Project Management Techniques

A project is a set of activities that ends with specific accomplishment and which has non-
routine tasks, distinct start/finish dates, and time, money, people, and equipment resource
constraints (Jones, 2005). It is essential that projects are successfully completed, and are
within time, quality, and cost parameters (Burke, 2002). Several tools are used in the design,
and implementation of projects.

Budget
 It is a financial plan that shows the resources that are required in a project/programme
 It projects expenditure that is allocated to cost centre (departments) and cost units
(activities)
 Budget helps to ensure that the project/programme is completed within set cost
parameters.
 Budgets also help to prevent unauthorised expenditure. Any expenditure not budgeted
for should not be made
 Sometimes, there are variations in terms of the expenses for cost units and costs
centres and there can be excesses and shortages in some areas. When this happens,
there can be transfer of money from one cost centre/unit to the other (virement)

WBS
A number of activities are to be conducted to ensure the launch of the project. These
activities are specified in the work-breakdown structure (WBS). According to Wright (1998),
a WBS contains the smallest work components of a project and the activities should have a
clear start and end dates. A WBS provides a scope for project costing and is an entry point
into any project. Table 1 shows the work-breakdown structure.

Table 1: Work-Breakdown Structure for Hospital Project

Activity Description Predecessors Duration
(Months)
A Select administrative and medical staff - 3
B Select site and do site survey - 2
C Select equipment A 2
D Prepare final construction plans and layout B 2
E Bring utilities to the site B 6
F Interview applicants and fill positions in A 2
nursing support staff, maintenance, and
security
G Purchase and take delivery of equipment C 5
H Construct the hospital D 10
I Develop an information system A 4
J Install the equipment E, G, H 1

Gantt Chart
A Gantt Chart is a graphic way of portraying the project using horizontal lines that represent
activities that must be completed and the time they should be completed (Krahn, 2006).
According to Durfee and Chase (2003), Gantt charts are a project planning tool that can be
used to represent the timing of tasks required to complete a project. Because Gantt charts are
simple to understand and easy to construct, they are used by most project managers for all but
the most complex projects (Clark, 2002).

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In a Gantt Chart, each task takes up on row. Dates run along the top in increments of days,
weeks or months, depending on the total length of the project. The expected time for each
task is represented by a horizontal bar whose left end marks the expected beginning of the
task and whose right end marks the expected completion date. Tasks may run sequentially, in
parallel or overlapping (Nancy, 2004).

Use of Gantt Chart and WBS in a Project (Hospital Construction)

In constructing a Gantt chart, one is advised to keep the tasks to a manageable number (no
more than 15 or 20) so that the chart fits on a single page (Project management Institute,
2008). A number of steps are followed when drafting a Gantt Chart (Wong, 2008). These are;
 Identification of all tasks or project components. It is vital for one to identify all tasks
or projects components. According to Ultimate Business Library (2003), the project
manager should make sure the team includes people with first-hand knowledge of the
project so that during the brainstorming session all component tasks needed to
complete the project are captured. A WBS is prepared when the project has been
broken down into specific tasks.
 Identification of the first task that must be completed
 Identification of any other tasks that can be started simultaneously with task number 1
 Identify the next task that must be completed
 The process of scheduling tasks is continued until all component tasks are sequenced.
 Identification of task durations.
 Construction of the Gantt chart
The Gantt Chart for the construction of a hospital is shown in Table 2. It is advisable to draft
a Gantt Chart through using information from a work-breakdown structure.

Table 2: Gantt Chart

Activity Time (Months)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J

The Gantt Chart (Table 2) shows the expected duration of the project. It shows that the
hospital is expected to take 15 months to construct.

Advantages of WBS
 Helps to ensure that all activities to be done in a project/programme are indentified
and none is overlooked
 The scope of work to be done is determined through a WBS

Limitation of WBS

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  It can also be used for projects that have been implemented somewhere before. In
case of totally new projects, some activities may be overlooked, only to be known
during the implementation of the project.
 Projects are unique, in terms of location and contextual factors and some activities can
just emerge during the implementation stage. There might be unforeseen
circumstances, for example the case of Tokwe-Mukorsi Dam, when there was a need
to provide shelter to villagers affected by floods in 2015. The case of Kariba dam,
when there was a need to rescue animal trapped by the dam water.
 WBS cannot indicate when the project should be completed and does not show the
link between activities, hence the need for other tools like Gantt Chart and Network
Analysis.

Advantages of Gantt Charts

Gantt charts are useful tools for planning and scheduling projects. They allow a project
manager to assess how long a project should take, determine the resources needed, and lay
out the order in which tasks need to be carried out. They are useful in managing the
dependencies between tasks (Project Management Institute, 2001). When a project is under
way, Gantt charts are useful for monitoring its progress. One can immediately see what
should have been achieved at a point in time, and can therefore take remedial action to bring
the project back on course. This can be essential for the successful and profitable
implementation of the project. Specific advantages of Gantt charts were given by the Project
Management Institute (2007) as follows;
 Gantt charts help in planning out the tasks that need to be completed
 They give a basis for scheduling when these tasks will be carried out
 Gantt charts allow to plan the allocation of resources needed to complete the project,
and
 They help you to work out the critical path for a project where one must complete it
by a particular date.

In addition, Tinnirello (1999) argued that, when a project is under way, Gantt charts help to
monitor whether the project is on schedule. They are also simple to prepare, information is
portrayed in easy to understand format, and they make it easy to summarize information.
Moreover, PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2004) believed that Gantt charts are essential in time
management. Time is a very important resource in project management and in some cases it
can be referred to as a constraint. Time is also a measure of project success. This view is
supported by Kerzner (1989) who contends that successful project management can be
defined as having achieved the project objectives within time and cost, at the desired
performance or technology level and while utilizing assigned resources effectively and
efficiently. Kirkpatrick (1991) supports this view by arguing that time is one of the three
basic elements in a project. The other two basic elements are tasks and resources.

Kerzner (1989) further argues that it is extremely critical for project managers to manage
their time effectively, and Gantt charts can be helpful in this endeavour. He believes that if
the project manager cannot control time, then he/she will control nothing else in the project.
Time is a resource, which when lost or misplaced is gone forever.

Time is often seen as a constraint and effective time management principles must be
employed to make it a resource. Project managers have developed techniques for making sure
that time becomes a resource. These techniques include the Gantt chart.

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Disadvantages of Gantt Charts
A number of weaknesses are observed when one uses Gantt charts. According to Wright
(1988), Gantt charts do not show effects of going off schedule, and are difficult to use for
detailed schedule analysis. Also, Gantt charts do not show the dependency of each activity or
schedule method, and do not show the uncertainty presented during the activity’s duration or
events.

Despite the mentioned disadvantages, Gantt charts are useful tools for managing projects.
They need to be complemented by other tools like Critical Path Method (CPM) or Network
Analysis.

Network Analysis/CPM
Time is a very important resource in project management and in some cases it can be referred
to as a constraint. Time is also a measure of project success. This view is supported by
Kerzner (1989) who contends that successful project management can be defined as having
achieved the project objectives within time and cost, at the desired performance or
technology level and while utilizing assigned resources effectively and efficiently.
Kirkpatrick (1991) supports this view by arguing that time is one of the three basic elements
in a project. The other two basic elements are tasks and resources.

Kerzner (1989) further argues that it is extremely critical for project managers to manage
their time effectively. He believes that if the project manager cannot control time, then he/she
will control nothing else in the project. Time is a resource, which when lost or misplaced is
gone forever.

Time is often seen as a constraint and effective time management principles must be
employed to make it a resource. Project managers have developed techniques for making sure
that time becomes a resource. These techniques include Network Analysis/CPM. Wright
(1998) said that CPM is a technique for modelling the logic of a project with the aid of a
network. CPM provides an approach for ensuring that a project is completed in time. CPM
helps in prioritisation in terms of the conduct of activities as the critical activities, which
should not be delayed, are identified. The amount of time in which the non-critical activities
can be delayed (float) is also established.

Advantages of CPM
 Used to aid the planning and control of complicated projects
 A network diagram is constructed to show sequential relationships between the
various components. This enables planners to calculate the minimum time needed to
complete the project and identify critical activities where delay would prevent
completion of the overall project within the minimum time specified. By identifying
these critical activities, managers can pursue a more rational approach to the planning
of resources.
 identify activities that cause, or are likely to cause, bottlenecks and delays.
 determine when resources and components are needed.
 plan the use of resources.

Limitations
 not suitable for new projects that have never been implemented somewhere.
 Projects are unique and circumstances may change, leading to the shortening or
lengthening of activity durations.

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  CPM is only concerned about one aspect of the project, which is time. It does not
focus on other issues like quality.

Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

PERT is a planning tool and a time control technique. Davis (1976) said that PERT uses
three time estimates to determine a probabilistic distribution of activity times, which
emphasizes minimum project duration while downgrading consideration of cost restraints.
The three time estimates are optimistic (minimum time), likely (normal conditions) and
pessimistic (maximum time). The time estimates are combined to determine the expected
duration of an activity. According to Davis (1976) PERT was specifically designed to
overcome problems inherent in determining activity time estimates.

The formula for obtaining realistic activity time is as follows;

a + 4 (b) + c = Activity time
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Where; ‘a’ is optimistic time

‘b’ is likely time
‘c’ is pessimistic time
Example
Activity Z
2-2-5

The most probable duration is; 2+ 4 (2) + 5 = 2.5 units of time

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Log-Frame Analysis (LFA)

A project can be summarized in the form of a logical framework approach (log-frame). Log-
frame is a tool for assisting in project design. It shows the relationship between various
components, that is, goal, objectives, outputs and inputs (activities). The logframe provides a
road for the owners of the project and it ensures systematic thinking and planning. The
logframe is also important in that it contains information for monitoring and evaluation of the
project. LFA is an analytical, presentational and management tool which can help planners
and
managers:
 Summarise the project;
 analyse the existing situation during project preparation;
 establish a logical hierarchy of means by which objectives will be reached;
 identify potential risks;
 establish how outputs and outcomes might best be monitored and evaluated;
 present a summary of the project in a standard format; and
 monitor and review projects during implementation.
A Logical Framework Matrix identifies the main elements of a proposed project and
highlights the causal relationship between them. The order of Logical Framework levels is as
follows:
• Goals

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 • Outcomes
• Outputs
• Activities

Activities lead to Outputs, Outputs lead to Outcomes, and Outcomes lead to Goals.

SUMMARY OBJECTIVELY MEANS OF IMPORTANT

VERIFIABLE VERIFICATION ASSUMPTIONS
INDICATORS
GOAL

OBJECTIVES

OUTPUTS

ACTIVITIES

Summary
BUDGET: I want to determine how much money is needed, and when

WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE: I want to organize project work

GANTT CHART: I want to develop a project schedule

NETWORK ANALYSIS: I want to accurately estimate project activities

LOGICAL FRAMEWORK: I want to plan out the logic of the intervention

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 References

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Management Practices to Project Success, Project Management Institute Research
Conference Proceedings, London.

Burke, E. (2002), Project Portfolio Management, Project Management Institute Houston

Chapter Meeting, Houston.

Clark, W. (2002), The Gantt Chart, Third Edition, Pitman, London.

Davis E.W (Editor) (1976), Project Management, Techniques, Application and Managerial
Issues, American Institute of Industrial Engineers, Norcross, Georgia.

Durfee, W. and Chase, T. (2003), Brief Tutorial on Gantt charts, University of Minnesota.
Jones, M.P. (2005), Practical Project Management, Dorset House, New York.

Kerzner H (1989), Project Management, A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling and

Controlling. Third Edition, Van Nostrandan Reinhold, New York.

Kirkpatrick C. (Editor) (1991), Project Rehabilitation in Developing Countries, Routledge,

London.

Krahn, J. (2006), Effective Project Leadership: A Combination of Project Manager Skills and
Competencies in Context, Project Management Institute Research Conference Proceedings,
London.

Nancy, R. (2004), The Quality Toolbox, Second Edition, ASQ Quality Press, New York.
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2004), Boosting Business Performance through Programme and
Project Management, London.

Project Management Institute (2001), Project Management Fact Book, Second Edition,
London.

Project Management Institute (2007), Project Management Salary Survey, Fifth Edition,
London.

Project Management Institute (2008), A Guide to the Project Management Body of

Knowledge, Fourth Edition, London.

Tinnirello P.C (Editor) (1999), Project Management, Best Practice Series, Auerbach, Boca
Raton, Florida.

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Foremost Business Thinkers, New York.

Wong, V. (2008), Specialization and Globalization, Project Management Institute, London.

Wright E.A. (1998), Practical Project Planning, University of Zimbabwe Publications, Mount
Pleasant, Harare.