. BMC Public
Health. 16(145), 2-10.

Minton, S. J., Dahl, T., O’Moore, A. M., and Tuck, D. (2008). An exploratory
survey of the experiences of homophobic bullying among lesbian, gay, bisexual
and transgendered young people in Ireland. Irish Educational Studies. 27(2), 177-
191.

Mishna, F., Cook, C., Gadalla, T., Daciuk, J., and Solomon, S. (2010). Cyber
bullying behaviors among middle and high school students. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry. 80(3), 362-374.

250
Mishna, F., Khoury-Kassabri, M., Gadalla, T., and Daciuk, J. (2012). Risk factors
for involvement in cyber bullying: Victims, bullies and bully–victims. Children
and Youth Services Review. 34(1), 63-70.

Monks, C. P., Robinson, S., and Worlidge, P. (2012). The emerge of

cyberbullying: a survey of primary school pupils' perceptions and experiences.
School Psychology International. 33(5), 477-491.

Merriam, S. B. A. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for

discussion and analysis (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Miles, M. B. and Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: A

sourcebook of new methods (2 ed.). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

Modecki, K., and Minchin, J. (2013). Predictors of reported prevalence rates for
cyber and tradition aggression in adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation.
In Presentation at the biennial conference of the Society for Research in Child
Development, Seattle, WA.

Modecki, K. L., Minchin, J., Harbaugh, A. G., Guerra, N. G., and Runions, K. C.
(2014). Bullying prevalence across contexts: A meta-analysis measuring cyber
and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health. 55(5), 602-611.

Morgan, D. L. (1998). The focus group guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Morrow V. and Richards M. (1996). The ethics of social research with children: an
overview. Children and Society. 10(2), 90–105.

Morrow, S.L. (2005). Quality and trustworthiness in qualitative research in

counselling psychology, Journal of Counseling Psychology. 52(2), 250–60.

Murray, S., Hewitt, P., Maniss, S., and Molinatti, J. (2012). "They're Just Being
Kids": Recognizing and Preventing Bullying. National Social Science Journal.
39(1), 108-118.

Nansel, T., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W. J., Simons-Morton, B. and
Scheidt, P. (2001) Bullying behaviors among US youth: prevalence and
association with psychosocial adjustment, Journal of the American Medical
Association. 285(16), 2094–2100.

National Records of Scotland. (2013). Scotland's Census. Available:

http://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/statistics-and-data/census. Last accessed 11
June 2015.

Naylor, P., Cowie, H., Cossin, F., et al.. (2006) Teachers’ and pupils’ definitions
of bullying. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 76(3), 553-576.

NCH. (2005). Putting U in the picture Mobile bullying survey 2005.Available:

http://www.avaproject.org.uk/media/28482/mobile_bullying_report.pdf. Last
accessed 23 July 2015.

Neiman, S.; Robers, B.; Robers, S. (2012). Bullying: A State of Affairs.Journal of

Law and Education. 41(4), 603-648.

251
Neill S. (2007). A Serious Business: an NUT Survey of Teachers’ Experience of
Sexism and Harassment in Schools and Colleges. Warwick: University of Warwick.

Neves, J., and de Oliveira Pinheiro, L. (2012). Cyberbullying: A sociological

approach. Ethical Impact of Technological Advancements and Applications in
Society. 132.

NoBullying.com. (2014). Online Bullying Statistics.

Available: http://nobullying.com/online-bullying-statistics/. Last accessed 08
December 2014.

Nocentini, A., Calmaestra, J., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Scheithauer, H., Ortega,

R., and Menesini, E. (2010). Cyberbullying: Labels, behaviours and definition in
three European countries. Australian Journal of Guidance and
Counselling. 20(2), 129-142.

Notar, C., Padgett, S., and Roden, J. (2013). Cyberbullying: A Review of the
Literature. Universal Journal of Educational Research. 1(1), 1-9.

Nulty, D. (2008). The adequacy of response rates to online and paper surveys:
What can be done?. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education. 33(3), 301–
314.

O'Bannon, B. W., and Thomas, K. (2014). Teacher perceptions of using mobile

phones in the classroom: Age matters!. Computers and Education. 74, 15-25.

O'Higgins Norman, J. and Connolly, J. (2011). Mimetic theory and scapegoating

in the age of cyberbullying: the case of Phoebe Prince. Pastoral Care in
Education. 29(4), 287-300.

O’Keefe, G, S., and Clarke-Pearson, K. (2011) The Impact of Social Media on

Children, Adolescents, and Families. Pediatrics. 127. 800-804.

Olweus, D. (1978). Aggression in Schools: Bullies and Whipping Boys.

Washington, DC: Hemisphere.

Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do.
Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Olweus, D. (1994). Annotation: Bullying at School: Basic Facts and Effects of a

School Based Intervention Program. Journal of Clinical Psychology and
Psychiatry. 35(7), 1171-1190.

Olweus, D. (1997). Bully/victim problems in school: Facts and

intervention. European Journal of Psychology of Education. 12(4), 495-510.

Olweus, D. (1999). Sweden. In: P.K. Smith, Y. Morita, J. Junger-Tas, D. Olweus,

R. Catalano, and P. Slee. The Nature of School Bullying: A Cross-National
Perspective. London: Routledge. 7-27.

Olweus, D. (2012). Cyberbullying: An overrated phenomenon? European Journal

of Developmental Psychology. 9(3), 520–538.

252
Olweus, D. (2013). School bullying: development and some important challenges.
Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 9, 751-780.

Olweus, D., Limber, S. P., Flerx, V., Mullin, N., Riese, J., and Snyder. M. (2007).
Olweus Bullying Prevention Program Schoolwide Guide. Center City, MN:
Hazelden.

O'Moore, M. (2012). Cyber-bullying: The Situation in Ireland. Pastoral Care in

Education. 30(3), 209-223.

O'Neill, M. (1979). Toward a modern concept of permeation. Momentum. 10(2),

48-49.

Palfrey, J., boyd, d., Sacco, D. et al., (2008) Enhancing Child Safety and Online
Technologies: Final Report of the Internet Safety Technical task Force on the
Multi- State Working Group on Social Networking of Sate attorneys General of
the United States. Harvard University: Berkman Center for Intenet and Society.

Parris, L., Varjas, K., Meyers, J. and Cutts, H. (2012). High school students’
perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth and Society. 44(2), 284-306.

Pascoe, C. J. (2013). Notes on a Sociology of Bullying: Young Men’s Homophobia

as Gender Socialization. QED. 1(1), 87 – 104.

Patchin, J. W. and Hinduja, S. (2011). Traditional and nontraditional bullying

among youth: A test of general strain theory. Youth and Society. 43(2), 727–751.

Patchin, J.W. (2013). Cyberbullying Facts. Available:

http://cyberbullying.us/facts. Last accessed 23 July 2015.

Patchin, J. W., and Hinduja, S. (2006). BULLIES MOVE BEYOND THE

SCHOOLYARD: A Preliminary Look at Cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile
Justice. 4(2), 148-169.

Patchin, J.W., and S. Hinduja. (2010). Cyberbullying and self-esteem. Journal of

School Health. 80(12), 614–621.

Patchin, J. W., and Hinduja, S. (2012). Cyberbullying Prevention and Response:

Expert Perspectives. New York: Routledge.

Pelligrini, A. D. (2002). Bullying and victimisation in middle school: A dominance

relations perspective. Educational Psychologist. 37(3), 151-163.

Pelligrini, A. D., and Long, J. D. (2002). A longitudinal study of bullying,

dominance, and victimization during the transition from primary school through
secondary school. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 20(2), 259 – 280.

Pepler, D.J., Craig, W.M., O’Connell, P., Atlas, R., and Charach. A.
(2004). Making a difference in bullying: Evaluation of a systemic
school-based program in Canada. In P.K. Smith, D. Pepler, and K.
Rigby (Eds.), Bullying in schools: How successful can interventions
be? (125–140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

253
Pieschl, S., Porsch, T., Kahl, T. and Klockenbusch, R., (2013). Relevant
dimensions of cyberbullying—Results from two experimental studies. Journal of
Applied Developmental Psychology. 34(5), 241-252.

Pope Paul VI. (1965). Declaration on Christian Education: Gravissimum

Educationis. Available:
http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat
-ii_decl_19651028_gravissimum-educationis_en.html. Last accessed 12 August
2016.

Poteat, V. P., Sinclair, K. O., DiGiovanni, C. D., Koenig, B. W., and Russell, S. T.
(2013). Gay–straight alliances are associated with student health: a multischool
comparison of LGBTQ and heterosexual youth. Journal of Research on
Adolescence. 23(2), 319-330.

Powell, R. (2008). Understanding the Stigmatization of Gypsies: Power and the

Dialectics of (Dis)identification. Housing, Theory and Society. 25(2), 87-109.

Price, M., and Dalgleish, J. (2010). Cyberbullying: experiences, impacts and

coping strategies as described by Australian young people. Youth Studies
Australia. 29(2), 51-59.

Puhl, R., Peterson, J., and Luedicke, J. (2012). Weight-Based Victimization:

Bullying Experiences of Weight Loss Treatment–Seeking Youth. Pediatrics.
131(1), 1-9.

Purcell, K. (2012). Teens 2012: truth, trends, and myths about teen online
behavior. ACT enrollment planners annual conference. Retrieved from
www.pewinternet.org. Last accessed 12 June 2016.

Purcell, K., Heaps, A., Buchanan, J., and Friedrich, L. (2013). How teachers are
using technology at home and in their classrooms. Washington D.C. Pew Internet
and the American Life Project. Accessed 17 May 2016.

Quan-Haase, A., and Young, A. (2010). Uses and Gratifications of Social Media: A
Comparison of Facebook and Instant Messaging. Bulletin of Science, Technology
and Society. 30(5), 350–361.

Raskauskas, J. and Stoltz, A. D. (2007). Involvement in traditional and electronic

bullying among adolescents. Developmental Psychology. 43, 564-575.

Renold, E. (2006). 'They won't let us play... Unless you're going out with one of
them': Girls, boys and butler's 'heterosexual matrix' in the primary years.
British Journal of Sociology of Education. 27(4), 489-509.

Respect Me. (2011). Cyberbullying Survey NOVEMBER 2011. Available:

www.respectme.org.uk/_.../Cyberbullying_Research_Summary_2011. Last
accessed 23 July 2015.

Rigby, K. (1996). Bullying in schools: What to do about it. Australian Council for
Education Research Limited: Melbourne.

254
Rigby, K. (2002) How successful are anti-bullying programs for schools? Paper
presented at the Role of Schools in Crime Prevention Conference, Carlton Crest
Hotel, Melbourne, 30 September – 1 October.

Rigby, K. (2007). Bullying in schools: And what to do about it. Camberwell,

Victoria: ACER.

Rigby, K. and Bagshaw, D. (2003). Prospects of adolescent students

collaborating with teachers in addressing issues of bullying and conflict in
schools. Educational Psychology. 23(5), 535-546.

Rigby, K., and Barnes, A. (2002). To tell or not to tell: the victimised student's
dilemma. [Bullying.]. Youth Studies Australia. 21(3), 33.

Ringrose, J., Harvey, L., Gill, R., and Livingstone, S. (2013). Teen girls, sexual
double standards and ‘sexting’: Gendered value in digital image exchange.
Feminist Theory. 14(3), 305-323.

Ritchie, M. (2010). Additional Inspection Evidence School A. Available:

http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/inspectionandreview/reports/school/pri
msec/SchoolAGlasgowCity.asp. Last accessed 10 December 20149.

Rivers, I. (2001). The bullying of sexual minorities at school: Its nature and long-
term correlates. Educational and Child Psychology. 18(1), 32-46.

Rivers, I. and Noret, N. (2010). ‘I h8 u’: findings from a five-year study of text
and email bullying. British Educational Research Journal. 36(4), 643-671.

Rivers, I. and Noret, N. (2013) Potential suicide ideation among bystanders of

bullying behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health. 53 (Supplement 1), S32-S36.

Robinson, J.P., Espelage, D.L. and Rivers, I. (2013). Developmental trends in

peer victimization and emotional distress in LGB and heterosexual youth.
Pediatrics. 131(3), 423-430.

Robson, C. (2011). Real world research: A resource for social-scientists and

practitioner- researchers. 3rd edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Roberts, L. and Allen, P. (2015). Exploring ethical issues associated with using
online surveys in educational research. Educational Research and Evaluation.
21(2), 95–108.

Robertson, M. (2007). Additional Inspection Evidence School C High

School.Available:
http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/Images/SchoolClIns20070905_tcm4-
697406.pdf. Last accessed 10 December 201410.

Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimer, P. and Oustan, J. (1979) Fifteen Thousand
Hours. London: Open Books.

9
School name replaced for anonymity.
10
School name replaced for anonymity

255
Ryalls, E. (2012). Demonizing “Mean Girls” in the News: Was Phoebe Prince
“Bullied to Death?”. Communication, Culture and Critique. 5(3), 463-481.

Ryan, T.G. and Kariuki, M. (2011). A two year study of preservice teachers’
awareness of cyberbullying issues.The Journal of the Research Center for
Educational Technology. 7(2), 22-39.

Ryan, T.G., Kariuki, M., and Yilmaz, H. (2011). A comparative analysis of

cyberbullying perceptions of preservice educators: Canada and Turkey, The
Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology. 10(3), 1-12.

Sabella, R., Patchin, J. W., and Hinduja, S. (2013). Cyberbullying myths and
realities. Computers in Human Behavior. 29(6), 2703-2711.

Sahin, M. (2012). The relationship between the cyberbullying/cybervictimisation

and loneliness among adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review. 34(4),
834-837.

Schenk, A.M., and Fremouw, W.J. (2012). Prevalence, psychological impact, and
coping of cyberbully victims among college students. Journal of School Violence.
11(1), 21-37.

Schneider, S. K., O'Donnell, L., Stueve, A., and Coulter, R. W. S. (2012).

Cyberbullying, school bullying, and psychological distress: a regional census of
high school students. American Journal of Public Health. 102(1), 171-177.

Scott, J., Carrington, K., and Mcintosh, A., 2012. Established outsider relations
and fear of crime in mining towns. Sociologia ruralis. 52(2), 147–169.

Scottish Government (2013). School Education. Retrieved from:

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Statistics/Browse/School-Education. Last
accessed 20 July 2016.

Sellgren, B. (2014). Cyberbullying 'on rise' - ChildLine.Available:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-25639839. Last accessed 21 January
2014.

Shariff, S. (2008). Cyber-bullying: Issues and solutions for the

school the classroom and the home. London: Routledge.

Shariff, S. (2009). Confronting Cyberbullying: What schools need to know to

control misconduct and avoid legal consequences. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

Shariff, S. and Hoff, D. L. (2007). Cyber bullying: clarifying legal boundaries for
school supervision in cyberspace. International Journal of Cyber Criminology. 1
(1), 76-118.

Shariff, S. and Strong-Wilson, T. (2005). Bullying and New Technologies

(Kincheloe, J. Ed. 2005). Classroom Teaching: An Introduction, Ch. 14. 219-240.
New York: David Lang.

256
Shim, H., and Shin, E. (2016). Peer-group pressure as a moderator of the
relationship between attitude toward cyberbullying and cyberbullying behaviors
on mobile instant messengers. Telematics and Informatics. 33(1), 17-24.

Sjursø, I. R., Fandrem, H., and Roland, E. (2016). Emotional Problems in

Traditional and Cyber Victimization. Journal of School Violence. 15(1), 114-131.

Skelton, T. (2008). Research with Children and Young People: Exploring the
Tensions between Ethics, Competence and Participation. Children’s
Geographies. 6(1), 21–36.

Slonje, R. and Smith, P.K (2008). Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying?
Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 49(2), 147–154.

Slonje R., Smith, P.K, and Frisén, A. (2013). The nature of cyberbullying, and
strategies for prevention. Computers in Human Behavior. 29 (1), 26-32.

Smith, P.K. (2012). Cyberbullying and Cyber Agression. In: Jimerson, Shane R;
Nickerson, Amanda B; Mayer, Matthew J; Furlong, Michael J Handbook of School
Violence and School Safety. New York: Routledge. 93-103.

Smith, P. K. (2015). The nature of cyberbullying and what we can do about it.
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs. 15(3), 176-184.

Smith, P. K., Cowie, H., Olafsson, R. F., and Liefooghe, A. P. D. (2002).

Definitions of bullying: A comparison of terms used, and age and sex differences,
in a fourteen-country international comparison. Child Development, 73(4), 1119–
1133.

Smith, Peter K., Mahdavi, Jess, Carvalho, Manuel; Fisher, Sonja; Russell,
Shanette; and Tippet, Neil (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in
secondary school pupils. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(4),
376-385.

Smith P. K. and Sharp, S. (1994). The problem of school bullying. In P. K. Smith

and S. Sharp (Eds.), School bullying: insights and perspectives. London:
Routledge.

Smith, P.K., and R. Slonje. (2010). Cyberbullying: The nature and extent of a
new kind of bullying, in and out of school. In Handbook of bullying in schools: An
international perspective, ed. S.R. Jimerson, S.M. Swearer and D.L. Espelage,
249–62. New York: Routledge.

Smith, P. K., and Shu, S. (2000). What good schools can do about bullying
findings from a survey in English schools after a decade of research and
action. Childhood. 7(2), 193-212.

Søndergaard, D. (2012). Bullying and social exclusion anxiety in schools. British

Journal of Sociology of Education. 33 (3), 355-372.

Spears, B., Taddeo, C., Daly, A., Stretton, A., and Karklins, L. (2015).
Cyberbullying, help-seeking and mental health in young Australians: Implications
for Public Health. International Journal of Public Health. 60(2), 219–226.

257
Stauffer, S., Heath, M. A., Coyne, S. M., and Ferrin, S. (2012). High school
teachers perceptions of cyberbullying prevention and intervention strategies.
Psychology in the Schools. 49(4), 353-367.

Strom, P. and Strom, R. (2006). Cyberbullying by Adolescents: A Preliminary

Assessment, The Educational Forum. 70(1), 21-36.

Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition effect. CyberPsychology and Behavior.

7(3), 321-326.

Sullivan, K. (2000). The Anti-bullying Book. Oxford. University Press

Sullivan, J. and McKinney, S. (2013). Exploring Practical Implications. In:

McKinney, S. and Sullivan, J. Education in a Catholic Perspective. Surrey:
Ashgate. 208-225.

Sutton, P.W. and Vertigans, S. (2002) The Established and Challenging Outsiders:
Resurgent Islam in Secular Turkey. Totalitarian Movements and Political
Religions. 3(1), 58-78.

Swearer, S.M. and Doll, B.J. (2001). Bullying in schools: An ecological

framework. Journal of Emotional Abuse. 2(2-3), 7-23.

Swearer, S.M., Espelage, D.L., Vaillancourt, T., and Hymel, S. (2010). What can
be done about school bullying?: Linking research to educational practice.
Educational Researcher. 39(1), 38-47.

Swearer, S., Wang, C., Berry, B., and Myers, Z. (2014). Reducing Bullying:
Application of Social Cognitive Theory. Theory Into Practice. 53(4), 271-277.

Sweeting, H., and West, P. (2001). Being Different: Correlates of the Experience
of Teasing and Bullying at Age 11. Research Papers in Education. 16, 225–46.

Tajfel, H. (1972). Social categorization. English manuscript of ‘La catégorisation

sociale.’ In S. Moscovici (Ed.), Introduction à la Psychologie Sociale (Vol. 1, 272–
302). Paris: Larousse.

Tajfel, H., and Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict.

In W. G. Austin and S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup
relations (33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Tarablus, T., Heiman, T., and Olenik-Shemesh, D. (2015). Cyber bullying among
teenagers in Israel: an examination of cyber bullying, traditional bullying, and
socioemotional functioning. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma.
24(6), 707-720.

Tattum, D. P. (1989). Violence and aggression in schools. In D. P. Tattum and D.

A. Lane (Eds.), Bullying in school. (7–19). Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.

Thaxton, S., and Agnew, R. (2004). The nonlinear effects of parental and
teacher attachment on delinquency: Disentangling strain from social control
explanations. Justice Quarterly. 21(4), 763-791.

258
Thomas, H. J., Connor, J. P., and Scott, J. G. (2015). Integrating traditional
bullying and cyberbullying: Challenges of definition and measurement in
adolescents–A review. Educational psychology review. 27(1), 135-152.

Thornberg, R. (2013). Teachers’ views on values education: A qualitative study

in Sweden and Turkey. International Journal of Educational Research. 59, 49-56.

Timmons, M. (2012). Additional Inspection Evidence School BSecondary

School. Available:
http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/Images/SchoolBSSAIE010512_tcm4-
719180.pdf. Last accessed 10 December 201411.

Tokunaga, R. (2010). Following you home from school: A critical review and
synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization.Computers in Human
Behavior. 26(3), 277–287.

Tosolt, B. (2008). Differences in students' perceptions of caring teacher

behaviors: The Intersections of race, ethnicity, and gender. Race, Gender and
Class. 15(1-2), 274-288.

Tymms, P. (2012). Questionnaires. In: Arthur, J., Waring, M., Coe, R., and
Hedges, L. Research Methods and Methodologies in Education. London: Sage.
231-239.

Vandebosch, H., Poels, K., and Deboutte, G. (2014). Schools and cyberbullying:
problem perception, current actions and future needs. International Journal of
Cyber Society and Education. 7(1), 29-48.

Vandebosch, H. and Van Cleemput, K. (2009). Cyberbullying among youngsters:

Profiles of bullies and victims. New Media and Society. 11(8), 1349–1371.

Van Krieken, R. (1998). Norbert Elias. New York: Routledge.

Velija, P. (2011). ‘Nice girls don't play cricket’: the theory of established and
outsider relations and perceptions of sexuality and class amongst female
cricketers. Sport in Society. 14(1), 81-96.

Waasdorp, T., and Bradshaw, C. (2011). Examining student responses to frequent

bullying: A latent class approach. Journal of Educational Psychology. 103(2), 36–
352.

Walford, G. (2008). Faith-Based Schools in England after Ten Years of Tony Blair.
Oxford Review of Education. 34(6), 689–699.

Walrave, M., and Heirman, W. (2011). Cyberbullying: Predicting victimisation

and perpetration. Children and Society. 25(1), 59–72.

Wang, J., Iannotti, R., and Luk, J. (2010). Bullying Victimization among
Underweight and Overweight U.S. Youth: Differential Associations for Boys and
Girls. Journal of Adolescent Health. 47, 99–101.

11
School name replaced for anonymity

259
Wang, J., Iannotti, R., and Nasel, T . (2009). School Bullying Among Adolescents
in the United States: Physical, Verbal, Relational, and Cyber. Journal of
Adolescent Health. 45(4), 368-375.

Wang, J., Iannotti, R., Luk, W., and Nansel T. (2010). Co-occurrence of
victimization from five subtypes of bullying: physical, verbal, social exclusion,
spreading rumors and cyber. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 35(10), 1103-
1112.

Waring, M. (2012). Finding your theoretical position. In: Arthur, J., Waring, M.,
Coe, R., Hedges, L. Research Methods and Methodologies in Education. London:
Sage. 15-19.

Welker, H. S. (2010). Principal Perspectives on Social Networking and the

Disruptive Effects of Cyberbullying. Ann Arbor: ProQuest LLC.

Weinholtz, D., B. Kacer and T. Rocklin. (1995). Salvaging Quantitative Research

with Qualitative Data. Qualitative Health Research. 5(3), 338-397.

West, A., Lewis, J., and Currie, P. (2009). Students' Facebook ‘friends’: public
and private spheres. Journal of youth studies. 12(6), 615-627.

Westergaard, J., Noble, I., and Walker, A. (1989). After redundancy: The
experience of economic insecurity. Cambridge, UK: Polity.

Whittaker, E. and Kowalski, R.M., (2015) Cyberbullying Via Social Media, Journal
of School Violence. 14(1), 11-29.

Williamson, E., Goodenough, T., Kent, J., and Ashcroft, R. (2005). Conducting
research with children: The limits of confidentiality and child protection
protocols. Children and Society, 19(5), 397-409.

Wingate, V. S., Minney, J. A., and Guadagno, R. E. (2013). Sticks and stones may
break your bones, but words will always hurt you: A review of
cyberbullying. Social Influence. 8(2-3), 87-106.

Willard, N. (2004). Educator’s guide to cyberbullying: Addressing the harm

caused by online social cruelty. Retrieved from
http://www.asdk12.org/MiddleLink/
AVB/bully_topics/EducatorsGuide_Cyberbullying.pdf. Last accessed 17 July
2013.

Willard, Nancy. (2005). Educator’s Guide to Cyberbullying and Cyberthreats.

Available: http://www.accem.org/pdf/cbcteducator.pdf. Last accessed 17 July
2013.

Willard, N. (2007). The authority and responsibility of school officials

in responding to cyberbullying. Journal of Adolescent Health. 41(6), 64–65.

Williams, K. R., and Guerra, N. G. (2007). Prevalence and predictors of Internet

bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health. 41(6), 14–21.

260
Wilton, C., and Campbell, M. (2011). An exploration of the reasons
why adolescents engage in traditional and cyber bullying. Journal of
Educational Sciences and Psychology. 1(2), 101-109.

Wolfe, D.A., Crooks, C., Jaffe, P., Chiodo, D., Hughes, R., Ellis, W., Stitt, L. and
Donner, A. (2009). A school-based program to prevent adolescent dating
violence: A cluster randomized trial. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent
Medicine. 163(8), 692-699.

Wölfer, R., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Zagorscak, P., Jäkel, A., Göbel, K., and
Scheithauer, H. (2014). Prevention 2.0: Targeting cyberbullying @ school.
Prevention Science. 15(6), 879-887.

Wong-Lo, M., and Bullock, L. M. (2011). Digital aggression: Cyberworld meets

school bullies. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and
Youth. 55(2), 64-70.

Wright, K. (2005). Researching internet-based populations: advantages and

disadvantages of online survey research, online questionnaire authoring software
packages, and web survey services. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication. 10(3).

Ybarra, M. L. and Mitchell, K. J. (2004). Online aggressor/targets, aggressors,

and targets: A comparison of associated youth characteristics. Journal of Child
Psychology. 45(7), 308-316.

Ybarra, M. L., and Mitchell, J. K. (2008). How risky are social networking sites? A
comparison of places online where youth sexual solicitation and harassment
occurs. Pediatrics. 121(2), 350-357.

Ybarra M., Mitchell K., Wolak J., and Finkelhor D. (2006). Examining
characteristics and associated distress related to Internet harassment: findings
from the Second Youth Internet Safety Survey. Pediatrics. 118(4), 1169 –77.

Ybarra, M. L., Mitchell, K. J., and Finkelhor, D. (2007). Internet prevention

messages: Targeting the right online behaviors. Archives of Pediatric and
Adolescent medicine. 161(2),138-145.

Yilmaz, H. (2010). An examination of preservice teachers’ perceptions of

cyberbullying. Eurasia Journal of Mathematic, Science on Technology Education.
6(4), 263–270.

Yoon, J., and Bauman, S. (2014). Teachers: a critical but overlooked component
of bullying prevention and intervention. Theory into Practice. 53(4), 308-314.

Zohrabi, M. (2013). Mixed Method Research: Instruments, Validity, Reliability

and Reporting Findings. Theory in Practice in Language Studies. 3(2), 254–262.

261
262