Phy-102 Physics BSC Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Index

PHY-102
Physics
BSc Aircraft Maintenance Engineering
INDEX
MODULE 1 Bonding in Solids 4
MODULE 2 Principle of Quantum Mechanics 17
MODULE 3 Magnetic Properties 33
MODULE 4 Semiconductors 56
MODULE 5 Lasers 86
MODULE 6 Fibre Optics 97
01
CONTENTS
MODULE 1 Bonding in solids
MODULE 1A Introduction
MODULE 1B Cohesive energy
MODULE 1C Calculation of cohesive energy of ionic solids
MODULE 1d Cohesive energy of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) crystal
Solved problems
Information for quiz
MODULE 2 Principles of Quantum Mechanics

MODULE 2B Derivation of de Broglie Equation for matter wave
MODULE 2C Davisson and Germer’s Experiment
MODULE 2D G.P Thomson’s Experiment
MODULE 2E Schroedinger Wave Equation(Time Independent)
MODULE 2F Physical Significance of Wave Function
MODULE 2G Particle in a Potential box
Solved problems
MODULE 3 Magnetic properties

MODULE 3B Origin of magnetic moment
MODULE 3C Magnetic moment due to electro spin & Bohr magnetron
MODULE 3D Classification of magnetic materials
MODULE 3E Dia-magnetism
MODULE 3F Para-magnetism
MODULE 3G Magnetic domains
MODULE 3H Ferro – magnetism
MODULE 3I Domain theory of Ferro – magnetism
MODULE 3J Hysteresis curve
MODULE 3K Ferri – magnetism - Ferrites & their applications
MODULE 3L Anti ferro – magnetism
MODULE 3M Requirements of magnetic materials for different purposes
Solved problems
02
MODULE 4 Semiconductors
MODULE 4B Intrinsic Semiconductors
MODULE 4C Extrinsic Semiconductors
MODULE 4D Minority carrier life time
MODULE 4E Drift and Diffusion
MODULE 4F Einstein relation
MODULE 4G Equation of continuity
MODULE 4H Hall effect
MODULE 4I P-N junction
MODULE 4J Width of depletion layer of the P-N junction
MODULE 4K Volt-ampere characteristics
MODULE 4L Zener diode
MODULE 4M Varactor (varicap) diode
MODULE 4N Light Emitting Diode (LED)
MODULE 4O Solar cells
Solved problems
MODULE 5 Lasers
MODULE 5B Einstein coefficients
MODULE 5C Pumping and population inversion
MODULE 5D Ruby laser
MODULE 5E He-Ne laser
MODULE 5F Semiconductor laser
MODULE 5G Applications of laser
Solved problems
MODULE 6 Fibre optics

MODULE 6B Principle of optical fibre
MODULE 6C Numerical aperture
MODULE 6D Step-index fibre - transmission of signal
MODULE 6E Graded index fibre - transmission of signal
MODULE 6F Optical fibres in communication and sensing application
Solved problems
03
MODULE 1
Bonding in Solids
Module 1A. Introduction
Matter exists in three different states, namely, solid, liquid and vapour (or gas)
and is composed of atoms and molecules. The properties of matter are essentially
dependent on the way, the atoms and the molecules are arranged inside. Atoms are
closely packed in solids. These atoms are arranged in a particular fashion which is
determined by strength, character and directionality of the binding forces. The adjacent
atoms are held together by bonds which are made up of attractive and repulsive forces
that just balance each other. The process of holding the atoms together is called bonding.
The type of bonding plays a very important role in determining physical, chemical,
electrical and other properties.
It is known that inter-atomic forces or bonds hold together the individual atoms of
solids. Thus the solids are considerably strong and slightly elastic. The solids can not be
easily compressed because in addition to the attractive forces there are also repulsive
forces. The attractive forces are basically electrostatic in solids. The classification of
different types of bonding is strongly dependent on the electronic structure of atoms in a
solid.
Chemical bonds are classified under primary and secondary, according to their
strength and directionality. Primary bonds are inter-atomic, where as secondary bonds are
intermolecular. The attractive forces in primary bonds are directly associated with the
valance electrons. The outer shell containing valance electrons is in high energy state and
relatively more unstable. But it can become stable by sharing of electrons i.e., either
gaining or loosing, and thus forming atomic or primary bonds.
The primary bonds are of three principal types namely ionic, covalent and
metallic. The position assumed by the bond electrons during the formation of the bond
forms the basis of distinguishing different types of bonds. Vanderwaals and hydrogen
bonds are typical examples for secondary bonds.
The strength of a bond is best measured by the energy required to break it or the
amount of heat energy required to vapourize the solid, where the atoms are separated by
infinite distance. Also the melting and boiling points depend on strength of bonds in the
substance. Stronger the bonds higher are the values of melting and boiling points.
An attractive inter-atomic force exists between atoms to hold them together. This
force is also responsible for formation of a crystal. This means that the energy of the
crystal is lower than that of free atoms of it by an amount equal to the energy required to
pull the atoms in crystal apart, so that, the atoms are set free. This is called binding
energy or cohesive energy of the crystal.
04
When a solid is compressed repulsive forces come into play while attractive
forces keep the atoms together. The stored energy or potential energy of a material is sum
of the individual energies of atoms in addition to their interaction energy.
Assuming that the atom consists of moving electric charges which may attract or
repel each other as they come close. The potential energy due to the attraction is negative
as the atoms do the work of attraction while the repulsive energy is positive since
external work is done in bringing the atoms together and it is inversely proportional to
some power of the inter-atomic separation x. The net potential energy is sum of these two
terms.
P Q
Suppose the bonding force between
two atoms P and Q separated by a distance
x, exerting attractive and repulsive forces on x
each other is given by (Fig 1.1)
Fig. 1.1. Two atoms separated by a distance x.
A B
_____ _____
F(x) = - where N > M (1.1)
xM xN
A, B, M and N are constants whose values depend on the nature of the molecule. The first
term is attractive force while the second term represents the repulsive force.
At equilibrium position, i.e, at x = x0 , F(x) = 0
Therefore, from equation (1.1)
A B
_____ _____
0 = -
x0M x0N
A B
_____ _____
Hence, =
x0M x0N
1
N–M
B B
or xN0 – M = ____
 x0 = ___
A A
05
Module 1B. Cohesive Energy
The bonding force (F) between two atoms P and Q is given by equation (1.1), that is,
A B
_____ _____
F(x) = - where N > M
M N
x x
The potential energy is obtained by integrating the above equation
A B
____
U(x)=  F(x) dx = - ____ dx
M
x xN
= (A x -M - B x -N ) dx
A x1 - M B x1 - N
_________ ___________
= - +C , where C is constant of integration
1–M 1-N
A 1 B 1
_______ _______ _______ _______
=- x + x +C
M-1 N -1
M–1 x N-1 x
a b
U(x) = - ____ + _____ + C (1.2)
xm xn
A B
_____ ______
where a= ; b = ; m = M – 1 and n =N–1
M-1 N-1
When x =  ; U(x) = 0
Therefore, C = 0.
Hence,
a b
U(x) = - ____ + _____ (1.3)
xm xn
x is the distance between the centers of the two atoms, a is positive constant which
determines the strength of attractive force while b also is positive constant which
determines the strength of repulsive force. m and n are positive numbers.
06
Fig. 1.2.(a) Curve between forces Vs distance x between atoms (b) Curve between Energy Vs distance x
For a particular value of x = x0, U(x) will be minimum and the two atoms form a
stable lattice i.e., a molecule. Then the spacing between the atoms x 0 is known as
equilibrium spacing of the system U(x) will be minimum only when n > m.
The bonding energy or cohesive energy is defined as the energy of formation of

one K mol. of a substance from its atoms or ions. It is equal to but opposite in sign to
disassociation energy of the substance.
Module 1C. Calculation of Cohesive Energy of Ionic Solids
The energy of the system at equilibrium spacing x = x0 is called energy of

cohesion or bonding energy. This is also called as energy of disassociation because this is
the energy required to disassociate the two atoms of the molecule.
From equation (1.3)

a b
U(x) = - ____ + _____
xm xn
U(x) is minimum for x = x0, that is,
a b
_____ _____
Umin = - + (1.4)
x 0m x 0n
07
Differentiating the above equation,
dU ma nb
_____ _____ ______
= - =0
dx x = x0 x0m+1 x0n+1
Hence,
ma nb
_____ ________
=
x0m+1 x0n+1
b n x0n+1
__ ___ ________
= = x0n + 1 - m – 1 = x0n - m
a m x0m+1
b n
 x0n = x0m ___ __
(1.5)
a m
Substituting this in equation (1.4), that is,

a b
Umin = - _____ + _____
x 0m x 0n
a b a m
Umin = - _____ + _____ ___ ___
x 0m x0m b n
a am a m a
= - ___ + _____ = - ____ + ___ ____
x0m n x 0m x0 m n x0 m
a m a
____ ___ ____
= - +
x0 m n x0 m
or
a m
Umin = - _____ 1- ___
(1.6)
x 0m n
Hence, it may be concluded that the repulsive forces are due to overlap of outer electronic
shells between atoms, molecules or ions approaching each other while forces of attraction
are due to interaction between outer electrons of the atoms. This results in the formation
of a substantially stable aggregate independent molecule. Strong electric fields or high
temperature or mechanical strain may cause disassociation of atoms.
08
Module 1D. Cohesive energy of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Crystal
A typical example of an ionic bond is the bond between the positive sodium ion
and negative chloride ion of sodium chloride (NaCl) crystal.
(a) Atoms (b) Ions (c) Ionic molecule
The energy required to remove the outer electron from Na atom is 5.1 ev and
sodium atom becomes Na+ ion.
It can be written as
Na + 5.1 eV  Na+ + e- (1.7)
When this electron is removed from Na atom and then added to Cl atom, 3.6 eV
of energy is released, as the electron affinity of chlorine is 3.6 eV. The chlorine atom
becomes Cl –1 ion.
Cl + e-  Cl - + 3.6 eV (1.8)
Thus to create a positive sodium ion and a negative chlorine ion at infinity, a net
amount of 5.1 eV – 3.6 eV = 1.5 eV is spent. That is,
Na + Cl + 1.5 eV  Na+ + Cl -
The electrostatic attraction between Na + and Cl – ions brings them together to the
equilibrium spacing where the potential energy will be minimum. The energy released in
the formation of NaCl molecule is called bond energy or cohesive energy of the
molecule.
In case of NaCl the equilibrium distance x0 = 0.24 nm.

* Electron volt (eV) is the unit for energy. It is defined as amount of work done in moving an
electron through a potential difference of 1 volt. 1 ev= 1.602x10-19 J
09
e2
_____________
The force F = -
4  x02
-e2
+ - ___________
Cohesive energy between Na and Cl = = - 6 eV
4  x0
for e = 1.602 x 10-19 C  = 8.85 x 10-12
Thus, the energy released in the formation of NaCl molecule starting from Na and Cl
neutral atoms is ( 5.1 – 3.6 – 6 ) eV. That is,
5.1 – 9.6 = - 4.5 ev
Thus, the entire process of formation of NaCl molecule results in evolving an energy of
6 – 1.5 = 4.5 eV.
So it can be said that an amount of 4.5 eV is required to disassociate NaCl molecule into
Na and Cl ions.
10
Solved Problems
Example 1 : In an AB molecule, suppose A atoms has an ionization potential energy

5 eV and B atom has an electron affinity of 4 eV. What is the energy
required to transfer an electron from A to B when they are at a distance of
5 Å?
Solution:
Given, x = 5 Å = 5 x 10 -10 m
Ionization Potential (IP) of A = 5 eV
Electron Affinity (EA) of B = 4 eV
e2
___________
The potential energy of AB system is U = - joules
4  0 xe
e
___________
= - eV
4  0 xe
1.6 x 10-19 x 9 x 109
________________________
= - = - 2. 88 eV
-10
5 x 10
Now the energy required to transfer an electron from A to B atom is
Er = E + U = IP - EA + U = 5 – 4 – 2.88 = 1.88 eV
Example 2 : Suppose ionization energy of K is 4.1 eV and the electron affinity of Cl is

. 3.6 eV. How much energy is required to form (i) K+ and Cl – ion pair from
a pair of K and Cl atoms ? (ii) What must be the separation between K +
and Cl – ion pair if their total energy is to be zero?
Solution:
Given, Ionization Potential (IP) of K = 4.1 eV
Electron Affinity (EA) of Cl = 3.6 eV.
The net energy required to form the ion pair is E = IP - EA = 4.1 – 3.6
= 0.5 eV
Now, if their total energy is to be zero, E = Ec, the Coulomb energy.
e2 e
___________
Therefore, Ec = 0.5 = - joules = - ___________ eV
4  0 x 4  0 x
e 1.6 x 10-19 x 9 x 109
Therefore, x = _ ______________ = _______________________ = 28.8 x 10-10 m
4  0 x 0.5 0.5
= 28.8 Å
11
Example 3: The potential energy of a diatomic molecule in terms of the interatomic
separation x is given by
A B
U(x) = - ____ - ____
x2 x10
where A = 1.44 x 10-39 Jm2 and B = 2.19 x 10-115 Jm10. Calculate the
equilibrium spacing xe and the dissociation energy.
Solution :
Given, A = 1.44 x 10-39 Jm2
B = 2.19 x 10-115 Jm10
The exponents n = 2 and m = 10.
We know that the potential energy U ( x = xe ) is minimum, therefore

differentiating the given potential energy equation and setting it equal to
zero, we have
dU 2A 10 B
____ ______ ______
= - =0, this gives us
dx x = xe xe3 xe11
1/8
5B 5 x 2.19 x 10-115 1/8
____ ____________________
xe = = = 4.08 x 10-10 m
-39
A 1.44 x 10
Now the dissociation energy can be obtained as
A n 4A 4 x 1.44 x 10-39
____ ___ ______ _____________________
D = 1- = = Joules
xe2 m 5 xe2 5 x (4.08 x 10 ) -10 2
4 x 4.144 x 10-39
_____________________________________
= eV = 4.33 x 10-2 eV
-10 2 -19
5 x (4.08 x 10 ) x 1.6 x 10
12
Example 4: Calculate the potential energy of the system of Na + and Cl – ions when they
are at a distance of 2 Å.
Solution:
Given xe = 2 Å = 2 x 10-10 m.
At equilibrium distance, the potential is minimum and for one NaCl molecule it is
given by
e2 e
___________ ___________
U= - joules = - eV
4  0 xe 4  0 xe
1.6 x 10-19 x 9 x 109

_________________________
= - = - 7.2 eV
2 x 10-10
13
INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR QUIZ
 Matter is composed of atoms and molecules.
 Properties of matter are essentially dependently on the arrangement of atoms and

molecules inside.
 The arrangement of atoms is determined by the strength, character and directionality

of binding forces.
 The process of holding the atoms is called bonding.
 The type of bond determines the physical, chemical and other properties of solids.
 Solids are strong and slightly elastic.
 Solids cannot be compressed because of repulsive forces developed
 Electronic structure of atoms in solids determines the type of bonding
 Chemical bonds are of primary and secondary types according to their strength and
directionality.
 Primary bonds are interatomic while secondary bonds are intermolecular
 Primary bonds are of three types namely ionic, covalent and metallic
 Hydrogen and Vanderwaals are secondary bonds
 The strength of bond is measured by the amount of energy required to break it.
 Melting and boiling points of substances depend on the strength of the bond.
 Stronger the bond higher is the value of melting and boiling points.
 Attractive interatomic force is responsible for the formation of a crystal.
 Cohesive energy or binding energy is the energy required to pull the atoms in a
crystal apart so that they are set free.
 The potential energy due to attraction is negative as atoms do work in the process
14
 Repulsive energy is positive as external work is done
 The energy of a system at equilibrium spacing x = x 0 is called cohesive or

bonding energy.
 The bonding energy or cohesive energy may also be defined as the energy of
formation of one K mol. of a substance from its atoms or ions.
 Bonding or cohesive energy is equal but opposite in sign to disassociation energy of a

substance
 Disassociation of atoms is caused by strong electric field, high temperature or

mechanical strain.
 5.1 eV of energy is required to remove the outer electron of Na atom.
 Electron affinity of chlorine is 3.6 eV
 Equilibrium distance of NaCl is 0.24nm
 4.5eV amount of energy is required to disassociate NaCl molecule
 Electron volt is the unit for energy and is defined as the amount of work done in
moving an electron through a potential difference of 1 volt
 1eV =1.602 x 10-19 J
15
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
 At equilibrium the distance between two atoms is
X0 = (B/A)1/N-M
 Cohesive energy Ux= (-a/xm ) + (b/xn) where a = A/(M-1), b = B/(N-1), m = M-1,
n = N-1
 Cohesive energy of ionic solid Umin = -a/xom [ (1-(m/n)]
 The bonding force between two atoms
fx =(A / xM ) – (B/XN) ; N>M
16
Module 2
Principles of
Quantum Mechanics
Light exhibits the phenomenon like interference, diffraction, polarization, photo
electric effect, Compton effect, discrete emission and absorption. The phenomenon like
interference, diffraction and polarization can be well explained on the basis of wave
theory of light. These properties show that light possesses wave nature. On the other
hand, the phenomenon of photo electric effect, Compton effect and discrete emission and
absorption can be explained only on the basis of quantum theory of light. According to
quantum theory, light is propagated in small packets or bundles each of energy h. These
packets are called photons or quanta and behave like corpuscles i.e., particles. Thus, the
latter phenomena, like photoelectric effect, Compton effect etc. indicate the particle or
corpuscular nature of light. So, it is evident that light behaves like a wave as well as like a
particle. This is the dual nature possessed by light.
Louis de Broglie, in 1923, proposed that the idea of dual nature of matter should
be extended to all micro particles like electrons, protons, etc.
According to de Broglie, every moving particle is associated with it wave

properties. If a particle of mass m is moving with a velocity v, then the wave length of the
wave associated with it is given by
h h
 = _______ = _____
(2.1)
mv p
where h is Planck’s constant ( h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.sec) and p = mv, the momentum of the
particle.
17
Module 2B. Derivation of deBroglie equation for matter wave
Let us consider a material particle such as an electron associated with a standing
wave system in the region of space occupied by the particle. Further, let χ be the quantity
that undergoes periodic changes giving rise to matter wave, then χ at any instant t in
space at (x, y, z) is given as
χ = χ 0 sin t , Since  = 2 

= χ 0 sin 2  t (2.2)
Here,  is the frequency of the particle observed by an observer at rest relative to the
particle and χ 0 is amplitude at the point (x, y, z).
According to the theory of relativity, from inverse Lorentz transformation, the time
v x
_____
t +
c2
______________
t = (2.3)
v2
_____
1-
2
c
where v is velocity of the particle in +x direction and c is the velocity of light. Then,
χ = χ 0 sin 2 t + ( v x/ c2 ) ] / ( 1 – v2/c2 )½ (2.4)
The standard wave equation is given by
χ = χ 0 sin [ (2  T ) ( t + x/ u )] (2.5)
where T is periodic time and u is phase velocity.
Comparing equation (2.4) and (2.5),
c2 1 
___ ___
u = and 
= (2.6)
v T v2
_____
1 -
c2
Einstein’s mass-energy relation is given by
E = m0 c2 (2.7)
Also, E =h (2.8)
 h = m0 c2
18
m0 c2
_______
 = (2.9)
h
Substituting this in equation (2.6), we get
 m0 c2 ) / [ h ( 1 – v2/c2 )½ ] = m c2 / h
as m = m0 / ( 1 – v2/c2 )½
The wave length of material particle
Velocity u
_____________ ____
 = =
frequency 
c2 / v h
___________ ______
= =
2
mc /h mv
 h
_____
 =
mv - de Broglie equation (2.10)
Thus a material particle of mass m moving with velocity v is associated with it a wave
whose wave length  is given as h
 = _____
mv
Case 1 :
In case of non-relativistic case ( v << c)
1
Kinetic Energy EK = ___ m v2
2
m2 v2
2 _______
or 2 EK = mv =
m
2 m E K = m 2 v2
or m v =  2 m EK (2.11)
19
Therefore, de Broglie wavelength of particle of kinetic energy EK is
h h
_____ _____________
 = =
mv  2 m EK (2.12)
Case 2 :
In case of a charged particle carrying a charge q and accelerated through a
potential difference of V volts, the kinetic energy E k = q V.
Therefore, from equation (5.12), the de Broglie wavelength

h h
 = ___________
= _____________ (2.13)
 2 m EK 2mqV
Case 3:
Similarly in case of a material particle (say neutron) in thermal equilibrium at
temperature T possessing Maxwellian distribution of velocities (v rms), the kinetic energy
is given as
1 2
EK = ___ m vrms
2
3
= ___ k T
2
where k is Boltzman’s constant, k = 1.38 x 10-23 joule/K
Hence, the de Broglie wavelength for a material particle at temperature T is given as
h h
 = ___________ = _____________________
 2 m EK 3
2 m ___ kT
2
h (2.14)
 = ___________
3mkT
It is to be noted that a material particle in motion involves two types of velocities namely,
the velocity ‘v’ which refers to the mechanical motion of the particle and the other is u
which refers to the propagation of the associated wave.
c2
___
u and v are related as u =
v
20
Module 2C. Davisson and Germer’s Experiment
Two American physicists, Davisson and Germer, were the first to show the
experimental evidence for wave like properties of a beam of material particles. They have
also succeeded in measuring de Broglie wave length for slow electrons accelerated by
some potential difference.
Fig. 2.1 Davisson and Germer’s experimental setup
The experimental arrangement consists of an electron gun E from which a well

focussed strong beam of electrons are produced. The tungsten filament F of the electron
gun is heated to red so that electrons are emitted due to thermionic emission. These
electrons are then accelerated in electric field of known potential difference and
collimated by suitable slits producing a fine beam of electrons. This beam is made to fall
on a large single crystal of Nickel target T.
The electrons are reflected from the crystal

in different directions. The angular distribution
being measured using a Faraday cylinder C
connected to a sensitive galvanometer G. The
Faraday cylinder (collector) is capable of collecting
reflected electron beams lying between angle 20
and 90. The Faraday cylinder is surrounded by
another protecting cylinder to which a retarding
potential is applied, so that only those electrons
possessing nearly the incident velocity are only
received but not the secondary slow electrons
produced by collisions with atoms. Fig. 2.2
21
There is a selective reflection depending upon the incident electrons. Keeping the
positions of source and chamber fixed, if the velocity of electrons is gradually increased
it is observed that the number of electrons reaching the collector follows the curve shown
in the figure 2.2. This selective reflection of electrons is similar to that of X-rays. The
selective reflections can well be explained if it is assumed that the electrons are
associated with waves whose wavelength varies with velocity in accordance with de
Broglie equation  = h/mv. The selective reflection may be explained using Bragg’s law,
i.e. 2d sin  = n , where n is order of diffraction and 2d is the lattice spacing of nickel
crystal. With this experimental arrangement it is possible to determine the wave length of
electron wave using Bragg’s law. This value was in good agreement with those given by
de Broglie matter wave equation. This experiment also is a definite evidence for the wave
behaviour of electron beam.
Module 2D. G.P. Thomson’s Experiment
Fig. 2.3 (a) G.P.Thomson’s experimental setup (b) Diffraction pattern of electrons
G. P. Thomson in 1928, carried investigations with high speed electrons

accelerated by potential differences, in the range of 10,000 – 50,000 volts. Highly
energetic electron beam is produced by a cathode C and passes through a diaphram D so
as to get a fine beam of electrons. This beam of electrons is then made to fall on the
metallic film F (10-6 cm) of gold or aluminum. The emergent electron beam is then
recorded by a photographic plate P. The complete set of the apparatus is exhausted to a
very high vacuum. Otherwise, the electrons loose their energy due to collisions with gas
molecules.
The photograph when developed, found to be consisting of distinct circular sharp

rings. These circular rings are similar to those obtained by powder method (Debye-
Scherrer) using X-rays for crystal analysis.
On the other hand if the electrons have particle nature, the foil will scatter them
towards the photographic plate so as to form rectangular patch whose intensity falls off
from centre.
22
The metallic foil consists of random distribution of metallic crystals. The crystals,
at proper angle, scatter the electrons in accordance with Bragg’s law. Due to intersection
of the cone of diffraction with photographic plate, circular rings are produced. To verify
that the pattern produced is only by diffraction of electron but not due to secondary
X-rays generated by electrons across the metal foil, a magnet is brought near the beam of
electrons to deflect them. It is found that the diffraction pattern shifts as electron beam is
deflected by the magnet. If the pattern was due to X-rays, no such shift in diffraction
pattern could be expected.
This experiment by G. P. Thomson thus clearly demonstrates in a very striking

manner the behaviour of electrons as waves. It is known that waves only can produce
diffraction pattern.
The wavelength of electron wave can be estimated using the diffraction rings
obtained by electron beam. The wave length is found to be independent of material of the
foil and depends only on the velocity of electrons.
Module 2E. Schroedinger Wave Equation (Time independent)

According to de Broglie, matter behaves like a wave, the wave length of which is
given by
h
 = _____
mv
where mv is momentum of the particle and h is the Planck’s constant. The wave is called
matter wave. Thus, exhibiting dual nature.
Let χ (r, t) be the wave displacement for de Broglie wave at any location
r = i x+jy+kz
at time t. Then the differential equation of wave motion is
1 2 χ
2 ____ ______
 χ = [Maxwell wave equation] (2.15)
2 2
U t
2 2 2
2 ____ ____ ____
where  = + + and U is the wave velocity, where  (del) is
2 2 2
x y z
Laplacian operator
23
The solution to equation (2.15) is
χ (r, t) = χ 0(r ) e- i  t (2.16)
χ 0 is the amplitude at the point considered.
Differentiating equation (5.16) with respect to time t,
χ
___
= - i  χ 0 e- i  t
t
Again differentiating w.r.t. time
2 χ
___
= - i  (- i  ) χ 0 e- i  t = i2 2 χ 0 e- i  t
2
t
= - 2 χ ( r, t) as i2 = -1 since i =  -1 (2.17)
Substituting equation (2.17) in equation (2.15),
1
2 χ = ____
[- 2 χ (r, t) ]
2
U
2 U
2 ____
 χ + χ = 0 also  = 2   = 2  ____ as U = 
2
U 
4  U2
2 _____ ____
 χ + χ = 0
2 2
U 
4 
 χ + _____ χ
2
= 0 (2.18)
2
Now introducing wave mechanics concept,
h
_____
 =
mv
24
The equation (2.18) can be written as,
4 
2 ________
 χ + χ = 0
2
h
m2v2
4  m2v2
2 ____________
or  χ + χ = 0 (2.19)
2
h
Total Energy E = P.E. + K.E.
1
__
= V + mv2
2
1
__
mv2 = E - V
2
mv2 = 2 (E – V)
Equation (2.19) can be written as
4  2m (E-V)
2 __________________
 χ + χ = 0
2
h
8  m
2 _________
or  χ + (E-V) χ = 0 (2.20)
2
h
This is Schroedinger time independent wave equation.

χ is usually referred as wave function.
h
_____
If ħ = , then Schroedinger’s wave equation is
2
2m
2 χ + _________ (E-V) χ = 0
ħ 2
For a free particle V = 0
2mE
 2 χ + ________ χ = 0
ħ 2
25
Module 2F. Physical significance of wave function
Schroedinger himself interpreted the physical significance of χ in terms of charge
density. As electrons exhibit the diffraction phenomenon, like x-rays, one can use optical
analogy to arrive at physical significance of χ.
If χ is amplitude of the matter wave at any point in space, then the particle density
i.e., number of material particles per unit volume must be proportional to χ 2, just like
photon density being proportional to A2 where A is amplitude of light wave.
Thus square of absolute value of χ i.e. | χ |2 is measure of particle density.
If q is electric charge on a particle, the charge density is equal to product of charge q and
particle density. Thus the quantity | χ |2 is a measure of charge density. Though this
interpretation leads to very satisfactory results in many cases like directional distribution
of photoelectrons, Compton scattering, stable states of Bohr’s atom, emission of spectral
lines etc. , but could not yield fruitful results in cases like flight of single particle etc. So,
inorder to justify such results, Max-Born proposed yet another physical interpretation
later developed by Bohr, Dirac, Heisenberg and others. According to this | χ |2 represents
probability density of the particle in the state χ. Then the probability of finding the
particle in volume element dv = dx dy dz about any point r and time t is given as
P(r, t) dv = | χ (r, t)|2 dv.
The function χ is sometimes called probability amplitude for the position of the particle.
Module 2G. Particle in a Potential Box

According to quantum theory of free electrons, the following assumptions are made:
1. The energy of free electron is quantized
2. The distribution of electron in different energy levels is decided by Paulis’
exclusion principle
3. Attraction between electrons and lattice ions and repulsion between electrons are
negligible
4. Electrons travel in a region of constant potential inside a metal
Electrons occupy allowed energy levels due to quantization. To occupy or arrive

at these energy levels electron motion in a one dimensional box is considered. Let an
electron of mass m is confined to a one dimensional box of length L. Inside the box the
Potential Energy (Vx) of electron gas is zero. It can be expressed as
26
Vx = 0 for 0 < x < L
Vx =  for x  0 or x  L
Also, the motion of electron is represented by Schroedinger’s wave equation.
d2 χ 8 2 m E
______ ____________
+ χ = 0
2 2
dx h
d2 χ 8 2m E
______ 2 2 ____________
or + k =0 where k =
2 2
dx h
The solution for this equation is
χ (x) = A sin kx + B cos kx
where A and B are constants whose values are determined by boundary conditions.
At x = 0, χ (x) = 0  B=0
At x = L, χ (x) = 0 A sin kL = 0
n
_____
That is, k L = n  or k =
L
we have,
8 2m E
k = ____________
2
h2
k2 h2
_________
or E =
2
8 m
n n h2
_____ ______ _________
as k = , En =
2 2
L L 8 m
n2 h2
_________
or En = where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2 Fig. 2.4 Energy level diagram
8mL
This indicates that energy of a particle in a box can only take discrete values given by
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . . or, in other words, the energy is quantized. These discrete energy levels
are called eigen values and n is called the quantum number.
27
Eigen values and Eigen functions
A system is characterized by its energy, momentum, position etc. These

characteristics can be evaluated by knowing wave function. Schroedinger’s wave
equation is a second order differential equation, having several solutions. We have to
select only those solutions which describe the system meaningfully. For this, wave
function should satisfy the conditions viz.
1. χ is single valued
2. χ and its first derivatives are continuous
3. χ is finite
Such acceptable wave functions are called Eigen functions.
The set of acceptable values of a physical property like energy that follow from
eigen functions are called Eigen values.
Normalisation : Determination of value of A
It is conventional to choose the value of A such that | χ |2 becomes equal to Px ,

the probability of finding the electron at a point x. This process is called normalization.
The wave function χ n is given by
nx
χ n = A sin ________ for 0 < x < L
L
=0 for 0 > x > L
As the electron should lie within the box, the probability of finding it in the box must be
unity.
L L
That is,  Px dx =  | χ n|2 dx =1

0 0
L
nx
=  A2 sin2 ________ dx =1
0 L
L 1
__ nx
= A 2
 2 1 - cos
2 ________
dx =1
0 L
A2 L 2nx L
____ ________ 2 __________
= x- sin =1
2 2n L 0
28
2
____
or A=
L
2 nx
____ _______
Therefore, the normalized solution is χx = sin
L L
The first three eigen functions χ 1, χ 2 and χ 3 and their probability densities are as shown
in the figure. 2.4.
Solved Problems
Example 1: What is the energy of a gamma ray photon having wavelength 1 Å.
Solution: Planck’s constant h = 6.62 x 10-34 joule-sec.

Wavelength  = 1 Å = 10-10 m.
The energy of gamma-photon E = h  = h c / 

Here, c is the velocity of light and also the velocity of gamma photon.
Therefore, E = (6.62 x 10-34) x (3 x 1010) / 10-10 = 19.86 x 10-16 joule = 1.24 x 104 eV.
[ 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joules ]
Example 2: Calculate the wavelength of thermal neutrons at 27C, assuming energy of a

particle at absolute temperature T is of the order of kT, where k is
Boltzmann’s constant.
Solution:
The de-Broglie wavelength is given by  = h / mv = h / 2 m E
Also, E = kT. T = 27C = (273 + 27) K = 300 K and k = 1.38 x 10-23 joule per K
h = 1.62 x 10-34 joule-sec, m = 1.67 x 10-27 kg.
Therefore,  = h /  2 m k T
= ( 6.62 x 10-34) /  2 x 1.67 x 10-27 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 300
= 1.77 x 10-10 m = 1.77 Å
29
Example 3: What voltage must be applied to an electron microscope to produce electrons
of wavelength 0.50 of Å ?
Solution:
The de-Broglie wavelength is given by  = h / mv = h / 2 m E
Also, E = eV, where V is voltage in volts. Therefore,  = h /  2 m e V
Here,h = 1.62 x 10-34 joule-sec, m = 9.4 x 10-31 kg, e = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb
V = h2 / 2 m e  2
= ( 6.62 x 10-34)2 / [( 0.5 x 10-10)2 x 2 x 9 x 10-31 x 1.6 x 10-19] = 602.4 volts.
30
 The phenomenon like interference, diffraction and polarisation can be explained on

wave theory of light
 Quantum theory explains Compton effect, photoelectric effect, discrete emission

and absorption
 According to quantum theory , light is propagated in bundles of energy (h) called

Quantum or photon
 Matter behaves like a particle and a wave – called dual nature of matter – proposed
by Louis de Broglie
 The wave length of matter wave is  = h/mv -de Broglie equation
 Davisson and Germer experiment demonstrates the diffraction property of electrons

or the wave like property of material particle – electron.
 In G P Thomson experiment the wave length of electron wave is estimated using the
diffraction rings obtained by the electron beam
 According to Schroedinger χ is charge density
 χ is the amplitude of matter wave at any point in the space, the number of material
particles of unit volume must be proportional to | χ |2
 | χ |2 is a measure of particle density
 According to Max-Born and others | χ |2 represents the probability of the density of

the particle in the state χ
 The energy of free electron is quantized
 Paulis exclusion principle decides the distribution of electrons in different energy

levels
 Normalization is a process in which the value of A is so chosen that | χ |2 is equal to

P - the probability of finding the electron at a point
31
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
  = h/mv where mv is the momentum of the particle and h is Planck’s constant
 Lorentz transformation for time,
t = (t’ + (vx’/c2))/(1-(v2/c2))1/2
 E = mc2 where E = h
 In non-relativistic case  = h / (2mEK)1/2
 In case of charged particle  = h / (2mqv)1/2
  = h / (3mKT)1/2
 Maxwell wave equation 2 χ = (1/u2) (2 χ /t2)
 Schroedinger wave equation 2 χ+ (82m/h2 )(E-V) χ = 0
 En = n2h2/8mL2 – energy of a particle in a box
 The normalized solution χx = (2/L)1/2 Sin(nx/L)
32
Module 3
Magnetic Properties of Solids
The word magnetism comes from the district of Magnesia, in Asia Minor – the
place where certain stones (magnetite) were found to attract small iron pieces. The earth
is a natural magnet. The area around a magnet within which its influence is felt is called
magnetic field. The basic magnetic field vector is magnetic induction B.
The magnetic properties of substances are due to the motion of electrons and the
permanent magnetic moments of the atoms and electrons. Diamagnetism is a weak effect
and arises from changes in the atomic orbital states under the influence of the applied
field. Paramagnetism occurs when the magnetic moments are randomly oriented while
ferromagnetism occurs when the magnetic moments are aligned in the same direction.
This is a very strong magnetic effect. Ferrimagnetism arises when two or more types of
moments are present and directed oppositely and complete cancellation of moments does
not take place. Finally, antiferromagnetism occurs when adjacent magnetic moments are
oppositely directed so that complete cancellation of magnetic moment takes place. Above
a certain critical temperature, ferro, antiferro and ferrimagnetic substances are converted
in to paramagnetic substances.
Magnetic Induction B
Magnetic induction B may be defined as the total number of lines of force per unit
area both to the magnetizing field and the induced magnetism in the substance.
Unit of  is weber per sq m
Magnetic intensity (Magnetising force)  :
Magnetic intensity or Magnetising force is the force experienced by a unit north

pole placed at a point in the field.
This is the degree to which a magnetic field can magnetize a material.
Unit of  is amp /m
33
Intensity of magnetisation (I)
The magnetic moment per unit volume of a substance is called as intensity of

magnetisation.
It can also be defined as pole strength per unit area. Its unit is Am -1
Magnetic Permeability ()
Magnetic permeability () for a medium may be defined as the ratio of number of
lines of magnetic induction per unit area (i.e., flux density) in that medium to the
number of lines per unit area present when the medium is replaced by vacuum.
Its unit is henry/m


____
Relative permeability r =
0
where 0 is permeability of vacuum or free space.
For free space, 0 = 4 x 10-7 henry/m
Magnetic Susceptibility ()
Magnetic susceptibility is a measure of ease with which the material may be

magnetised by a magnetising force.
Magnetic susceptibility () is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation

(I) to the magnetic intensity (H) i.e.,
I
=
H
Module 3B. Origin of Magnetic Moment

Atom consists of central positive nucleus surrounded by orbital electron which is
negatively charged. When such atom is subjected to a magnetic field, the motion of
orbital electron gets modified in such a way that a weak magnetic moment opposing the
applied magnetic field is induced. This results in diamagnetism. The magnetic lines of
force are repelled slightly by diamagnetic material. The diamagnetic susceptibility is
negative and very small in magnitude.
Some atoms and molecules even in the absence of externally applied magnetic
field possess inherently some permanent magnetic moment. These moments are
randomly oriented with respect to one another so that net magnetic moment is zero.
When external magnetic field is applied, the atomic magnetic moments align themselves
along the direction of applied field, thereby intensifying the lines of force in the field
34
direction. This leads to paramagnetism. However, the aligning forces are weak and hence
the paramagnetic effect is weak. The susceptibility is small and positive in this case. It
decreases with increasing temperature, as thermal energy tends to make the alignment
random.
In some substances the magnetic moments are already aligned by nature due to
bonding forces. These substances are ferromagnetic substances. The susceptibility is
positive and very large. They strongly attract the magnetic lines of force of the applied
field.
Module 3C. Magnetic Moment due to Electron Spin & Bohr Magneton
The orbital magnetic moment of the electrons, corresponding to quantum number

ml, the spin magnetic moment of electrons corresponding to spin quantum number m s and
the spin magnetic moment of the nucleus are the three sources from where the permanent
magnetic moments arise. The spinning electron creates its own magnetic field. The
magnetic moment of an electron spin is taken as one unit called the Bohr magneton B.
B = eh/4  m
where e and m are charge and mass of an electron respectively and h is the Planck’s
constant.
B = 9.3 x 10-24 Am2
Also, it is to be noted that the net magnetic moment of two electrons of opposite spins is
zero. Atoms or molecules which have quantum states all of which have paired electrons
have zero net magnetic moment. Still there will be a number of atoms or molecules
having unpaired electrons. The unpaired electrons can align themselves in an applied
field giving rise to paramagnetism. The order of filling of electron orbital in an atom is
given by Hund’s rule. Hund’s rule states that the number of electrons of the same spin in
p, d and f states should be maximum so as to reduce electron-electron repulsion.
An atom with three electrons in p-orbital will have all the three spins aligned
giving rise to a net magnetic moment of three Bohr magnetons. On the other hand an
atom with four electrons in p-orbital will have magnetic moment of two Bohr magneton
as the fourth electron spin is opposite to that of the first and hence cancel. Similarly atom
with five electrons in d-orbital has a net magnetic moment equal to five Bohr magnetons.
An atom with nine electrons in d-orbital will have net magnetic moment of one
unit and like that .
The magnetization of a solid is the sum of the magnetic moments in unit volume
of the solid.
35
Module 3D. Classification of Magnetic Materials
Magnetic properties of materials can be studied by grouping them under the
categories as
1. Diamagnetism
2. Paramagnetism
3. Ferromagnetism, Anti ferromagnetism and Ferri magnetism
The sources of magnetic moment of a free atom are
1. Spin of electron
2. Angular momentum of electron about the nucleus
3. Induced charge in orbital moment by an applied magnetic field
The above first two components give rise to paramagentism while the third
component gives rise to diamagnetism. Ferromagnetism is due to alignment of magnetic
moments in the same direction.
Antiferromagnetism is due to oppositely directed magnetic moments.
Ferrimagnetism is due to excess alignment of magnetic moments in one direction than the
other.
However, the distinction between para, ferro, anti-ferro and ferri magnetisms
disappear at higher temperature called critical temperature. At this temperature all
substances get changed to paramagnetic substances. Magnetic susceptibility  of the
materials differentiates the substances.
Magnetic susceptibility  may be defined as the extent of magnetization (dipole

moment per unit volume, M) per unit magnetizing field.
Module 3E. Diamagentism
Diamagnetic materials get repelled by magnetic fields while paramagnetic

materials are attracted weakly by strong magnetic fields.
Langevin’s theory
All magnetic moments within some atoms balance each other and as a result the
net magnetic moment is zero. When atoms are surrounded by a magnetic field extra
current is generated by induction in the atom. These induced currents oppose the
increasing field as per Lenz’s law. Hence, the induced magnetic moments are opposite to
the magnetic field.
36
The orbit of a moving electron is a current loop. In the presence of an external
field B, uniform precession of the orbit about the line of magnetic field takes place. There
is super-position of precession and orbital currents which gives rise to additional current.
Then,
The associated magnetic moment  = i A.
where A is area of the orbit.
As electrons are negatively charged, the moment direction is opposite to that of the field.
This gives rise to negative susceptibility.
Larmor Frequency
In case of electron of mass m and orbit radius r,
Centripetal force = electrostatic force
e2
mr o2 = _____
2
r
e2
_______
o =
3
m r
If field B is applied, o modifies to  and Lorenz force expression on moving

electron is
F=Ee+Bev
That is, e2
2 ___
mr = - evB where B is r to orbital plane
2
r
e2
2 ___
mr = - Ber
2
r
Be e2
2 _____ _____
  +  - =0
3
m mr
Solving this quadratic equation,

2
eB 1 Be 4 e2
_____ ___ ____ ______
  = -  +
2m 2 m m r3
37
Be 4e2 eB e2
____ ____ _____ ______
If << , then  = - 
3
m mr 2m m r3
That is,  =  o - P
Be
____
Here, P is the precessional frequency. That is, P =
2m
Thus presence of B alters o to . And  sign show that moments parallel to B are
slowed and anti parallel are accelerated. This is Larmor Theorem.
Module 3F. Paramagnetism
Paramagnetism is found to exist in atoms, molecules and lattice possessing an odd

number of electrons, when total spin does not vanish. Free atoms and ions with partly
filled shells transition elements, rare earth elements, also a few number of elements with
even number of electrons like N2, and metals. In general paramagnetism arises from
atoms, ions and molecules with a net magnetic dipole moment.
Langevin’s Theory
According to Langevin, each atom or molecule of a paramagnetic substance is

considered to be a small permanent magnet due to circulating electrons. The axes of
molecular magnets are uniformly distributed in all directions. In the absence of an
external magnetic field, the sum of all projections of magnetic moments on any reference
line is zero.
When magnetic field is applied, the state of magnetization depends on
1. Applied magnetic field, as it tends the magnetic axis to align along its
direction.
2. The thermal agitation and
3. The number of molecules having orientation inclined at an angle  with the
given line of reference is proportional to sin d.
Module 3G. Magnetic Domains

The atomic magnetic dipole interactions, being of long range are responsible for
the formation of magnetic domains.
38
Origin
The ferromagnetic material contains a large number of small regions known as

domains before magnetization is induced by an external field. These domains are
magnetized to saturation individually, but arrange themselves in such a manner that the
net magnetic moment of the specimen is zero.
In order to minimize the dipole energy, the spin line up and leave uncoupled
magnetic pole on the surface of the specimen, which produces magnetic field in the
surroundings. The magneto-static energy out side the specimen due to the presence of
magnetic poles at surface,
1 +
_____
Ed = B2 dv
2 o - 
Size
Magneto static energy is reduced due to the formation of domain. The sizes of
domains are determined to minimize the energy. The interface between two adjacent
domains magnetized in different direction is called Bloch wall. The change over from one
domain direction to another takes place gradually over several atomic planes and not
abruptly. Anisotropy increases if the width of Bloch wall increases.
Consider a Bloch wall containing N number of atomic planes to bring about a

change in the spin directions by  radian. This deviation per atomic plane =  / N.
Thus, resulting in the increase of the exchange energy

2

2 ___
Eex = J S for each step.
N
Total change in exchange energy over N steps of atomic planes,
J S2  2
__________
Total Eex =
N
Thus large N increases the thickness of wall and hence anisotropy.
Module 3H. Ferromagnetism

Metals like Fe, Co, and Ni (transition metals) exhibit magnetization even when the
magnetizing field is removed. This phenomenon is known as Ferromagnetism. According
to Weiss theory there exists an internal molecular field (B i) which favours instantaneous
magnetization of ferromagnetic materials.
Bi  I
Bi =  I  - Weiss constant
39
Atomic magnets of ferromagnetic substance are grouped into certain regions called
domains. In the absence of magnetic field these domains form closed chains. These chains
breakup with application of magnetic field and domains gradually set themselves with
their magnetic axes pointing in the field direction. Thus ferromagnetism is a crystal
phenomenon. Uncompensated electron spin (ex., for iron four uncancelled spins) give rise
to large magnetic moments. Just like an orbital electron the spinning electron has
mechanical angular momentum and magnetic moment.
The spinning electrons make a major contribution to magnetic properties of

ferromagnetics.
The effective field strength Be may be regarded as the vector sum of external field
strength B and the internal molecular field strength B i.
 Be = B + Bi = B +  I
Considering gram molecule of the substance, if  is the density, M , the molecular weight,
 and 0 the gram molecular magnetic moment and its saturation value respectively,
 0
____ _____
then, I = and IS = Since I and IS refer to unit volume.
M M
  B
I  A
____ ____
=
IS 0 
0 Langevin
As domains obey the general theory of curve
paramagnetism, we have
I  1
____ ____ ___
= = coth a -
IS 0 a
Be
_____ a
where a =
KT
Fig.3.1.
when external filed is zero,

Be =  I =  ____
M
 0 
__________ _____ _________
 a = = ·
KTM N KTM
40
0   
____________
or a =
RTM
 RTM
___ __________
or = a
0 02  
Below curie point , in the absence of the external field, the domains are
spontaneously magnetized to a degree depending on temperature approaching saturation
value, as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
Above curie point , spontaneous magnetization no longer occurs, the

ferromagnetic properties disappear and the substance becomes paramagnetic.
Module 3I. Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism

Weiss hypothesis regarding ferromagnetic domains assumes that a single crystal
of ferromagnetic solid consists of a large number of small regions called domains which
are magnetically self saturated depending on temperature and nature of the specimen. But
the magnetic orientations are random and the overall magnetization is vector sum of
magnetizations of different domains. The magnetization appears even when a small
magnetic field is applied because the domain vectors now would be more oriented.
According to R. Becker , there are two independent processes by which this may
happen:
1. By growth of size of domains which are favourably oriented with respect to
magnetic field at the expense of less favourably oriented domains and
2. by rotation of directions of the magnetization along the direction of applied
magnetic field. This is also known as Barkhausen effect.
Fig.3.2. The Domain structure
The principle of minimum free energy in thermodynamics explains the logical origin of
domains. For stable configuration of a solid, the free energy E-TS tends to reach a
minimum. At low temperatures i.e., below curie temperature the entropy S decreases.
Therefore, the term TS is negligible. This minimizes the energy which is sufficient for the
purpose of stable configuration.
41
Fig.3.3. The origin of domains.
Free poles exist in case of single domain i.e., saturation magnetization an external
field will be produced around it (Fig 3.3).
Single domain is subdivided into two equal domains. Former single pole is now
replaced by two opposite poles, which partially very close to the specimen.
Consequently the magnetic field energy is reduced to about one-half its previous value.
This configuration is more stable (Fig 3.3).
This process of subdivisions may be carried further with n domains and the
magnetic field energy will be reduced to one nth of its previous value. But, such division
can not be continued as it involves the creation of domain walls and a situation arises
when any further decrease in magnetic field energy is less than that compensated by
increase of domain wall energy.
Thus it is evident that the domain structure has its origin in the principle of
minimum energy.
Module 3J. Hysteresis Curve

When a ferromagnetic specimen is
placed in a magnetizing field H, the extent of
magnetization (M) is of striking behaviour. As
the applied field (H) is increased, first, the
magentization (M) increases nonlinearly along
the curve OA (Fig 3.4) and reaches a
saturation at Ms. On reducing the field
strength, it will be observed that OA is not
retraced but the curve follows AB showing
that even at H = 0, M is not zero but equal
to Mr. this is called residual magnetization. Fig.8.4. Hysteresis curve
The lagging of M behind H is significant as H attains zero value and enough

amount of M = Mr is left behind instead of being zero along with H. this lagging of effect
behind the cause of effect is hysteresis.
To make M = 0, the applied field H should be reversed and increased till H = H c,

known as coercivity. Further increase of H results once again i.e., saturation of M in the
42
other direction along BCD. Further, with reduction of H to zero value and then increasing
H results in the curve along DEFA, thus completing one cycle of operation. The area of
the loop indicates the energy involved in one cycle of operation.
Applications
Ferromagnetic materials are used as electrical and electronic components basing

on their hysteresis or M-H behaviour. Transformers are used for various important
functions, with ferromagnetic core. The core material is so chosen as to have small
retentivity and coercivities. This increases their efficiency.
In case of permanent magnets, ferromagnetic substances with large values of

retentivity and coercivity are chosen.
Linear and non linear parts of M-H curves are some times chosen for audio
amplifier and generation of harmonics etc.
Module 3K. Ferrimagnetism –Ferrites and their applications

Ferrimagnetic materials are the salts of some of the transition metals particularly
which crystallize in spiral structure and contain one of the known ferromagnetic elements.
These are called ferrites. The chemical formula can be written as x y z z4 or Me2+ Fe23+
O42- where Me2+ represents a variety of divalent metallic ion such as Fe 2+, Co2+, Mn2+,
Zn2+, Mg2+ etc.
Ferrites have wide applications as they yield higher efficiency, low cost, smaller
volume, greater uniformity and ease of manufacture.
In the microwave field there is no competitor as metallic soft magnetic materials

have large eddy current losses at these frequencies which can not be tolerated.
They are in use as filter inductor, IF transformer antenna cores, adjustable

inductors, tuners, miniature inductors and loading coils. All these are linear B-H.
While non-linear B-H include flyback transformers and deflection yokes, carrier
power transformers chock coils, recording heads, memory and switching cores and
magnetic amplifiers.
Substituted lithium ferrites and ferrite powder such as r-fe2O3 are used for
computer memory elements and tapes respectively.
Thermal sensing ferrites are used as switches in refrigerators, air conditioners,

electronic ovens and fire detecting systems. Copper-Cobalt-Nickel ferrites are used in
magnetostrictive oscillators that are used in medical and industrial fields.
43
Module 3L. Anti Ferromagnetism
When the distance between interacting atoms is very small the exchange forces
produce a tendency to antiparallel alignment of the neighbouring spin dipole moments.
Such systems were first investigated theoretically by Neel and Bitter.
Experimentally antiferromagnetism was first discovered as a property of MnO by

Bizette and others. Susceptibility shows a maximum as a function of temperature in
antiferromagnetic substances.
Ferromagnetism Anti ferromagnetism
Fig.3.5. Representation of two sub-lattices A and B showing anti parallel spin
Consider a crystal containing two types of atoms A and B. Let B atoms occupy the
corner points of an elementary cube and A atoms being located at centers of these cubes.
Interactions between atoms be such that A spin tend to line up antiparallel to B spins. At
low temperature this interaction is very effective. And in external magnetic field the
resulting magnetization is very small. As the temperature is raised, interaction becomes
less efficient and susceptibility increases. Finally at a temperature TN (Neel temperature)
above which spins are free and the material shows paramagnetism.
When neutrons are incident on a crystal (MnO) they are scattered by atomic nuclei
and also by interaction between neutron spin and paramagnetic ions present. As a result
the ordered antiferromagnetic state gives rise to extra diffraction lines, the intensity of
which decreases with increase in temperature. This is because antiferromagnetic order
diminishes.
Atoms A and B are distributed over interlocking lattice. Atoms B occupy lattice
points and A centre of the body. Hence all nearest neighbours of A atom are B atoms and
vice versa. Let there be antiferromagnetic A-B interaction as well as A-A and B-B
interactions.
44
If Ha and Hb are net molecular field at A site and B site, we have
Ha = H -  Ma -  Mb
Hb = H -  Mb -  Ma
Here, H is applied field, Ma and Mb magnetization of A and B lattices.  and  Weiss

constants.
Module 3M. Requirements of Magnetic Materials for Different Purposes

Substances which can be easily magnetised due to their small coersive force are
called soft magnetic materials. In these substances the resistance to the movement of the
domain walls is very small. While the substances whose coersive force is large and their
resistance to the movement of the domain walls is also large are called hard magnetic
materials.
Soft magnetic materials have small coersive force and high permeability and can
be easily magnetized or demagnetized. These materials are used as transformer cores,
magnetic switching circuits. They are also used in magnetic amplifiers.
Hard or permanent magnetic materials are used as strong magnets due to their
ability to retain magnetic fields. Therefore, large coersive force and high residual
induction are desirable for providing adequate magnetic fields by magnets and also to
retain this field against adverse conditions.
To attain saturation magnetization in the material the most important requirement

is low permeability and a large magnetizing force, the hysteresis curve is the one which
gives more important information with regard to the requirements for the magnetic
materials. For example, the soft magnetic materials are characterized by steeply ascending
magnetization curve. Since the coercivity is low, the area of the loop is small. This is an
important consideration when the AC current application are considered.
Hard magnetic material describes a hysteresis with large area and the hysteresis
loop is almost a square type.
45
Solved Problems
Example 1: An iron ring of 1 m mean circumference is made from iron specimen of the
cross-section 24 cm2. Its permeability is 500. It is wound with 500 turns.
What current will be required to produce a flux of 2.5 x 10 5 lines?
Solution:
Let I be the current required.
Here, flux  = 2.4 x 105 lines = 2.4 x 10-3 wb (as 103 lines = 1 wb)
Permeability r = 500
Area of cross-section A = 24 cm2 = 2.4 x 10-3 m2
Length of the path l = 1 m
Therefore, flux density = flux/area = (2.4 x 10 -3 ) / (2.4 x 10-3) = 1 wb/m2
Magnetising force H = flux density B / (0 r ) = 1 / (4  x 10-7 x 500)
= 1591 AT/m
Ampere turns required, AT = H x l = 1591 x 1 = 1591.
Since, Ampere turn = number of turns x current,
Therefore, Current = AT /N = 1591 / 600 = 2.65 A.
46
Example 2: A paramagnetic salt contains 1028 ions/m3 with magnetic moment of 1 Bohr
magneton. Calculate (a) the paramagnetic susceptibility and (b) the
magnetization produced in a uniform magnetic field of 10 6 A/m, at room
temperature.
Solution
Magnetic moment, m = B = 9.27 x 10-24 A/m2
Number of ions per m3, N = 1028
0 = 4  x 10-7 , H = 106 A/m, k = 1.38 x 10-23
Room temperature, T = (273 + 30) K = 300 K.
Magnetic susceptibility,  = (0 N m2 )/ 3 k T
 = [4  x 10-7 x 1028 x (9.27 x 10-24)2] / ( 3 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 300)
= [ 4  x (9.27)2 x 10-4 ] / ( 3 x 1.38 x 300)
 = 0.87 x 10-4
Magnetisation, M =  H = 0.87 x 10-4 x 106 = 87 A/m.
Example 3: The magnetic field in copper is 10-6 A/m. If the magnetic susceptibility of
copper is –0.8 x 10-5, calculate the flux density and magnetization in copper.
Solution:
H = 106 A/m,  = -0.8 x 10-5 , 0 = 4  x 10-7 H/m, B = ?
M =  H = 0.8 x 10-5 x 106 = - 8 A/m
Also, B = 0 (H + M) = 4  x 10-7(-8 + 106)
B = 1.26 T
47
 The area around a magnet within which its influence is felt is called magnetic field.
 The basic magnetic field vector is magnetic induction B.
 The magnetic properties of substances are due to the motion of electrons and the
permanent magnetic moments of the atoms and electrons.
 Diamagnetism is a weak effect and arises from changes in atomic orbital states under
the influence of the applied field.
 Paramagnetism occurs when the magnetic moments are randomly oriented.
 Ferromagnetism occurs when the magnetic moments are aligned in the same
direction.
 Ferrimagnetism arises when two or more types of moments are present and directed
oppositely and complete cancellation of moments does not take place.
 Anti ferromagnetism occurs when adjacent magnetic moments are oppositely directed
so that complete cancellation of magnetic moments takes place.
 Above a certain critical temperature, ferro, antiferro and ferrimagnetic substances are
converted into paramagnetic substances.
 Magnetic induction B may be defined as the total number of lines of force per unit
area both to the magnetising field and the induced magnetism in the substance.
 Magnetic intensity (Magnetising force) is the force experienced by a unit north pole
placed at a point in the field.
 Intensity of magnetisation is the magnetic moment per unit volume of a substance.
 Magnetic Permeability for a medium may be defined as the ratio of number of lines
of magnetic induction per unit area (i.e., flux density) in that medium to the number
of lines per unit area present when the medium is replaced by vacuum.
 For free space 0= 4  x 10-7 henry /m
 Magnetic Susceptibility is a measure of ease with which the material may be
magnetised by a magnetising force. It may also be defined as the ratio of the intensity
of magnetisation (I) to the magnetic intensity (H) i.e.,
 = I/H
48
 When an atom is subjected to a magnetic field, the motion of orbital electron gets
modified in such a way that a weak magnetic moment opposing the applied magnetic
field is induced. This results in diamagnetism.
 The diamagnetic susceptibility is negative and very small in magnitude.
 Some atoms and molecules, even in the absence of externally applied magnetic field,
possess inherently some permanent magnetic moment. These moments are randomly
oriented with respect to each other so that the net magnetic moment is zero.
 When external magnetic field is applied, the atomic magnetic moments align
themselves along the direction of applied field, thereby intensifying the lines of force
in the field direction. This leads to paramagnetism.
 The aligning forces are weak and hence the paramagnetic field is weak.
 The susceptibility is small and positive in paramagnetism. It decreases with
increasing temperature as thermal energy tends to make the alignment random.
 In some substances the magnetic moments are already aligned by nature due to
bonding forces. These substances are ferromagnetic substances.
 The susceptibility is positive and very large for ferromagnetism. They strongly
attract the magnetic lines of force of the applied field.
 The spinning electron creates its own magnetic field.
 The magnetic moment of an electron spin is taken as one unit called the Bohr
magneton B
 B= eh/ 4 m
 B = 9.3 x 10-24 Am2
 The net magnetic moment of two electrons of opposite spins is zero.
 Atoms or molecules which have quantum states, all of which have paired electrons
have zero net magnetic moment.
 The unpaired electrons can align themselves in an applied field giving rise to
paramagnetism.
 The order of filling of electron orbitals in an atom is given by Hund’s rule.
 Hund’s rule states that the number of electrons of the same spin in p, d and f states
should be maximum so as to reduce electron-electron repulsion.
49
 The magnetisation of a solid is the sum of the magnetic moments in unit volume of
the solid.
 All magnetic moments within some atoms balance each other and as a result the net
magnetic moment is zero.
 When atoms are surrounded by a magnetic field extra current is generated by
induction in the atom.
 The inducted magnetic moments are opposite to the magnetic field.
 The orbit of a moving electron is a current loop.
 In the presence of an external field B, uniform precession of the orbit about the line of
magnetic field takes place.
 Super-position of precession and orbital currents give rise to additional current.
 Electrons are negatively charged, the moment direction is opposite to that of the field.
This gives rise to negative susceptibility.
 Larmor Theorem states that presence of B alters O to  and  sign show that
moments parallel to B are slowed and anti parallel are accelerated.
 Paramagnetism is found to exist in atoms, molecules and lattice possessing an odd
number of electrons, when total spin does not vanish.
 Paramagnetism arises from atoms, molecules and ions with a net magnetic dipole
moment.
 According to Langevin, each atom or molecule of a paramagnetic substance is
considered to be a small permanent magnet due to circulating electrons.
 When magnetic field is applied, the state of magnetisation depends on applied
magnetic field, thermal agitation, number of molecules having orientation inclined at
an angle with given line of reference with is proportional to sin d
 The atomic magnetic dipole interactions, being of long range, are responsible for the
formation of magnetic domains.
 The ferromagnetic material contains a large number of small regions known as
domains before magnetisation is induced by an external field.
 The domains are magnetised to saturation individually but arrange themselves in such
a manner that the net magnetic moment of the specimen is zero.
50
 Magnetostatic energy is reduce due to the formation of domains.
 The sizes of domains are determined to minimize the energy.
 The interface between two adjacent domains magnetised in different directions is
called Block wall.
 The change over from one domain direction to another takes place gradually over
several atomic planes and not abruptly.
 Anisotropy increases if the width of the Block wall increases.
 Metals like Fe, Co and Ni (transition metals) exhibit magnetisation even when the
magnetising field is removed. This phenomenon is known as Ferromagnetism.
 According to Weiss theory there exists an internal molecular field (Bi) which favours
instantaneous magnetisation of ferromagnetic materials.
 Bi =  I
 Atomic magnets of ferromagnetic substance are grouped into certain regions called
domains.
 Ferromagnetism is a crystal phenomenon.
 Uncompensated electron spin (ex., for iron four uncancelled spins) give rise to large
magnetic moments.
 Just like an orbital electron, the spinning electron has mechanical angular momentum
and magnetic moment.
 The spinning electrons make a major contribution to magnetic properties of
ferromagnetics.
 Below curie point, in the absence of the external field, the domains are spontaneously
magnetised to a degree depending on temperature approaching saturation value, as the
temperature approaches absolute zero.
 Above curie point, spontaneous magnetisation no longer occurs, the ferromagnetic
properties disappear and the substance becomes paramagnetic.
 According to Becker magnetisation appears even when a small magnetic field is
applied .
51
 The magnetisation appears even when small magnetic field is applied due to growth
of size of domains which are favourably oriented with respect to magnetic field at the
expense of less favourably oriented domain.
 The principle of minimum free energy in thermodynamics explains the logical origin
of domains.
 For stable configuration of a solid, the free energy E-TS tends to reach a minimum.
 Below curie temperature the entropy S decreases and the term TS is negligible. This
minimises the energy which is sufficient for the purpose of stable configuration.
 Free poles exist in case of single domain.
 It is evident that the domain structure has its origin in the principle of minimum
energy.
 When a ferromagnetic specimen is placed in a magnetising field H, magnetisation
increases nonlinearly and reaches saturation.
 On reducing the field strength, the path is not retraced in the hysteresis even at H = 0,
M is not zero but equal to Mr. This is called residual magnetisation.
 In the case of hysteresis, the lagging of M behind H is significant as H attains zero
value and enough amount of M = Mr is left behind instead of being zero along with
H. This lagging of effect behind the cause of effect is hysteresis.
 In the hysteresis to make M = 0, the applied field H should be reversed and increased
till H = Hc, known as coercivity.
 The area of hysteresis loop indicates the energy involved in one cycle of operation.
 Ferromagnetic materials are used as electrical and electronic components basing on
their hysteresis or M-H behaviour.
 Transformers are used for various important functions, with ferromagnetic core.
 The core material is so chosen as to have small retentivity and coercivities. This
increases their efficiency.
 In case of permanent magnets, ferromagnetic substances with large values of
retentivity and coercivity are chosen.
 Linear and non linear parts of M-H curves are chosen for audio amplifier and
generation of harmonics etc.
52
 Ferrimagnetic materials are the salts of some of the transition metals particularly
which crystallize in spiral structure and contain one of the known ferromagnetic
elements. These are called ferrites.
 The chemical formula of ferrites can be written as Me 2+ Fe23+ O42-
 Ferrites have wide applications as they yield higher efficiency, low cost, smaller
volume, greater uniformity and ease of manufacture.
 Ferrites are in use as filter inductor, IF transformer antenna cores, adjustable
inductors, tuners, miniature inductors and loading coils. All these are linear B-H.
 Non-linear B-H include flyback transformers and deflection yokes, carrier power
transformers chock coils, recording heads, memory and switching cores and magnetic
amplifiers.
 Substituted lithium ferrites and ferrite powder are used for computer memory
elements and tapes respectively.
 Thermal sensing ferrites are used as switches in refrigerators, air conditioners,
electronic ovens and fire detecting systems.
 Copper-Cobalt-Nickel ferrites are used in magneto-strictive oscillators that are used
in medical and industrial fields.
 Experimentally antiferromagnetism was first discovered as a property of MnO by
Bizette.
 Susceptibility shows a maximum as a function of temperature in antiferromagnetic
substances.
 Substance which can be easily magnetised due to their small coersive force are called
soft magnetic materials.
 The substances whose coersive force is large and their resistance to the movement of
the domain walls is also large are called hard magnetic materials.
 Soft magnetic materials have small coersive force and high permeability and can be
easily magnetised or demagnetised.
 Hard or permanent magnetic materials are used as strong magnets due to their ability
to retain magnetic fields.
53
 Large coersive force and high residual induction are desirable for providing adequate
magnetic fields by magnets and also to retain this field against adverse conditions.
 To attain saturation magnetisation in the material the most important requirement is
low permeability and a large magnetising force.
 The hysteresis curve gives more important information with regard to the
requirements for the magnetic materials.
 The soft magnetic materials are characterized by steeply ascending magnetisation
curve.
 Hard magnetic material described a hysteresis with large area and the hysteresis loop
is almost a square type.
54
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
  = I/H
 Bohr magneton B = eh/4  m
 0 = e2
√ m r3
 P = Be
2m
  =  0 - P
+
 Ed = 1
2 O 
-
B2 dv
 Bi =  I. -  - Weiss constant
 I = 
IS O
 a = O   
RTM
 Ha = H -  Ma -  Mb
 Hb = H -  Mb -  Ma
55
MODULE 4
Semiconductors
Solid substances can be classified under conductors, semiconductors and

insulators on the basis of their electrical nature. The conducting substances like metals
conduct current to a high degree, offering low resistance comparatively. However, the
resistance depends on temperature. The resistance increases with temperature. The
insulating substances are those which do not conduct considerable current under normal
conditions. It is very interesting to note that there are semiconductors which exhibit a
wide spectrum of phenomena, covering the entire range from the strict conductor to
insulator, and they are extensively versatile in terms of applications. Semiconductors are
rarely used in their pure form but are doped (process of adding some impurity) with
foreign impurities.
The most important property of a semiconductor is its electrical conductivity.

Semiconductors include a large number of substances with different physical and
chemical properties. The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than that of insulator but
more than that of conductor.
Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance, i.e., their

resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
As isolated atoms are brought together to form a solid, various interactions occur
between neighbouring atoms. As a result of this interaction, the higher energy levels of
the outer shells are slightly altered, of-course, without violating Pauli’s exclusion
principle. There will be splitting of single energy level of an isolated atom into a large
number of energy levels. Since in a solid many and many atoms are brought together the
separation between so many sublevels would be superimposed on each other and
consequently the split energy levels are almost continuous and form an energy band. This
energy band corresponds to energy levels in an atom. An electron can have discrete
energy levels lying within these energy bands. These energy bands called the allowed
energy bands are generally separated by some gaps which have no allowed or permitted
energy levels. These gaps are known as forbidden energy gaps or bands. Energy bands
occupied by the valance electrons is valance band and the electrons that leave this
valance band are called conduction electrons and are very weakly bound to the nucleus.
The bands occupied by these electrons are called the conduction band.
56
Module 4B. Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in extremely pure form is known as intrinsic semiconductor. In
case of intrinsic semiconductor hole-electron pairs are created even at room temperature.
When an external electric field is applied current conduction due to holes as well as
electrons takes place.
Free electrons are created by breakage of

covalent bonds. At the same time some holes are also
created. The total current inside the semiconductor is
sum of the hole current and electron current, while
outside the semiconductor it is purely due to
electrons. As the holes move towards negative end,
electrons enter the semiconductor from the terminal
and combine with the holes, thus, canceling them. At
the same time loosely held electrons at positive
terminal are attracted away from this atom into the
positive terminal. This creates new holes which drift
through the semiconductor towards negative Fig.4.1. Intrinsic semiconductor
terminal.
Carrier Concentration
The energy gap Eg in a semiconductor is small, therefore some of the electrons

lying on the top of the valance band gain sufficient thermal energy even at moderate
temperatures and get excited into conduction band. This process leaves behind equal
number of holes in the valance band. The electrons from neighbouring atoms will jump to
fill these vacancies. Under the application of electric field the electrons drift towards
positive electrode while holes drift towards negative electrode and constitute current. The
current due to both electrons and holes is in the same direction as they are oppositely
charged. The drift velocities of electron Ve and that of hole Vh are given by
Ve = e E
Vh = h E (4.1)
where  is the mobility which is a function of thermal vibration of atoms.

In case of intrinsic semiconductor, the rate of generation of electron-hole pair
g(T) depends on the temperature and nature of the material. To maintain a constant
concentration of pairs, the rate of recombination r(T) must be equal to g(T). The rate of
recombination r(T) depends on nature of the material and is proportional to the
concentration of two charges.
57
Therefore,
g(T) = r(T) = K ni pi (4.2)
where ni and pi are intrinsic electron and hole densities respectively while the
proportionality constant K takes care of the charge densities and the nature of
semiconductor.
For pair generation ni = pi, hence,
g(T) = r(T) = K ni pi = K ni2 (4.3)
as
ni pi = ni2 (4.4)
ni2 has a fixed value at a given temperature and depends on the nature of the material,
because the densities ni and pi are inherent property of a semiconductor at a given
temperature.
In case of intrinsic semiconductor germanium, the energy gap is 0.75 eV. There
are about 5 atoms out of 1010 atoms of germanium with broken valence bonds which can
contribute to the intrinsic conduction at usual ambient temperature, but increases rapidly
with temperature. As in the intrinsic semiconductor n i or pi strongly depends on
temperature, it is necessary to limit operating temperature of germanium to 85 – 100 C
and of silicon to 190 – 200 C. The larger energy gap of silicon is responsible for higher
permissible temperature.
Module 4C. Extrinsic Semiconductor

It is observed that the electrical properties of solids drastically change with the
presence and nature of even smallest amounts of impurities (foreign elements) in the
lattice. In case of a pure semiconductor, i.e., intrinsic semiconductor, concentration of
holes and electrons at normal temperature is very low. Therefore, large amounts of
electric fields are to be applied for a considerable amount of current flow through the
pure semiconductor.
The electrical conductivity of intrinsic or pure semiconductor can be made very

large by adding impurity to it. For example, the electrical conductivity of silicon can be
increased to a thousand fold by adding boron (nearly 10 parts of boron per million parts
of silicon). The process of adding impurity is called doping and the impurity added is
called dopant. This type of addition of impurity changes the quantum states i.e., new
energy levels appear in the band structure which results in significant increase in
conductive nature of the semiconductor.
Generally, the impurities added are trivalent (boron, gallium, indium) and
pentavalent atoms (arsenic, antimony, phosphorous) to Germanium and silicon.
Semiconductor doped with pentavalent atom like arsenic, four of its valance electron
form four covalent bonds with neighbouring semiconductor atom, while the fifth electron
58
of impurity atom arsenic is free to conduct current. Thus semiconductor doped with
pentavalent substances is called n-type semiconductor. In a similar way, when
semiconductor is doped with trivalent impurity say indium then three of its electrons
share covalent bonds with neighbouring semiconductor atom, while the fourth covalent
band is missing one electron. This missing or absence of electron (hole) behaves like a
positive charge. Hence, a semiconductor doped with trivalent substance is p-type
semiconductor.
(a)
(b)
Fig.4.2 (a) n-type semiconductor (b) p-type semiconductor
An impurity which donates a conduction electron without producing hole is called

donor while impurity which accepts an electron in its hole (absence) region is called
acceptor.
Carrier Concentration
It is to be noted that the concentration of impurity atoms is very low as compared

to the parent semiconductor atoms. Hence, doping does not appreciably affect the thermal
generation and recombination process. Assuming that the recombination is proportional
to concentration of two charges, for p-type material
np pp = ni2 (4.5)
To maintain the concentration product ni2 a constant, the concentration of

minority charges is found to decrease when the concentration of majority charges is
increased over its intrinsic value by doping. Therefore, the reduction in minority charges
can be determined by using the equation for overall neutrality of the material as
59
p +ND = n + NA (4.6)
where NA = Acceptor concentration

ND = Donor concentration
Making use of equality

ni 2 ni2
2 ____ ____
np = n i or n = and p = (4.7)
p n
From equation (4.6)
p = n + N A – ND
ni 2 ni2+ p ( NA – ND)
_____ _______________________
= + ( NA – ND) =
p p
or p2 – p ( NA – ND) - ni2 = 0 (4.8)
This is a quadratic equation whose roots can be written as
- [ - ( NA – ND) ]   ( NA – ND)2 – 4 (- ni2)

_____________________________________________________
p=
2
NA – ND ( NA – ND)2 ½
_____________ ______________
p=  + ni 2 (4.9)
2 4
Similarly, n can be written as
ND – NA ( ND – NA)2 ½
_____________ ______________
n=  + ni 2 (4.10)
2 4
Equations (4.9) and (4.10) are general expressions for charge densities.
Case I: for intrinsic semiconductor
NA = ND = 0
 p = ni and n = ni
That is, p =n = ni
60
Case II: for n-type semiconductor
ND >> n and NA = 0, then hole density is
– ND + ND  1 + ( 4 ni2 / ND2)
______________________________________
pn =
2
The term 4ni2/ND2 is < 1, therefore by expanding as a power series, neglecting higher
powers,
- ND ND 2 ni 2
____ _____ ____
pn  + 1+
2 2 ND2
ni 2
_____
pn  (4.11)
ND
Similarly, the electron density in n-type material is

ND ND 2 ni 2
____ _____ ____
nn  + 1+
2 2 ND2
ND ND ni 2 ni 2
____ _____ ____ _____
nn  + +  ND +
2 2 ND ND
nn  N D (4.12)
Case III. For p-type semiconductor
NA >> ni and ND  0, then the charge densities are given by
ni 2
_____
pn  (4.13)
NA
and
pp  N A (4.14)
The density of majority carriers is thus approximately equal to the density of

impurity atom at usual ambient temperatures. Where as due to recombination process the
density of minority carriers remains significantly below the intrinsic level.
61
Module 4D. Minority Carrier Life Time
Consider a semiconductor containing a relatively high concentration of donor
levels so that the conductivity is essentially due to electrons in a conduction band(n type).
The electrons are then called the majority carriers. There are always some boles in the
valance band as a result of thermal excitation of electrons from the filled band, but not at
too high temperatures the number of holes is relatively small. In this case, holes are
called minority carriers.
In thermal equilibrium the number of holes recombining with electrons per

second is equal to the number of electron pairs produced per second by thermal
excitation. The concentration of minority carriers may be increased in many ways. For
example, if a metal in contact with n-type material is made positive relative to the
semiconductor, holes are injected into the latter. The minority carriers so produced will
diffuse about in the crystal. As long as the excess concentration is small compared with
the equilibrium concentration, the rate of recombination is proportional to the excess
concentration i.e., the excess number will decay according to exp(-t/), where  is the life
time of the minority carriers. Measurement of the life time of minority carriers is of
interest, since by varying the conditions under which the experiments are carried out, one
obtains the information about the factors determining the recombination process.
Experiments of this kind essentially involve the following idea: minority carriers are
injected from the emitter into a crystal; the carriers diffuse away from the emitter; and
their arrival at another point is detected by a collector. For a given number of injected
carriers, the collector pulse decreases with increasing distance from the emitter as a result
of the disappearance of a fraction of the carriers on their way to the collector. Frequently
electric field is used to drive the carriers from the emitter towards the collector.
Module 4E. Drift and Diffusion

Various transport phenomena arise from the motion of charge carriers (electrons
and holes) in semiconductors under the influence of an electric field and a carrier
concentration gradient. The phenomena are drift due to an electric field; diffusion due to
the concentration gradient; and recombination of carriers through intermediate – level
recombination centers.
Now carrier drift, carrier diffusion are discussed in some detail.
The net current that passes through a semiconductor material has two components
– drift current and diffusion current.
62
Carrier drift
In a perfect crystal the alternating electric field enables electrons and holes to
move freely. In the absence of an external applied electric field, the random motion of
free carriers within a crystal does not result in a net transfer of charge since charge
movement in any direction is balanced by charge movement in any other direction. When
voltage is applied across the material, each carrier experiences a force attracting it to one
end of the material. Electrons are attracted by positive potential and holes by the negative
potential. This net movement in charge is termed as drift and is superimposed on the
random thermal movement and results in current flow through the specimen.
The electron current density J n flowing in the specimen of area of cross-section A

can be determined by summing the product of the charge (-q) on each electron times the
electron velocity (vn) over all electrons per unit volume n,
In n
___
Jn = =  ( - q vn ) = - q n v n (4.15)
i=0
A
But vn  E ; vn = n E
where n is proportionality constant, called electron mobility.
 Jn = q n n E (4.16)
A similar argument applies to holes. By taking the charge on the hole to be positive, its
current density,
Jp = q p p E (4.17)
The total current flowing in the semiconductor specimen due to the applied electric field
E can be written as
J = J n + Jp
J = ( q n n + q p p ) E
The quantity in the brackets is known as electrical conductivity ().
Thus,
 = ( q n n + q p p ) (4.18)
The above equation reveals that contributions of electron and hole to electrical
conductivity are simply additive.
63
Generally in extrinsic semiconductors, only one of charge carriers, either electron
or hole, is significant because of the very large difference between the two carrier
densities.
Therefore,
for an n-type semiconductor,  = q n n

(4.19)
for a p-type semiconductor,  = q p p
Carrier diffusion
Another important current component that can exist if there is a spatial variation
of carrier concentration in the semiconductor material, that is, the carriers tend to move
from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. This current
component is called diffusion current.
In order to understand the diffusion Current N(l)

process, consider the variation of electron
Electrons
density in the x-direction as shown in the N(0)
fig. 4.3. N(-l)
Let the semiconductor be at uniform

temperature, so that average thermal energy
of electron does not vary with x, but the
density n(x) varies.
-l 0 l
Let electrons cross the plane at x = 0.
Because of the constant temperature, the Distance x
Fig. 4.3
electrons have random thermal motion with
a thermal velocity vth and a mean free
path, l.
l is the mean free path, The
direction of electron and current
Here, vth = l / c, where c is the mean free time.
flows are shown by arrows.
The electrons at x = -l, have equal chances of moving left or right and in a mean free time
c, one half of them will move across the plane x = 0.
The average rate of electron flow per unit area, F1 of electrons crossing the plane at x = 0
from the left is
(½) n (-l ) l 1
F1 = _________________ = ___
n (-l)vth (4.20)
c 2
as l / c = vth
64
In a similar manner, the average rate of electron flow per unit area, F 2 of electrons
at x = l crossing the plane at x = 0 from the right is
1
F2 = ___ n (l) vth (4.21)
2
The net rate of carrier flow from left to right is
F = F1 – F2
1
___
 F=
vth [ n(-l) - n(l) ] (4.22)
2
Approximately, the densities at x =  l by the first two terms of a Taylor series expansion
are,
1 dn dn
F = ___ vth n(0) - l ____ - n(0) + l ____
2 dx dx
dn dn
_____
F = - vth l = - Dn _____ (4.23)
dx dx
where Dn = vth l and is called the diffusivity.
Each electron carries a charge –q, the carrier flow gives rise to the current
dn
Jn = -q F = q Dn ____ (4.24)
dx
The above equation for diffusion current reveals the following facts:
1. The diffusion current is proportional to the spatial derivative of the electron
density. That is,
dn
Jn  ____
Dx
2. Diffusion current results from the random thermal motion of carriers in a

concentration gradient.
3. For an electron density that increases with x, the gradient is positive. And electron
will diffuse toward the negative direction. The current is positive and flows in the
direction opposite to that of the electrons as shown in fig. 4.3.
65
Module 4F. Einstein relation
Einstein relation relates the two important constants namely diffusivity and
mobility that characterize carrier transport by diffusion and by drift in a semiconductor.
The Einstein relation can also be obtained between D p and p.
Einstein relation can be obtained using the theorem for the equipartition of energy
for one dimensional case. That is,
1 2
1
___ ___
mn vth = kT (4.25)
2 2
dn kT dn
____ _____ _____
Jn = q D n = q n (4.26)
dx q dx
Therefore, kT
Dn = _____
n (4.27)
q
This is known as Einstein’s relation.
Module 4G. Equation of Continuity

The carrier transport phenomena occur in semiconductors as drift due to the
application of external electric field; diffusion due to a concentration gradient and
recombination of charge carriers through intermediate level recombination centers.
Now, consider the overall effect when drift, diffusion and recombination occur
simultaneously in a semiconductor material. The governing equation is called the
continuity equation.
To derive one-dimensional continuity equation for electrons, consider an

infinitesimal slice of area of cross-section A and thickness dx located at x as shown in
fig.4.4. The number of electrons in the slice may increase due to the net current flow into
the slice and net carrier generation in the slice. The overall rate of electron increase is the
algebraic sum of four components, which are:
1. The number of electrons flowing into the slice at x
2. The number of electrons flowing out at x + dx
3. The rate at which electrons are generated
4. The rate at which the electrons are recombined with holes in the slice.
Here, (1) and (3) should be added, while (2) and (4) should be subtracted.
66
x x + dx
Fig.4.4
Jn(x) A
__________
The number of electrons flowing into the slice at x =
-q
Jn(x + dx) A
________________
The number of electrons flowing out the slice at x + dx =
-q
The number of electrons generated = Gn A dx
The number of electrons recombined with holes = Rn A dx
The overall rate of change in the number of electrons in the slice is
dn Jn(x) A Sn (x + dx) A
_____ ____________ __________________
A dx = - + ( Gn – Rn) A dx (4.28)
dt -q -q
where A is the cross-sectional area and A dx is the volume of the slice. G n and Rn are
generation and recombination rates respectively.
Expanding the expression for the current at x + dx in a Taylor series yields
Jn
Jn (x + dx) = Jn(x) + _______ dx + . . . . . . .
x
Thus basic continuity equation for electrons
n 1 Jn
_____
= _____ ______ + (Gn – Rn) (4.29)
t q x
A similar continuity equation can be derived for holes as
p 1 Jp
____ ___ _____
= - + (Gp – Rp) (4.30)
t q x
67
Module 4H. Hall Effect:
E H Hall, in 1879, discovered Hall effect. According to Hall effect when a magnetic field
is applied perpendicular to a current carrying conductor, a potential difference is
developed between the points on the opposite sides of the conductor. The voltage so
developed is called the Hall Voltage. Hall effect gives information about the sign of
charge carriers in electric conductor.
Fig.4.5 Hall effect
Consider a uniform thick metal strip placed with its length along X-axis. Let i be the
current passing through the conductor along the X-axis and a magnetic field B be
established along Y-axis. As a charged particle experiences a sideways force in a
magnetic field, the force (F) experienced by charge carriers in the conductor will be
perpendicular to the plane XY i.e. along Z-axis. The direction of the force is given by
Fleming’s left hand rule. So, if the charge carriers are electrons, then they experience a
force in positive Z-direction and get accumulated on the upper surface (face MNRS) of
the metal strip. Hence, the upper face is charged negatively while the lower side charged
positively. Thus a transverse potential difference is developed. This emf (electro motive
force) is known as Hall emf. However, for positive charges like holes the sign of emf is
reversed. The sign of emf helps in determining the nature of the charge which can be
measured using a potentiometer. Thus it is shown that electrons are the charge carriers in
metals while holes conduct current in p-type semiconductor.
The displacement of charges due to the force they experience, gives rise to a transverse
electric field known as Hall electric field EH which opposes the sideway drift of the
electric charges. When equilibrium is reached, the forces due to electric and magnetic
fields on the charges will be balanced.
If q is the charge and Vd its drift speed in the magnetic field (B) then Magnetic deflecting
force
(FB) = q (Vd x B) (4.31)
and the Hall electric deflecting force FE = q EH (4.32)

where EH is the intensity of Hall electric field.
68
As the net force acting on the charge is zero
q (Vd x B) + q EH = 0
or EH = - Vd x B
i.e. EH = Vd B (4.33)
Also, the drift speed Vd = j / nq (4.34)

where j is current density and n is the number of charges per unit volume.
EH = ( j  n q ) B (4.35)
If d is the width of the metal strip and V H - the Hall Voltage then,
EH = VH (4.36)
d
EH can be calculated by measuring the Hall Voltage V H and the width of the metal strip.
If A is the area of cross-section of the strip then the current density j can be calculated by
measuring the current i in the strip as
j=i/A (4.37)
The magnetic field B can be measured using Gauss-meter.
Thus the value of l /nq can be calculated by substituting the values of E H, j and B in
equation (4.35).
From equation (4.35) EH = (l/nq) j B or EH  jB as l/nq is constant represented by R H

known as Hall Coefficient. Therefore,
RH = l / n q = E H / j B
Thus the ratio of Hall electric field E H to the product of current density j and the magnetic
induction B is called Hall Coefficient (RH).
RH = l / nq = EH / j B.
Hall Coefficient is negative for electrons and positive for holes.
Unit of RH = Volt - m
amp-weber/m2
The sign of conducting charges can be determined by measuring the Hall Voltage.
The number of charge carriers per unit volume can be determined from the magnitude
of RH.
The nature of a semi conductor can be determined by nature of Hall Coefficient i.e. for
n-type semi conductor the Hall Coefficient is negative while it is positive for p-type semi
conductor.
69
Hall effect can be used as the basis for the design of a magnetic flux density meter
as the Hall voltage is proportional to the magnetic flux density B for a given current.
Hall effect can also be used to determine the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.
Module I. p-n Junction

when p- type and n- type semiconductors are joined together suitably, the contact
is called pn- junction.
Many semiconductor devices contain one or

more pn-junctions. A pn-junction is fabricated by
special techniques. The commonly used method is
alloying. In this method a small amount of trivalent
impurity (say, indium) is placed on n-type germanium
slab and then heated to a temperature of about 500 C.
The impurity (indium) and some germanium melt to
from a small puddle of molten germanium-indium
mixture. The specimen is then cooled so that it gets
solidified. Under proper conditions the atoms of indium
impurity will be suitably adjusted in the germanium
slab to form a single crystal. The addition of impurity
indium overcomes the excess of electrons in n type
germanium to such an extent that it creates a p-type
region. Fig. 4.6 pn-junction
As this process continues the remaining molten mixture becomes increasingly rich
in indium. When all germanium has been redeposited, the remaining material appears as
indium button which frozens on the outer surface. This button then serves as a suitable
base for soldering the leads.
Consider a pn-junction. The free charge carriers in both p-type and n-type are
represented by + (hole) and – (electron) respectively. The circled charges (Fig. 4.6)
represent ionized impurities which do not move. In p-type, the acceptors are shown
negative. This is because thermal energy causes electrons to move from valance band to
empty bands of the acceptor atoms. The accepter atoms are negatively charged because of
presence of the extra electrons. Similarly, on n side the donor impurity atoms are
positively charged because they have supplied electrons to the conduction band. On the
p side of the junction, there will be concentration of free holes, while on n side, electrons
will be in high concentration.
These charge carriers will try to spread out due to thermal agitations. Such type of
spreading out process due to scattering and random velocity is known as diffusion. Thus
holes diffuse over to n side while electrons diffuse over to p side of pn-junction. When
charge penetration takes place through the junction it finds itself surrounded by charges
of opposite side i.e., the holes when penetrate into n-type are surrounded by electrons and
vice versa. Such charges will try to recombine with each other.
70
As the free electrons move across the junction from
n type to p type, positive donor ions are uncovered i.e.,
they are robbed off free electrons. Hence, a positive charge
is built on n side of the junction. At the same time the free
electrons cross the junction and uncover the negative
acceptor ions by filling in the holes. Therefore, a net
negative charge is established on p side of the junction.
This process continues till a sufficient number of donors
and acceptors is uncovered and then further diffusion is
prevented. It is because now positive charge on n side Fig.4.7 Forward bias
repels boles to cross p to n and negative charge on p side
repels free electrons to enter from n-type to p-type. Thus a
barrier is setup against further movement of charge carriers
i.e., holes and electrons. This is called potential barrier or
junction barrier V0 which is nearly 0.1 to 0.3 volt. This
potential barrier gives rise to electric field. This field
prevents the respective majority carriers from crossing the
barrier region. It is to be noted that outside this barrier on
each side of the junction still the regions are neutral only
inside the barrier there is positive charge on n side while
negative charge on p side. This region is called depletion
region or depletion layer. This is so called because the Fig.4.8 Reverse bias
mobile free electrons and holes have been depleted i.e.,
emptied in this region.
Forward biasing
An external voltage is applied to the pn-junction such that it cancels the potential
barrier, thus permitting current flow across the junction. Such type of biasing is called
forward biasing.
consider a pn-junction and connect it to battery B such that p side connected to

positive terminal and n side is connected to negative terminal of it. This applied potential
establishes an electric field which acts against field due to potential barrier as a result the
resultant field is weakned, and the barrier height is reduced. By applying a small forward
bias the barrier can be completely eliminated and then the junction resistance becomes
almost zero and current flows in the circuit. This current is called forward current.
Reverse Biasing
An external voltage is applied to the pn-junction such that it increases the
potential barrier and allows no current to flow across the junction. Such type of biasing is
called reverse biasing.
To connect pn-junction in reverse bias, the p-side of the junction is connected to
-ve and n-side is connected to +ve terminals of the battery B. This establishes an electric
field in the same direction as that of the potential barrier. This strengthens the resultant
field and the barrier height is increased. The increased potential barrier prevents the flow
of charge carriers across the junction. Thus a high resistance path is introduced for the
entire circuit and hence no current flows across the junction.
71
Module J. Width of Depletion Layer of the pn-junction
The area of depletion layer depends on the
concentration of the impurities in the regions. Let x 1
and x2 be the widths of the space charge region in p
and n sides respectively. The effective area of the
depletion layer can easily be calculated using
Poisson’s equation, which states that the second
derivative of the potential with respect to the distance
(d2v/dx2) is proportional to the charge density ().
From Poissons equation,
d2 V -
____ _____
= (4.38)
2
dx 
where V is the voltage and  is volume density of

charge in the material of permittivity . Fig. 4.9
The charge density in p-region near the junction is given by
 = - e Na (4.39)
where Na is the density of acceptor atoms and the negative sign indicates that acceptor
atoms are negatively ionized.
Applying Poisson’s equation to p-region,
d2 V - e Na
____ _____ _____
= = (4.40)
2
dx  
d2 V e Na
____ ______
integrating, = dx
2
dx 
dV e Na
____ ______
= x +A (4.41)
dx 
integrating once again,
dV e Na
____ ______
= x dx + A dx
dx 
e Na x2
______ ____
V = +Ax+B (4.42)
 2
where A and B are arbitrary constants which are determined by boundary conditions.
72
As potentials are measured with respect to the potential at boundary between p
and n-sides, V = 0 at x = 0
Substituting this condition in equation (4.42),
0=B or B=0 (4.43)
The potential is constant at the end of the depletion layer.
dV
____
 At x = - x1, V = constant or =0
dx
substituting this condition in equation (4.41),
e Na
______
0 = (-x1) + A

e Na
______
or A = x1 (4.44)

Finally, substituting the values of A and B in equation (4.42),
e Na x2 e Na x1
______ __ __________
V = + x (4.45)
 2 
at x = - x1, if V = -V1, then
e Na x12 e Na x 1 2
_____ __ __________
-V1 = -
 2 
e Na x12 1
__________ __
-V1 = - 1
 2
e Na x12 e Na x12
-V1 = - __________ or V1 = (4.46)
2 2
Similarly, Poisson’s equation when applied to n-region the potential V2, at x = x2 where
the depletion region ends, is
e Nd x 2 2
_________
V2 = (4.47)
2
73
where Nd is the density of the donor atoms in n-region of pn-junction.
Thus the potential at junction V B is
VB = V2 – (-V1) = V1 + V2
e Na x12 e Nd x 2 2
__________ __________
VB = +
2 2
e
____
VB = [ Na x12+ Nd x22 ] (4.48)
2
For charge neutrality e N a x 1 = e Nd x 2
Na x1
_______
or x2 = (4.49)
Nd
Substituting x2 value from equation (4.49) in equation (4.48),
e Na2 x12
____ _________
VB = + Na x12
2 Nd
e Na x12 Na
__________ ___
VB = + 1
2 Nd
2  VB ½
 x1 = (4.50)
e Na 1 + Na
Nd
Substituting this value of x1 in equation (4.49)

Na x1
________
x2 =
Nd
Na 2  VB ½
____
x2 =
Nd e Na 1 + Na
Nd
74
Na2 2  VB ½
____
= x
Nd 2
e Na 1 + Na
Nd
2  VB ½
=
2
e Nd 1 + Na
Na Nd
2  VB ½
=
e Nd Nd + Nd Na
Na Na Nd
2  VB ½
x2 = (4.51)
e Nd 1 + Nd
Na
Total width of the depletion region is x = x 1 + x2
2  VB ½ 2  VB ½
x = +
e Na 1 + Na e Nd 1 + Nd
Nd Na
2  VB ½ 2  VB ½
x = +
e Na Nd + Na e Nd Na + Nd
Nd Na
2  VB ½ 1 ½ 1 ½
x = +
e (Na+ Nd ) Na Nd
Nd Na
2  VB ½ Nd ½ Na ½
______________ ____ ____
x = + (4.52)
e (Na+ Nd ) Na Nd
2  VB ½ Na + Nd
______________ _____________
x =
e (Na+ Nd ) (Na Nd) ½
75
2  VB (Na + Nd ) ½
___________________________
x =
e Na Nd
This is the width of depletion region which can be determined by knowing the potential
barrier VB and densities of donor and acceptor atoms in n-type and p-type of a
pn-junction.
Module K. Volt-Ampere Characteristics
Volt-ampre (V-I) characteristics are

the curves drawn between voltage across the
junction and the corresponding current flow
in the circuit of a pn-junction or a
semiconductor diode. The curve is drawn by
taking voltage on x-axis and current on y-
axis. To study the V-I characteristics, the pn-
junction is connected to a variable battery,
through a key and resistance R as shown in
the figure. 4.10. A voltmeter and milli
ammeter are connected as shown in the
figure.
First, the pn-junction is connected in

forward bias circuit. The input voltage from
the battery is slowly increased from zero
value onwards. At some forward voltage the
potential barrier is completely eliminated and
current starts flowing in the circuit. The
voltage is gradually increased in steps and the
corresponding current is noted using
voltmeter and milli-ammeter connected in
the circuit. Fig.4.10 Circuit and V-I characteristics of junction diode
The increase in current with voltage can be seen from the curve OAB(Fig 4.10).
The portion OA shows that at first the increase in current is very slow because of barrier
voltage of pn-junction. Once the applied voltage exceeds the barrier voltage, the increase
in current is almost linear (portion AB) of the curve. The pn-junction behaves like a
conductor and the rise in current is very sharp.
When pn-junction is forward biased it conducts current very slowly until it

overcomes the potential barrier (for Si it is 0.7 V and for Ge it is 0.3 V). Once this
potential is crossed the current increases slowly. This forward voltage at which current in
pn-junction starts increasing rapidly is called knee voltage.
76
Similarly, the circuit is connected in reverse bias by connecting p-type to negative
terminal and n-type to positive terminal of the battery. The potential barrier increases in
this case and practically no current flows through the circuit. The junction resistance will
become very high. However, due to minority charge carriers a very small amount of
current in microamperes (A) flows through the circuit. This current is called reverse
current. It is known that a few free electrons in p-type and holes in n-types are available
and are called minority charge carriers. The applied reverse bias acts as forward bias to
these minority charge carriers. As the applied voltage is increased continuously, the
kinetic energy of electrons becomes very high and they knock out electrons from the
semiconductors atoms. At this stage breakdown of the junction takes place. This is
characterized by sudden rise of reverse current and sudden fall of resistance of barrier
region and may destroy the pn-junction. The applied reverse voltage at which pn-junction
breaks down with sudden rise in reverse current is called breakdown voltage. But care
should be taken to see that the applied reverse bias is always less than breakdown voltage
to prevent the damage of pn-junction.
Module L. Zener Diode

In very thin pn-junctions, when both sides of
the junctions are very easily doped and consequently
the depletion layer is narrow (less than 100 Å), the
electric field becomes as high as 10 7 V/m with only
small applied reverse bias voltages of the order of 4
volts and so on. The bands in the transition region
are steeply tilted. Then it is possible for some
electrons to jump across the barrier from the valance
band in p-type material to some of the unfilled
conductive bands in n-type material. This process is
known as tunneling through the barrier. This is also
known as internal field emission or Zener break
down for it was first proposed by Zener in 1934. Fig.4.11 Circuit and V-I Characteristics of
Zener diode
The typical zener break down voltage is of the order of 4 to 6 volt. An increase in
operating temperature causes the forbidden band to become narrower and thus enhancing
the internal field. Then the zener break down occurs at lower voltage. Hence pn-junction
diode of very thin junction is called Zener diode. Typical Volt-Ampere characteristics of
a zener diode is shown in the fig. 4.11.
When the breakdown voltage is reached in this diode, the current increases
rapidly with additional voltage. As a result a diode in break down maintains an almost
constant voltage across itself over a wide current range. Hence, zener diode is used as
voltage regulator.
77
Module M. Varactor (Varicap) Diode
It is known that the transition capacitance C T of reverse-biased diode depends on
the width of the transition region, according to the equation,
A
______
CT =
W
where  is the permittivity; A is the area of the junction, W is the width of the transition
region.
The width of the transition region (W) inturn depends on the applied reverse
voltage. Therefore, it can be said that transition capacitance CT varies with the applied
voltage. The larger the reverse voltage the more is the width W of the transition region
and smaller is the capacitance CT. The variation of CT with the applied reverse voltage for
a typical silicon diode is shown in fig.4.12.
Fig.4.12.
This voltage dependent nature of C T of a reverse biased pn-junction is utilized in
several cases such as
(1) voltage tuning of an L-C resonant circuit
(2) self balancing bridge circuits and
(3) parametric amplifiers
Special diodes are made for these applications, utilizing voltage-variable property
of CT and are called Varactors diodes, varicaps or voltacaps.
The symbol and the circuit model for varactor diode is shown in fig.4.12.
In the circuit, RS and CT represent the ohmic resistance and transition capacitance
of the varactor diode respectively. For a applied reverse voltage of about 5 volts, the
typical value of CT is 20 pf and typical value of R S is 8 ohm. The resistance RT shunting
CT is large, greater than 1  ohm and can be neglected in most cases.
78
In circuits, for high frequencies, C T must be small, failing which even in the
reverse biased condition, the diode permits appreciable reverse current through C T. This
is undesirable since in reverse bias condition, a diode is expected to prevent the signal
through it.
Module N. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

A semiconductor generates hole-electron pairs, when energy is supplied to it.
Conversely, when a hole and electron recombine, some amount of energy is released.
Now the question is what type of energy is released. It depends on the type of
semiconductor material. For example, in silicon and germanium, energy is released in the
form of heat.
In some semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide (Ga As) and gallium phosphide
(Ga P), the released energy is in the form of light. Now, consider GaAs diode. When
current is passed in the forward direction through the diode, visible light is emitted from
the junction region. This is due to the recombination of minority carriers. Hence, in GaAs
diode, energy is released in the form of light when an electron jumps from conduction
band to valance band. Such a diode is called light emitting diode (LED).
Fig. 4.13 shows a circuit in which a resistor is connected to LED in series. Current
is passed through LED. The series resistor R limits the current.
Fig.4.13. LED circuit
The intensity of emitted light from LED increases with the increase of current
passing through it. Typical voltage drop across the LED is about 1.6 V to 2 V. A LED
gives a reasonable amount of light even at low current, say 10 mA. Hence, LED has low
power consumption of 16 to 20 milliwatts.
The following are the merits of LEDs over conventional incandescent and other
types of lamps:
1. Low working voltages and currents
2. Less power consumption
3. No warm up time
4. Very fast action.
5. Emission of monochromatic light
79
6. Small size and weight
7. No affect of mechanical vibrations
8. Less fragile than glass.
9. Extremely long life.
Module O. Solar Cells

It is well known that solar cells are useful for both space and terrestrial
applications. Solar cells have the capacity to furnish long duration power supply for
satellites. The solar cell is an important device for an alternative terrestrial energy source
because it can convert sunlight directly to electricity with good conversion efficiency and
also can provide permanent power at low operating cost.
The important solar cells are pn- junction solar cell, heterojunction and interface
solar cells. However, a typical pn-junction solar cell is discussed here.
pn - junction solar cell
A pn- junction solar cell is shown schematically in Fig. 4.14. It consists of a

shallow pn- junction formed on the surface, a front ohmic contact strip and fingers, a
back ohmic contact that covers the entire back surface and an anti-reflection coating on
the front surface.
Fig.4.14. Solar cell
When the cell is exposed to the solar spectrum, a photon that has an energy less
than the band gap Eg, makes no contribution to the cell output. A photon that has an
energy greater than Eg is wasted as heat. To drag the conversion efficiency, consider the
energy band diagram of a pn-junction under solar radiation shown in Fig. 4.15a.
80
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.15b, where a constant current source is
in parallel with the junction. The source I L results from the excitation of excess carriers
by solar radiation, Is is the diode saturation current and R L is the load resistance, then
the ideal V-I characteristic is given by
I = Is (eqV/kT - 1) - IL (4.53)
Fig.4.15
The curve passes through the fourth quadrant, and therefore power can be extracted from
the device.
Hence, for a given IL, Voc increases with decreasing saturation current IS ,the
output current is given by
P = IV = IsV (eqV/kT - 1) -ILV

The condition for maximum power is obtained when dP/dV = 0, or
Vm = kT/q In [ { 1+(IL/IS)} / { 1+ (qVm /kT) }] Voc - kT / q In [ 1 + qVm / kT]
Im = Is [ qVm / kT ] eqVm/kT  IL [ 1 – 1 /(qVm / kT) ]
The maximum output power pm is then
Pm = Im Vm  IL [ Voc - (kT / q) ln ( 1 + qVm / kT) – kT/q]
Conversion efficiency
The power conversion efficiency of a solar cell is given by
 = Im Vm / Pin = IL [Voc – kT/q In (I + qVm/kT ) – kT/q] / Pin
= FF.ILVoc / pin (4.54)
where Pin is the incident power and FF is the fill factor defined as
FF  ImVm / ILVoc
For maximum efficiency, all the three terms in the numerator should have maximum
values.
81
Amorphous silicon (-Si) is also a material for solar cells. Layers of a few
microns thick are deposited by radio-frequency glow discharge composition of silane
onto metal or glass substrates. The optical-absorption characteristics of -Si has an
effective bandgap of 1.5 eV. Although the efficiency of -Si solar cells (~10%) is lower
than that of single-crystal silicon solar cells, their production costs are considerably
lower. Therefore, the -Si solar cell is one of the major devices for large-scale use of
solar energy.
82
Solved Problems
Example 1: A specimen of germanium is doped with 0.1 atomic percent of arsenic.

Assuming that at room temperature all the arsenic atoms are ionized, find the
electron and hole densities in germanium. The arsenic carrier density at room
emperature in germanium is 2.37 x 1019 /m3. The density of germanium
atom is 4.41 x 1028 /m3.
Solution:
Given, Crystal-Ge, impurity = 0.1 % arsenic, ni = 2.37 x 1019 / m3, the density of
germanium atom = 4.41 x 1028 /m3, electron and hole densities = ?
Now, for n-type semiconductor, we know that NA  0. Further, the electron

density (which is equal to the density of the donor atom) is given by
ND = 0.1 x 4.41 x 1028 / 100 = 4.41 x 1025 /m3

and
ni2 = 5.62 x 1038
The hole density is pn = ni2 / ND = 5.62 x 1038 / (4.41 x 1020) = 1.27 x 1013 /m3.
Example 2: An intrinsic semiconductor material A has an energy gap 0.36 eV while

material B has an energy gap 0.72 eV. Compare the intrinsic carrier densities
in these two materials at 300 K. Assume that the effective masses of all the
electrons and holes are equal to the free electron mass.
Solution:
Given, me* = mh* = m, T = 300 K, Eg(A) = 0.36 eV and Eg = 0.67 eV.
Also, 2kT = 0.052 eV.
The ratio of the carrier densities is
ni(A) e(-0.36/2kT)
_____ ___________
= = e [ (0.72 – 0.36) / 2kT] = e(0.36/0.052) = 1015.
(-0.722kT)
nI(B) e
83
 Solid substances are classified as conductors, semiconductors and insulators
 Resistance depends on temperature i.e., it increases with temperature for metals
 In case of semiconductors , the resistance decreases with increase in temperature
 Semiconductor, in its extremely pure form is known as intrinsic semiconductor
 The process of adding impurity to a pure semiconductor is called “doping”
 Semiconductor with impurity becomes extrinsic semiconductor
 The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than that of insulator but more than that of a
conductor
 Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of Resistance
 In a solid many atoms are brought together therefore the separation between sub
levels would be super-imposed on each other and therefore the split energy levels
are almost continuous and form an energy band
 The energy band corresponds to energy levels in an atom
 The energy bands are separated by some gaps which are not permitted energy levels.
These gaps are called Forbidden energy gaps
 The energy band occupied by electrons is called valance band
 Electrons leaving the valance band are called conduction electrons
 Conduction electrons are weakly bound to the atom
 The energy band occupied by electrons is called conduction band
 Free electrons are created by breakage of covalent bonds
 Under the application of electric field, electrons move towards positive terminal while
holes move towards negative terminal.
 In case of intrinsic semiconductors the rate of generation of electron – hole pair

depends on the temperature and nature of the material
 The energy gap of germanium is 0.75eV
 The operating temperature of germanium is 85 to 100
84
 The operating temperature of silicon is 190 to 200C
 The energy gap of silicon is larger than that of germanium
 When a trivalent (boron, gallium , indium) atom is added to a pure semiconductor p-

type semiconductor is formed
 Holes conduct current in p-type semiconductor
 The absence of electron is called a hole
 For all practical purposes hole acts as a positive charge
 When a pentavalent (arsenic,antimony) atom is added to a pure semiconductor n-type

semiconductor is formed
 Electrons conduct current in n-type semiconductor
 The density of majority carriers is approximately equal to the density of impurity

atom at usual ambient temperature
 The net movement in charge across a semiconductor is drift
 When the carriers tend to move in a semiconductor from a region of high

concentration to a region of low concentration, the current component is called
diffusion current
 The diffusion current is proportional to the spatial derivative of the electron density
 Diffusion current results from the random thermal motion of carriers in a

concentration gradient.
85
Module 5
Lasers
The word LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation.
LASER is a device used for the production of highly intense, monochromatic,

collimated and coherent beam of light.
The principle of laser is based on the phenomenon of stimulated emission

predicted by Albert Einstein.
Absorption
Initially an atom is in ground state i.e., all electrons possess lowest possible
energy. When energy is supplied i.e., atom when excited, electrons absorb energy and
jump to higher energy level, say from E1 to E2.
E2 – E1
E2 – E1 = h  or  = __________
h
where h is Planck’s constant. h = 6.61 x 10 -34 joule-sec.
Fig.5.1 Absorption of energy
The probable rate of transition depends on states of 1 and 2 and is proportional to

energy density U() of radiation of frequency  incident on atom.
P12 = B12 U() (5.1)
86
Here, B12 is constant of proportionality called as Einstein coefficient for absorption of
radiation.
Spontaneous emission
An atom in excited state remains only for about 10 -8s; it then on its own accord
jumps to lower energy level emitting radiation. This process is called spontaneous
emission.
Fig.5.2. Spontaneous emission
The probability of spontaneous emission from 2  1 depends only on the

properties of states 1 and 2.
(P21)spontaneous = A21 (5.2)
where A21 is Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission of radiation.
Stimulated emission
If an atom is in excited state and then exposed to another photon of suitable

energy (frequency), this causes the atom to emit an additional photon of the same
frequency as incident one and the atom goes to lower energy level. Thus now two
photons of the same frequency are present. This phenomenon is called stimulated
emission of radiation. These two photons are coherent and travel in the same direction.
Fig.5.3 Stimulated emission
The probability of stimulated emission from E 2 to E1 state depends on energy

density U() of incident photon as well as the properties of the two states.
(P21)Stimulated = B21 U() (5.3)
where B21 is Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.
Therefore, total probability of emission transition from 2 to 1 is given by
P21 = A21 + B21 U() (5.4)
87
Module 5B. Einstein’s Coefficients
Consider an assembly of atom in thermal equilibrium at temperature T with
energy density U(), where  is frequency of radiation.
Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms in states 1 and 2 respectively at an instant.
Number of atoms that can absorb energy per unit time is
N1 P21 = N1 B12 U() (5.5)
Similarly the number of atoms that can emit radiation (both spontaneous and stimulated)
is
N2 P21 = N2 [ A21 + B21 U()] (5.6)
For equilibrium, rate of absorption = rate of emission
That is, N1 P12 = N2 P21
N1 B12 U() = N2 A21 + N2 B21 U()
U() [ N1 B12 - N2 B21 ] = N2 A21
N2 A21
___________________
U() =
N1 B12 - N2 B21
N2 A21 / N2B21
_________________________
=
N1 B12 N2 B21
_________ _________

N2B21 N2B21
A21 1
_____ ______________________
U(υ) = (5.7)
B21 N1 B12 -1
N2 B21
According to Boltzman’s distribution law,

N1 = N0 e-E1 / kT and N2 = N0 e-E2 / kT
where N0 is total number of atoms present and k is Boltzman’s constant.
N2 e- E2 / kT
___ ___________
= = e – [ E2 - E1 ] / kT
But E2 –E1 = h 
88
N1 e- E1 / kT
N2
___
 = e– h  / kT
N1
N1
___ h  / kT
or = e (5.8 )
N2
Substituting equation (5.8) into (5.7)
A21 1
____ ______________________
U() = (5.9)
B21 eh  / kT B12 -1
B21
Comparing this with Planck’s formula for radiation, given by
8h 3 1
_________ _____________
U() =
3 h  / kT
c e -1
where c is velocity of light
A21 8 h 3
______ ____________
 = and
3
B21 c
B12
_____
= 1
B21
or B12 = B21
That is, the probability of stimulated emission is same as that of induced absorption.
A21
Also, ______  3
B21
Probability of spontaneous emission dominates over induced emission more and
more as the energy difference between the states increases.
Module 5C. Pumping and Population Inversion

1. The number of atoms in higher energy state must be greater than that in lower
energy level.
2. The energy density of stimulated radiation must be large.
At ordinary conditions number of atoms in lower energy level are more compared
to that in higher energy level. But by some means if more number of atoms are made
89
available in higher energy level, then the situation is called population inversion. The
process involved in achieving this situation is called pumping.
At population inversion situation, an incident photon stimulates only one atom to

emit one photon. Thus, the number of identical coherent photons grow from one to two.
The process builds up and finally results in an intense beam of directed radiation. This is
called LASER.
In optical pumping, atoms are excited to energy level E 3 from E1 by radiation of

energy h13. Some excited atoms quickly drop to E 2 called metastable state in a
non-radiating jump. However, the excess energy ( E2 – E1 ) is converted into vibrational
kinetic energy (KE) of atom of the substance. Thus number of atoms in E 2 is more than
that in E1. Finally, the atoms are induced by radiation of energy h12 to E1 from E2 state
emitting Laser.
Module 5D. Ruby Laser

Parts of the Ruby Laser
1. An active working material - A rod of
ruby crystal.
2. A resonant cavity made up of fully
reflecting end and partially reflecting end
of ruby crystal. Both the faces are
perfectly parallel and optically plane.
3. An Exciting system: A helical xenon flash
tube with a power supply source. Fig.5.4. Ruby Laser
Ruby (Al2O3, Cr2O3) is a crystal of aluminum oxide in which some aluminum
atoms are replaced with chromium atoms. The active material in the ruby is chromium
ions, Cr+3. When ruby crystal contains 0.5% of Cr its colour is pink. It is 4 cm long and
0.5 cm in diameter. The end faces are grounded to get them strictly parallel and polished
to high degree and are silvered, one face heavily and the other partially. The ruby is
surrounded by a helical xenon flash tube which provides pumping action to Cr ions to
higher energy level. The flash lasts for several msec. And tube consumes several
thousands joules energy. Out of this, only a small part is used to pump Cr +3, while the rest
in heating the tube and hence cooling arrangement is provided.
Working
In normal state, chromium ions

are in lower energy level E1. When
ruby crystal is irradiated with xenon
light, the chromium atoms are excited
to higher energy level E 3 where light
absorption band is 5600 Å.
Fig.5.5.Energy level diagram of chromium ions in Ruby laser
90
The transition 1 is optical pumping. The excited ions give up them a part of energy to
crystal lattice by collision and decay to metastable state E 2. The transition 2 is radiation-
less transition. The metastable state has relatively longer life time ( 10-3 sec) than usual
life time (10-8 sec). Thus the number of ions in state E 2 goes on increasing while due to
pumping, the number of ions in ground state E 1 goes on decreasing. In this way
population inversion is established between ground and metastable states.
Spontaneous emission takes place with emission of  = 6943 Å. This photon

travels through the rod suffering reflections between its polished faces until it stimulates
excited ion and the excited ion emits one more photon and returns to ground state. The
emitted photon is in phase with stimulating photon. This is laser transition. The process is
repeated and more and more photons are emitted which move back and forth between
the two faces. Photons in any other direction, however, pass through ruby. The
stimulated emission along the axis of the rod dominates. Thus photon beam parallel to
axis grows in strength and some of it bursts through partially reflecting face and serves as
output laser beam. A stage is reached where the population inversion caused by one flash
is used up. Laser beam ceases till next flash is repeated. Thus the ruby laser is a pulsed
laser.
The output beam has wavelength,  = 6943 Å. The duration of output flash is
about 300  sec. It is very intense (10,000 watt).
Module 5E. He – Ne Laser

As ruby laser does not generate continuous laser beam, Javan, Benwett and
Harriot reported gas lasers which emit continuous laser beam with high monochromacity.
Hence, they have wide applications in science and engineering particularly in
communications.
91
Construction
He – Ne laser consists of
1. A working substance in the form of a mixture of He and Ne gases in the ratio 7 : 1
at a total pressure of 1 torr (i.e. 1 mm of Hg).
2. A resonant cavity of quartz tube of 50 cm length and 5 mm diameter; highly
polished and silvered at one end and partially at other, and
3. An exciting source for creating discharge in tube using radio frequency high
voltage generator ( like Tesla coil).
The operation of gas laser is based (He + Ne)

on the interaction of atoms of two gases that
have very close energy levels. Ne has
energy levels very close to metastable
energy levels of helium. He-Ne gas laser can
operate in three distinct spectral regions i.e, R.F.
Generator
in red 6328 Å, in near infrared 1.15 m and
in infrared at 3.39 m. Fig.5.6 He-Ne Laser
When electromagnetic energy is injected into the tube through gas tube by means
of radio frequency high voltage source. He atoms get excited to metastable state. They in
turn collide with unexcited Ne atoms and resonant energy transfer takes place so that Ne
atoms get excited to a specific energy level. After transfer of energy He atoms return to
ground state. The laser action takes place only in Ne atoms, while He serves only the
purpose of enhancing the excitation process.
When population inversion occurs in neon atoms, they return to lower energy
level by emitting photons. The photons emitted parallel to axis of tube bounce back and
forth between polished faces and stimulate emission of same wavelength from other
excited Ne atoms. Thus photons get amplified and a powerful, coherent, parallel and
highly directional laser beam emerges from partially reflecting end face.
1% active substance is used while in semiconductor laser, the whole material is

active.
92
Module 5F. Semiconductor Laser
A semiconductor can also produce lasing action with high efficiency. A
semiconductor laser is obtained by forming a junction between p-type and n- type
materials in the same host lattice. The doping is done very heavily. The pn-junction is
forward biased. Recombination of electrons and holes is the basic mechanism responsible
for emission of light. The number of photons emitted depends on the value of forward
bias. As the current across pn-junction is gradually increased from zero, spontaneous
emission starts, which changes over to laser beam. This beam can be built up to a very
high value by polishing the faces of semiconductor pn-junction laser. The frequency of
this laser beam is
Eg
 = ____
h
where Eg is the energy or band gap.
GaAs was first of this type laser.

Fig.5.7. Semiconductor laser
Module 5G. Applications of Laser
1. Lasers are employed to measure long distances between objects. Example: distance of
planet from earth etc. Also laser beams are used in Michelson interferometer for
measurement of very small distances.
2. The velocity of a moving object can be determined by comparing the frequency of
signal reflected by moving object with frequency of emitted radiation. The shift in
frequency υ = 2  v / c , where v is the radial velocity of the target object.
3. Lasers are used to investigate basic laws of interactions of atoms or molecules with
electromagnetic waves of high intensity.
4. Lasers are used for separation of various isotopes of an element using slight difference
in the energy levels of the atom of isotopes due to difference in nuclear mass.
5. Lasers are employed in optical communication systems.
6. The very high temperatures that are produced by intense laser beam can be employed
to carry thermo-nuclear fusion reactions.
7. Used in industries for welding and cutting materials. Also can be used for machining
and drilling holes.
8. Lasers are used in medicine and biology extensively. Detached retina of eye can be
treated, and in the treatment of dental decay, tumors and skin diseases.
9. A lot of genetic research is going on employing laser techniques.
10. Laser beams are also used to form graphics.
93
Solved Problems
Example 1: Light of wave length 6730 Å is emitted by a He-Ne laser with output power
of 2.3 mw. Calculate the number of photons emitted per second by the laser.
(Planck’s constant h = 6.63 x 10-34 J)
Solution:
Planck’s constant h = 6.63 x 10-34 J
Power , P = n h 
Therefore, P = nh (c/) since  = c or  = c/
P 2.3 x 10-3 x 6730 x 10-10

Hence, n = ____ = ______________________________
hc 6.63 x 10-34 x 3 x 108
n = 778.2 x 1013 photon/sec.
Example 2: Evaluate the wave length of radiation given out by a laser with
E2 – E1 = 3 eV. ( h = 6.63 x 10-34 JS, c = 3 x 108 m/s)
Solution:
Given, h = 6.63 x 10-34 JS, c = 3 x 108 m/s
As E = h 
E = E 2 – E1
c =  or =c⁄
Therefore, E2 – E1 = h  = h (c/)
or  = h c / ( E2 – E1) = 6.63 x 10-34 x 3 x 108 / (3 x 1.6 x 10-19)
 = 4.14 x 10-7 m
 = 414 x 10-9 m = 414 nm
94
 LASER - Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
 Laser is a device to produce highly intense, monochromatic, collimated and coherent

beam of light
 The principle of LASER is stimulated emission
 Spontaneous emission is the process in which an atom is excited and remains there
for few microseconds, then on its own accord jumps to lower energy level emitting
radiation
 In stimulated emission of radiation, two photons of same frequency and coherent in

nature are produced which travel in the same direction
 Population inversion is the situation, in which more number of atoms are made
available in higher energy level than that in lower energy level.
 The process involved in achieving population inversion is called pumping
 The lasing material in Ruby laser is Ruby (Al 2O3, Cr2O3)
 The pumping action in Ruby laser is provided by helical xenon flash lamp
 Ruby laser does not generate continuous laser beam. It is a pulsed laser
 Ruby laser produces light of wavelength 6943 Å
 He-Ne laser emits continuous laser beam with high monochromacity
 Working substance of He-Ne laser is in the form of a mixture of He and Ne gases in

the ratio 7:1
 He-Ne laser is a three-level laser
 Wavelength of He-Ne laser beam is 6328 Å
 A semiconductor can produce lasing action with high efficiency. GaAs laser is the
first semiconductor laser
 Lasers are used in the measurement of terrestrial distances.
95
 Lasers are used to investigate basic laws of interaction of atoms and molecules with
electromagnetic waves
 Lasers are widely used in optical communication systems, medicine and biology
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
 h = E2 – E1

E2 – E1
__________
 =
h
 c=
96
Module 6
Fibre Optics
From time to time scientists have tried to design and improve better
communication system by which messages are sent over long distances. The
communication system consists of transmitter, transmission channel (wave guide, wire
etc.) and receiver. Signal gets attenuated and distorted when transmitted through a wire.
With the development of laser, reliable and a powerful coherent radiation became
available. So, it is natural to use light for communication purpose. Optical frequencies are
extremely large (1015 Hz) , high compared to radio waves (106 Hz) and microwaves
(1010Hz). Therefore, light acting as carrier wave is capable of carrying far more
information than radio and microwave. So , in the current times, the demand for flow of
information traffic is so dense that only light waves alone would cope with it. Light
rapidly dissipates in traveling through open atmosphere. Hence, some guiding channel is
needed just like for electric current - a wire. Optical fibre provides the necessary wave
guide for light.
Module 6B. Principle of Optical Fibre

Coating  = 1.5
The optical fibres are based on the
r
principle of total internal reflection. An 
i
optical fibre is a hair thin cylindrical fibre
of glass or any other transparent dielectric.
It consists of many thousands of very long Fibre
material  = 1.7
fine quality glass/quartz fibres. These fibres
are coated or cladded with a layer of lower Fig.6.1. Optical Fibre
refractive index.
Light is incident on fibre making an angle i with its axis, r is the angle made by
light inside the fibre with its axis.
Then, from figure 12.1.  = 90 – r
97
If 1 is refractive index of fibre and if   c, the critical angle for the media
where
1
c = sin-1 ___
, then the ray gets total internally reflected. Thus, the ray undergoes
1
repeated internal reflections until it emerges out at the other end, even if the fibre is bent.
Thus there is no loss of energy due to refraction. Electrical signals, after being converted
to light, can thus be transmitted using fibre bundles.
In case of optical fibres, it is essential that there must be very little absorption of
light as it travels through long distances inside the fibres. This is achieved by purification
and special preparations of optical fibre materials.
Module 6C. Numerical Aperture

Consider a ray of light incident on the entrance aperture of the fibre making an
angle i with axis. Let r be the angle of refraction. Let  be the angle at the cladding
interface.
The condition for total internal reflection to take place is

2
sin   ____ (6.1)
1
But,
sin  = sin (90 - r) = cos r (6.2)
sin r = 1 – cos2 r = 1 – sin2 
22
___
= 1-
2
1
12  22
___________
= (6.3)
2
1
From Snell’s law,
sin i sin i
1 = _______ or sin r = _______
sin r 1
The condition of total internal reflection can be expressed as
12  22
___________
sin r  (6.4)
2
1
98
From equation (6.3)
sin i 12  22

_____ ___________

2
1 1
 sin i  12  22 (6.5)

Let im be the maximum angle of incidence for which total internal reflection occurs, then
sin im = 12  22
sin im is known as Numerical Aperture (NA) of the fibre, which measures the light
gathering power of fibre.
½
NA = ( 12  22 )
Module 6D. Step-Index Fibres – Transmission of Signal

The simplest optical fibre consists of core
1
a hair thin cylindrical transparent glossy
clad
material of refractive index 1 surrounded
2
by cladding of slightly lower refractive
air air
index 2. Such structures are called
step-index fibres, because of refractive
index profile structure across the core-clad b a
interface. Fig.6.2. Step-index fibre
Information to be transmitted is coded in the form of pulses in the optical digital

communication system. Accordingly, the information is decoded to retrieve the message.
Larger the number of pulses transmitted per second, the greater is the transmission
capacity of the fibre.
A light pulse broadens in shape as it passes through fibre because of different

times taken by different rays to reach the receiver.
99
Fig.6.3. Dependence of path of pulse on the angle of incidence
At the input end the pulses may be well separated while entering the optical fibre.
But because of broadening of pulses the neighbouring pulses may overlap at the output
end. They can not be distinguished as discrete pulses. Thus from unresolved or poorly
resolved pulses, no information can be retrieved. The smaller the pulse dispersion, the
greater will be information transmission capacity of the fibre system. For a ray making an
angle  with axis, the distance AB is traversed in time,
AC + CB 1 (AB)
___________ ____________
 = =
c/ 1 c cos 
where c/1 is speed of light in a medium of refractive index 1. Here, c is the velocity of
light in free space.
For a fibre of length L, the time taken will be

1 L
___________
 =
c cos 
i.e., time taken is a function of , angle made by the ray with axis, which leads to pulse
dispersion.
If we assume that all rays lying between 0 and c are present then the time taken
by the rays corresponding respectively to  = 0 and  = c = cos-1(2 / 1) would be given by
1 L
_______
min =
c
12 L
_______
max =
2 c
100
1 L 1
_____ ____
  = max - min = -1
c 2
i.e., if all the input rays were excited

simultaneously, the rays would occupy a time
interval at the output end of duration .
An input pulse gets widened as it travels Fig.6.4. Pulse dispersion in optical fibre
along the fibre.
Module 6E. Graded Index Fibre - Transmission of Signal

If the core has a non-uniform refractive index that gradually decreases from center
towards the core-cladding interface, the fibre is called graded index fibre. The cladding
has a uniform refractive index. The refractive index of the core decreases parabolically
from center maximum value, towards cladding interface till it attains a constant value.
Hence, a ray entering the fibre inclined to the axis, keeps bending towards axis (Snell’s
law) because the ray encounters continuously a medium of lower refractive index and
hence bends away from normal. In a parabolic index medium, the ray paths are
sinusoidal. A ray in the rarer medium travels with larger velocity (c/), so the rays of
larger slope angles traverse longer paths, with increased velocities and hence the extra
time required for longer paths are compensated. Hence all the rays irrespective of their
slopes require the same time to emerge out at the output end of the fibre without signal
dispersion. But a very small dispersion does exist in the emergent beam (0.25ns).
From Snell’s law
1 sin 1 = 2 sin 2 = 3 sin 3
or x sin x = x cos x = constant
i.e., in a layered structure the ray bends in

such a way that the product x cos x
remains constant.
Fig.6.5. Graded-index fibre
101
Fig.6.6. Parabolic-index fibre
For a fibre characterized by a cylindrically symmetric refractive index profile r,

if ray a makes an angle 1 with axis of the fibre, then according to Snell’s law r cos r
~
will remain constant. That is, the ray will bend in such a way that the product r cos r
remains invariant, denoted by .
~
 = r cos r = 1 cos 1
where 1 is refractive index at the axis.
For a ray incident at the critical angle on the core-cladding interface
2
cos  = sin c = ____
1
Therefore,
~ = 1 cos  = 2

~
All rays 2 <  < 1 will undergo total internal reflection at core-cladding interface.
~
For  < 2 the ray will be incident at angle less than critical angle and will be refracted
away and such ray will not be guided through fibre.
Consider a parabolic index fibre characterized by the following refractive index

variation
102
2
r
r2 = 1 2
1- __
0<r<a for core

2
a
r2 = 1 2
1- __
= 22 r>a for cladding

Each ray which gets guided through fibre is characterized by a definite time that it
requires for propagation through fibre.
This time is rigorously given by
L ~ 12
_____ ____
 =  + where L is the length of fibre
~
2c 
~
The time taken is minimum for axial ray for which  = 1
Thus,
L 1 L
_______ ________
min = =
c / 1 c
~
for  = 2 ,
L 12
_____ _____
 = max = 2 +
2c 2
Thus, the pulse dispersion is given by
L 2 L 12 L 1
_____ _________ ______
 = max - min = + -
2c 2 2 c c
2 L 12 1
_____ ____ ____
 = = 1 + -
2c 22 2
2 L 1 - 2
_____
 = = 2 where  = ________
2c 2
103
Module 6F. Optical Fibres in Communication And Sensing Applications
The optical fibres are extensively used in communication systems due to their
inherent merits like high information carrying capacity and low cost per unit length as raw
material required i.e., glass (silica) is available in plenty on the earth. As optical fibres are
insulators, electric current does not flow through them. Once the optic (light) wave is
trapped in the fibre, none leaks out during transmission. So there is no interference with
signals in near by fibres. Also due to smaller size and light weight they are extensively
used in aeronautical applications. They do not pick up or propagate electromagnetic pulses
caused by other means. No short circuit could be expected. As fibres do not react wotj
water or chemicals, corrosion is not severe. The optical firbes withstand high
temperatures. It is very difficult for an intruder to detect the signal that is transmitted.
Thus the firbes offer high privacy and security for the messages that are to be transmitted.
This is the reason why fire communication plays an important role in defense services.
Fibre optics finds wide application in communication due to its large band width
by which large number of channels are handled efficiently.
Digital data transmission is carried by optical fibres. They are also employed in
cable television, space vehicles, ships and submarine cables.
Single fibers of small diameter have been used to study the wave guide behaviour of
optical fibers, while special fibers having a neodymium-doped core glass have been used
to generate or amplify light by stimulated emission i.e. the fiber laser.
When a larger area of light is to be transmitted a bundle of fibers known as a fiber-optic

light guide is employed. The ends of the fibers are either cemented with an epoxy resin or
fused together, while the remainder of the bundle is left to flux. The fibers are covered
with a sheath of plain or metal reinforced polyvinyl chloride tubing. The fiber size ranges
from 20  to 80  depending on the flexibility required. The numerical aperture is 0.5.
The end configuration, in addition to round ones, can be of any shape to suit the source
and the receiver involved. They are used (1) in medical diagnostic instruments, (2) in fire
detectors where the light guide relays the signal to a sensor located behind a heat shield
(3) in data-processing equipment to sense holes in punched cards or marks on
examination answer sheets (4) in electronics to couple simple circuits optically and
without capacitive effects (5) in photometers and colorimeters where the light guide
serves as a flexible probe for a fixed senser and (6) in other special devices used for
scanning, counting and sizing operations.
104
The multifibers consisting of a number of optically distinct clad fibers fused into a single
strand, retains the same mechanical properties of a single fiber and will be either rigid or
flexible. They are used to transmit light or images where flexibility is not required.
Applied in high speed photography and special aerial reconnaissance systems. Using
fiber optic plates recording on film can be done from a cathode-ray tube. The photometric
efficiency of this plate is very high compared to a lens, nearly 40 times. The fiber-optic
plate can also be used to flatten the field for photographic purposes.
105
Solved Problems
Example 1: Calculate the numerical aperture and the acceptance angle for an optical fibre
given that refractive indices of the core and the cladding are 1.45 and 1.40
respectively.
Solution:
n1 = refractive index of the core = 1.45
n2 = refractive index of the cladding = 1.40
NA = ( n12 – n22) ½
= ( 1.452 – 1.402) ½ = (0.1425) ½ = 0.3775
Acceptance angle im = sin-1 (n12 – n22) ½
= sin-1 (0.3775) = 22 18
Example 2: Given that the numerical aperture to be 0.2441 and refractive index of the
core to be 1.50, calculate the refractive index of the cladding and also the
acceptance angle.
Solution:
NA = ( n12 – n22) ½
0.2441 = [ (1.5)2 – n22] ½
Squaring on both the sides
(0.2441)2 = (1.5)2 – n22
or n22 = (1.5)2 – (0.2441)2 = 2.25 – 0.06 = 2.19
n2 = 1.48.
Acceptance angle im = sin-1 (n12 – n22) ½ = sin-1 ( (1.5)2 – (1.48)2) ½
= sin-1 (2.25 – 2.19) ½ = sin-1(0.06) ½ = sin-1 (0.2449)
im = 14 17
106
 The principle of optical fibre is total internal reflection
 An optical fibre is a hair thin cylindrical fibre of glass or any other transparent
dielectric
 Optical fibres are cladded with the material of lower refractive index
 Numerical aperture of a fibre measures the light gathering power of the fibre. NA =
½
(2core - 2cladding)
 In graded index fibre, the refractive index gradually decreases from centre towards
core-cladding interface.
107
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
 c = sin-1 (1/1)
 NA = (12  22)½
 sin im = (12  22)½

1 L
 = ___________
c cos 
 In step index fibre,
1 L 1
_____ ____
 = - 1
c 2
 x sin x = x cos x = constant
 In graded index fibre,
2 L 12 1
_____ ____ ____
 = = 1 + -
2c 22 2
108

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PHY-102

BSc Aircraft Maintenance Engineering

MODULE 1 Bonding in Solids 4

MODULE 2 Principle of Quantum Mechanics 17

MODULE 3 Magnetic Properties 33

MODULE 6 Fibre Optics 97

MODULE 2 Principles of Quantum Mechanics

MODULE 3 Magnetic properties

MODULE 6 Fibre optics

Therefore, from equation (1.1)

The potential energy is obtained by integrating the above equation

The bonding energy or cohesive energy is defined as the energy of formation of

Module 1C. Calculation of Cohesive Energy of Ionic Solids

The energy of the system at equilibrium spacing x = x0 is called energy of

From equation (1.3)

U(x) is minimum for x = x0, that is,

Substituting this in equation (1.4), that is,

(a) Atoms (b) Ions (c) Ionic molecule

In case of NaCl the equilibrium distance x0 = 0.24 nm.

for e = 1.602 x 10-19 C  = 8.85 x 10-12

5.1 – 9.6 = - 4.5 ev

Example 1 : In an AB molecule, suppose A atoms has an ionization potential energy

Example 2 : Suppose ionization energy of K is 4.1 eV and the electron affinity of Cl is

We know that the potential energy U ( x = xe ) is minimum, therefore

1.6 x 10-19 x 9 x 109

 Matter is composed of atoms and molecules.

 Properties of matter are essentially dependently on the arrangement of atoms and

 The arrangement of atoms is determined by the strength, character and directionality

 The process of holding the atoms is called bonding.

 Solids are strong and slightly elastic.

 Solids cannot be compressed because of repulsive forces developed

 Electronic structure of atoms in solids determines the type of bonding

 Primary bonds are interatomic while secondary bonds are intermolecular

 Hydrogen and Vanderwaals are secondary bonds

 Attractive interatomic force is responsible for the formation of a crystal.

 The energy of a system at equilibrium spacing x = x 0 is called cohesive or

 Bonding or cohesive energy is equal but opposite in sign to disassociation energy of a

 Disassociation of atoms is caused by strong electric field, high temperature or

 5.1 eV of energy is required to remove the outer electron of Na atom.

 Electron affinity of chlorine is 3.6 eV

 Equilibrium distance of NaCl is 0.24nm

 4.5eV amount of energy is required to disassociate NaCl molecule

 1eV =1.602 x 10-19 J

 At equilibrium the distance between two atoms is

 Cohesive energy Ux= (-a/xm ) + (b/xn) where a = A/(M-1), b = B/(N-1), m = M-1,

 Cohesive energy of ionic solid Umin = -a/xom [ (1-(m/n)]

 The bonding force between two atoms

fx =(A / xM ) – (B/XN) ; N>M

According to de Broglie, every moving particle is associated with it wave

χ = χ 0 sin t , Since  = 2 

χ = χ 0 sin 2 t + ( v x/ c2 ) ] / ( 1 – v2/c2 )½ (2.4)

The standard wave equation is given by

χ = χ 0 sin [ (2  T ) ( t + x/ u )] (2.5)

where T is periodic time and u is phase velocity.

Comparing equation (2.4) and (2.5),

Substituting this in equation (2.6), we get

The wave length of material particle

Therefore, from equation (5.12), the de Broglie wavelength

Fig. 2.1 Davisson and Germer’s experimental setup

The experimental arrangement consists of an electron gun E from which a well

The electrons are reflected from the crystal

Module 2D. G.P. Thomson’s Experiment

G. P. Thomson in 1928, carried investigations with high speed electrons