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December,
http://www.crridom.gov.in NEW DELHI-110025
CS
IR INDIA
Price: ` 3500 2017
Indian Highway Capacity Manual (Indo-HCM)
Indian Highway Capacity Manual
(Indo-HCM)
Sponsored by
Council of Scienti ic and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi
2012-2017
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Mathura Road, New Delhi-110025 CSIR - CENTRAL ROAD RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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December,
http://www.crridom.gov.in NEW DELHI-110025
CS
IR INDIA
Price: ` 3500 2017
in association with
STUDY TEAM
Prof. Satish Chandra
Director, CSIR - CRRI
Dr. S. Gangopadhyay
Director, CSIR - CRRI: (Till 30.11.2015)
Dr. S. Velmurugan, Senior Principal Scientist and Champion
Dr. Kayitha Ravinder, Principal Scientist and Co Champion
Chapter
Work Package Leaders Regional Coordinators
Number
Dr. S. Velmurugan,
Chapter -1 —
Senior Principal Scientist
Dr. Ch. Ravisekhar, Principal Scientist and Prof. Satish Chandra, IIT Roorkee (since
Chapter - 2
Dr. J. Nataraju, Principal Scientist 18.1.2016 as Director, CSIR – CRRI)
Chapter - 3 Sh. Ashutosh Arun, Scientist Prof. Sudip Kumar Roy, IIEST, Shibpur
Chapter - 4 Dr. K. Ravinder, Principal Scientist Prof. Gaurang J. Joshi, SVNIT Surat
Prof. K. Gunasekaran,
Chapter - 5 Dr. A. Mohan Rao, Principal Scientist
Anna University, Chennai
Sh. Subhash Chand, Principal Scientist and Prof. K.V. Krishna Rao,
Chapter - 6
Dr. Neelam J. Gupta, Principal Scientist IIT, (Bombay), Mumbai
Sh. Subhash Chand, Principal Scientist and
Chapter -7 Prof. P.K. Sarkar, SPA, New Delhi
Dr. Neelam J. Gupta, Principal Scientist
Prof. Satish Chandra, IIT Roorkee and
Chapter - 8 Dr. Mukti Advani, Senior Scientist
Prof. Akhilesh Maurya, IIT, Guwahati
Dr. Purnima Parida, Prof. Manoranjan Parida,
Chapter - 9
Senior Principal Scientist IIT (Roorkee), Roorkee
Chapter- 10 Dr. Ch. Ravisekhar, Principal Scientist —
Team from Project Monitoring and Evaluation (PME) Division: CSIR - CRRI
Dr. B. Kanaga Durai, Chief Scientist, PME Division and Advisor
Sh. P.V. Pradeep Kumar, Senior Principal Scientist and Head, PME Division
Sh. D. Ravinder, Technical Officer, PME Division
Sh. Anshul Saxena, Technical Assistant, PME Division
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja
Mrs. Krishna Verma
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE PAGE NUMBER
NUMBER
Study Team i
Foreword v
Acknowledgements vii
Executive Summary ix
7 CHAPTER 7: Roundabouts 7 - 1 to 7 - 28
FOREWORD
The need for an Indian Highway Capacity Manual has been felt for a long time by researchers,
policy makers and planners in the country. It was emphasized by the Government of India also in 2012
when the then Planning Commission expressed the immediate need for initiating a comprehensive
research study focusing on scientific estimation of the roadway capacity in India in their Eleventh
Five Year Plan 2007-12 document. Accordingly, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
sponsored a research project entitled “Indian Highway Capacity Manual” (referred as ‘Indo-HCM’
in this manual) to CSIR - CRRI in 2012 in the form of mission mode project.
The development of Indo - HCM was not an easy task considering the vast size of the country
and variety of roads and traffic mix. Therefore, CSIR - CRRI identified seven prominent academic
institutes located in different regions in the country to provide technical support for all the Work
Packages as well as to assume the role of Regional Coordinators for one or two work packages
depending upon their expertise. The seven academic institutions identified are Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, Indian Institute of Technology,
Guwahati, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, Indian Institute of Engineering and Science
and Technology, Shibpur, (Howrah), Sardar Vallabhai Patel National Institute of Technology, Surat and
Anna University, Chennai. This was the maiden attempt made to network with such a large number
of academic institutes on the lines of HCM of USA. This mission mode project led by CSIR - CRRI was
completed on time with regular monitoring at different levels to achieve the desired quality which has
showcased once again the technical prowess and management expertise of CSIR - CRRI in handling
large size projects. Transportation and Highway professionals can now follow the realistic capacity
values evolved in this manual while undertaking the projects of evaluation of existing road facility or
planning of any new road facility. Each chapter deals with the procedure for the estimation of capacity
and Level of Service (LOS) through a series of steps and culminates with typical illustrative examples.
It is expected that this document can serve the society as a basic guide for the practicing engineers
and decision makers towards capacity augmentation of various types of road and pedestrian facilities
in India.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The team of CSIR - CRRI would like to place on records its profound gratitude to Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi for sponsoring this long-awaited research study.
Further, the CSIR - CRRI led team extends its gratitude to the experts who served as Session Chairs
during the review meetings for extending their immense technical help. Largely, their presence has
helped to monitor the progress achieved in each of the Work Packages (which is rechristened as Chapters
in the manual) during various national level workshops and Task Force Committee (TFC) meetings.
Champion and Co-Champion of Indo-HCM project conducted these meetings in close coordination
with the identified faculty from reputed academic institutes. The faculties representing the respective
institutes have been assigned the role of Regional Coordinators (RCs) cum Local Organizing Secretary
(LOC) for the conduct of the national workshops and TFC meetings. The first workshop in the above
series was conducted in January, 2013 titled, ‘Methodology for Indian Highway Capacity Manual’
(MIHCaM). This was followed by yearly review workshops (3 numbers) conducted in March, 2014,
February, 2015 and March, 2016 titled, ‘RIHCaM-2014’, ‘RIHCaM-2015’, and ‘RIHCaM-2016’ i.e.
‘Review workshop of Indian Highway Capacity Manual’.
During each of the above workshops, the identified experts in the capacity of Session Chairs
have made invaluable contributions. Their contributions encompassed critical appraisal of the
incremental progress made by the Work Package (WP) Leaders / members of CSIR - CRRI as well as
by the seven Regional Coordinators (RCs) by highlighting shortfalls (if any) in the WPs and thereby
necessary course corrections have been done by the concerned team(s). Moreover, a total of nine Task
Force Committee (TFC) meetings chaired by Director, CSIR - CRRI was also convened by Champion
and Co-Champion during the course of the Indo - HCM Project which comprised of WP Leaders from
CSIR - CRRI and RCs serving as principle members. The above workshops and TFC meetings were
conducted by various RCs. The RCs who conducted the above include SVNIT, (Surat), Anna University,
(Chennai), IIT (Guwahati), IIEST (Shibpur), IIT Bombay, Mumbai and IIT Roorkee, Roorkee. Basically,
the above national workshops as well as the deliberations during the TFC meetings the concerned
teams to gear up themselves for the finalization of the chapters dealt by them and facilitated in
streamlining each of the chapters leading to the development of indigenous manual for Indian traffic
conditions.
Eventually, the above streamlined review process culminated with the 2-day national level
dissemination workshop organized by CSIR - CRRI in their premises on 20th and 21st February,
2017 which is again engineered by Champion and Co Champion of Indo - HCM Project. During this
dissemination workshop, an executive summary of the manual was published by the CSIR - CRRI led
team with each of the RCs and Work Package Leaders from CSIR - CRRI presenting the salient findings
included in various chapters of the manual. The issues raised by the Session Chairs and the 150 odd
invited delegates during the Workshop have been appropriately incorporated in the present manual.
The experts who have extended immense contributions during the above national level workshops in
the capacity of Session Chairs are:
1. Prof. M.R. Madhav, Chairman, Research Council, CSIR - CRRI, New Delhi; Prof. Madhav showered
immense praise on the modus operandi followed by CSIR - CRRI team led by Champion / Co-
Champion for project execution in a couple of Research Council meetings convened at CSIR -
CRRI as well as in the RIHCaMs.
2. (Late) Dr. L.R. Kadiyali; Dr. Kadiyali was the author of famous book on ‘Traffic Engineering and
Transportation Planning’ printed by Khanna Publishers. The support extended by him to the
team is fondly remembered.
3. Dr. S. Gangopadhyay, Former Director, CSIR - CRRI; He gave his contribution initially as Director
till 30.11.2015 and subsequently as Session Chair in RIHCAMs. Moreover, Dr. Gangopadhyay
played a pivotal role in convincing the then Director General, CSIR, Prof. S.K. Brahmachari
to award this project to CSIR - CRRI. Though the project was approved for funding later by CSIR
due to his above efforts, Dr.S. Gangopadhyay asked the Champion to organize a Kick-off Meeting
at CSIR - CRRI (sourcing from Laboratory Reserve of CRRI even before the award of the research
study) on 21.09.2012 by inviting all the involved institutes to discuss the modus operandi. This
contribution is placed on records.
4. Prof. Partha Chakroborty, IIT, Kanpur.
5. Dr. T.S. Reddy, Scientist-G (Retired), CSIR - CRRI and Consultant, M/s. Lea Associates Limited.
6. Prof. V. Thamizh Arasan, IIT, Madras, Chennai (Retired) and Vice Chancellor, Vels University,
Chennai.
7. Prof. P.K .Sikdar, IIT, Bombay, Mumbai (Retired) and President (Traffic and Transportation),
M/s. ICT Private. Limited, New Delhi.
8. Prof. A. Veeraragavan, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT, (Madras), Chennai.
9. Prof. B .K. Katti, SVNIT, Surat, (Retired).
10. Sh. D. Sanyal, Managing Director, M/s. CRAPHTS Consultants (I) Pvt. Ltd. Faridabad, Haryana.
The encouraging words of appreciation remarking on the modus operandi followed for the
Indo - HCM execution by the then Chairman, Research Council (RC) of CSIR - CRRI namely, Prof.
M.R. Madhav, IIT, Kanpur (Retd.) during the course of national level workshops and RC meetings is
gratefully acknowledged.
The study outputs derived from the dissertation works of more than a dozen Doctoral Students
and about 36 Masters students (which included Masters Dissertation as well as Internship program
outputs) as well as Project Fellows / Assistants (their names given in the respective chapters) have
been appropriately incorporated in the manual and hence all their contributions is gratefully
acknowledged.
During this 5-year journey of Indo - HCM project, many Scientists and Technical Staff working
in the Traffic Engineering and Transportation Area (TTP) and other support divisions of CSIR - CRRI
have rendered all types of technical and logistic assistance. This included the present serving staff of
CSIR - CRRI namely, Dr. Anuradha Shukla, Dr. S. Padma (for serving as an excellent anchor during
the dissemination workshop at CSIR - CRRI), Mr. Vivek Dubey, Mr. Mariappan, Mr. S. Kannan, Mr.
Satyabir Singh, Mr. Ambrish Saurikhia and Ms. Nidhi Agarwal as well as some of the retired
staff namely, Mr. S.K. Ummat, Mr. B.M. Sharma and Mr. T.K. Amla. Similarly, the logistic assistance
rendered by the staff of Civil and Electrical Sections of CSIR - CRRI (especially, Mr. Gautam Pande)
during the conduct of Workshops and TFC meetings at the Council Hall of CSIR - CRRI are placed on
records. Further, the contributions rendered by more than 50 staff engaged on daily basis during the
traffic data collection, data collation and analysis phase of the Indo - HCM project is acknowledged.
The spouses and families of CSIR - CRRI Work Packages (WP) Leaders as well as Regional
Coordinators (RCs) had to bear the brunt of the scientists and faculty burning the midnight oil to
complete the project in record time and hence many sacrifices that have been made by their family
members is fondly remembered at this hour.
Last but not the least, the team of CSIR - CRRI would like to place on records their gratitude to
Sh. D.P. Gupta, Former Director General, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRT&H) for
rendering his essential technical inputs and effecting many essential editorial corrections in the final
report prepared by the teams. His inputs have helped in improving the readability of the manual to a
great extent.
- Team CRRI and Regional Coordinator led by Director, CSIR - CRRI,
Champion, (Indo - HCM) and Co-Champion (Indo - HCM)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
The main hypothesis behind conceiving this project was that Indian traffic characteristics
are fundamentally different from those in the developed countries and even the driver behaviour
is vastly different from even the developing economies like China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Consequently, the development of an indigenous manual was undertaken on priority in the form of
a mission mode project by considering the various categories of roads like Expressways, National
Highways (NHs), State Highways (SHs), Major District Roads (MDRs), Other District Roads (ODRs)
and Urban Roads (UR) as well as various forms of pedestrian facilities on urban roads. The project
was approved in October, 2012 for funding by CSIR under the Inter Agency Project (IAP) category
of CSIR through Planning Commission grants. The principal goal of this research is to study the
nationwide characteristics of road traffic and to develop a manual for determining the capacity and
Level of Service (LOS) for varying types of interurban roads and urban roads separately by including
controlled intersections i.e. signals and roundabouts and uncontrolled intersections coupled with
addressing the capacity and Level of Service (LOS) of urban pedestrian facilities. To accomplish the
stated goal, the project is aimed at analyzing the characteristics of the heterogeneous traffic flow
and identifies appropriate distributions of the various variables influencing the traffic stream and
pedestrians’ characteristics by examining the traffic flow characteristics through extensive field data
collection and analysis. This summary highlights the maiden attempt undertaken by CSIR - CRRI at
the national level to develop an indigenous manual addressing the traffic heterogeneity prevalent
on Indian roads. The report has been published by CSIR - CRRI with its title, “Indian Highway
Capacity Manual (henceforth referred as ‘Indo-HCM’). This project was executed by CSIR - CRRI
in coordination with reputed academic institutes in the country which included Indian Institute of
Technology (Roorkee) Roorkee, Indian Institute of Technology, (Bombay), Mumbai, Indian Institute of
Technology, (Guwahati), Guwahati, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, Sardar Vallabhai
Patel National Institute of Technology, Surat, Indian Institute of Engineering and Sciences University
(IIEST), Shibpur and Anna University, Chennai. The project was executed by Champion and Co-
Champion in close coordination with Work Package Leaders as well as the faculty from the above
reputed academic institutes have been assigned the role of Regional Coordinators (RCs).
As the title suggests, Chapter -1 presents an overview of the structure of the report, definition
of generic terminologies related to Traffic Engineering and Planning followed by an overview of the
types of road and pedestrian facilities considered and also vehicle types and other salient features.
Chapters 2 to 8 focus on varying types of road facilities. Pedestrian facility is dealt in Chapter 9
and Chapter 10 focuses exclusively on Travel Time Reliability of urban and interurban corridors.
Illustrative examples and a list of references are included in each chapter.
of the speed data. The suggested LOS for the range of stream speed, Volume - Capacity Ratio and
percentage of free flow speed is subsequently presented.
Several new measures are suggested in the manual to define LOS on undivided and divided road
sections. For example, on a two-lane road, level of service is defined in terms of number of followers.
A vehicle is taken in the following state if it moves with a gap less than or equal to critical gap with
lead vehicle. The critical gap (CG) is related with traffic volume by Equation 4. The critical gap value is
expected to vary with the traffic volume on the road and hence the relationship established between
the two for two lane two way roads is presented in the above equation.
CG = 74.8 * Q–0.45 Equation 4
Where,
Q = Two-way traffic volume, (in veh/h)
CG = Critical Gap value, (in seconds)
Critical gap value decreases with the increase in traffic volume on the road. Eventually, the
number of followers as part of the road capacity (NFPC) is found to be related with two-way two-lane
traffic volume as presented in Equation 5.
NF = 1.1742 * Q0.9306 Equation 5
Where,
Q = Two-way traffic volume, PCU/h
NF = Number of followers, PCU/h
Further, LOS parameter is taken as the number of followers as part of the road capacity (NFPC).
Therefore, NF in the above equation is considered in PCU/hour to avoid any mismatch of units while
calculating NFPC.
n ( Ai − Tc ) 2 + (Tc − Ri ) 2
Min ∑ Equation 6
i =1 2
Where,
Ai = Accepted gap of the ith entering vehicle (seconds),
Ri = Highest Rejected gap of the ith entering vehicle (seconds) and
Tc = Critical gap value (seconds).
Where,
Ai: Importance weight for physical and user characteristics
Bi: Satisfaction rating for physical and user characteristics
analysis. The identified institutes as well as Work Package leaders from CSIR – CRRI performed traffic
data collection at pan-India covering all types of road network (Expressways, National Highways. State
Highways, Major District Roads and Other District Roads) including various forms of urban pedestrian
facilities.
Prof. Satish Chandra, Director, CSIR – CRRI spearheaded the entire Indo - HCM team with
the project execution performed under the leadership of Dr. S. Velmurugan, Champion and aided
by Dr. K. Ravinder, Co-Champion. As mentioned earlier, this was the maiden attempt by CSIR - CRRI
to network with such a large number of academic institutes on the lines of HCM (2010) of USA. The
project was completed on time with regular monitoring at different levels to achieve the desired
quality. This mission mode project led by CSIR - CRRI was completed in time with regular monitoring
at different levels to achieve the desired quality, which has once again displayed the technical prowess
and management expertise of CSIR - CRRI in handling large size projects. Largely, the various national
level workshops and task force committee meetings conducted by Champion and Co-Champion of
Indo - HCM Project in close coordination with faculty from reputed academic institutes who have
been assigned the role of Regional Coordinators (RCs) cum Local Organizing Secretary (LOC) for the
conduct of the national workshop has helped this cause. The first workshop in the above series was
conducted in January, 2013; it was followed by yearly review workshops (three numbers) conducted
in March, 2014, February, 2015 and March, 2016 in different academic institutes involved in this
study.
During each of the above workshops, the identified experts in the capacity of Session Chairs were
invited for critical monitoring of the incremental progress made by the Work Package (WP) Leaders
/ members of CSIR - CRRI. All the suggestions of the learned experts were considered positively and
the concerned teams in their chapters did necessary course corrections. Moreover, a total of nine
Task Force Committee (TFC) meetings chaired by Director, CSIR - CRRI were also convened by the
Champion and the Co-Champion during the course of the Indo - HCM Project which comprised of
WP Leaders from CSIR - CRRI and RCs serving as principle members. The above national workshops
as well as the deliberations during the TFC meetings aided the concerned teams to gear up for
the finalization of the chapters dealt by them and facilitated in streamlining each of the chapters
leading to the development of indigenous manual for India. Eventually, the above streamlined review
process culminated with a 2-day national level dissemination workshop organized by CSIR - CRRI
in its premises on 20th and 21st February, 2017 which was again engineered by Champion and Co
Champion of Indo - HCM Project. During the above workshop, an executive summary of the manual
was published by the CSIR - CRRI led team with each of the RCs and Work Package Leaders from
CSIR - CRRI presenting salient findings included in various chapters of the manual. The issues raised
by each of the Session Chairs and the 150 odd invited delegates during the Workshop have been
appropriately incorporated in the present manual. During the execution of the project, several new
concepts were evolved considering the unique traffic behavior on Indian roads. A few of them are
listed below:
• Modus Operandi followed for the execution of Indo - HCM is itself innovative as there has not
been any similar attempt made in the past in the country.
• Dynamic Passenger Car Unit (DPCU) based on Area and Speed of a vehicle.
• Development of Stream equivalency factor for readymade estimation of capacity
• Relationship between Operating Speed and Capacity that can be used to estimate the capacity
of any given road provided Free Flow Speed (FFS) of a minimum sample size of 200 standard
cars be collected for any type of road.
• Estimation of Level of Service on Interurban Undivided carriageways through the Number of
Followers per Capacity (NFPC).
• Level of Service (LOS) estimation for Signalized Intersection through User Perception Surveys
• Gap acceptance model for analysis of roundabouts
• Occupancy time method for estimation of critical gap, estimation of capacity (of movements)
and Level of Service of unsignalized intersections and
• Concept of travel time reliability for interurban and urban arterial roads.
Societal Benefits
Engineers / Planners / Bureaucrats can look to follow the realistic capacity values evolved in
this manual during the planning of new facilities instead of using either the obsolete values available
in the relevant Indian Roads Congress (IRC) documents or directly adopting the values given in US-
HCM (2010) or other manuals, which are not directly applicable to Indian road scenario.
It is expected that the manual would serve as a basic guide for the practicing engineers and
decision makers towards capacity augmentation of various types of roads, (both at mid-block sections
and intersections of varied typologies) as well as pedestrian facilities. Efforts are already in place from
the scientists of CSIR - CRRI as well as Regional Coordinators (RCs) associated with the various Indian
Roads Congress (IRC) technical committees to incorporate the study findings from this manual in the
appropriate documents of IRC for their revision. In this context, the following guidelines of IRC need
either immediate revision or formulation of new guidelines based on the above results derived in the
Indo - HCM project and efforts are in place for the same as mentioned above:
• IRC:64 (1990) Guidelines for Capacity of Rural Roads in Plain Areas
• IRC:106 (1990) Guidelines for Capacity of Urban Roads in Plain Areas
• IRC:65 (1976) Recommended Practice for Roundabouts
• IRC 93 (1985) Guidelines on Design and Installation of Road Traffic Signals
• IRC:103 (2012) Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities
• New Capacity Guidelines for Unsignalized Intersections
• New Guidelines for Travel Time Reliability on Urban and Interurban Corridors.
STUDY TEAM
Prof. Satish Chandra
Director, CSIR - CRRI
Dr. S. Velmurugan, Senior Principal Scientist and Champion
Dr. Kayitha Ravinder, Principal Scientist and Co Champion
CSIR-CRRI Team
Team Member
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja
Mrs. Krishna Verma
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Title
Number Number
Study Team i
List of Figures iv
List of Tables iv
1.1 PREAMBLE 1
1.2 STUDY OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE 1
1.3 MODUS OPERANDI 1
1.4 PURPOSE OF INDO-HCM 2
1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES 2
1.5.1 Road Facility Based Terminologies 2
1.5.2 Pedestrian Facility Based Terminologies 8
1.6 TRAFFIC FLOW AND CAPACITY 9
1.7 VEHICLE TYPES 10
1.8 STRUCTURE OF THE MANUAL 14
Chapter 2: Single lane, Intermediate and Two lane Interurban
1.8.1 14
Bidirectional Roads
1.8.2 Chapter 3: Multilane Interurban Divided Highways 15
1.8.3 Chapter 4: Interurban and Urban Expressways 15
1.8.4 Chapter 5: Urban Roads 15
1.8.5 Chapter 6: Signalized Intersections 15
1.8.6 Chapter 7: Roundabouts 16
1.8.7 Chapter 8: Unsignalized Intersections 16
1.8.8 Chapter 9: Pedestrian Facilities 16
1.8.9 Chapter 10: Travel Time Reliability 17
1.9 PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETAL BENEFITS OF THE MANUAL 17
1.9.1 Innovative Process of Manual Development 17
1.9.2 Societal Benefits 19
REFERENCES 20
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Title Page Number
Number
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Title Page Number
Number
1.1 PREAMBLE
This chapter is the starting point for learning to use the maiden edition of the ‘Indian Highway
Capacity Manual’. The chapter covers the purpose, objectives, methodology adopted, proposed use as
well as target users of the manual. It also provides definition of terminologies and a brief on each of
the subsequent chapters of the manual.
The main hypothesis behind conceiving this research project is that traffic characteristics
on Indian roads are fundamentally different from those in the developed economies and even the
driver behaviour is quite different from the developing economies like China, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Several countries have developed their own highway capacity manuals reflecting the traffic pattern
prevalent in their respective countries. Obviously, the capacity manuals from these countries cannot
be transformed for Indian traffic conditions by developing any adjustment factors. Moreover, based on
the communicated views of CSIR – CRRI (in 2010), the immediate need for initiating a comprehensive
research study focusing on scientific estimation of the roadway capacity was aptly emphasized in 2012
by the Planning Commission, Government of India (refer Volume III: Agriculture, Rural Development,
Industry, Services and Physical Infrastructure of the Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007-12 document).
Considering the importance attributed by the Government of India (GoI) on this issue,
it was felt essential to develop an indigenous highway capacity manual by considering the Indian
traffic scenario as this would be of immense use to the engineers, bureaucrats and planners. The
development of such a manual would certainly help policy makers in deciding allocation of budget
for capacity augmentation of roads and enhancing productivity of road transport through increased
Level of Service (LOS).
Accordingly, this research was classified by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR) under the theme entitled, “Knowledge / Technology space where we do not have expertise
and we would like to achieve”. This CSIR sponsored research study project is entitled as “Indian
Highway Capacity Manual” (henceforth referred to as ‘Indo-HCM’ in this manual). Subsequently,
the development of Indo - HCM was undertaken on priority in the form of a mission mode project by
CSIR – CRRI. In this study, various categories of roads in India like Expressways, National Highways
(NHs), State Highways (SHs), Major District Roads (MDRs), Other District Roads (ODRs) and Urban
Roads (UR), as well as various types of intersections (i.e. Signalized, Roundabout and Unsignalized
Intersections) and pedestrian facilities seen on urban roads in the country have been considered.
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT): It is the annual average daily traffic when measurements
are taken for the entire 365 days (366 days for leap year) of the year and averaged out.
Approach: Roadway leading to the STOP line of the intersection that accommodates one or
combination of right-turn, through and left-turn movement of vehicles.
Approach Capacity (c): The maximum number of vehicles (in passenger car units) an approach
can discharge per unit time under prevailing traffic, geometric and control conditions; usually
expressed in passenger car units/hour (PCU/h).
Approach Flow Rate (VA): Approach volume during peak hour divided by the peak hour
factor (PHF); expressed in PCU/h.
Approach Volume (VA): The number of vehicles arriving on an intersection approach
upstream of the queue influence per unit time; expressed in PCU/h.
Average Daily Traffic (ADT): It is the average daily traffic when measurements are
taken for a few days (less than one year such as monthly or weekly), averaged by the
number of days for which the measurements have been taken.
Base Saturation flow rate: Saturation flow rate under stated base conditions of intersection
relating to traffic, geometric and control conditions and is expressed in PCU/h of green.
Buffer Time: It represents the extra time (buffer) to ensure on-time arrival for most of the
times. This extra time is added in order to account for any unexpected delay. It is calculated as
the difference of planning time and average travel time.
Buffer Time Index (BTI): The buffer time index is the ratio of buffer time to average travel
time and it is expressed as percentage vide Equation 1.1.
95th Percentile Travel Time–Average Travel Time
Buffer Time Index (BTI) = —————————————————— Equation 1.1
Average Travel Time
or example, a buffer time index of 40 percent means that a traveller should have cushion of
F
an additional 12 minutes for a 30 minutes average peak trip time and ensure on time arrival
for 95 percent of the time i.e. travel time reliability.
Capacity: It is the maximum hourly volume (vehicles per hour) at which vehicles can reasonably
be expected to traverse a point or a uniform section of a lane or roadway under the prevailing
roadway, traffic and control conditions. Following two definitions of capacity are used.
Adjusted Capacity: It is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on
a lane or roadway during one hour under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. It
is obtained by adjusting the base capacity for the roadway and traffic conditions present
at site.
Base Capacity: It is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane
or roadway during one hour, under the most nearly ideal roadway and traffic conditions,
which can possibly be attained.
Coefficient of Variation: It is the ratio of standard deviation to the average travel time as
given in Equation 1.2.
Standard Deviation
Coefficient of Variation = ———————— x 100 % Equation 1.2
Average Travel Time
Conflict Area: Conflict occurs when two or more movements compete for right of way of
the same area. The common area within an intersection that is being used by more than one
traffic movement is considered as conflict area.
Critical Gap: Critical gap refers to the minimum gap in the priority stream, which is acceptable
to a driver executing a non-priority movement. It varies among drivers and always lies
between the maximum rejected gap and the accepted gap of a driver. Since critical gap could
not be measured in the field, it has to be estimated based on other measurable parameters
like accepted gap, rejected gap, occupancy time, etc.
Density: It is the number of vehicles present on a unit length of road at any particular instant
of time. It is usually expressed in vehicles/km.
Design Hourly Volume: Design Hourly Volume (DHV) is usually the 30th highest hourly
volume. This hourly volume is exceeded only during 29 hours in a year.
Design Service Volume: It is defined as maximum service volume at which vehicles can
reasonably be expected to traverse a point or uniform section of a lane or roadway during one
hour under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions while maintaining a designed
Level of Service.
Design Speed: Design speed depends on the function of the road and terrain conditions. It is
the basic parameter, which determines all other geometric design features.
Directional Design Hour Volume (DDHV): It is the volume, which converts the AADT for the
design year to a directional design hour volume.
Flow (or Volume): It is the number of vehicles that pass through a given point on a road during
a designated time interval. Since roads have a certain width and the required number of lanes
is accommodated within the available width, flow is always expressed in relation to the given
width i.e. per lane or per direction etc. The time unit selected is one hour.
Flow Rate: It is a macroscopic flow characteristic and is defined as number of vehicles passing
a point in a given period of time. It is usually expressed as an hourly flow rate.
Follow-up Time (seconds): The follow-up time is the time headway between successive
minor street vehicles while accepting the same gap size in the priority stream, when there is
a continuous queuing on the minor approach.
Gap (seconds): The gap is a measure of the time elapsed between passing of rear end of the
lead vehicle and arrival of front end of the follower vehicle at the reference line along the road.
A driver in the non-priority stream evaluates the gaps that are presented and finally accepts
the one that the driver believes to be sufficiently large to complete the desired movement,
while rejecting the rest of the presented gaps.
Gap Acceptance: All gaps greater than or equal to the critical gap would be accepted.
Gap Rejection: All gaps less than the critical gap would be rejected.
Headway: It is the time between two following vehicles and is measured from the first
vehicle’s front bumper to the following vehicle’s front bumper.
Inscribed circle diameter: The inscribed circle diameter is the basic parameter used to
define the size of a roundabout. It is measured between the outer edges of the circulatory
roadway.
Interurban Roads: These are roads that help in achieving enhanced mobility of traffic
between any adjoining cities or towns. National Highways (NHs), State Highways (SHs),
Major District Roads (MDRs) and Other District Roads (ODRs) all fall under the category of
interurban roads.
Lag (seconds): The lag is a portion of the first gap faced by a vehicle on the minor road. The
time interval from the moment a minor stream/road vehicle reaches the intersection (or the
head of the line, if there is a line of waiting vehicles) to the arrival of next major stream/road
vehicle exactly opposite to it.
Level of Service (LOS): It is defined as a qualitative measure, describing operational conditions
within a traffic stream and their perception by drivers/passengers. LOS definition generally
describes these conditions in terms of factors such as speed and travel time, freedom to
manoeuvre, traffic interruptions, comfort, convenience and safety. Six levels of service are
recognized and these are designated from A to F, with LOS A representing the best operating
condition i.e. free flow and the LOS F, the worst i.e. forced or breakdown flow or saturated flow.
Major and Minor Street: A road with higher priority is named as major street and road
with low priority is named as minor street. Decision regarding priority is left to the analyst.
However, it is advisable to consider the hierarchy of road network while defining a road as
major or minor.
Merge and Diverge Segments: Segments in which two or more traffic streams combine to
form a single traffic stream (merge) or a single traffic stream divides to form two or more
separate traffic streams (diverge).
Number of Followers as Percent of Capacity (NFPC): The number of vehicles in following
state on a section of two-lane or intermediate lane road, divided by its capacity. It is used to
define Level of Service on two lane and intermediate lane road.
Occupancy Time (seconds): Occupancy Time (OT) refers to the time that a vehicle incurs in
completely clearing the conflict area of an intersection. It is measured as the time elapsed
between the arrival of subject vehicle at the edge of the conflict area and its complete exit
from the intersection conflict area.
Operating Speed: Theoretically, it is the average speed (km/h) of the traffic stream, comprising
only standard cars i.e. small cars up to 1400 cc engine displacement, when the density is
approaching zero i.e. there are very few vehicles present on the carriageway. Therefore, it is
the speed of a vehicle when the presence of other vehicles does not restrain its movement.
From operational point of view, it is the 85th percentile speed of standard passenger cars
measured under low volume conditions. Such low volume conditions are assumed to occur
when the time headway between two successive vehicles is 8 seconds or more as per this
manual.
Passenger Car Unit (PCU): It is the amount of interaction (or impedance) caused by the
vehicle to a traffic stream with respect to a standard passenger car. It is used to convert a
heterogeneous traffic stream into a homogeneous equivalent to express flow and density in
a common unit.
Peak Hour Flow: Peak rates of flow are related to hourly volumes with peak hour factor. This
factor is defined as the ratio of total hourly volume to the peak rate of flow within the hour.
Peak Hour Ratio (PHR): It is the percentage of ADT or AADT that passes through a given
section in the peak hour. It can be readily ascertained through field observations. In the
absence of field observations, however, default value of PHR may be adopted as 10%.
Phase Composition: The combination of vehicular, pedestrian and other movements, if any,
legally permitted during a phase.
Phase Sequence: The order in which the phases follow each other in a signal cycle.
Planning Time Index (PTI): This index represents the amount of total time a traveller should
have to ensure on time arrival. It also represents the extra time that is included by most of the
travellers when planning peak period trips as given in Equation 1.3.
95th percentile Travel Time
Planning Time Index (PTI) = —————————— Equation 1.3
Free Flow Travel Time
Queue: A line of vehicles waiting at the STOP line for the green phase to be served by a
signalized intersection. Traffic moving slowly and joining the rear of the queue is usually
considered as part of the queue. The internal queue dynamics may involve a series of stops
and starts.
Queue Length: The number of vehicles in a queue, or the longitudinal distance that is covered
by the queue at the STOP line of the approach of a signalized intersection.
Reliability: The term reliability is defined in system engineering as probability of a device
performing its purpose adequately for the period of time intended under the operating
conditions encountered (Billinton and Allan, 1992).
Road Network Reliability: The road network reliability is defined as the network that can
guarantee an acceptable level of service for road traffic even if some links are physically
damaged or large amount of travel demand is occasionally generated (Asakura and
Kashiwadani, 1991). Road network reliability problems are caused mainly by uncertainty of
traffic conditions of the network. Sources of uncertainties can be an element of demand side
factors, supply side factors and other external factors of the road network.
Roughness: Roughness is defined as the aggregated deviations of a pavement surface from a
true planar surface with characteristic dimensions that affect vehicle dynamics, ride quality,
dynamic loads, and drainage. Roughness affects the speed and movement of vehicles and
hence it affects the capacity and LOS. In this manual, roughness measured in terms of the
International Roughness Index (IRI) in m/km has been used for analysis.
Shoulder Type: A shoulder is a portion of the road contiguous with the carriageway and
is intended for accommodating of stopped vehicles, emergency use and providing lateral
structural support to the road. Shoulders can be of two types:
Paved Shoulders: They are constructed with the similar material as that of the main
carriageway with width ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 m.
Unpaved Shoulders: They are constructed with well-compacted earth, also called
earthen shoulders, or materials like turf, stabilised soil, gravel, brick paving, etc. In
the case of multilane interurban highways, given the fact that they cater to high-speed
traffic, paved shoulders (1.5 to 2.0 wide) are invariably provided on the outer side of the
carriageways and it is supplemented with unpaved shoulder of suitable width ranging
from 1.0 to 1.5 m.
Shoulder Width: The width of the shoulder should be adequate for providing working space
around a stopped vehicle. For multilane interurban highways, generally 1.5 m - 2.0 m wide
paved shoulders are provided. They are supplemented with unpaved shoulders in open areas.
As shoulders can act as auxiliary lanes in Indian conditions, especially to accommodate slow
moving vehicles and even motorized two-wheelers, they are expected to increase the capacity
of the road section. In addition, wider shoulders provide a sense of security to the drivers and
hence they can drive with more freedom. Therefore, width of shoulders is expected to affect
both capacity and LOS.
Side Friction Adjustment Factor: It is the factor, which incorporates the effect of side friction
on the road capacity.
Speed: It is the rate of motion of individual vehicles or of traffic stream. It is measured in
metres per second (m/s) or kilometres per hour (km/h). The types of speed measurements
used in traffic engineering applications are Space Mean Speed and Time Mean Speed.
Space Mean Speed (SMS): It is the mean speed of vehicles in a traffic stream at any instant of
time over a certain length of the road. It is the average speed based on average travel time of
vehicles to traverse a known segment of a roadway. It is generally slightly less than the time
mean speed.
Start-up Lost Time: The additional time (in seconds) consumed by the first few vehicles in
a queue at a signalized intersection because of the need to react to the initiation of the green
phase and to accelerate.
Stopped Delay / Average Stopped Delay (ds): The time a vehicle is stopped in queue while
waiting to pass through the intersection. It begins when the vehicle is fully stopped and ends
when the vehicle begins to accelerate. Average stopped delay experienced by one flow unit
(passenger car unit or vehicle) during the analysis period is calculated by dividing the total
stopped delay (of all flow units) by the number of flow units (passenger car units or vehicles)
and is reported as sec/PCU or sec/vehicle.
Stream Equivalency Factor: It is the ratio of traffic volume in PCUs per hour to volume in
vehicles per hour.
Travel Time Reliability (TTR): It is defined as the probability that trip between a given O-D
pair can be made successfully within a given time interval and specified LOS. This measurement
vis useful while evaluating network performance under normal daily flow variations and
various uncertainties. If route travel time “t” is random variable, travel time reliability can
be expressed as the probability that the trip can be finished within a given period of time or
within the acceptable travel time “T”. Mathematically, this can be explained by Equations 1.4
and 1.5. Figure 1.1 presents the pictorial illustration of the concept of travel time reliability.
Traffic Flow: The amount of traffic on a road is generally measured as either traffic volume
or traffic flow. Traffic volume is the total number of vehicles that pass over a given point or
section of a roadway in a given interval of time. Traffic volume can thus be given for annual,
daily, hourly, or sub-hourly periods. Traffic flow, on the other hand, is the equivalent hourly
rate at which the vehicles pass over a given point or section of a roadway for an interval of
time less than one hour. In this manual, the time interval for calculation of traffic flow has
been taken as five (5) minutes.
Terrain Classification: Terrain is classified based on the general cross slope of the country
across the highway alignment. Cross slope is the slope approximately perpendicular to the
road. Terrain is classified as plain, rolling, mountainous and steep as per the criteria given in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Terrain Classification
1 Plain 0 – 10
2 Rolling 10 – 25
3 Mountainous 25 – 60
Pedestrian Flow Rate (Qp): Number of pedestrians passing a given point per unit time,
expressed as pedestrians per 15 minutes or pedestrians per minute or pedestrians per hour;
“point” refers to a perpendicular line of sight across the width of walkway.
Pedestrian Space (S): Average area available to a pedestrian in a walkway or queuing area,
expressed in terms of square metre per pedestrian. This is the inverse of density and is a more
practical unit for analysis of pedestrian facilities.
Pedestrian Speed (Vp): Average pedestrian walking speed, generally expressed in units of
metres per second.
Pedestrian Waiting Time: It is the time lost between the arrival of a pedestrian at kerb side
or crossing location and starting of the crossing manoeuvre on accepting a gap. It is measured
in seconds (s).
Platoon Size: It refers to the number of pedestrians walking or crossing together as a group.
Rejected Gap: Insufficient gaps between vehicles that are rejected by pedestrians. These are
usually smaller than the critical gap. It is measured in seconds (s).
Unit Width Flow: Average flow of pedestrians per unit width of effective walkway, expressed
as pedestrians per minute per metre (width of walkway).
These curves illustrate a few basic points that help in appreciation of concept of capacity and
levels of service. A zero flow rate occur under two different conditions. The first is when density is
zero i.e. there is no vehicle in the traffic stream. Speed is likely to be high by the first driver in the
traffic stream. This is called free speed, denoted by vf. The second is when density is so high that all
vehicles happen to stop i.e. speed is zero. The density at that point is called jam density, denoted by kj
in the figure. Between these two extremes, the characteristics of traffic produce a maximizing effect.
Capacity is reached when the product of density (veh/km) and speed (km/h) results in the maximum
flow rate (veh/h). This condition is shown as speed at capacity and density at capacity. HCM of USA
describes these parameters as ‘critical speed’ and ‘critical density’. In this manual, the flow-density
and speed-flow relationships have generally been used to define LOS. Figure 1.2 also shows that any
flow rate other than capacity can be either at low density and high speed or at high density and low
speed. The former represents unsaturated flow and the latter represents the oversaturated flow. Level
of Service A through E are defined in various chapters of this manual to represent unsaturated flow
(low density and high speed) with maximum flow being considered as capacity and upper boundary
of LOS E. The right half of the flow-density curve represents LOS F i.e. oversaturated flow conditions of
traffic. Broadly, LOS - A to LOS - E represents the following traffic operations:
LOS A : Free Flow
LOS B : Reasonably Free Flow
LOS C : Stable Flow
LOS D : Approaching Unstable Flow
LOS E : Unstable Flow
Motorized Traffic
Non-Motorized Traffic
Motorized Traffic
1.8.1
Chapter 2: Single lane, Intermediate and Two lane Interurban
Bidirectional Roads
Chapter 2 deals with the methodology for the determination of capacity of single lane,
intermediate and two lane roads. It also provides the procedure to determine the Level of Service (LOS)
of intermediate and two lane roads as well as for single lane roads by considering them separately. To
determine the above parameters, 30 two lane (13 out of them are base sections), 17 intermediate lane
(13 out of them are base sections) and 10 single lane (6 out of them are base sections) road segments
covering different regions of the country have been considered.
socio-economic aspects of the respondents have been collected at 18 signalized intersections located
in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Noida. The user perception data has been collected by interviewing
the respondents at the approach arms of the intersections as well as from respondents at selected
parking lots / fuel stations located adjacent to the candidate intersections considered in each city.
1.9
PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIETAL BENEFITS OF THE
MANUAL
1.9.1 Innovative Process of Manual Development
This project of development of Indo-HCM itself is innovative as there has not been any such
attempt in the past in India. The development of Indo - HCM was not an easy task considering the
vast size of the country and variety of roads and the heterogeneous traffic mix. Therefore, CSIR -
CRRI identified seven prominent academic institutes located in different regions in the country
to provide technical support for all the Work Packages as well as to assume the role of Regional
Coordinators (RC) for one or two work packages depending upon their expertise. As mentioned
earlier, the seven academic institutions identified are Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, School of
Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, Indian Institute of Engineering and Science and Technology,
Shibpur, Howrah, Sardar Vallabhai Patel National Institute of Technology, Surat and Anna University,
Chennai. The methodology for collection and analysis of traffic data was finalized in the common
meeting of Regional Coordinators. Each RC collected traffic flow data on various types of facilities in
the respective regions of the country and provided to the respective Work Package (WP) in charge for
analysis. The identified institutes as well as Work Package leaders from CSIR – CRRI performed traffic
data collection at pan-India covering all types of road network (Expressways, National Highways.
State Highways, Major District Roads, Other District Roads and Urban Roads) including various forms
of urban pedestrian facilities.
Prof. Satish Chandra, Director, spearheaded the entire Indo - HCM team with the project
execution performed under the leadership of Dr. S. Velmurugan, Champion and aided by Dr. K.
Ravinder, Co-Champion. As mentioned earlier, this was the maiden attempt by CSIR - CRRI to
network with such a large number of academic institutes on the lines of HCM (2010) of USA. The
project was completed on time with regular monitoring at different levels to achieve the desired
quality. This mission mode project led by CSIR - CRRI was completed in time with regular monitoring
at different levels to achieve the desired quality, which has once again displayed the technical prowess
and management expertise of CSIR - CRRI in handling large size projects. Largely, the various national
level workshops and task force committee meetings conducted by Champion and Co-Champion of
Indo - HCM Project in close coordination with faculty from reputed academic institutes who have
been assigned the role of Regional Coordinators (RCs) cum Local Organizing Secretary (LOC) for the
conduct of the national workshop has helped this cause.
The first workshop in the above series was conducted in January, 2013; it was followed by
yearly review workshops (three numbers) conducted in March, 2014, February, 2015 and March,
2016 in different academic institutes involved in this study.
During each of the above workshops, the identified experts in the capacity of Session Chairs
were invited for critical monitoring of the incremental progress made by the Work Package (WP)
Leaders / members of CSIR - CRRI. All the suggestions of the learned experts were considered
positively and the concerned teams in their chapters did necessary course corrections. Moreover,
a total of nine Task Force Committee (TFC) meetings chaired by Director, CSIR - CRRI were also
convened by the Champion and the Co-Champion during the course of the Indo - HCM Project which
comprised of WP Leaders from CSIR - CRRI and RCs serving as principle members. The above national
workshops as well as the deliberations during the TFC meetings aided the concerned teams to gear up
for the finalization of the chapters dealt by them and facilitated in streamlining each of the chapters
leading to the development of indigenous manual for India. Eventually, the above streamlined review
process culminated with a 2-day national level dissemination workshop organized by CSIR - CRRI
in its premises on 20th and 21st February, 2017 which was again engineered by Champion and Co
Champion of Indo - HCM Project. During the above workshop, an executive summary of the manual
was published by the CSIR - CRRI led team with each of the RCs and Work Package Leaders from
CSIR - CRRI presenting salient findings included in various chapters of the manual. The issues raised
by each of the Session Chairs and the 150 odd invited delegates during the Workshop have been
appropriately incorporated in the present manual. During the execution of the project, several new
concepts were evolved considering the unique traffic behavior on Indian roads. A few of them are
listed below:
• Modus Operandi followed for the execution of Indo - HCM is itself innovative as there has not
been any similar attempt made in the past in the country.
• Dynamic Passenger Car Unit (DPCU) based on Area and Speed of a vehicle.
• Development of Stream equivalency factor for readymade estimation of capacity
• Relationship between Operating Speed and Capacity that can be used to estimate the capacity
of any given road provided Free Flow Speed (FFS) of a minimum sample size of 200 standard
cars be collected for any type of road.
• Estimation of Level of Service on Interurban Undivided carriageways through the Number of
Followers per Capacity (NFPC).
• Level of Service (LOS) estimation for Signalized Intersection through User Perception Surveys
• Gap acceptance model for analysis of roundabouts
• Occupancy time method for estimation of critical gap, estimation of capacity (of movements)
and Level of Service of unsignalized intersections and
• Concept of travel time reliability for interurban and urban arterial roads.
REFERENCES
1. Asakura, Y and Kashiwadani. M., (1991) “Road Network Reliability caused by Daily Fluctuation
of Traffic Flow”, Proceeding of the 19th PTRC, Summer Annual Meeting in Brighton, Seminar pp.
73 - 84.
2. CHCM (1999), “China Highway Capacity Manual” National Highway Project of the People’s
Republic of China.
3. Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007 - 2012), “Agriculture, Rural Development, Industry, Services and
Physical Infrastructure Volume III” Planning Commission, Government of India, pp. 298 - 300.
4. HCM (2010), “HCM 2010: Highway Capacity Manual”, .Special Report No. 209, 5th Edition,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC., USA
5. IHCM (1993), “Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual”, Directorate General of Highways Ministry
of Public Works.
6. IRC: 64 (1990), “Guidelines for Capacity of Roads in Rural Areas (First Revision)” Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi.
7. IRC: 65 (1976), “Recommended Practice for Traffic Rotaries”, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
8. IRC: 93 (1985), “Guidelines on Design and Installation of Road Traffic Signals”, Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi.
9. IRC: 103 (2012), “Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities”, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, India.
10. IRC: 106 (1990), “Guidelines for Guidelines for Capacity of Urban Roads in Plain Areas”, Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi.
11. IRC: SP-41 (1994), “Guidelines for Design of At-Grade Intersections in Rural and Urban Areas”,
Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
12. IRC: SP-87 (2013), “Manual of Specifications and Standards for Six laning of Highways through
Public Private Partnership (First Revision)”, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
13. IRC: SP-84 (2014), “Manual of Specifications and Standards for Four laning of Highways through
Public Private Partnership (First Revision)”, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
14. IRC SP-99 (2013), “Manual of Specification and Standards for Expressways”, Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi.
Team Members
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja
CONTRIBUTIONS OF STUDENTS
M.Tech. Students pursued their Thesis @ CSIR - CRRI, New Delhi
Mr. Balakrishna K
M.Tech. Students pursued their Thesis jointly with IIT Roorkee and
CSIR - CRRI, New Delhi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Section
Title
Number
Number
Study Team i
Contributions of Students ii
List of Figures v
List of Tables vi
2.1 INTRODUCTION 1
2.6 METHODOLOGY 5
REFERENCES 28
SUGGESTED READINGS 28
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Title
Number Number
2.8 Traffic Flow in veh/h and in PCU/h for single lane road 13
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Title Page Number
Number
2.7 Adjustment Factor for Paved Shoulder on Two Lane Roads (fps) 17
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
Bus Buses
CY Cycles
fw Adjustment Factor
K Density
MB Mini Bus
NF Number of followers
PF Percent Followers
R Road Roughness
ti time taken by the ith vehicle to traverse the trap length ‘d’
TW Two Wheelers
—
us Average SMS of the traffic stream
—
ut Average TMS of the traffic stream
Vc and Vi Speed of standard car and respective vehicle type ‘i’ respectively
VR Village Roads
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Interurban highways in India include single lane roads, intermediate lane roads, two lane
roads, multi-lane highways and expressways. Single lane, intermediate lane and two lane roads are
undivided, facilitating two-way movement of traffic, whereas multi-lane highways and expressways
have divided carriageways with two or more lanes in each direction. On the other hand, traffic
operations on undivided roads are vastly different from that on divided highways. Hence, the
capacity and LOS of undivided roads and multilane divided highways have been dealt with separately
in this manual. A substantial proportion of National Highways (NHs) and State Highways (SHs) in
the country are still either two lane or intermediate lane carriageways. Similarly, majority of Major
District Roads (MDRs) are with either two lane or intermediate lane carriageways, while the Other
District Roads (ODRs) and Village Roads (VRs) are generally provided with single lane and only in few
cases with intermediate lane carriageways. Single lane roads have 3.75 m wide carriageways whereas
intermediate lane roads have carriageways between 5.5 m and 6.0 m wide carriageways. The existing
single lane roads are upgraded to intermediate lane roads where funds are not sufficient to widen
from single lane to two lane roads immediately. Traffic operations on two lane or intermediate lane
roads are unique in nature. Lane changing and overtaking manoeuvres are possible only in the face of
oncoming traffic in the opposing lane. The overtaking demand increases while passing opportunities
decline rapidly as the traffic volume increases. Therefore, flow in one direction influences the flow in
the other direction. This problem is more acute in the case of mixed traffic where speed differential
amongst different vehicle types is significant. It increases the desire for overtaking manoeuvres
considerably whereas number of opportunities to overtake is limited. As a result, operating quality
deteriorates as demand flow increases, and operations can become ‘unacceptable’ at a volume, which
is much below the capacity of the road. Single lane roads are normally provided to connect the villages
to district roads and state highways. These are generally feeder roads and experience low traffic
volume. Traffic operations on single lane roads are very much influenced by the condition and width
of the shoulders as vehicles are forced to use them during passing or overtaking operations. This
chapter presents methodologies for the estimation of capacity, operating speeds and Level of Service
of single lane, intermediate lane and two lane roads operating under mixed traffic flow conditions.
• The section should not be influenced by interruptions such as intersections, steep gradients
and curvatures as well as any other adjoining roads.
• There must not be any physical barrier on at least 500 m section such as speed breakers,
rumble strips, as it may affect the traffic stream.
• Section must be free from any form of roadside friction activities.
• Section should be free from any form of work activity for at least 1 km on either side.
• No incidents or crashes at the time of observation for at least 1 km on either side.
2.6 METHODOLOGY
The methodology adopted for the estimation of capacity and LOS is presented in this section.
It starts with a discussion on the identification and collection of classified traffic volume count (CVC)
on the identified base as well as non-base road sections based on the vehicle types (refer Table 2.2)
typically witnessed on the above class of interurban roads using videography or any other appropriate
method. This is followed by a discussion on the determination of Passenger Car Units (dynamic) and
Steam Equivalency Factor, which is followed by the estimation of capacity under base conditions
(termed as the base capacity in this manual henceforth) and thereafter application of adjustment
factors for the prevailing site conditions. The major issue concerning mix traffic flow analysis is the
estimation of passenger car units (PCU) for individual vehicle types to convert heterogeneous traffic
observed on such types of roads into homogeneous equivalent volume. The research studies carried
out by Chandra et al. (2003), Chandra, and Kumar (2003) have been utilized to determine the PCU
factor for any given vehicle type. Further, LOS is determined based on the parameter called Number of
Followers as Percent of Capacity (NFPC) in the case of two lane and intermediate lane roads whereas
it is derived based on volume - capacity ratio in the case of single lane roads. The overall methodology
is presented in the form of a flow chart in Figure 2.4.
Motorized Traffic
Auto rickshaws#
(Three and Four Wheeled All Motorized
2. Auto
Rickshaws including electric Auto Rickshaws
rickshaws)
5. Mini Bus MB
Transport Vehicles
6. Buses Bus
11. Cycles CY
Videography method is recommended for the collection of speed and traffic volume data. A
base test section of about 500 m having uniform width and shoulder condition must be identified
on the identified road section. Since it is not always possible to cover the entire length of 500 m
in the camera view, trap of suitable length, but not less than 60 m can be made near the middle of
such selected test section using retro reflective white colored tape (refer Figure 2.5). The speed data
collected on this trap section may be taken as the representative sample for the larger section of
500 m. Videography traffic survey can be normally conducted during morning hours (8:00 AM to 12:00
noon) as well as evening hours (2:00 PM to 6:00 PM) or any other suitable time period depending
on the site conditions. Similarly, roadway condition in the form of data on road geometry can be
collected using Automated Road Survey System (ARSS) or using any other appropriate method like
Total Survey Station System, etc.
Step-2: Estimation of Speed
Development of speed-flow curve requires estimation of stream speed in each length of
analysis period of 5-minute interval. For this purpose, the time taken by each vehicle to traverse the
defined trap length (60 m) during the 5-minute interval is measured. This is measured either by using
a high precision stop watch possessing a least count of 0.01 seconds or alternatively by analyzing
frame by frame details of the captured video using the in-house software developed as part of this
study for data collation purposes. Space Mean Speed is considered for the development of speed -
flow curves:
• Time Mean Speed ( of traffic stream is the arithmetic mean of speeds of all vehicles included
in the analysis period which is given by Equation 2.1.
Equation 2.1
Where,
N is the total number of vehicles counted in the analysis period and ti is the time taken by the
ith vehicle to travel the trap length D.
• Space Mean Speed (us) of traffic stream is calculated based on the average travel time taken by
N vehicles to traverse the trap length ‘D’. It is estimated using Equation 2.2.
Equation 2.2
The established relationship between Space Mean Speed (SMS) and the Time Mean Speed
(TMS) is presented in Equation 2.3.
Equation 2.3
Where,
—
ut is the average TMS of a traffic stream.
—
u s is the average SMS of a traffic stream.
s is the standard deviation of SMS.
In the case of traffic flow analysis, it is prudent to use SMS only for the development of Speed
- Flow relationship and hence it is designated by letter ‘V’ in this manual and so referred accordingly
henceforth.
Figure 2.5: Extraction of Speed Data from Videos Showing Trap length
Free Flow Speed (FFS) of standard cars / small cars can be measured with the help of laser
speed gun or by any other method for any given road section. For the estimation of FFS, standard cars
with headway 8 seconds or more are considered and the minimum sample size recommended is 100.
The operating speed at the section is estimated by calculating the 85th percentile of the FFS.
Step-3: Estimation of Passenger Car Units (PCU)
Traffic on Indian roads is heterogeneous in nature with a wide variation in static and dynamic
characteristics. Hence, one vehicle type cannot be considered equal to the other type. The only way
for accounting for this non-uniformity in traffic stream is to convert all vehicles into a common unit.
The common unit for this purpose is PCU. In this manual, dynamic PCU is estimated using Equation
2.4. According to this equation, dynamic PCU value for different vehicles under different mixed traffic
conditions is directly proportional to speed ratio and inversely proportional to space ratio with
respect to standard car. The estimation of Dynamic PCU is discussed in Section 2.6.
Step-4: Capacity Determination
Capacity is estimated from speed flow model using the traffic flow theory proposed by
Greenshield. Traffic flow is described and measured using three interrelated variables namely space
mean speed (V), volume or rate of flow (Q) and density (K). Speed - volume relationship is parabolic
having maximum volume at a value of density equal to half the jam density.
Step-5: Adjustment Factors
The effect of factors such as width of carriageway, shoulder condition, road geometry and
pavement condition (roughness) is considered through the development of different adjustment
factors.
Step-6: LOS Estimation
The traffic performance is expressed in terms of Level of Service (LOS). Universally, LOS
is a lettering scheme ranging from A to F. LOS ‘A’ represents highest quality of service and LOS ‘F’
represents congested flow where traffic demand exceeds capacity. LOS is defined in terms of number
of followers as proportion of capacity (NFPC) which is followed in case of two lane and intermediate
lane road sections.
Equation 2.4
Where,
Vc and Vi are speed of standard car and vehicle type ‘i’ respectively and
Ac and Ai are their projected rectangular area on the road.
Based on the comprehensive studies conducted during the development of this manual, it has
been noted that there is no statistically significant difference between PCU value of any vehicle types
on two-lane and intermediate lane roads. However, PCU value of a vehicle type on a single lane road
is different from that on a two-lane or intermediate lane road. Therefore, Table 2.4 gives the range
of PCU values for different types of vehicles separately for single lane whereas intermediate and two
lane roads together.
Intermediate and
Vehicle Type Single Lane Roads
Two-lane Roads
Motorized Traffic
Light Commercial Vehicle (LCV) 1.65 - 4.50 2.70 2.0 - 5.00 3.00
Two / Three Axle Truck (TAT) 2.50 - 6.80 4.80 3.0 - 5.50 5.00
Multi Axle Trucks / Vehicle (MAT) 4.1 - 10.20 5.00 4.6 - 11.60 6.00
Tractor / Tractor Trailer (TT) 3.0 - 8.50 7.00 5.0 - 8.00 7.00
#
Quantum of electric or e- rickshaws is insignificant on all the candidate road sections
PCU for a vehicle type depends on its proportion in the traffic stream and total volume
on any given road. In the case of dominance of a vehicle type, say motorized two wheelers in the
traffic stream; it reduces with increase in the proportion of these vehicles in the traffic stream. For
instance, the proportion of two wheelers observed in the field can fall in the range between ‘a’ and ’b’.
Accordingly, the higher PCU value given in Table 2.4 corresponds to ‘a’ percent two-wheelers in the
traffic stream. PCU values may be interpolated in a linear manner for any intermediate proportion.
PCU value for vehicle types increases with increase in their proportion in the traffic stream.
The observed range of traffic composition on varying widths of carriageways denoting lower
and higher ranges (‘a’ and ‘b’) are given in Table 2.5.
obtained from field data for two lane and intermediate lane roads, is presented in Figure 2.7 whereas
Figure 2.8 depicts similar plot for single lane roads.
Figure 2.7: Traffic Flow in veh/h and in PCU/h for two lane and intermediate lane roads
Figure 2.8: Traffic Flow in veh/h and in PCU/h for Single Lane road
As may be seen, the data points are quite scattered which reveals that would depend on
composition of traffic stream as well. There are many values of flow in PCU/h corresponding to the
same value of flow in vehicles per hour and vice versa. As mentioned earlier, the value of will be higher
for a stream consisting of greater percentage of heavy vehicles and lower for a stream consisting of
greater percentage of two wheelers. Mathematical relationships derived in this manual can be used
for the estimation of for varying widths of roads and the same are presented in Equation 2.6 for
single lane and Equation 2.7 for intermediate and two lane roads respectively.
Equation 2.6
Equation 2.7
Where,
PBC = Proportion of Big Cars in the traffic stream
PTW = Proportionof Two Wheelers in the traffic stream
PAUTO = Proportion of Auto Rickshaws in the traffic stream
PLCV = Proportion of LCVs in the traffic stream
PBUS = Proportion of Buses in the traffic stream
PTAT = Proportion of Two / Three Axle Trucks in the traffic stream
PTT = Proportion of Tractor Trailers in the traffic stream
PMAT = Proportion of Multi Axle Vehicles/Trucks in the traffic stream
N = Total flow in vehicles per hour
SL
Se = Stream Equivalency Factor for Single Lane Carrraigeways
IL/TL
Se = Stream Equivalency Factor for Intermediate and Two Lane Lane Carrraigeways
Non-Motorized Traffic (NMT) are not considered while developing the above relationships for
two obvious reasons; (a) their proportion is insignificant which is not more than 2.5 % individually
in few of the road sections and (b) When present, they generally tend to move on the edge of the
road without influencing the mainstream traffic, except animal drawn vehicles. In other situations,
PCU values for the NMT presented in Table 2.4 (earlier) can be directly used to account for their
proportion in the traffic stream.
Equations given above are simple to use which would avoid estimation or deployment of PCU
factors (presented earlier in Section 2.6) for individual vehicle types while estimating the capacity of
single lane or intermediate / two lane interurban roads.
Where,
Q = Traffic flow in PCU/hour
K = Density in PCU/km
V = Space Mean Speed in km/hour
Speed and density are inversely proportional to each other and their relationship is linear in
nature having the generalized linear form as given in Equation 2.9.
V = a – b * K Equation 2.9
Where,
V = Speed in km/hour
K = Density in PCU/km
‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants representing free flow speed and ratio of free flow speed to jam
density respectively.
capacity of intermediate lane roads is shown in Figure 2.10. It may be noted that the standard lane
width of 3.75 m has been considered for the estimation of lane capacity of intermediate and the
derived relationship is given in Equation 2.11.
Base Capacity of Intermediate Lane = 830 + 16.4 * VOS Equation 2.11
The base capacity of intermediate lane road at the operating speed of 75 Km/hour is around
2150 PCU/hour.
Paved Shoulder Width (in m) 0.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00
Adjustment Factor for Split (fdS) 1.00 0.967 0.935 0.902 0.869 0.836
different vehicle types are significantly influenced by the road geometry. Therefore, it is felt prudent
to develop relationship between capacity and operating speed of cars i.e. standard cars considering
change in roadway and traffic conditions on two lane two-way undivided hill roads in the absence
of traffic data over full range from free flow to near capacity/congested traffic conditions. Hence, the
following set of relationships to estimate the capacity of two lane roads on mountainous and steep
terrain having geometric features like varying gradient and curvature are proposed in the manual:
(i) Relationship between operating speed of standard cars for varying geometric features such
as grade (%) and curvature (degrees/km), and
(ii) Relationship between capacity and gradient-based operating speed of car estimated using (i).
i) Relationship between Operating Speed and Hill-Road Geometry
The findings and equations given here are applicable to road sections in mountainous and
steep terrains having gradients ranging from 2 to 7 percent and curvatures above 200 degrees/km.
The relationship derived is presented in Equation 2.13. With every 1 % increase in the gradient,
the operating speed is predicted to decrease approximately by 2 km/h. In addition, for every 100
degrees/km increase in curvature of hill roads, the operating speed is predicted to decrease by 2.5
km/hour, for the same magnitude of gradient.
Operating Speed=70.6-1.84*Gradient (%)-0.026*Curvature (degrees/km) Equation 2.13
th
Operating speed can also be determined by calculating the 85 percentile speed from the free
flow speed cumulative distribution curve for standard cars.
ii) Relationship between Capacity and Operating Speed of Standard Cars
Both capacity (PCU/hour) and operating speed of cars (km/hour) can be influenced by
geometric and pavement conditions simultaneously in a combined way. A relationship between
capacity and operating speed of standard car is presented in Equation 2.14.
Capacity=23.6*Operating speed(km⁄(h))+167 Equation 2.14
It can be evident from Figure 2.11 that both types of road sections exhibit similar slopes.
However, the operating speed on two lane interurban roads is higher by around 12.5 km/hour as
compared to intermediate lane possessing the same road roughness (IRI). The relationships developed
exhibiting the above are presented in Equations 2.15 to 2.20.
Two Lane Road:
VOS=104 – 6.8 * IRI Equation 2.15
Intermediate Lane:
VOS=91 – 6.7 * IRI Equation 2.16
Where,
VOS = Operating Speed in km/h,
IRI = Road Roughness expressed in terms of International Road Roughness in m/km
The effect of road roughness on capacity of varying roads in plain areas has been derived as
shown in Figure 2.12.
the planning for upgradation of any type of interurban facility should start as soon as the lower limit
of the range of service volumes corresponding to LOS B is reached and should be accomplished by the
time Design Service Volume (DSV) is reached.
Description Illustration
Level of Service A: Represents a condition of free flow. Individual
users are virtually unaffected by the presence of others in the
traffic stream. Freedom to select desired speeds and to manoeuvre
within the traffic stream is high. The general level of comfort and
convenience provided to the road users is excellent.
LOS on two lane interurban roads is defined using different performance parameters in
different countries [IHCM (1993), CHCM (1999) and HCM (2010)]. Prominent among these parameters
are Average Travel Speed (ATS), Percent Free Flow Speed of cars (PFFS), Followers Density (FD),
Average Travel Speed of passenger car (ATSPC), Percent Time Spent Following (PTSF), Percent Time
Delay (PTD) and Percent Followers (PF). The above parameters have been attempted during the
development of this manual but many of these parameters failed due to mixed nature of traffic or due
to absence of some reference point. It is an established fact that ATS is a good performance measure
as it correlates with perception of the road users (Ghosh, et al, 2013). However, under mixed traffic
situation, the ATS will depend on traffic composition and road surface condition and therefore this
parameter is found to lack a reference point. Similar is the problem with PFFS, as the free flow speed
of cars (or any other vehicle) will depend upon the road conditions. Hence, LOS here is defined in
terms of number of followers (NF) as percentage of capacity, which is given the acronym ‘NFPC’ in this
manual. It requires determination of number of followers (NF) on any road for a given traffic volume
condition. The procedure to determine the term ‘NF’ is explained in the succeeding section.
Where,
Pi = Probability of a vehicle not following with a gap value of ‘i’
ni = number of not following vehicles with a gap value of ‘i’
Nnot = total number of not following vehicles up to the gap length of 8 seconds.
The typical shape of this graph is shown in Figure 2.15. Critical gap value is taken corresponding
to 50 percent i.e. 0.5 probability chance to travel in free flow speed (FFS) conditions.
Figure 2.15: Plot between the Gap Value and the Cumulative Distribution of Non-Followers
The critical gap value is expected to vary with the traffic volume on the road and the
relationship between the two is given by Equation 2.22.
Equation 2.22
Where,
Q = Two-way traffic volume, (in veh/hour)
CG = Critical Gap value, (in seconds)
Critical gap value decreases with the increase in traffic volume on the road. The number of
followers is also related with two-way two-lane traffic volume by Equation 2.23.
CG = 74.8 * Q–0.45 Equation 2.23
Where,
Q = Two-way traffic volume, PCU/h
NF = Number of followers, PCU/h
NF in the above equation is considered in PCU/h to avoid any mismatch of units while
calculating NFPC. The different ranges of NFPC evolved for different LOS are given in Table 2.9.
Moreover, the corresponding range of volume to capacity ratio (V/C) derived through cluster analysis
are also presented in Table 2.9 for easy understanding of analysts. As mentioned, earlier, in the case
of Single Lane roads, the application of concept of NFPC is not applicable. Hence, V/C ratio is found
to be a suitable parameter to define LOS for Single Lane roads and the proposed V/C ratios for single
lane roads is presented in Table 2.10.
Table 2.9: LOS Ranges and DSV Values for Intermediate and Two-lane roads
Method of Linear Interpolation of PCU value using Equation 2.24 for percentage of Big Car
(See Hint)1
Equation 2.24
Where,
y is the PCU vlaue for x % of traffic composition
y1 denotes lower ranges of PCU value for x1 % of traffic composition
y2 denotes upper ranges of PCU value for x2 % of traffic composition
1
Hint: For any unknown x, y, value can be obtained through interpolation using Equation 2.24.
= 1.29
Similarly, PCU values for other vehicle types can be estimated and the same is illustrated
below.
Note:
• The PCU for Two Wheelers (TW) will vary inversely with increase in composition (refer
Section 2.6) and hence the PCU is calculated accordingly.
• The percentage composition of bus in this example lies outside the given range. In this case,
interpolation cannot be used and the limiting value of PCU range is to be taken.
= 0.31
For 3 % share of buses, PCU of B = 2.8
Following the above procedure, the estimated PCUs for different vehicle types is presented in
Table 2.12:
Table 2.12: Estimated PCUs
Estimated PCU 1.00 1.29 2.80 0.31 1.18 2.52 3.35 5.22 6.3
Table 2.14: Observed Road Geometric Features on the Candidate Road Sections
Road Section Gradient (%) Curvature (degrees/km)
I 2.3 226
II 3.6 381
III 4.7 307
IV 5.1 256
V 6.8 421
Thus, the Operating Speed of the candidate road sections has been determined based on Equation
2.14 and presented in Table 2.15.
REFERENCES
1. Chandra, S., and Kumar, U. (2003), “Effect of lane width on capacity under mixed traffic conditions
in India”, Journal of Transportation Engineering ASCE, Volume 129, no. 2, pp. 155 - 160.
2. Chandra, S., and Sinha, S. (2001), “Effect of directional split and slow-moving vehicles on two
lane capacities”, Road and Transport Research, 10(4), Australian Road Research Board (ARRB),
Australia, 2001, pp. 33-41.
3. CHCM (1999), “China Highway Capacity Manual”, National Highway Project of the People’s
Republic of China.
4. Dhamaniya, A., and Chandra, S. (2013), “Concept of Stream Equivalency Factor for Heterogeneous
Traffic on Urban Arterial Roads”, Journal of Transportation Engineering ASCE, Vol. 139, no. 11,
pp. 1117-1123.
5. HCM (2010), “Highway Capacity Manual”, Transportation Research Board; Washington, D. C.,
USA.
6. IHCM (1993) “Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual”, Directorate General of Highways Ministry
of Public Works.
7. IRC: 64 (1990), “Guidelines on Capacity of Roads in Rural Areas”, (First Revision), Indian Code
of Practice, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
8. Velmurugan, S., Errampalli, M., Ravinder, K., Sitaramanjaneyulu, K., and Gangopadhyay, S. (2010).
“Critical evaluation of roadway capacity of multi-lane high speed corridors under heterogeneous
traffic conditions through traditional and microscopic simulation models”, Journal of Indian
Roads Congress Vol. 71, No. 3, pp. 235 - 264.
9. Ghosh Indrajit, Satish Chandra and Amardeep Boora (2013), “Operational Performance
Measures for Two-lane Roads: An Assessment of Methodological Framework”, Procedia-Social
and Behavioural Science 104 pp. 440-448.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. CRRI (2001), “Updation of road user cost data”, A report submitted to Ministry of Surface
Transport (MOST), New Delhi.
2. Chandra, S. (2004), “Capacity Estimation Procedure for two-lane roads under mixed traffic
conditions”, Journal of Indian Roads Congress, Volume 65, No. 1, September 2004, pp. 139 - 171.
3. Chandra, S. and Goyal N. K., (2001) “Effect of grade on capacity of two-lane road”, Highway
Research Bulletin, Number 64, IRC, New Delhi, pp. 77.
4. Chandra, S., (2004), “Effect of Road Roughness on Capacity of Two-Lane Roads.” Journal of
Transportation Engineering, ASCE, vol. 130, no. 3, pp. 360-364.
5. Chandra, S., and Sikdar, P.K. (2000), “Factors Affecting PCU in Mixed Traffic Situations in Urban
Roads.” Road Transport Research, Vol. 9, No. 3, Australian Road Research Board, pp. 40-50.
6. Dey, P. P. (2006). “Simulation of mixed traffic flow on two-lane roads”. Unpublished Doctoral
Thesis submitted to Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India.
7. Farouki, O.T. and Nixon, W.J. (1976), “The Effect of Width of Sub-Urban Roads on the Mean Free
Speeds of Cars”, Traffic Engineering and Control, Vol. 17 (12), London, pp. 518-519.
8. Fi, I. (1994), “Highway Capacity and Level of Service in Highway: Experience with Intersection
without Traffic Signals”, Country Reports of Second International Symposium on Highway
Capacity, Australian Road Research Board Ltd.
9. HCM (2000), Highway Capacity Manual; Transportation Research Board; Washington, D. C.,
USA.
10. Kadiyali, L. R., Lal, N. B., and Sathyanarayana, M. (1991), “Speed-flow characteristics on Indian
highways”. Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 52(2), 233-
262.
11. Kadiyali, L.R., and Viswanathan, E. (1993), “Study for updating road user cost data”. Journal of
the Indian Roads Congress, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, Volume 54(3), pp. 645-731.
12. Kadiyali, L.R., Lal, N.B., Sathyanarayana, M. and Swaminathan, A.K. (1991), “Speed-Flow
Characteristics on Indian Highways”, Indian Roads Congress Journal, Vol. 52-2, New Delhi, pp.
233-262.
13. Krishnamurthy, K., and Arasan, V.T. (2008), “Effect of traffic volume on PCU of vehicles under
heterogeneous traffic conditions.” Road & Transport Research: A Journal of Australian and New
Zealand Research and Practice, Vol 17, No. 1, pp. 32-49.
14. Kumar, V.M. and Rao, S.K. (1998), “Studies on Speed-Density-Flow Relationship on a Few
Stretches of NH-5 and NH-6”, Indian Highways, Volume 26, No. 12, Indian Roads Congress, New
Delhi, pp. 33-41.
15. Minderhoud, M. M., Botma, H. and Bovy, H. L. (1997), “Assessment of roadway capacity
estimation methods”, Transportation Research Record 1572, No. 1, Transportation Research
Board, Washington, D.C., no. 1, pp. 59-67.
16. Misaghi, P., and Hassan, Y. (2005), “Modeling operating speed and speed differential on two lane
rural roads.” Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 131, No.6, pp. 408-418.
17. Penmetsa, P., Ghosh, I., and Chandra, S. (2015), “Evaluation of Performance Measures for Two-
Lane Intercity Highways under Mixed Traffic Conditions”, Journal of Transportation Engineering
10.1061/ (ASCE) TE.1943-5436.0000787, 04015021.
18. Praveen, P, S., and Arasan, V, T. (2013), “Influence of Traffic Mix on PCU Value of Vehicles
under Heterogeneous Traffic Conditions.” International Journal for Traffic and Transportation
Engineering, Vol. 3 (3), pp.302-330.
19. Ramanayya, T.V. (1988), “Highway Capacity under Mixed Traffic Conditions”, Traffic Engineering
and Control, Vol. 29, No. 5, United Kingdom, pp. 284-300.
20. Sachdeva, S. N. (2003), “Speed-flow relationships and capacity analysis for an identified intercity
road network”. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis submitted to Kurukshetra University, India.
Sh. Ashutosh Arun, Work Package Leader, Prof. Sudip Kumar Roy, IIEST,
Traffic Engineering and Safety (TES) Division (Shibpur), RC
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja
CONTRIBUTIONS OF STUDENTS
M.Tech Students pursued their Thesis @ CSIR - CRRI, New Delhi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The team of CSIR - CRRI and IIEST (Shibpur) would like to thank the following organizations for
permitting data collection and extending necessary help:
1. Joint Commissioner (Traffic) Kolkata Police.
2. Deputy Commissioner (Traffic) Kolkata Police
3. Commissioner, Howrah Police Commissionerate
4. Commissioner, Bidhan Nagar, Police Commissionerate
5. Commissioner, Asansol, Durgapur Police Commissionarate
6. Superintendent of Police, Howrah (Rural) District
7. Superintendent of Police, Hooghly District
8. Superintendent of Police, Darjeeling District
9. Superintendent of Police, South 24 Pargana District
10. Chief General Manager and Regional Officer, Kolkata. National Highways Authority of India
(NHAI)
11. Project Director, PIU-Jaipur, National Highways Authority of India
12. Project Director, PIU-Rohtak, National Highways Authority of India
13. Project Director, PIU-Ghaziabad, National Highways Authority of India
14. Assistant Commissioner of Police, Kalka, Panchkula District, Haryana
15. Senior Superintendent of Police, Sonepat District, Haryana
16. Senior Superintendent of Police, Ghaziabad District, Uttar Pradesh
17. Superintendent of Police, Hapur District, Uttar Pradesh
18. Superintendent of Police, Palwal District, Haryana
19. Superintendent of Police, Jhajjar District, Haryana
20. Superintendent of Police, Rewari District, Haryana
21. Superintendent of Police, Alwar District, Rajasthan
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section
Title Page Number
Number
Study Team i
Contributions of Students ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Figures vi
List of Tables vi
List of Abbreviations vii
3.1 INTRODUCTION 1
3.1.1 Scope and Limitation 1
3.2 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGIES 2
3.3 BASE CONDITIONS FOR CAPACITY ESTIMATION 5
3.4 INPUT DATA 5
3.5 METHODOLOGY 6
3.5.1 Types of Analysis 6
3.5.2 Estimation of Stream Speed 7
3.5.3 Estimation of Operating Speed 7
3.5.4 Estimation of Passenger Car Unit 7
3.5.5 Estimation of Traffic Flows 8
3.5.6 Estimation of Base Capacity 9
3.5.7 Estimation of Adjusted Capacity 9
3.5.8 Estimation of Level of Service 9
3.6 PASSENGER CAR UNIT VALUES 10
3.7 STREAM EQUIVALENCY FACTOR (Se) 13
3.8 BASE CAPACITY ESTIMATION 13
3.9 ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR NON BASE CONDITIONS 14
3.9.1 Adjustment for Gradient, Curvature and Roughness 14
3.9.2 Adjustment for Shoulder Width and Median Width 15
3.10 ESTIMATION OF LEVEL OF SERVICE 16
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Title
Number Number
3.2 Typical Six Lane Divided Highway Segment in India with Raised Median 2
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Title
Number Number
3.2 Type of Input Data required for Capacity and LOS Analysis 6
3.4 Range and Median of PCU Values for various Vehicle Types 12
3.8 LOS Thresholds for Four Lane Divided Interurban Highway Segments 17
3.9 LOS Thresholds for Six Lane Divided Interurban Highway Segments 17
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
t1 Time taken by the ith vehicle to travel the trap length ‘D’
Cadj Capacity adjusted for field conditions in PCU/h/direction
Se Stream Equivalency Factors
us Average SMS of the traffic stream
ut Average TMS of the traffic stream
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
Ac and Ai projected rectangular area on the road
ADT Average Daily Traffic
ADV Animal Drawn Vehicles
ARSS Automated Road Survey System
Auto Auto rickshaws
BC Big Cars and Vans
Bus Buses
C Capacity under base conditions in PCU/h/direction
CU Curvature in degree/km
CVC Classified traffic Volume Count
CY Cycles
CY RICK Cycle Rickshaws
DDHV Directional Design Hourly Volume in (PCU/h)
GPS Global Positioning System
GR Gradient (in %)
IRI International Roughness Index
Km/h Kilometres per hour
LCV Light Commercial Vehicles
LOS Level of Service
m/s metres per second
MAT Multi Axle Trucks
MB Mini Bus
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the capacity and Level of Service (LOS) values evolved for vehicular
traffic plying on uninterrupted flow segments of multilane divided interurban highways under mixed
traffic conditions observed in Indian roads. Uninterrupted flow here refers to the flow conditions
observed on roadway segments with no fixed causes of delay or interruption external to the traffic
stream. This implies that the uninterrupted flow facilities referred to in this manual include such
types of multilane divided interurban highway segments which are have median openings that are
spaced at least 1 (one) km apart, and moreover, there are no major access roads connecting to the
highways in those segments. At the same time, minor access roads or driveways joining such highway
segments and catering to a substantially low volume of traffic throughout the day can be tolerated
while defining a facility as an uninterrupted flow facility. Apart from the stated major objective of
specifying the Capacity and LOS values for segments with uninterrupted flow on multilane divided
interurban highways, there are a few other objectives covered in this chapter as well. These are
summarized below:
• Establishin g a relationship between capacity and operating speed for base sections
• Estimation of dynamic Passenger Car Unit (PCU) values for different vehicle-types and Stream
Equivalency Factors (Se) encompassing varying widths of multilane divided interurban
highways
• Estimation of adjustment factors for various road characteristics affecting traffic flows on
multilane divided interurban highways
six lane divided (6 out of them are base sections) road sections covering different region of the country
have been considered for analysis.
Figure 3.1: Typical Four Lane Divided Highway Segment in India with Depressed Median
Figure 3.2: Typical Six Lane Divided Highway Segment in India with Raised Median
• Capacity: It is defined as the maximum hourly volume (vehicles per hour) at which vehicles
can reasonably be expected to traverse a point or uniform section of a lane or roadway under
the prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions.
• Design Hourly Volume: Design hourly volume (DHV) is usually the 30th highest hourly
volume which means that this hourly volume is exceeded only during 29 hours in a year.
• Design Service Volume: It is defined as maximum service volume at which vehicles can
reasonably be expected to traverse a point or uniform section of a lane or roadway during one
hour under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions while maintaining a designated
level of service. The current practice in the country is to consider DSV in terms of daily volumes
of passenger cars on a section. Therefore, if required, it is suggested to convert the hourly
service volumes to daily volumes using the Peak Hour Ratio as suggested in IRC: 64 (1990).
• Design Speed: Design speed depends on the function of the road and terrain conditions. It
is the basic parameter, which determines all other geometric design features. Design speeds
for various classes of interurban highways given in IRC: SP-84 (2014) and IRC: SP-87 (2013)
is to be followed.
• Gradient: The rate of rise or fall of the road surface along its length with respect to the
horizontal is called gradient. It refers to the steepness of the road section and is expressed in
percentage (%).
• Horizontal Curvature: It is defined as the weighted average of the curvatures of the curved
sections for one km of the roadway, the weights being the proportion of the length of curved
sections. Its units are degrees/km. Road sections with many curves cause vehicles to travel
slower than on a straight section, thus affecting the Operating Speed as well as the capacity.
• Level of Service (LOS): is defined as a qualitative measure, describing operational conditions
within a traffic stream and their perception by drivers/passengers. LOS definition generally
describes these conditions in terms of factors such as speed and travel time, freedom to
manoeuvre, traffic interruptions, comfort, convenience and safety. Six levels of service are
recognized and these are designated from A to F, with LOS A representing the best operating
condition i.e. free flow and LOS F the worst i.e. forced or break-down flow.
• Operating Speed: Theoretically, it is the average speed (in km/h) of the traffic stream,
comprising only passenger cars, when the traffic density is approaching zero i.e. there are
negligible number of vehicles present on the carriageway. Therefore, it is the speed of a vehicle
when the presence of other vehicles does not restrain its movement. From operational point
of view, it is the 85th percentile speed of standard passenger cars measured under low volume
conditions. Such low volume conditions are said to occur if the time headway between two
successive vehicles is 8 seconds or more.
• Passenger Car Unit (PCU): Passenger Car Unit is a measure of relative interaction between
a vehicle and a traffic stream with respect to a standard passenger car under a specified set
of roadway and traffic conditions. It is used to convert a heterogeneous traffic stream into an
equivalent homogeneous stream to enable expressing flow and density in a common unit.
• Peak Hour Ratio (PHR): It is the percentage of ADT or AADT that passes through a given
section in the peak hour can be readily ascertained through field observations. In the absence
of field observations, however, default value of PHR may be adopted as 10 %.
• Roughness: Roughness is defined as the aggregated deviations of a pavement surface from a
true planar surface with characteristic dimensions that affect vehicle dynamics, ride quality,
dynamic loads, and drainage. Roughness affects the speed and movement of the vehicles
and hence it impacts capacity and LOS. In this manual, roughness measured in terms of the
International Roughness Index (IRI) in m/km has been used for analysis.
• Shoulder Type: A shoulder is a portion of the road contiguous with the carriageway and
is intended for accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency use and providing lateral
structural support to the road. Shoulders can be of two types:
οο Paved shoulder – they are constructed with the similar material as the carriageway.
οο Unpaved shoulder – they are constructed with well-compacted earth, hence also
called earthen shoulders, or materials like turf, stabilised soil, gravel, brick paving etc.
In the case of multilane divided highways, given the fact that they cater to high-speed
traffic, now-a-days paved shoulders are provided on the outer side of the carriageways
and they are also supplemented with unpaved shoulder of suitable width.
• Shoulder Width: The width of the shoulder should be adequate for providing working space
around a stopped vehicle. For multilane divided highways, generally 1.5 - 2.0 m wide paved
shoulders are provided. They are supplemented by unpaved shoulders in the case of open
areas. As shoulders can act as auxiliary lanes in Indian conditions, especially to accommodate
slow moving vehicles and even motorized two-wheelers, they are expected to increase the
capacity of the road section. Also, wider shoulders provide a sense of security to the driver
and hence they can drive with more freedom. Therefore, the width of shoulders is expected
to affect both capacity and LOS.
• Speed: Speed is the rate of motion of individual vehicle or of traffic stream. It is measured in
metres per second (m/s) or kilometres per hour (km/h). The types of speed measurements
used in traffic engineering applications are Time Mean Speed (TMS) and Space Mean Speed
(SMS).
• Traffic Composition: Traffic composition refers to the relative proportion of each of
the various vehicle types in a traffic stream at a point or a section of a roadway at a given
point of time or within a specified interval of time. It is used to incorporate the differences
in performance characteristics among different vehicle types. If the flow and capacity are
measured in vehicles per hour, traffic composition will affect capacity. However, by measuring
or representing the hourly flow in PCU, as envisaged in this manual, this effect would be
accounted for.
• Traffic Flow: The amount of traffic on a road is generally measured as either traffic volume
or traffic flow. Traffic volume is the total number of vehicles that pass over a given point or
section of a roadway in a given interval of time. Traffic volume can thus be given for annual,
daily, hourly, or sub-hourly periods. Traffic flow, on the other hand, is the equivalent hourly
rate at which the vehicles pass over a given point or section of a roadway for an interval of
time less than one hour. In this manual, the time interval for calculation of traffic flow has
been taken as five minutes. The traffic flow, thus, is an expression of sub-hourly volume, of any
traffic composition, in terms of equivalent flow of standard passenger cars over an hour. In
this manual, Small Car (SC), i.e. type of cars with engine capacity up to 1400 cc, has been taken
as the standard passenger car for conversion of observed flow in vehicles-per hour (veh/h) to
flow in Passenger Car Unit-per-hour (PCU/h). The distinction between volume and flow can
be understood from the following example: say, traffic volumes for consecutive 15-minute
periods in an hour are 500, 800, 1,000 and 1,100 vehicles per hour respectively. The total
hourly volume would thus be 3400 vehicles per hour. However, the hourly flow rate for each
of the 15-minute periods would be different and will be calculated as 4 times the volume
in a 15-minute period. Thus, for this example, the hourly traffic flows will be reported as
2,000, 3,200, 4,000 and 4,400 vehicles per hour respectively. Note that 4,400 vehicles do not
physically pass the observation point during the study hour, but they do pass at that rate for
15 minutes.
• Terrain: Terrain is classified by the general slope of the country across the highway alignment.
While classifying a terrain, short isolated stretches of varying terrain should not be taken into
consideration. As per IRC:73 (1980), terrain is classified as plain, rolling, mountainous and
steep according to the criteria given in Table 3.1.
1 Plain 0-10
2 Rolling 10-25
3 Mountainous 25-60
4 Steep > 60
However, owing to the topographical constraints, multilane divided highways are currently
not being constructed in mountainous / hilly terrains.
3.5 METHODOLOGY
The methodology to be followed for capacity analysis and LOS determination for vehicular
traffic for multilane divided highways is presented in this section.
Table 3.2: Type of Input Data required for Capacity and LOS Analysis
Analysis for new facility: As for planning and designing a new facility, the objective is to es-
timate the number of lanes needed, but the information on flow is likely to be given only as
estimated Average Daily Traffic (ADT). The details of geometry and other inputs can either
be assumed or taken as recommended default values. The service flow rate for a given LOS,
which is the maximum volume for that given LOS, can also be estimated.
here, N is the total number of vehicles counted in the analysis period, and is the time taken
W
by ith vehicle to travel the trap length D.
οο Space mean speed (: It is calculated based on the average travel time taken by N vehicles to
traverse the trap length ‘D’. It is estimated using Equation 3.2:
Equation 3.2
SMS is related with TMS through the relationship, based on the established literature, given
in Equation 3.3.
Equation 3.3
Where,
is the average TMS of a traffic stream,
is the average SMS of a traffic stream and
s is the standard deviation of SMS.
In traffic flow analysis, it is prudent to use SMS only for the development of Speed – Flow
relationship.
Equation 3.4
Where,
Vc and Vi are speed of standard car and vehicle type i respectively and
Ac and Ai are their projected rectangular area on the road.
According to the above equation, dynamic PCU value for different vehicle types under different
mixed traffic conditions is directly proportional to speed ratio and inversely proportional to space
ratio with respect to standard car.
As stated before, PCU is very sensitive to traffic composition and traffic volume on the road and
hence the use of a single set of PCU factors for different vehicle types may lead to erroneous results.
To circumvent this problem, a new concept of Stream Equivalency Factor (Se) is being introduced in
this manual. This will help the practitioners to avoid use of PCU factors for each individual vehicle
types to convert the observed hourly flow into equivalent flow in Passenger Car Units. This Stream
Equivalency Factor (Se) is simply defined as the ratio between the equivalent flow (PCU/h) and the
observed flow (veh/h). The relationship is also illustrated as under in Equation 3.5:
Equation 3.5
Se is a function of the traffic composition and can be determined from the CVC data using
Equation 3.6:
Equation 3.6
Where,
Se is the Stream Equivalency Factor,
pBC, pTW, …, pTT are the proportion of respective vehicle types in the traffic stream,
N is the traffic volume in the period of analysis ‘T’, and
a1, a2… a9 are the estimable coefficients.
Equation 3.6 has been employed to arrive at in case of four lane and six lane divided highway
segments and therefore, resultant equations are given as Equation 3.7 and Equation 3.8 in Section
3.6.2.
For a new facility, if the expected travel demand for the planned highway is already known
through travel demand analysis or any other suitable method, the corresponding traffic flow may be
considered.
Step 2. Measure the traffic volumes for a segment for a typical week (168 hours) through classified
traffic volume count surveys. Care should be taken to obtain and record the traffic volumes
in time segments equal to the length of analysis period (T) to facilitate easy conversion into
hourly flows. The value of T adopted in this manual is five (5) minutes.
Step 3. Convert the traffic volumes (in number of vehicles) obtained in the previous step into equivalent
traffic flows (in PCU). Suitably multiply the equivalent traffic flows with the no. of time spans
of time-period T in an hour to convert them into equivalent hourly traffic flows (in PCU/h/
direction). For example, if T = 5 minutes, multiply the flow with 12 (= 60/5) to get equivalent
hourly flow.
Step 4. Measure the Space Mean Speeds (SMS) of the vehicles on the section for the same time-period
as for the measurement of traffic flows. Care should be taken to record the SMS of the vehicles
in time segments equal to the length of analysis period T to facilitate easy computation of
traffic density. Space mean speed of the traffic stream can be found by taking weighted average
of the space mean speeds of individual vehicle types.
Step 5. Compute traffic density by dividing the equivalent hourly flow (PCU/h/direction) corresponding
to peak hour with the space mean speed (km/h) of the traffic for the same duration.
Step 6. Determine LOS from Table 3.8 and Table 3.9 (depending upon the type of highway under
scrutiny) corresponding to the traffic density obtained from earlier step. LOS so obtained may
be verified by comparing the results obtained through other performance measures such as
volume-to-capacity ratio.
Motorized Traffic
Auto rickshaws#
All Motorized
2. (Three and Four Wheeled Rickshaws Auto
Auto Rickshaws
including electric rickshaws)
5. Mini Bus MB
Transport Vehicles
6. Buses Bus
Non-Motorized Traffic
11. Cycles CY
Table 3.4: Range and Median of PCU Values for various Vehicle Types
Four Lane Divided Six Lane Divided
S. No. Vehicle Type Highway Segments Highway Segments
Range Median Range Median
1. Standard Car (SC) - 1.00 - 1.00
2. Big Car (BC) 1.4 - 1.5 1.45 1.4 - 1.6 1.50
3. Motorized Two-Wheeler (TW) 0.3 - 0.5 0.40 0.3 - 0.4 0.35
4. Auto-rickshaw (AUTO) 1.1 - 1.3 1.20 1.2 - 1.4 1.40
5. Light Commercial Vehicles (LCV) 2.7 - 3.3 3.10 3.0 - 3.6 3.40
6. Two / Three Axle Trucks (TAT) 3.5 - 4.6 4.40 4.3 - 5.5 5.00
7. Multi-Axle Trucks (MAT) 6.3 - 7.0 6.60 8.1 - 9.6 8.60
8. Bus (B) 4.4 - 5.3 5.00 4.3 - 5.6 5.10
9. Tractors including Trailers (TT) 3.9 -7.0 6.20 4.5 - 6.6 6.30
PCU for a vehicle type depends on its proportion in the traffic stream and total volume on the
road. Except motorized two wheelers, for all vehicle-types, the PCU has been found to be increasing
with their increasing proportions in the traffic stream. In the case of TW, an inversely proportional
relationship has been observed with PCU reducing with increasing proportion of motorized two-
wheelers in the traffic stream. The ranges of proportions of different vehicle types observed in the
field, whose lower and upper limits are designated as ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively, are given in Table 3.5.
Therefore, it is advised that the vehicle proportion given in Table 3.5 may be used as a yardstick for
deciding about the PCU value to be used from the ranges given in Table 3.4.
Equation 3.7
For= Six Lane Divided Highway Segments:
Equation 3.8
In equations 3.7 and 3.8, it can be noted that there is no coefficient estimated for Tractors
including Trailers (TT). This is because TT is present only in insignificant numbers on the study
sections. Therefore, if the above vehicle type constitutes only a very small proportion of the total
traffic, say less than 2 %, their effect on the equivalent hourly flow can be ignored. However, in case of
the share of TT is significant on any highway segment, then their effect may be considered by utilizing
their PCU factors given in Table 3.4.
IRI = International Roughness Index in m/km (no adjustment required for IRI ≤ 2.7 m/km),
GR = Gradient in % and
CU = Curvature in degree/km.
In the case of an existing highway facility, VOSbase required in Equations 3.11 and 3.12 can either
be estimated through field observation of spot speeds of standard cars on a base section on the same
highway, or on a base section on a different highway in a similar setting.
The method of identifying VOSbase on a new highway facility is not straightforward. In such a
case, it can either be assumed to be equal to the Operating Speed obtained for a base section on a
similar highway based on field observation of minimum sample size of free flow speed of standard
cars. Otherwise, design speed may be assumed as the VOSbase of the highway segment. In the case of
non-base sections, after applying adjustments for gradient, curvature and roughness consider VOSbase
= VOSadj to obtain the adjusted capacity from Equation 3.9 or 3.10 as applicable.
among the sample of candidate road sections surveyed, only few of four lane and six lane segments
are provided with Service Roads alongside. Since the sample is not significant, their effect has not
been estimated for multilane divided highways even though, theoretically, they should contribute
towards an increase in capacity due to reduction of the local traffic from getting mixed with through
traffic and thereby permitting higher operating speeds on the multilane divided highways.
Table 3.8: LOS Thresholds for Four Lane Divided Interurban Highway Segments
Table 3.9: LOS Thresholds for Six Lane Divided Interurban Highway Segments
Recommended DSV
Density (PCU/km/ Volume-to-Capacity Service Volumes
LOS Value for Upgradation
direction) ratio (v/c) (PCU/day)
(in PCUs/day)
A ≤ 27 0.00 - 0.20 ≤ 27000
34000 @ LOS-B:
B 28 - 41 0.21 - 0.30 27001 - 41000
Suggested threshold
C 42 - 68 0.31 - 0.50 41001 - 68000 flow for conversion from
six lane to eight lane
D 69 - 95 0.51 - 0.70 68001 - 95000 divided road to ensure
enhanced safety in
E 96 - 136 0.71 - 1.00 95001 - 136000
traffic operations.
F > 136 > 1.00 > 136000
3. Compute Capacity
From Table 3.6, corresponding to uo of 77 km/h, = 3850PCU/h/dir.
or four lane divided highway of existing facility with non-base condition capacity can be
F
determined by using the Equation 3.14 (Median Width ≤ 2.50 m).
\ Capacity = Cadj = C + 188 × PSW + 170 × UPSW
ow, PSW = Difference between the base width of Paved Shoulder and the Actual width =
N
(0.5m – 1.5m) = – 1 m.
And UPSW = width of unpaved Shoulder =0 m.
\ Capacity = Cadj = 3850 + 188 × (–1) + 170 × 0 = 3662 PCU/h/dir.
4. Determination of LOS
4.1 Method 1: Using SEF
4.1.1 Estimation of SEF:
From Equation 3.7, we can get
SEF = 1+0.6 × 0.20 - 1.5 × 0.23 + 2.6 × 0.04 + 3.6 × 0.02 + 6.4 × 0.05 + 1.2 × 0.07 + 4.8 × 0.05
+59.8 × (1/1250) = 1.64
Therefore, traffic volume in terms of PCU = 1250 × 1.64= 2050 PCU/h/dir.
4.1.2 Compute Density
From Equation 3.16, Density (K) of the existing four lane facility is
K = Q/V
K = 2050 / 40 = 51 PCU/km/dir.
4.1.3 Compute Volume-to-Capacity Ratio (v/c):
v/c = 2050/3662= 0.56
4.1.4 Determine LOS
As per Table 3.8, corresponding to a density of 51 PCU/km/direction, the operational LOS
is ‘D’. Alternatively, corresponding to a v/c ratio of 0.56, the LOS is also ‘D’ and hence the
operational LOS is ‘D’.
4.2 Method 2: Using PCU Factor
4.2.1 Compute Volume in PCU/h/direction
Vehicle Category Volume (veh/h/dir.) PCU factor Volume (PCU/h/dir.)
Standard Car (SC) 431 1 431
Big Car (BC) 256 1.5 384
Two-Wheeler (TW) 282 0.3 85
Light Commercial Vehicle (LCV) 49 3.1 152
Two / Three Axle Trucks (TAT) 24 4.4 106
Multi Axle Trucks (MAT) 61 6.6 403
Auto-Rickshaw (AUTO) 86 1.3 112
Bus (B) 61 5 305
Total 1250 - 1978
Solution:
1. Input Data
ll data are given in the example problem statement. All the Base Conditions specified for
A
multilane interurban highways are being met in this case, hence no adjustment is required.
2. Compute Operating Speed
The Operating Speed is given as 100 km/h for base section of existing facility
3. Compute Capacity
rom Table 3.6 corresponding to Operating Speed = 100 km/h capacity of the existing six lane
F
divided highway with base condition = 6790 PCU/h/dir.
4. Determination of LOS
4.1 Method 1: Using SEF
4.1.1 Estimation of SEF (Stream Equivalency Factor)
From Equation 3.8, we can get
S EF = 1 + 0.7 × 0.23 – 2.1 × 0.18 + 3.3 × 0.18 + 4.8 × 0.12 + 7.5 × 0.04 + 1.2 × 0.02 + 5.0 × 0.06
+ 64.7 × (1/1450) = 2.62
So, traffic volume in terms of PCU = 1450 × 2.62 = 3799 or say 3800PCU/h/dir.
4.1.2 Compute Density
From Equation 3.16, Density (K) of the six lane divided facility computed is
K = volume /speed = 3800 / 60 = 63 PCU/km/dir.
4.1.3 Compute Volume-to-Capacity Ratio (v/c):
v/c = 3800/6790 = 0.56
4.1.4 Determine LOS
s per Table 3.9, LOS corresponding to Density of 63 PCU/km/dir. is ‘C’ and that corresponding
A
to v/c ratio of 0.56 is ‘D’. Since, Density is the recommended service measure for LOS estimation,
the LOS corresponding to Density values is preferred. Therefore, the operational LOS is ‘C’.
dditional Traffic that can be accommodated before reaching capacity i.e. LOS E = 6790
A
– 3800 =2990 PCU/h/dir.
4.2 Method 2: Using PCU Factor
4.2.1 Compute Volume in PCU/h/direction
Vehicle Category Volume (veh/h/dir.) PCU Factor Volume (PCU/h/dir.)
Standard Car (SC) 247 1 247
Big Car (BC) 333 1.5 500
Two-Wheeler (TW) 261 0.3 78
Light Commercial Vehicle (LCV) 261 3.4 887
Two / Three Axle Trucks (TAT) 174 5.0 870
Multi Axle Trucks (MAT) 58 8.6 499
Auto-Rickshaw (AUTO) 29 1.4 41
Bus (B) 87 5.1 444
Total 1450 - 3566
4. Compute SEF
Using Equation 3.8,
S EF = 1+ 0.7 × 0.20 – 2.1 × 0.10 + 3.3 × 0.12 + 4.8 × 0.10 + 7.5 × 0.07+ 1.2 × 0.03 + 5.0 × 0.10
+ 64.7 × (1/ 960) = 2.93
Therefore, Design Hourly Volume = 960 × 2.93 = 2813 PCUs/hour/direction.
5. Compute Capacity
From Table 3.6 capacity corresponding to 100 km/h, Operating Speed is 6790 PCU/h/dir.
6. Compute Service Volume for Corresponding LOS
As per Table 3.9 corresponding to LOS ‘B’, maximum v/c ratio is 0.30
Service volume corresponding to LOS ‘B’ will be 0.30×6790= 2037 PCU/h/dir.
7. Estimate number of lanes
Number of lanes required = 2813/2037 = 1.4.
herefore, our assumption is not correct. The road section is likely to be a four-lane divided
T
highway.
8. Compute SEF
Using Equation3.7, SEF for four lane highways is
S EF = 1+ 0.6 × 0.20 – 1.5 × 0.10 + 2.6 × 0.12 + 3.6 × 0.10 + 6.4 × 0.07+ 1.2 × 0.03 + 4.8 × 0.10
+ 59.8 × (1/ 960) = 2.67
Therefore, the Design hourly volume = 960 × 2.67 = 2563 PCU/h/dir.
9. Compute Capacity
rom Table 3.6, capacity corresponding to Operating Speed of 100 km/h for four lane divided
F
highway is 4540PCU/h/dir.
10. Compute Service Volume for Corresponding LOS
As per Table 3.8 corresponding to LOS ‘B’, maximum v/c ratio is 0.30
Service volume corresponding to LOS ‘B’ will be 0.30×4540= 1362PCU/h/dir.
11. Estimate the number of lanes
Number lanes required = 2563/1362 = 1.88
Therefore, a four-lane divided highway need to be provided.
REFERENCES
1. Ashutosh Arun, Erramapalli Madhu and S. Velmurugan (2016), “Selection of a Suitable Service
Measure and Determination of LOS Criteria for Indian Multilane Interurban Highways: A
Methodological Review”, Transportation in Developing Economies, (TiDE) Springer, India, DOI:
10.1007/s40890-016-0021-x.
2. Chandra, S. and Sikdar, P. K. (2000), ‘Factors affecting PCU in mixed traffic on urban roads”, Road
& Transport Research, 9(3), 2000, ARRB, Australia, pp. 40-50.
3. HCM (2010), “HCM 2010: Highway Capacity Manual”, Special Report No. 209, 5th Edition,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC, USA.
4. IRC: 73 (1980) “Geometric Design Standards for Rural (non-urban) Highways”, New Delhi:
Indian Roads Congress.
5. IRC: 64 (1990), “Guidelines for capacity of roads in Rural Areas (First Revision)”, Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi.
6. IRC: SP-87 (2013), “Manual of Specifications and Standards for Six laning of Highways through
Public Private Partnership (First Revision)”, New Delhi: Indian Roads Congress.
7. IRC: SP-84 (2014), “Manual of Specifications and Standards for Four laning of Highways through
Public Private Partnership (First Revision)”, New Delhi: Indian Roads Congress.
8. Velmurugan, S., Errampalli, M., Ravinder, K., Sitaramanjaneyulu, K., and Gangopadhyay, S. (2010).
“Critical evaluation of roadway capacity of multilane high-speed corridors under heterogeneous
traffic conditions through traditional and microscopic simulation models”, In Journal of Indian
Roads Congress Vol. 71, No. 3, pp. 235-264.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Arun, A., Madhu, E., & Velmurugan, S. (2016), “Selection of a Suitable Service Measure and
Determination of LOS Criteria for Indian Multilane Interurban Highways: A Methodological
Review”, Transportation in Developing Economies, 2(2), 16. http://doi.org/10.1007/s40890-
016-0021-x
2. Arun, A., Velmurugan, S., & Errampalli, M. (2013), “Methodological framework towards
roadway capacity estimation for Indian multi-lane highways”, Procedia-Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 104, pp. 477-486.
3. Arun, A., Velmurugan, S., Kannan, S., Chakraborty, S., & Roy, S. K (2016), “Effect of road geometry
and roughness on free- flow speeds and roadway capacity for Indian multilane interurban
highways”, Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Transportation Planning and
Implementation Methodologies for Developing Countries (12th TPMDC 2016), Mumbai, Paper
No. 66.
4. Bera, R., Arun, A., Chakraborty, S., & Roy, S. K (2014), “Speed Flow Estimation for Four Lane
Divided National Highways in India”, Proceedings of National Conference on Recent Research
Advances in Civil Engineering (RACE 2014), Osmania University, UCE, Hyderabad, pp.14-21.
5. Bera, R., Roy, D., Chakraborty, S., Arun, A. & Roy, S. K (2015), “Speed-Flow Estimation for Four
Lane and Six Lane Divided National Highways in India”, Proceedings of 3rd Conference of
Transportation Research Group of India (CTRG-2015), Kolkata, Paper No. 666
6. Chatterjee, S., Roy, D., Chakraborty, S., & Roy, S.K. (2016), “Lane Density as Measure of Effectiveness
of Multi lane Interurban Highways under Heterogeneous Traffic Conditions”, Proceedings of
Fourth International Conference on Advances in Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering
- ACSEE 2016. Rome, Italy, 15-16 December 2016.
7. Chatterjee, S., Roy, D., Chakraborty, S., & Roy, S.K. (2017), “Level of Service Criteria on Indian
Multilane Highways based on Platoon Characteristics”, Proceedings of 96th Annual Meeting of
Transportation Research Board (TRB, 2017) Washington D.C., 08-12 January 2017.
8. Chatterjee, S., Roy, D., Chakraborty, S., Arun, A., & Roy, S.K. (2016), “An Investigation of Lane
Flow Distribution on Multi-Lane Highways under Mixed Traffic Condition”, Proceedings of 12th
International Conference on Transportation Planning and Implementation Methodologies for
Developing Countries (12th TPMDC 2016), Mumbai, Paper No. 109.
9. Greenshields, B.D. (1935) “A study of highway capacity”, Proceedings of Highway Research
Record, Washington Volume 14, pp. 448-477.
10. Yadav, A., Arun, A., Velmurugan, S., & Prasad, C. S. R. K (2014) “Roadway capacity estimation
for multi-lane interurban highways in India”, Proceedings of “Colloquium on Transportation
Systems Engineering and Management (CTSEM), 12th-13th May 2014, NIT Calicut. Paper ID: 140.
11. Yadav, A., Arun, A., Velmurugan, S., & Prasad, C. S. R. K (2014), “Capacity Analysis for Multi-
lane Interurban Highways under Heterogeneous Traffic Conditions”, A paper published and
presented at Transportation Young Researchers Symposium (TYRES 2014), 27th-29th March
2014, NIT Warangal.
K
8% 8.5 % 9% 9.5 % 10 %
D
0.5 4000 4250 4500 4750 5000
0.55 4400 4675 4950 5225 5500
0.6 4800 5100 5400 5700 6000
0.65 5200 5525 5850 6175 6500
0.7 5600 5950 6300 6650 7000
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja
CONTRIBUTIONS OF STUDENTS
M.Tech Students pursued their Thesis @ CSIR - CRRI, New Delhi
Mr. Ajinkya Mane (Project Associate) Mr. Nipjyoti Bharadwaj (Project Associate)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The team of CSIR - CRRI and SVNIT (Surat) would like to thank the following organizations for
permitting data collection and extending necessary help:
1. Chief General Manager, Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Authority (HMDA), Telangana.
2. IL& FS, DND, Delhi
3. MMRDA, Mumbai, Maharashtra
4.
Chief General Manager and Regional Officer, Ahmadabad, National Highways Authority of
India (NHAI).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Title
Number Number
Study Team i
Contributions of Students ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Figures vi
List of Tables vii
List of Abbreviations viii
4.1 INTRODUCTION 1
4.1.1 Interurban Expressways 1
4.1.2 Urban Expressways 1
4.2 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGIES 1
4.3 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF BASE CONDITION FOR EXPRESSWAYS 4
4.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION 5
4.5 METHODOLOGY 6
4.5.1 Input Parameters 7
4.5.2 Calculation of Capacity 7
4.5.3 Traffic Volume 8
4.5.4 Free Flow Speed Distribution 10
4.6 SPEED-FLOW CURVES AND CAPACITY 11
4.6.1 Capacity of Base Sections 11
4.6.2 Effect of Gradient on Six Lane Expressway Segments 12
4.7 DETERMINATION OF LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS) 13
4.8 APPLICATION 14
4.8.1 Computation of DHV 14
4.8.2 Establishment of Analysis Boundaries 15
4.8.3 Types of Analysis 15
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Title
Number Number
4.1 Typical Base Section of Four-lane Divided Interurban Expressway 4
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Title
Number Number
4.1 Input Parameters for Analysis 7
4.2 Base Capacity of Interurban and Urban Expressways 7
4.3 Typical Vehicle types and Mode Classification 8
4.4 Suggested PCU Values for Interurban and Urban Expressways 9
Observed Range (in percent) of Traffic Composition on Varying Widths of
4.5 9
Roads
4.6 Summary of Capacity on Interurban and Urban Expressways 12
4.7 LOS Thresholds for 4-lane Divided Interurban Expressways 13
4.8 LOS Thresholds for 6-lane Divided Interurban Expressways 13
4.9 LOS Thresholds for 8-lane Divided Urban Expressways 14
4.10 Recommended Default Values of Input Parameters 14
4.11 Classified Traffic flow and Average Speeds 15
4.12 Estimation of PCUs 17
4F.1 Typical Illustration of LOS on Six-lane Divided Interurban expressway 31 - 33
4G.1 DDHV Values by Varying K factor and D Values 34
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
—
Us Average SMS of a traffic stream
—
Ut Average TMS of a traffic stream
P2w Proportion of Two wheeler in the traffic stream
PAUTO Proportion of Auto rickshaws in the traffic stream
PBC Proportion of Big Cars in the traffic stream
PBUS Proportion of Buses in the traffic stream
PHCV Proportion of Two / Three Axle Truck in the traffic stream
PLCV Proportion of LCVs in the traffic stream
PMAV Proportion of Multi Axle Vehicles/Truck in the traffic stream
TI Time taken by the ith vehicle to traverse the trap length ‘D’
|𝐴| Area covered by shaded region A
Ac Projected rectangular area of standard car taken as the reference vehicle
Ai Projected rectangular area of the vehicle type i
ARSS Automated Road Survey System
DDF Directional Distribution Factor
D proportion of peak-hour traffic in the heavier direction
D(t): Cumulative plot of volume at d/s
d/s Downstream
DDHV Directional Design Hour Volume
DHV Design Hourly Volume
FFS Free-Flow Speed
HCV Heavy Commercial Vehicle
IPT Intermediate Para Transit
K Density
K Proportion of AADT occurring in the peak hour
K Proportion of two-way Design Hourly Volume to two-way AADT
L section length
LCV light commercial vehicle
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1 Interurban Expressways
An expressway is defined as an arterial highway for motorized traffic having divided
carriageways for high speed travel with full control of access and provided with grade separators
or interchanges at locations of intersections. These are the highest class of roads in the Indian road
network with design speeds ranging from 100 to 120 km per hour in plain terrain. In the case of
interurban expressways connecting cities and towns, vehicle types like motorised two-wheelers and
auto rickshaws are generally be prohibited from entering due to their vulnerability to road crashes.
Because of access control, traffic flow behaviour on expressways is significantly different from other
multilane interurban roads which are faced with mixed traffic conditions prevailing on Indian roads.
Hence, this category of roads is dealt with separately in this manual. Normally, expressways have at
least two lanes in each direction of travel and depending upon the traffic demand it can be divided
carriageways of six-lane, eight-lane or more number of lanes.
• Free Flow Speed: The mean speed of passenger cars that can be accommodated under low to
moderate flow rates on a uniform expressway segment under prevailing roadway and traffic
conditions (HCM, 2010). Free Flow Speeds may be measured for given vehicle, when the traffic
flow is such that the time gap between two consecutive vehicles is more than 8 seconds.
• Operating Speed: It is the 85th percentile of the distribution of observed speeds which is the
most frequently used descriptive statistic associated with a particular location or geometric
features.
• Flow rate: It is a macroscopic flow characteristic and is defined as number of vehicles passing
a point in a given period of time. It is usually expressed as an hourly flow rate.
• Service Flow Rate: The maximum rate of flow that can be maintained during the 5-min
analysis period under prevailing conditions.
• Density: It is the number of vehicles present on a unit length of road at any particular instant
of time. It is usually expressed in vehicles per km.
• Base Capacity: It is the maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a given point or
section of road on a lane or roadway, during one hour under the most nearly ideal roadway
and traffic conditions which can possibly be attained.
• Adjusted Capacity: It is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point or
section on an expressway in one direction of traffic flow during one hour without the traffic
density being so high as to cause unreasonable delay, hazard, or restriction to the drivers’
freedom to manoeuvre under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
• Level of Service (LOS): It is a quality measure describing operational conditions within a
traffic stream, generally in terms of such service measures as speed and travel time, freedom
to manoeuvre, traffic interruptions, comfort, and convenience. LOS for basic expressway
segment is based on traffic density expressed in PCU/ km and vehicles/km.
• Passenger Car Unit: Passenger Car Unit (PCU) is a universally adopted unit used for the
capacity analysis of any roadway system having heterogeneous traffic condition. PCU value of
standard / small car is identified as 1.0. A small car, is defined as a standard car i.e. car with
engine capacity up to 1400 cc having the area dimensions of 3.72 m X 1.44 m. The interaction
of vehicles in the traffic stream is represented in terms of Passenger Car Unit (PCU), which is
the amount of impedance caused to flow of traffic by a vehicle type in comparison with that
of standard car. If the addition of one vehicle per hour in a traffic stream reduces the average
speed of the remaining vehicles by the same amount as the addition of say, x cars per hour,
then one vehicle of that type is considered to be equivalent to “x” PCUs.
• Speed Limit: It is the enforced speed provided on a given section of road for safe movement
of vehicles in the traffic stream. It is usually set at or below 85th percentile speed i.e. the speed
below which 85 percentage of all vehicles travel.
• Directional Design Hour Volume (DDHV): It is the volume which converts the AADT for
the design year to a directional design hour volume. Mathematically, this can be expressed as
given in Equation 4.1.
DDHV= AADT*K*D Equation 4.1
Where,
D is the directional distribution factor i.e. the percentage of design hourly volume in the
predominant direction, and K factor is the ratio of two-way design hour volume to the two-way AADT.
In traffic flow analysis, it is prudent to use SMS only for the development of relationship
between Speed and Flow and it is designated by letter ‘V’ in this manual and referred accordingly.
• Density: Traffic density, the macroscopic measure of traffic concentration, is defined as the
number of vehicles occupying unit length of the roadway at any instant of time and is given
by Equation 4.6.
Equation 4.6
Where,
L = Length of the roadway;
N = Number of vehicles present over the length of the roadway at an instant of time.
expressway is shown in Figure 4.2. Figure 4.3 illustrates the expressway section having ideal
merging and diverging segments on four-lane divided interurban expressway. It has been
noted during the field studies as well as in other reported studies (Madhu and Velmurugan, 2011)
that the interurban expressways in the country rarely operate at volumes near capacity in India
whereas in the case of urban expressway, traffic flow nearing capacity is noted during the morning
and evening peak hours.
noted during the course of data collection at the above road sections, the quantum of observed traffic
flow at the diverging and merging ramps are far below the designed capacity. Eventually, this manual
covers only the determination of capacity and LOS of mid-block sections of the expressway segments
whereas the diverging and merging ramps of the expressways are beyond the purview of this manual.
4.5 METHODOLOGY
The input parameters and the computation method of capacity and LOS analysis for basic
expressway segments are given in Figure 4.4. The analyst has the option of measuring the capacity and
level of service in the field (refer Annexure-4A and 4B) using the procedure prescribed. Passenger
Car Unit (PCU) values for converting all other vehicles into equivalent passenger cars are furnished
in this manual.
The methodology devised in this manual for the determination of capacity and Level of Service
of expressway is applicable for basic segments of interurban and urban expressways only.
Figure 4.4: Methodology for Estimation of Capacity and Level of Service of Expressway
• Similarly, if the analyst wants to determine adjusted capacity of six-lane divided or four-
lane divided urban expressway which are not furnished in Table 4.2, it can be calculated by
multiplying lane capacity of eight-lane divided urban expressway with 3 and 2 respectively.
This implies that the capacity of six-lane divided section becomes, 2300*3 = 6900 PCU/hour/
direction and six-lane divided section becomes, 2300*2 = 4600.
4.5.2.2 Gradient Section
Presence of grade decreases the capacity of a roadway segment. In the case of grades up to 3.5
% up gradient, the decrease in capacity is found to be 30 % whereas in the case of down gradients up
to 3.5 %, the reduction in capacity is found to be 3 %.
PCU Values
The range of PCUs for each vehicle type is given in Table 4.4. The upper limit of PCU values
should be used under low flow conditions i.e. V/C ratio less than 0.3. The lower limit of PCU should be
used at higher flow conditions i.e. V/C ratio between 0.7 to 0.9. In the case of intervening flow ranges
i.e. V/C Ratio between 0.3 to 0.7, the median value should be used which are furnished in brackets
in Table 4.4 in each row for a given vehicle type. Table 4.4 presents the range of traffic composition
observed across varying carriageway widths of interurban and urban expressway segments.
Table 4.4: Suggested PCU Values for Interurban and Urban Expressways
Vehicle Category Interurban Expressways Urban Expressways
Standard Cars (SC) 1.0 1.0
1.2 - 1.8 1.3 -1.7
Big Cars (BC)
(1.5) (1.5)
0.2 - 0.6
Two Wheelers -
(0.4)
Auto rickshaws 0.8 - 1.3
-
(Three and Four Wheeled Rickshaws) (1.0)
2.1 - 4.2 1.9 - 5.5
Light Commercial Vehicles (LCV)
(3.2) (3.2)
3.9 - 6.1 3.2 - 6.0
Bus (B)
(5.0) (5.0)
Two / Three Axle Commercial Vehicles 3.9 - 6.5 3.9 - 6.5
(TAT) (5.2) (5.2)
4.0 - 7.0 4.0 - 7.2
Multi Axle Truck Vehicles (MAT)
(5.5) (5.6)
The PCU values given within brackets imply the median values.
‘-‘ indicates the above vehicles types are prohibited on the interurban expressways
Table 4.5: Observed Range (in percent) of Traffic Composition across
Varying Widths of Roads
Where,
Se = Stream Equivalency Factor
PBC = Proportion of Big Cars in the traffic stream
PLCV = Proportion of LCVs in the traffic stream
PBUS = Proportion of Buses in the traffic stream
PTAT = Proportion of Two / Three Axle Truck in the traffic stream
PMAT = Proportion of Multi Axle Vehicles/Truck in the traffic stream
PTWO = Proportion of Two Wheeler in the traffic stream
PAUTO = Proportion of Auto rickshaws in the traffic stream
n = Total flow in vehicles per hour
Figure 4.5: Speed - Flow Plots of Typical Base Sections of Four Lane and
Six Lane Interurban Expressways
4.6.1 Capacity of Base Sections
Base speed-flow curves and the corresponding equations i.e. Equation 4.11 and Equation 4.12
derived for four-lane divided and six lane divided interurban expressway are given in Figures 4.6.
Six-Lane divided Section: Equation 4.11
Figure 4.6 shows the speed-flow curve developed for eight-lane divided urban expressway
base section.
Equation 4.13
Equation 4.14
Equation 4.15
A summary of capacity per direction and capacity per lane of interurban and urban
expressways are presented in Table 4.6. The capacity values are given based on varying carriageway
width, type of section, location and gradient.
Recommended DSV
Density (PCU/km/ Service Volumes
LOS V/C ratio Value for Upgradation
direction) (PCU/day)
(PCU/day)
4.8 APPLICATION
For using the methodology proposed in this chapter, a range of input data (roadway and traffic
condition) is needed. Most of these data can be measured from the field or estimated. When some of
the data is not available, then default values may be used.
Determine the following: (a) Capacity using SEF and PCUs (b) Existing Level of Service
(c) How much additional traffic could be accommodated before reaching capacity?
Solution:
Se = 1 + 0.42 * pBC + 1.91 * pLCV + 4.45 * pBUS + 4.95 * pTAT + 5.62 * pMAT – 84 * (1/n)
Where,
Stream Equivalency Factor = 1.84, calculated using Equation 4.8 for level terrain
Volume in (veh/hour/ direction) = 1966
Volume in (pcu/hour/ direction) = 1964*1.84 = 3613
(b) Existing Level of Service = (Volume/Capacity)
= (3614/5000) = 0.72
Hence existing Level of Service is C.
(c) Additional traffic that can be accommodated before reaching capacity.
= (5000 - 3614) = 1316 PCU/h/direction
In Veh/hour = (1386/1.84)
= 753 Vehicles/hour/direction
Volume Volume
Vehicle Type PCU Factor
(Vehicles/hour) (PCUs/h)
Standard Car (SC) 1196 1.0 1196
Big Car (BC) 400 1.5 600
Light Commercial Vehicles (LCV) 98 3.15 309
Two / Three Axle Trucks (TAT) 170 5.2 884
Multi-Axle Trucks (MAT) 20 5.5 110
Bus 80 5.0 400
Total 1964 - 3499
4.9.2 Problem-2
The following traffic data is furnished for the new six-lane divided expressway facility planned
between Vadodara and Surat.
Capacity per Lane = 2500 PCU/hour/ lane
Volume = 4850 PCU/hour/direction
V/C ratio for LOS-C = 0.75
Determine number of lanes required so as to achieve the LOS-C for the above planned
expressway facility.
Solution:
Given
V/C ratio = 0.75
Required Capacity = V/0.75 = 4850 / 0.75
= 6467 PCU/hour/direction
Number of lanes required to maintain LOS-C
Number of lanes required = (6467/2500)
= 2.58 say 3 lanes in each direction (as Number of lanes cannot
be in fraction) which would cater up to maximum capacity
flow of 7500 PCUs/hour/direction.
i.e. 3 lanes in each direction of travel are required.
4.9.3 Problem-3
The following traffic data is furnished for the new expressway facility planned between
Vadodara and Surat. Adopt LOS C to design of number of lanes required
Expected AADT = 100,000 PCUs/day
DDHV = AADT*K*D
Where,
DDHV = Directional Design-Hour Volume (Veh/h/direction)
K = Proportion of AADT occurring in the peak hour
K = 8 % to 10 %.
D = proportion of peak-hour traffic in the heavier direction
D = 0.5 to 07
Solution:
Case 1: Assume K = 8 percent and D = 0.5
Given DDHV = AADT*K*D
DDHV = 100000*.08*0.5
= 4000 PCU/hour/direction
Capacity = 2500 PCU/hour/lane
Number of lanes required to maintain LOS-C
V/C ratio = 0.75
Capacity required = V/0.75
= 5333 PCU/hour/direction
Number of lanes required
= (5333/2500)
= 2.13 say 3 lanes in each direction (as number of lanes cannot be in
fraction) for achieving capacity of 7650 PCU/hour/direction)
Sensitivity Analysis based on different values of D and K factors.
REFERENCES
1. Chandra, S., and Kumar, U. (2003), “Effect of lane width on capacity under mixed traffic conditions
in India”, Journal of Transportation Engineering ASCE, Volume 129, No. 2, pp. 155- 160.
2. Dhamaniya, A., and Chandra, S. (2013), “Concept of Stream Equivalency Factor for Heterogeneous
Traffic on Urban Arterial Roads”, Journal of Transportation Engineering ASCE, Vol. 139, no. 11,
pp. 1117-1123.
3. Edie LC (1961) “Car Following and Steady State Theory for Non-Congested Traffic” Journal of
Operations Research, Vol. 9 (1), pp. 66-76.
4. Edie LC (1965) “Discussion of Traffic Stream Measurements and Definitions”, Proceedings of the
Second International Symposium on the Theory of Traffic Flow. J. Almond (Editor), Paris, OECD,
pp. 139 - 154.
5. HCM (2010) “HCM 2010: Highway Capacity Manual”, Special Report No. 209, 5th Edition,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
6. IRC: SP-99 (2013) “Manual of Specification and Standards for Expressways”, Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi.
7. Madhu, E and Velmurugan, S., (2011) “Estimation of Roadway Capacity of Eight-Lane Divided
Urban Expressways under Heterogeneous Traffic through Microscopic Simulation Models”,
International Journal of Science and Technology Education Research Volume 11 No.6, (Online
Journal).
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Akcelik R (1996) “Relating flow, density, speed and travel time models for uninterrupted and
interrupted traffic”, Traffic Engineering and Control. pp. 511 - 516.
2. Ameena P, Lelitha V, Subramanian SC, Manda H (2009) “Prediction of Traffic Density for
Congestion Analysis under Indian Traffic Conditions”, Proceedings of the 12th International
IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, St. Louis, MO, USA, October 3 - 7, 2009.
3. Arasan VT, Koshy RZ (2005) “Methodology for modelling highly heterogeneous traffic flow”,
Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol 131, No. 1. ASCE, pp. 544 - 551.
4. Arasan VT, Dhivya G (2010) “Simulation of Highly Heterogeneous Traffic Flow”, Proceeding of
24th European Conference on Modelling and Simulation, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1 - 4 June,
2010, pp 81 - 87.
5. Asha R, Lelitha V, Subramanian C (2011) “Traffic Density Estimation under Heterogeneous
Traffic Condition using Data Fusion”, IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV) Baden, Germany,
June 5-9, 2011.
6. Cassidy M, Coifman B (2014) “Relation among Average Speed, Flow, and Density and
Analogous Relation between Density and Occupancy”, Transportation Research Record No
1591, pp. 18 - 27.
7. Daiheng N, John DL (2006) “Direct Methods of Determining Traffic Stream Characteristics by
Definition”, TRB Annual Meeting CD-ROM.
8. Gazis D, Liu C (2003) “Kalman filtering estimation of traffic counts for two network links in
Tandem”, Transportation Research Part B. 37. (2003) pp. 737 - 745.
9. Greenshields, B.D. (1935) “A study of highway capacity”, Proceedings Highway Research Record,
Washington Volume 14, pp. 448 - 477.
10. Haynes J (1965) “Some considerations of vehicular density on urban freeways”, Highway
Research Board, Record 99, HRB, Washington D.C., 1965, pp. 59-80.
11. Qiu TJ, Lu XY, Andy HF, Shladover C, Steven E (2010) “Estimation of Freeway Traffic Density
with Loop Detector and Probe Vehicle Data”, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the
Transportation Research Board, No. 2178, Transportation Research Board of the National
Academies, Washington.
12. Singh K, Li B (2012) “Estimation of Traffic Densities for Multilane Roadways Using a Markov
Model Approach”, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. Volume 59. NO. 11.
13. Sun X, Mufioz L, Horowitz R (2003) “Highway Traffic State Estimation Using Improved
Mixture Kalman Filters for Effective Ramp Metering Control”, Proceedings of the 42nd IEEE
Conference on Deeidon and Control Maui, Hawaii USA, December 2003.
14. May AD (1962) “California Freeway Operations Study”, Thompson Ramo Wooldridge, Chats-
worth, Calif., pp. 71-81 and 93 – 100.
15. May AD (1990) “Traffic flow fundamentals”, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1990.
16. Nazer PA (2001) “Density of mixed traffic stream from the speeds of individual vehicles”,
Traffic Engineering and Control. pp. 308 - 310.
17. Tiwari G, Joseph P, Fazio E, Chatteerjee N (2008) “Continuity equation validation for non-
homogeneous traffic”, Journal of Transportation Engineering. ASCE. 134(3). pp. 118 - 127.
Where,
PCUi : Passenger Car equivalent of the subject vehicle i,
Vc : Average speed of standard cars in the traffic stream,
Vi : Average speed of subject vehicle i,
Ac : Projected rectangular area of standard car as reference vehicle and
Ai : Projected rectangular area of the vehicle type i.
5-minute interval is used for developing the SEF and this interval is also likely to provide
considerable variations in traffic volume as well as traffic composition. An example of development
of stream equivalency factor developed for 4-lane divided Ahmedabad - Vadodara (Interurban)
expressway is given in Figure 4C.1.
A linear plot of flow expressed as PCU/h vs flow in vehicles/h is developed for Ahmedabad-
Vadodara expressway. A linear relation with zero intercept (Se should be zero for no flow condition)
suggests the average value of Se is 0.82. The data points in Figure 4C.1 are quite staggered, having
many values of flow in vehicles per hour corresponding to the same value of flow expressed in PCU
per hour and vice versa. As such, Se value is found to be increasing with the higher proportion of heavy
vehicles in the traffic stream. R2 value for the equation also suggests good fit between the variables.
Figure 4C.1: Plot for Stream Equivalency for Flow on Interurban Expressways
Considering the effect of mix traffic proportion on Se value, a generalized equation relating Se
with the composition of traffic stream and traffic volume has been developed using the multiple linear
regression analysis. Relative percentage of composition of big-car, LCV, bus and truck is considered
for developing the regression model. The mathematical form of the derived relationships using the
above analogy separately for interurban and urban expressways are given in Equations 4C.3 to 4C.6.
Interurban Expressways
For Level Section:
Equation 4C.3
For Upgrade Section:
Equation 4C.4
For Downgrade Section:
Equation 4C.5
Urban Expressways
Equation
4C.6
Where,
Se = Stream Equivalency Factor (SEF)
PBC = Proportion of Big Cars in the traffic stream
PLCV = Proportion of LCVs in the traffic stream
PBUS = Proportion of Buses in the traffic stream
PHCV = Proportion of Two / Three Axle Trucks in the traffic stream
PMAV = Proportion of Multi Axle Vehicles/Trucks in the traffic stream
P2W = Proportion of Two wheelers in the traffic stream
PAUTO = Proportion of Auto rickshaws in the traffic stream
n = Total flow in vehicles per hour
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 4D.1: Effect of Roadway Width on Free Flow Speed of different Vehicle Types
4D.2 GRADIENT
The presence of grade decreases free flow speed of an expressway segment. This may be
attributed to the vehicle operating capabilities like acceleration, deceleration and the ability to
maintain speed decreases with the increase in the gradient on the test sections. The gradient range
considered varied between +3.5 % upgrade to -3.5 % downgrade. Figure 4D.2 (vide nos. a, b, c, d, e
and f) illustrate the effect of gradient on free flow speeds of different vehicle types.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 4D.2: Effect of Gradient on Free Flow Speed of different Vehicle Types
Equation 4E.2
Where,
–
dt is the time differentiation.
L is the length of the section from u/s to d/s
U (t): Cumulative plot of volume at u/s
D (t): Cumulative plot of volume at d/s
𝜆: Time Period Interval
Equation 4E.4
Equation 4E.5
Where, q (A), k (A) and v (A) are flow, density and space mean speed for observed vehicles in
shaded region A as shown in Figure 4E.2.
t (A) is the total time spent by all vehicles in region A.
|𝐴| is the area covered by shaded region A.
For this method, two-dimensional (2D) time-space trajectory based data of every vehicle
is essential. However, due to limited facilities, it has been a challenge to obtain detailed vehicle
trajectories on Indian roadway infrastructure. In the present study, shaded area (region A) is
considered as rectangle with a side parallel to y-axis equal to trap length and x-axis as time interval.
LOS- A
LOS-B
Level of Service C: In LOS C, the flow is stable but
influence of traffic density starts on operations The ability
to manoeuvre within the traffic stream is somewhat
affected by other vehicles. Minor disruptions can cause
local deterioration in service.
LOS- C
Level of Service D: At LOS D, the traffic approaches
unstable flow and the ability to manoeuvre is restricted
due to traffic congestion Travel speed is reduced by
the increasing volume. Only minor disruptions can be
absorbed without extensive queues forming.
LOS-D
Level of Service E: LOS E represents operations at or near
capacity, an unstable level The densities vary depending
on the FFS. Vehicles are operating with the minimum
spacing for maintaining uniform flow. Disruptions cannot
be dissipated readily, often causing queues to form and
service to deteriorate to LOS F.
LOS-E
K- Factor
Team Members
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja
CONTRIBUTIONS OF STUDENTS
M.Tech Students pursued their Thesis @ CSIR - CRRI, New Delhi
Project Staff
Ms. J. Preethy Catherine Angela, Project Associate Mr. S. Suresh, Project Staff
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The team of CSIR - CRRI and Anna University (Chennai) would like to thank the following
organizations for permitting data collection and extending necessary help:
1. Joint Commissioner of Police, Delhi Traffic Police
2. Prof. V.T. Arasan, (Retired), IIT, Madras and Vice Chancellor, Vels University, Chennai
3. Dr S Ganesan, Vice Chancellor and Registrar, Anna University
4. Dr P Narayanasamy Dean CEG, Anna University
5. Dr K Ilamparuthy, Chairman Civil Engineering, Anna University and
6. Dr K Nagamani Head Department of Civil Engineering, Anna University
7. Study Team for this chapter would like to place on records essential technical inputs rendered
by Mr. A. Kalaanidhi, Assistant Professor, National Institute of Technology (NIT), Surathkal,
during his stint as Project Fellow at Anna University, Chennai from 2012 - 15.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Title
Number Number
Study Team i
Contributions of Students ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Figures vi
5.1 INTRODUCTION 1
REFERENCES 24
SUGGESTED READINGS 25
ANNEXURE 5A: VEHICLE TYPES ON INDIAN URBAN ROADS 26
ANNEXURE 5B: P
ARAMETERS FOR SELECTION OF BASE TEST SECTIONS OF
27
URBAN ROADS
ANNEXURE 5C: DATA COLLECTION STRATEGY 28
ANNEXURE 5D: DATA EXTRACTION METHOD ADOPTED 29
ANNEXURE 5E: DATA ANALYSIS 30
5E.1 Data Preparation 30
5E.2 PCU Estimation 30
5E.3 Determination of Stream Equivalency Factor (Se) 31
5E.4 Speed - Flow Relationship 31
5E.5 Development of Lane Capacity - Operating Speed Model 32
5E.6 Procedure to Determine Level of Service 32
5E.7 Adjustments for Friction Parameters 33
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Title
Number Number
5.1 Plot between flow in veh/hr and PCU/hr on Urban Roads 7
5.2 Methodology for the Determination of Capacity and LOS of Urban Roads 8
5.3 Speed - Flow Model for Two-lane Undivided Urban Roads 9
Speed - Flow Relationship for Four-lane Divided
5.4 10
Urban Roads (per direction)
Speed - Flow Relationship for Six-lane Divided Urban Roads
5.5 10
(per direction)
Speed - Flow Relationship for Eight-lane Divided
5.6 11
Urban Roads (per direction)
Speed - Flow Relationship for Ten-lane Divided
5.7 11
Urban Roads (per direction)
Relationship between Lane Capacity (PCUs/h/lane) and
5.8 13
Operating Speed
5C.1 Typical Layout of a Study Section 28
5C.2 Typical view of one of the Base Section Selected for Data Collection 28
5D.1 Screenshot of Software used for Data Extraction 29
5E.1 General shape of Speed-Flow Curve 32
5E.2 Data Collection Arrangement at Study Section with Roadside Friction 34
Typical Layout of Study Sections with various types of
5E.3 34
Roadside Friction
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Title
Number Number
5.1 Number of Test Sections considered across Varying Road Widths 1
5.2 Suggested PCU Values for Undivided and Divided Roads 5
5.3 Suggested PCU Values for Varying Widths of Urban Roads 6
Capacity and Recommended Design Service Volume of Base Sections
5.4 12
of Urban Roads
5.5 Lane Capacity of Divided Urban Roads based on Operating Speed 12
LOS of Two lane Undivided Urban roads based on Stream speed, V/C
5.6 14
Ratio and FFS
LOS of Multilane Divided Urban Roads based on Stream speed, V/C
5.7 14
Ratio and FFS
5.8 Typical Illustration of LOS of Urban Roads 14-15
On-street Parking Adjustment Factors based on
5.9 16
Length of Road Occupation
5.10 On-street Parking Adjustment Factors based on Manoeuvres per hour 16
5.11 Adjustment Factors for Impedance to Traffic Flow at Bus stops 17
5.12 Adjustment Factors due to Presence of Access Point 17
Observed Classified Traffic Flow on the Six Lane Divided Urban
5.13 18
Segment
Observed Classified Traffic Flow on the Eight Lane Divided Urban
5.14 20
Segment
5.15 Estimated Traffic Flow on the Proposed Corridor 21
5.16 Estimated Traffic Flow on the Four Lane Divided Urban Segment 22
Vehicle Types on the Urban Roads of India and their
5A.1 26
Average Dimensions
5B.1 Parameters for Selection of Base Test sections of Urban Roads 27
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ti time taken by ith vehicle to travel the trap length D
1/n total number of vehicles counted in the analysis period
TW Two Wheeler
AB Articulated Bus
Ac Plan Area of Car
ADV Animal Drawn Vehicle
AF Adjustment Factor
Ai Plan Area of Subject Vehicle
Auto Auto rickshaw
B Bus
BC Big Car
C Actual Capacity
C Bicycles
C0 Base Capacity for ideal condition (PCU/h)
CLane Capacity per lane of divided urban road
CY Cycle Rickshaw
ELD Eight-lane Divided
FAC Adjustment Factor for access point
FBS Adjustment Factor for Bus stops
FFS Free Flow Speed
FFS Free Flow Speed
FLD Four-lane Divided
FOP Adjustment Factor for On-street parking
LCV Light Commercial Vehicles
LOS Level of Service
MAT Multi Axle Trucks/Vehicles
MB Mini Bus
N Total volume in vehicles per hour
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Urban road is the one with a relatively high density of driveway access located in an urban
area and having traffic signals with a minimum spacing of one kilometer. The term ‘Urban Road
Segment’ refers to the length of road with control arrangements at both of its ends, i.e. the upstream
and downstream intersections are controlled intersections. This chapter describes the procedures
for calculation of capacity and performance measures of two lane undivided and four to ten lanes
divided urban roads in India for the given roadway, traffic and environmental conditions.
Table 5.1: Number of Test Sections considered across Varying Road Widths
[HCM, 2010]. Free Flow Speeds may be measured for a given vehicle when the traffic flow is
such that the time gap between two consecutive vehicles is more than 8 seconds.
• Flow Rate: It is a macroscopic flow parameter defined as a number of vehicles passing a point
in a given period of time. It is usually expressed as hourly flow rate.
• Jam Density: It refers to extreme density associated with completely stopped traffic flow.
• Lane Capacity: The traffic capacity of a lane of an urban road.
• Lane Configuration: Lane configuration of an urban road is defined as the total number of
lanes available for traffic movement.
• Level of Service (LOS): It is a quality measure describing the operational conditions within a
traffic stream, generally in terms of service measures such as speed and travel time, freedom
to manoeuvre, traffic interruption, comfort, and convenience. The LOS for basic roadway
segment is based on the traffic density expressed in Passenger Car Unit per kilometre (PCU/
km) and Vehicles per kilometre (vehicles/km).
• Occupancy: The physical area occupied by the vehicles on the road section relative to the
total road area available.
• Operating Speed: It is the speed at which drivers are observed to operate their vehicles
under Free Flow Speed (FFS) conditions.
• Passenger Car Unit: Passenger Car Unit (PCU) is a universally adopted unit used for capacity
analysis of a roadway system having heterogeneous traffic condition. The PCU value of a small
car is identified as one. The interaction of vehicles in the traffic stream is represented in terms
of Passenger Car Unit (PCU), which is the amount of impedance caused to flow of traffic by
other vehicle types (Refer Annexure 5A) in comparison with that of car.
• Peak Hour Factor: A ratio of the volume occurring during the peak hour to the peak rate
of flow during a given time period within the peak hour (typically, 1 hour, 15 minutes or 5
minutes).
• Prevailing Condition: The geometric, traffic and control conditions observed at the study
section.
• Space Mean Speed: The harmonic mean of vehicle spot speed observed over a road segment.
An average speed based on the average travel time of vehicle to traverse a segment of roadway.
• Service Flow Rate: The maximum rate of flow that can be maintained for the analysis period
under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
• Side friction Adjustment Factor: It is the factor which incorporates the effect of side friction
on the road capacity.
• Stream Equivalency Factor: It is the ratio of traffic volume in PCUs per hour to volume in
vehicles per hour
• Vehicle Headway: It is the elapsed time between the arrival of the leading vehicle and the
following vehicle at a designated test point.
• Volume: The number of vehicles passing an observation line expressed in vehicles per hour.
• Volume to Capacity Ratio: The ratio of flow rate to the capacity of a road segment.
• located at a distance of 500 meters from the upstream intersection and to ensure that vehicles
are in cruising mode.
The urban road section satisfying the above conditions is treated as base road section.
The parameters to be considered for classifying the road segment as base section is detailed in
Annexure 5B.
5.4 METHODOLOGY
The methodology to be adopted for determining the base capacity, Level of Service and
adjustment for friction factors has been formulated based on the various research studies [(Chandra
and Dhamaniya (2014), CHCM, (1999), CRRI, (1998), HCM, (2000), HCM, (2010), IHCM, (1993), IRC:
106, (1990)] and the same is presented in Figure 5.1. The analyst has the option of adopting the
PCU values and capacity of the urban road section by adopting values suggested in the manual or to
establish the same from field studies. The capacity of an urban road segment depends on the available
road width, presence of shoulder/kerb, presence of median, presence of access roads, parking on
roadside, presence of bus bay etc. The road available and presence/absence of median is considered
for classification of urban roads and the establishment of capacity. Based on the road typology like
divided road or undivided road, road width and presence of side friction and the category of friction,
the capacity values are to be used by the analyst from this chapter.
If the analyst wants to establish from field studies the classified traffic count, vehicular
composition and speed of vehicles at the test sections, the user can collect by videography or by
suitable techniques (Refer data collection strategy presented in Annexure 5C and data extraction
method described in Annexure 5D). PCU values for different vehicle types normally observed in Indian
cities / urban centers are given in the manual in the form of range of values and the median value. The
analyst can directly use the above PCU values or alternatively use the Stream Equivalency method
while establishing speed - flow relationship to determine capacity and suitable adjustment factors
if side frictions are prevailing at the considered road segments. Further, a relationship between lane
capacity and operating speed has been established by considering the varying widths of divided roads
together. Based on the above relationship, the analyst need to collect data of only the free speeds of
cars for the multi lane urban road sections considered during its analysis to derive the capacity of any
road segment.
Table 5.2: Suggested PCU Values for Undivided and Divided Roads
Two Lane
Four Lane Divided Six Lane Divided Eight Lane Divided Ten Lane Divided
Bidirectional
Vehicle Type
Range Median Range Median Range Median Range Median Range Median
Motorized Traffic
Two Wheeler 0.10 - 0.31 0.20 0.11 - 0.33 0.20 0.10 - 0.71 0.21 0.10 - 0.56 0.24 0.11 - 0.41 0.24
Autos 0.33 - 2.65 0.73 0.39 - 1.66 0.80 0.36 - 2.68 0.83 0.41 - 1.30 0.96 0.44 - 1.73 0.96
Car 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Bus 1.79 - 6.50 3.77 1.62 - 5.90 4.58 1.58 - 5.90 4.60 1.56 - 5.90 4.60 2.47 - 5.90 4.60
LCV 2.10 - 3.49 2.30 2.10 - 3.60 2.30 2.10 - 3.60 2.30 2.10 - 3.60 2.38 2.10 - 3.60 2.38
TAT 2.70 - 4.81 3.70 2.70 - 5.68 3.80 2.70 - 7.58 3.90 2.70 - 7.50 3.90 2.70 - 7.50 3.90
MAT - - 3.61 - 7.91 5.10 3.52 - 9.50 5.90 4.11 - 9.50 5.90 4.53 - 9.90 5.90
Tractor Trailer
- 4.50 3.38 - 7.43 5.38 3.73 - 6.39 5.47 3.85 - 7.31 5.88 - -
Non-Motorized Traffic
Combination
Bicycle 0.34 - 0.50 0.39 0.34 - 0.50 0.39 0.30 - 0.80 0.46 - - - -
Page 5 - 6
Urban Roads
Figure 5.1: Plot between flow in veh/hr and PCU/hr on Urban Roads
Stream Equivalency Factor models derived separately for divided and undivided roads are
presented in Equations 5.2 and 5.3.
For Divided Roads:
Se = 1 - 0.77*PTW – 0.28*PAuto + 0.53*PLCV + 2.60*PBus + 1.83*P HV - 0.66*PNMT + 12.71*(1/N)
Equation 5.2
For Undivided Roads:
Se = 1- 0.85*PTW - 0.31*PAuto + 0.60*PLCV + 3.09*PBus + 1.06*P HV - 1.30*PNMT - 1.29*(1/N)
Equation 5.3
Where,
Se = Stream Equivalency Factor
PTW = Percentage composition of Motorized Two-Wheelers
PAuto = Percentage composition of Motorized Three-Wheelers
PLCV = Percentage composition of Light Commercial Vehicles i.e LCV and Mini buses
PBus = Percentage composition of Buses
Figure 5.2: Methodology for the Determination of Capacity and LOS of Urban Roads
Page 5 - 8
Urban Roads
The derived capacity values are given in Table 5.4. The Design Service Volume (DSV) for the
above class and width of urban roads has been computed for LOS - C and presented in Table 5.6 and
Table 5.7 for the given V/C ratio ranges.
Figure 5.4: Speed-Flow Relationship for Four-lane Divided Urban Roads (per direction)
Figure 5.5: Speed-Flow Relationship for Six-lane Divided Urban Roads (per direction)
Figure 5.6: Speed-Flow Relationship for Eight-Lane Divided Urban Roads (per direction)
Figure 5.7: Speed-Flow Relationship for Ten-lane Divided Urban Roads (per direction)
Table 5.5: Lane Capacity of Divided Urban Roads based on Operating Speed
Figure 5.8: Relationship between Lane Capacity (PCUs/h/lane) and Operating Speed
As such, the operating speed is found to vary with the functional use as well as the presence
of roadside friction [Mohan and Rao (2015) and Chandra et. al., (2016)]. This indicates that if any two
candidate road sections located at different locations / cities possess the identical road width, the
functional characteristics of the urban road i.e. arterial road or sub arterial road or Collector Street
dictates the operating speed. Eventually, the capacity would be low under low operating speed and
higher under higher operating speed. The analyst based on the operating speed prevalent on the
study section can derive the capacity using the above model presented in Equation 5.4. This implies
that based on the above relationship, the analyst need to collect data on the free speeds of standard
cars only (minimum sample size of 100 numbers.) for the candidate divided road section considered
so as to derive capacity.
A typical representation of traffic flow for varying LOS on a typical multilane divided urban
road is presented in Table 5.8.
Represents operating conditions when traffic volumes
are at or close to the capacity level. The speeds are
reduced to a low, but relatively uniform value. Freedom
to maneuver within the traffic stream is extremely
difficult and is generally accomplished by forcing a
LOS E vehicle to give way to accommodate such manoeuver.
Level of comfort and convenience is extremely poor, and
driver’s frustration is generally high. Operations at this
level are usually unstable. Small increases in flow or
minor disturbances within the traffic stream will cause
breakdowns.
Represents zone of forced or breakdown flow. This
condition occurs when the amount of traffic approaching
a point exceeds the amount which can pass it. Queues form
behind such locations. Operations within the queue are
LOS F characterized by stop and go waves, which are extremely
unstable. Vehicles may progress at a reasonable speed
for several hundred meters and may then be required to
stop in a cyclic fashion. Due to high volumes, break-down
occurs, and long queues and delays result.
Table 5.9: On-street Parking Adjustment Factors based on Length of Road Occupation
Table 5.10: On-street Parking Adjustment Factors based on Manoeuvres per hour
Adjustment factors suggested in Table 5.8 are to be used when long term parking is observed
and the parking maneuvers are minimal, whereas the adjustment factors suggested in Table 5.9 are
to be used when short term parking is observed and the parking maneuvers are intense.
Table 5.11: Adjustment Factors for Impedance to Traffic Flow at Bus stops
PCU values are taken from Table 5.3 for 6 lane divided road.
Vehicle Type Flow (veh/h) PCU Value PCU/h
Motorized Traffic
Two Wheeler 1441 0.21 303
Auto rickshaw 379 0.83 315
Car 1985 1.00 1985
Mini Bus 44 2.16 101
Bus 56 4.60 258
Light Commercial Vehicle 15 2.30 35
Two / Three Axle Truck (TAT) 42 3.90 164
Non Motorized Traffic
Bicycles 21 0.46 10
Cycle Rickshaws 21 2.04 43
Total flow of the road section in PCUs
= (1441*0.21)+(379*0.83)+(1985*1)+(44*2.16)+(56*4.60)+(15*2.30)+
(42*3.90) + (21*0.46) + (21*2.04) = 3153 PCUs/h.
Bus 56 1.4
Bicycles 21 0.5
Example 5.5.2:
An eight-lane divided road, with signal spacing more than 1.5 km, carries a peak hourly flow
of 5987 vehicles in each direction carrying the traffic composition presented in Table 5.14.
Table 5.14: Observed Classified Traffic Flow on Eight Lane Divided Urban Segment
Determine the LOS of the road section if the section does not have any side friction.
Solution:
1. Estimation of Flow in PCUs: (using Dynamic PCU)
Adopting the appropriate PCU values provided in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2, the total flow of the
given 8 Lane Divided road segment is computed as given under:
Total flow of the road section in PCUs = (2640*0.24) + (858*0.96) + (2239*1) + (11*2.61) +
(81*4.60) +(120*2.38) + (10*3.90) + (12*5.90) + (16*5.88)
= 5228 PCUs/h.
Example 5.5.3
An urban road is to be constructed to cater to a peak hour one directional flow of 2131 vehicles
with the traffic composition presented in Table 5.15. The overall traffic is expected to grow at 6 % per
annum. Find the width of road required if the road section is to serve for a period of 5 years.
Solution:
1. Flow Estimation: (using Dynamic PCU)
PCU values are taken from Table 5.1 as the width of road is unknown. During the planning of
new road link, it is prudent to determine the required width of road. In this regard, PCU derived and
presented in Table 5.2 may be used to determine the requisite road width and typology.
Example 5.5.4
An urban four lane divided road is expected to carry 1068 vehicles per hour per direction
during the peak hours after 5 years. Estimate the additional traffic that can be diverted to the section
per direction for a desirable LOS ‘C’. The composition of the traffic is given in Table 5.16.
Table 5.16: Estimated Traffic Flow on the Four Lane Divided Urban Segment
Motorized Traffic
Auto 168
Car 236
Bus 58
Mini Bus 20
LCV 78
Bicycle 25
Cycle Rickshaw 12
Solution:
1. Estimation of Flow in PCUs: (using Dynamic PCUs)
PCU values are taken from Table 5.2 for four lane divided road.
Motorized Traffic
TAT 25 3.80 95
Bicycle 25 0.39 10
Flow anticipated after 5 years per direction=1459 PCUs/h. (vide Table 5.11)
Flow that can be carried for LOS C (Design Service Volume)=1890 PCUs/hr/direction (From Table 5.4)
Additional traffic that could be carried for desirable LOS ‘C’ = 1890-1457
= 433 PCUs/hr/direction
REFERENCES
1. A Mohan Rao, Arpita Chakraborty and Velmurugan. S, (2014), “Application of GIS for Identification
and Impact Evaluation of Road Side Friction Points on Urban Traffic Speeds” Indian Geo Spatial
Forum 2014, 05-07 February 2014, Hyderabad.
2. A Mohan Rao, Velmurugan.S, and Laxmi P., (2015), “Evaluation of Impact of Road Side Friction
on Capacity of Urban Arterials - A Case Study of Delhi”, A paper published and presented at the
World Conference on Transport Research (WCTR), Shanghai.
3. A. Mohan Rao and Ramachandra Rao. K., (2015), “Free speed modeling for urban arterials - a
case study on Delhi” by in the Periodica Polytechnica Transportation Engineering 43 (3) ISSN:
1587-3811, pp. 111-119.
4. Bhuyan, P.K. and Krishna Rao, K.V. (2010), “FCM Clustering Using GPS Data for Defining Level of
Service Criteria of Urban Streets in Indian Context” Transport Problems, 5(4).
5. Bhuyan, P.K. and Krishna Rao, K.V. (2011), “Defining Level of Service criteria of urban streets in
Indian context” European Transport Vol. 49, pp. 38-52.
6. Chandra, S. and Dhamaniya, A. (2014), “Capacity Drop of Urban Arterial due to a Kerbside Bus
Stop” ICSCI 2014 © ASCE India Section, Oct 17 - 18, 2014, Hitex, Hyderabad, Telengana, India.
7. CHCM (1999), “China Highway Capacity Manual” National Highway Project of the People’s
Republic of China.
8. CRRI (1988), “Capacity of Roads in Urban Areas”, A project sponsored by Ministry of Surface
Transport, Govt. of India.
9. Dave Darshan Dilip, A. Mohan Rao, S. Velmurugan, Manish P. Jain (2015), “Estimation of Dynamic
Passenger Car Units for Vehicles Plying on Urban Roads” 2015, 2015, RATE 2015, SVNIT
10. Dhamaniya, A. and Chandra, S. (2013), “Concept of Stream Equivalency Factor for Heterogeneous
Traffic on Urban Arterial Roads” Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, DOI: 10.1061/
TE.1943-5436.0000581
11. HCM. (2000), “HCM 2000: Highway Capacity Manual”, .Special Report No. 209, 4th Edition,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC, USA.
12. HCM. (2010), “HCM 2010: Highway Capacity Manual”, .Special Report No. 209, 5th Edition,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC, USA.
13. Gayathri H., Kalaanidhi S., Gunasekaran K., and Velmurugan S., (2015), “Capacity Estimation of
Urban Roads Carrying Mixed Traffic in Chennai”, National Conference on Transportation Young
Researchers Symposium (TYRES 2015), NIT Warangal.
14. IHCM (1993), “Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual”, Directorate General of Highways Ministry
of Public Works.
15. IRC: 106 (1990), “Guidelines for Guidelines for Capacity of Urban Roads in Plain Areas”, Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi.
16. Karl. Bang, (1995), “Impact of side friction on Speed - Flow Relationships for Rural and Urban
Highways”. Indonesian HCM Studies, SWEROAD Indonesia.
17. Patel, C.R. and Joshi, G.J. (2012), “Capacity and LOS for urban arterial road in India mixed traffic
condition” Transport Research Arena – Europe 2012, Procedia - Social and Behavioural Sciences
48 (2012) pp 527 – 534.
18. Satish Chandra, Kumar, V. and Sikdar, P. K., Dynamic (1995), “PCU and Estimation of Capacity of
Urban Roads”, Indian Highways, Volume 23(4), 1995, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
19. Satish Kumar, A. Mohan Rao, and Velmurugan. S, (2016), “Capacity estimation for Four lane ideal
urban roads in mixed traffic condition”, A paper presented and published at the International
Conference Transportation Planning Methodologies for Developing Countries (TPMDC),
Mumbai.
20. Satish Kumar, A. Mohan Rao, and Velmurugan. S, (2016), “Traffic operating speed modelling for
urban roads under heterogeneous traffic conditions” TPMDC 2016.
21. Umesh Shroff, A. Mohan Rao, and Velmurugan. S, (2014), “Estimation of Four Land urban Arterial
capacity”, A paper presented and published at the Colloquium on Transportation Systems
Engineering And Management May 12-13, 2014; NIT Calicut.
22. Umesh Shroff, A. Mohan Rao, S. Velmurugan, and C.S. R.K. Prasad (2014), “Characterization of
Heterogeneity for varying widths of Urban roads in India”, National Conference on Transportation
Young Researchers Symposium (TYRES 2014), NIT Warangal.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Bhuyan, P.K. and Krishna Rao, K.V. (2012),“Defining LOS criteria of urban streets using GPS
data: k-means and k-medoid clustering in the Indian context”, European Transport, DOI:
10.3846/16484142.2012.692354; Vol 27(2), pp. 149 - 157.
2. HCM. (1965), “HCM -1965, Highway Capacity Manual”, .Special Report No. 209, 2nd Edition,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
Table 5A.1: Vehicle Types on the Urban Roads of India and their Average Dimensions
Table 5B.1: Parameters for Selection of Base Test Sections of Urban Roads
Parameter Value Remarks
Classification is based on the width of the road rather than the
function of the road.
Undivided Roads
1. Roads with paved road width from 6.0 to 11 m –
However, covered only road widths greater than 7.0 m
in the Indo-HCM study due to time and resource issues.
Divided Roads
As per 1. Roads with 7.0 m wide paved road in each direction
Type of Road
Facility [Four-lane Divided (FLD)].
2. Roads with 10.5 m wide paved road in each direction
[Six-lane Divided (SLD)].
3. Roads with 14.0 m wide paved road in each direction
[Eight-lane Divided (ELD)]
4. Roads with 17.5 m wide paved road in each direction
[Ten-lane Divided (TeLD)]
Note: Minor variations in the widths up to ±0.5 m are permissible
Sight Distance >300 m 250 m to 300 m
Plain Up to 15m/km
15 - 25 m/km
Rolling
Terrain (No test sections selected under this category in Indo - HCM)
Mountainous > 25 m/km
and Steep (No test sections selected under this category in Indo - HCM)
Side Friction Low -
Road Side -
Negligible
Land use
Traffic Flow Split –
50/50 -
Undivided roads
Roughness < 3 IRI -
Traffic Control
Good Good Signs, Road Markings and Street lighting.
Devices
If paved Shoulder width is provided beyond the road edge with
1.5 m to
Shoulders delineation i.e. Road marking, the section is considered under
2.0 m
Adjustment Factor (AF) category only i.e. Non-Ideal.
No
At any distance from the upstream intersection, formation of
Traffic Condition Platooning
platooning should in no way affect the behaviour of traffic.
Effect
Data collection has been carried out at 57 urban mid-block sections through videographic
technique. The video camera installation has been done either on the adjacent high- rise buildings so
as to cover trap length of 60 to 75 metres of the mid-block section or alternatively using a pneumatic
mast (Fi7gure 5C.1 and Figure 5C.2). Traffic cones or adhesive tapes have been used to demarcate
the boundaries of the section i.e. trap length before the start of the survey. Subsequently, cones have
been removed to avoid the driver distraction. The video recording has been performed generally for
8 hours covering both morning and evening peak periods. The video data has been transferred to the
computer and the trap length has been demarcated with the aid of multimedia software for ease of
data extraction.
Figure 5C.2: Typical View of one of the Base Section Selected for Data Collection
Equation 5E.1
Where,
1/n is the total number of vehicles counted in the analysis period, and
ti is the time taken by ith vehicle to travel the trap length D.
Space Mean Speed (us) is calculated on the basis of the average travel time of N vehicles to traverse
the trap length ‘D’ using Equation 5E.2.
Equation 5E.2
SMS is related with TMS through the relationship based on the established literature given in
Equation 5E.3.
Equation 5E.3
Where,
Ut is the average TMS of a traffic stream
Us is the average SMS of a traffic stream.
s is the standard deviation of SMS.
In traffic flow analysis, it is prudent to use SMS only for the development of the relationship
between Speed - Flow and hence it is designated by letter ‘V’ in this manual and referred accordingly.
Moreover, density has been estimated by dividing the flow rate by space mean speed of traffic stream
during the corresponding time interval. The traffic parameters viz., flow rate, stream speed and
density have been computed for the total width of the road rather lane wise, as lane discipline is not
practiced/observed to the desired level in India.
PCU values for observed vehicle types have been determined for all 5 minute periods
considering the candidate road sections. It has been noted during the course of videography surveys
and analysis of the candidate study sections spread across the country that as far as urban roads are
concerned, the maneuverability and speed of small and big cars are quite similar despite the larger
size of the latter. Due to the observed phenomenon, it is felt prudent not to evolve separate PCUs for
Small (Standard Car) and Big Car. On the other hand, it has been decided to consider the cars together
by accounting for the weighted average area of small cars, and big cars (determined as 6.19 sq m)
based on their presence in the traffic stream for a given road section and this analogy, has been used
for the computation of dynamic PCUs for cars. The standard area used for the estimation of Passenger
Car Unit is already discussed in Table 5.A.1. The estimated dynamic PCU values for different road
types categorized based on the road width and observed traffic flows conforming to vehicle types are
furnished separately for Two-lane undivided, Four-lane divided, Six-lane divided, eight lanes and ten
lanes divided roads in Table 5.2 and Table 5.3 respectively in the main section of this chapter.
Equation 5E.5
As such, the Se factor proposed in the manual is related to traffic composition and volume on
the road and, is estimated through the regression analysis method. The inherent advantage of this
method is that it is simple to use and moreover it eliminates the need to deploy the PCU factors which
is a bone of contention due to their traffic heterogeneity observed on Indian roads. Consequently, a
generalized equation relating Se factor with the composition of traffic stream and traffic volume has
been formulated using the multiple linear regression methods.
The capacity of the roadway is achieved at the critical speed (VC) and is the maximum possible
flow rate at the section.
used in this study for the grouping of the data. The parameter such as average travel speed has been
employed in HCM (2000) whereas Chetan and Joshi, (2012) in their study used Volume by Capacity.
Stream speed is considered as the basic parameter for the estimation of LOS in the present study.
For calculating the Level of Service of urban roads, the Speed-Flow data of undivided and
divided sections of the urban roads have been taken at the aggregate level. The speed ranges have
been computed for each cluster. After getting the speed ranges, the Volume to capacity ratio has
been calculated. It divides the quality of traffic into six levels ranging from level A to level F. LOS A
represents the best quality of traffic where the driver has the freedom to drive with free flow speed
and LOS F represents the worst quality of traffic.
Figure 5E.2: Data Collection Arrangement at Study Sections with Side Friction
Figure 5E.3: Typical Layout of Study Sections with various Types of Roadside Friction
Sh. Subhash Chand, Principal Scientist, Work Package Leader, Prof. K.V. Krishna Rao, IIT
Traffic Engineering and Safety (TES) Division, CSIR – CRRI Bombay, RC
Team Members
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja
CONTRIBUTIONS OF STUDENTS
M.Tech Students pursued their Thesis @ CSIR - CRRI, New Delhi
M.Tech Students
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the following organizations for permitting data collection and support:
1. Director, P. N. Shidore Civil Engineers (I) Pvt. Ltd., Kalyan (W) 421301, Maharashtra – for their
services in the collection of topographic data of intersections.
2. Metropolitan Commissioner, Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA)
3. Managing Director, Maharashtra State Road Development Corporation Ltd. (MSRDC)
4. Municipal Commissioner, Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM)
5. Joint Commissionaire of Police, Mumbai Traffic Police (MTP)
6. Executive Engineer, MSRDC Ltd., Pune.
7. City Engineer, Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation (NMMC)
8. Executive Engineer, PWD, Satara Division. Mahabaleshwar
9. Chief General Manager and Regional Officer, Mumbai. National Highways Authority of India
(NHAI).
10. Joint Commissioner of Police, Traffic, New Delhi
11. Superintendent of Police, Traffic, NOIDA
12. Superintendent of Police, Traffic, Lucknow.
13. Last but the least, the tertiary contributions of the following Ph.D. students of IIT, Bombay
namely, Ms. Nidhi Goel, Ms. Suman Dash, Mr. Ayyanna Habal, Mr. Pabin Kumar Ashish, Ms.
Pushpa Choudhary, Mr. Bharat Kumar Pathivada, Mr. Jithin Raj, Mr. Suprabeet Dutta, Mr. Tushar
Choudhary and Mr. Sushma Prusty during data collection phase is gratefully acknowledged.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Title
Number Number
Study Team i
Contributions of Students ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Abbreviations ix
6.1 INTRODUCTION 1
6.5 METHODOLOGY 4
6.7.1 Capacity 12
REFERENCES 23
SUGGESTED READINGS 23
6G.1 Introduction 41
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Title
Number Number
6C.2 Relation between Unit Base Saturation Flow and Approach Width 30
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Title
Number Number
Average Bus blockage time based on land use type: User Perception
6G.1 41
Survey at Signalized Intersections
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Ci Capacity of movement group ‘i’ in PCU/hour
dA Average control delay of approach A (in sec/PCU)
di Average control delay for movement group ‘i’ (in sec/PCU)
ds Average stopped delay in seconds per PCU
fbb Adjustment factor for bus blockage due to curb side bus stop
Adjustment factor for blockage of through vehicles by standing right turning
fbr
vehicles waiting for their turn
Adjustment factor for initial surge of vehicles due to approach flare and
fis
anticipation effect
gi Effective green time for movement group ‘i’ (in seconds)
nB Number of buses stopping in an hour (in buses/hour)
ni Number of vehicles of type i crossing the stop line during the Count Interval ‘i’
nij Number of discharging vehicles of type ‘j’ in interval ‘i’
Pi Passenger Car Unit of vehicle type ‘i’
Qb Initial queue (in PCU) at the start of time period ‘T’
Prevailing (after adjustments) saturation flow of the movement group ‘i’ (in PCU/
SFi
hour)
tb Average blockage time (s) during green
TR Duration of Surge/ Anticipation Flow
TU Effective Green Time
Va Total number of arriving vehicles in PCU during the survey period
VA Volume on approach ‘A’
Vi Number of stopped vehicles (in PCU) seen at the end of Count Interval i
Vi Volume of the movement group ‘i’
Auto Auto Rickshaws
B Approach Flare Effect
C Capacity in PCUs/hour
CY_Time Overall Cycle time (in seconds)
D Average control delay (in sec per vehicle)
d1 Average uniform delay per vehicle
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Intersections are the critical points of any road network, where delay normally occurs due
to sharing of space and time between conflicting streams / movements of vehicles. Depending upon
the type of control employed at the intersection, hierarchically can be termed as uncontrolled, stop
controlled, roundabout, signalized, grade separated intersection i.e. flyover and interchange. This
chapter deals with the methodology devised for determination of capacity and Level of Service (LOS)
of signalized intersections. It is imperative to study the varying typologies of signalized intersections
to arrive at the capacity and LOS norms under different operating conditions.
Accordingly, this chapter describes the methodology for the estimation of saturation flow,
capacity, delay and LOS for varying typologies of signalized intersections. The models developed
deal primarily with fixed time isolated signal controlled intersections. The methodology considers
a variety of prevailing operating conditions such as traffic composition, flow movements, geometric
characteristics and signal settings at such intersections.
Using this methodology, the saturation flow and delay can be estimated for existing signalized
intersections or for a newly planned intersection. Moreover, in the case of existing signalized
intersections, the users have the option of either using the models developed for the estimation of
saturation flow and control delay or directly obtain these parameters through field measurement
procedures prescribed in this manual. Further, adjustment factors accounting for the ground
conditions existing at any non-base intersections are also proposed in the manual which can be used
to obtain the prevailing saturation flows and capacity.
• Clearance lost time: The time, in seconds, between signal phases during which an intersection
is not used by any traffic.
• Control delay (d): This is the average delay experienced by a vehicle due to the presence
of signal control. This includes stopped delay and the time lost due to queue move-up,
deceleration to stop and acceleration back to the desired speed. Control delay is expressed in
sec/vehicle or sec/PCU.
• Cycle (also signal cycle): One complete sequence of signal indications covering all phases.
• Cycle time (C): Duration of a cycle in seconds.
• Degree of Saturation (X): A measure of how much demand (volume) an approach is
experiencing compared to its capacity. It is the ratio of approach volume to approach capacity.
• Delay: Additional travel time (in sec) experienced by a vehicle to traverse through an
intersection.
• Discharge flow rate: The rate at which the vehicles in a movement group cross the stop line
during green interval. This is measured in PCU/h.
• Downstream: direction of flow of the traffic
• Green Time (G): Duration of time (in seconds) for which the signal indication is green for a
traffic movement.
• Effective Green Time (g): Green time minus the time lost at the beginning of green phase
when vehicles are still accelerating, plus the time gained by vehicles making use of the amber
period.
• Exclusive lane: An approach lane dedicated to a particular departure movement (typically
left-turn movement, through movement or right-turn movement).
• Fixed-time signal operation: A control mode of a signalized intersection in which the
sequence and duration of all signal indications (timing program) remains unchanged (from
one cycle to another).
• Flow Ratio (v/SF): Ratio of actual flow rate to saturation flow rate of a movement group.
• Interval: Duration of time during which all traffic signal indications remain constant
• Level of Service (LOS): A qualitative measure used to describe the operational condition of
a traffic facility.
• Lost Time (L): The time, in seconds, during which an intersection is not used effectively by
any movement; it is the sum of clearance lost time and start-up lost time.
• Movement Group: Any one or combination of through or right turning or left turning
movements at an intersection approach that are allowed in a shared operation in the same
phase. Movement group is treated as a separate entity by assigning appropriate effective
width of the approach for capacity and LOS analysis.
• Passenger Car Unit (PCU): The representation of a vehicle in equivalent units of standard
passenger car under specific roadway, traffic and control conditions.
• Phase: The part of the signal cycle allocated to any combination of traffic movements receiving
the right-of-way (green time) simultaneously
• Phase composition: The combination of vehicular, pedestrian and other movements, if any,
legally permitted during a phase.
• Phase sequence: The order in which the phases follow each other in a cycle.
• Queue: A line of vehicles waiting at the stop line for the green phase to be served by a signalized
intersection. Traffic moving slowly and joining the rear of the queue is usually considered as
part of the queue. The internal queue dynamics may involve a series of stops and starts.
• Queue Length: The number of vehicles in a queue, or the longitudinal distance which is
covered by the queue at the stop line of the approach of a signalized intersection.
• Saturation Flow Rate (SF): It is the steady state discharge rate of queued vehicles from an
approach at a signalized intersection with continuous green and an infinite queue. In practice,
it is measured as the maximum departure rate of queued vehicles from an approach during
the green interval measured at the stop line under prevailing conditions. It is expressed in
PCU/hour of green.
• Start-up lost time: The additional time, in seconds, consumed by the first few vehicles in a
queue at a signalized intersection because of the need to react to the initiation of the green
phase and to accelerate.
• Stopped Delay / Average Stopped Delay (ds): The time a vehicle is stopped in queue while
waiting to pass through the intersection. It begins when the vehicle is fully stopped and ends
when the vehicle begins to accelerate. Average stopped delay experienced by one flow unit i.e.
passenger car unit or vehicle during the analysis period can be calculated by dividing the total
stopped delay (of all flow units) by the number of flow units (passenger car units or vehicles)
and is reported in sec/PCU or sec/vehicle.
• Upstream: The direction from which traffic is coming.
approach arms of the intersections as well as by intercepting the respondents at the parking lots /
fuel stations located adjacent to the above 23 intersections selected for saturation flow and capacity
analysis.
6.5 METHODOLOGY
The methodology for the collection of field data (refer Annexure 6A) followed by the procedure
for the estimation of capacity and LOS analysis of isolated signalized intersections is shown in Figure
6.1. The analyst has the option of measuring the saturation flow in the field following the procedure
prescribed (refer Annexure 6B) or estimating the saturation flow using the model given in this
manual. Passenger Car Unit (PCU) values for converting the observed vehicle types into equivalent
passenger cars are provided in this manual.
The estimated base saturation flow is adjusted by applying adjustment factors to get the
saturation flow under prevailing geometric, traffic and control conditions. The capacity of each
approach and that of the overall intersection can then be calculated based on the saturation flow,
effective green time and the cycle time. Control delay is prescribed as the measure of effectiveness
for determining the level of service of signalized intersections. The analyst here again, has the option
of obtaining the control delay using the calibrated delay model given in this chapter or directly
obtaining the same through field measurement procedure prescribed in Annexure 6D. The stopped
delay measured in the field is converted into control delay using the prescribed conversion factors.
Figure 6.1: Methodology for Estimation of Capacity and LOS for a Signalized Intersection
near-side or far-side bus stop is located within 75 m from the stop line (upstream or downstream) on
the curbside lane hindering the discharging of vehicles from the approach.
Using this concept, the PCU values are obtained by minimizing the variation in saturation
flow of a given approach among several cycles. The details on the method of estimation of PCU and
saturation flow are presented in Annexure 6C. It has been observed that since the PCU of big car is
not significantly different from that of standard car i.e. cars up to 1400 cc at a signalized intersection,
the PCU of standard and big cars are not differentiated in this chapter. The PCU values to be used for
converting the volumes of all vehicle types into equivalent volume of passenger cars are presented
in Table 6.3. The data collected from significantly large signalized intersections of varying typologies
located in several cities of India are used in obtaining these PCU values. The standard deviation values
of the PCU values derived based on analysis of results obtained from several intersections are also
given in Table 6.3 which furnishes an idea about the range of their variation. The PCU values reported
in Table 6.3 are generally applicable, provided the proportion of buses and heavy commercial vehicles
is less than 15% each in the total traffic volume of the approach under consideration. Data on this
is needed to apply adjustment to the base saturation flow reflecting the effect of blockage to flow of
traffic by the buses stopping at the near-side or far-side kerb lane bus stop within 75 m vicinity of
the stop line of the approach (upstream / downstream). The data needed is the number of buses/h
stopping during the peak period which is collected from the field for an existing intersection and
estimated for the design and planning of a new intersection.
6.5.3.2 Presence or absence of approach flare and anticipated early movement resulting in
initial surge
The observed discharge pattern of vehicles during the green interval in most signalized
intersections in India does not conform to the theoretical discharge pattern. This is shown in Figure
6C.1 in Annexure 6C. The discharge rate during the first 5 seconds is found to be significantly higher
than the steady state discharge rate i.e. saturation flow. This is happening due to two reasons.
i) Smaller vehicles, such as motorized two wheelers and motorized three wheelers with high
manoeuvrability, occupying the flared space of the intersection-approach beyond stop
line in the intersection area and utilizing larger width of approach while discharging. This
phenomenon is termed as flare effect.
Table 6.3: Passenger Car Unit Values for Signalized Intersection
Vehicle Type Passenger Car Unit Standard Deviation
Motorized Traffic
Two Wheelers (TW) 0.4 0.16
Auto Rickshaws (Auto) 0.5 0.21
Passenger Cars 1.0 Base
Light Commercial Vehicle (LCV) 1.1 0.05
All Heavy Goods Vehicles (HCV) 1.6* 0.16
Bus* 1.6* 0.35
Non-Motorised Traffic
Bicycle 0.3 0.14
Cycle rickshaw 1.8 -**
Hand / Animal Drawn cart 4.0 -**
* PCU value is valid when proportion of all types of goods vehicles / bus is not more than 15 % of total traffic
volume emerging from an intersection approach.
** Not reported due to insufficient sample size.
ii) Early initiation of queue discharge in anticipation of the green initiation utilizing the
clearance time of the previous phase. This phenomenon is termed as anticipation effect.
This anticipation effect is found to be more pronounced due to the presence of countdown
timer in the signal head and the presence of familiar drivers. Considering this kind of driver
behaviour, adjustment factors are proposed to be applied to base saturation flow to account
for the additional discharge that is taking place due to surge effect and anticipation effect. The
details of these two phenomena are provided in Annexure 6G.
Exclusive Left-turn
+
2 Through and Right-turn shared 2
approach operation
Exclusive Left-turn
+
3 Through 3
+
Exclusive Right-turn
In shared operation, all the movements from an approach that are permitted in the same
phase and are in equilibrium need to be considered as one entity or movement group in the
analysis. The effective approach width available for this movement group needs to be used for the
computation of saturation flow for the group of movements. For example, as shown in S. No.1 in
Table 6.4, through and left-turn and right-turn movements are in shared operation from the approach
and are allowed in the same phase. These three movements are considered as one movement group,
and the corresponding volume used in analysis is the sum of the individual volumes of through, left-
turn and right-turn movements. The corresponding saturation flow would be obtained based on the
entire width of the approach across which the shared movements are discharging in equilibrium.
Further in S.No.2 of Table 6.4, only the through and right-turn movements are considered together
as one movement group and left-turn alone is considered as a separate entity as it operates from an
exclusive lane of the same approach. Moreover, in S.No.3 of Table 6.4, all the three movements are
considered as separate entities and effective widths are allocated for the determination of saturation
flow accordingly. The traffic, especially at the signalized intersections, being non-lane based this
kind of grouping of movements needs to be adopted in analysis of saturation flow. The critical flow
ratios i.e. volume to saturation flow ratios also needs to be worked out for each phase based on this
approach. In situations, where there is an exclusive phase for right turning traffic, but without an
exclusive right turn lane, during the green interval for the through movement on this approach, the
vehicles waiting for right-turn will block the through movement. In such cases, an adjustment factor
for reducing the saturation flow for the through vehicles is to be applied. The right-turn movement
needs to be analyzed by treating it as a separate entity and by finding the effective approach width
used by this right-turn movement.
6.5.4.2 Analysis Period
The analysis period, generally, is 15 minutes, i.e., T = 0.25 h. The traffic volume (or demand if
volume to capacity ratio is more than unity), for all the movements is to be measured during the peak
15-minute period and the same should be presented in the form of peak rate of flows (v) in PCU per
hour for capacity analysis. If the 15-minute data are not known, peak flow rate, v is estimated from
peak hour volume, V using appropriate peak hour factor (PHF).
Equation 6.2
Where,
USFO = Unit base saturation flow rate (in PCU / hour / m)
w = effective width of approach in meters (m).
The prevailing saturation flow of the intersection approach for the movement group under
consideration is then obtained as presented in Equation 6.3.
SF = w × USF0 × fbb × fbr × fis Equation 6.3
Where,
SF = Prevailing saturation flow rate in PCU/hour
w = effective width of the approach in ‘m’ used by the movement group
USF0 = Unit base saturation flow rate
fbb = Adjustment factor for bus blockage due to curbside bus stop
fbr = Adjustment factor for blockage of through vehicles by standing right turning vehicles
waiting for their turn.
fis = Adjustment factor for the initial surge of vehicles due to approach flare and anticipation
effect.
Instead of estimating the saturation flow using this model, for an existing intersection, analyst
has the option of measuring the saturation flow in the field. The measured saturation flow in vehicles/h
can be converted into PCU/h using the PCU values given in Table 6.3. The field measurement method
for determining saturation flow rate is given in Annexure 6B. No adjustment factors need to be
applied to the field measured saturation flow if the intersection considered is conforming to the base
conditions given in Section 6.3. On the other hand, adjustment factors are to be applied to the base
saturation flow for getting the prevailing saturation flow if the signalized intersection considered has
influence due to bus blockage, influence due to blockage by right turning traffic and also to account
for the influence initial surge due to flaring at the intersection or anticipation effects or both. The
details of these adjustment factors are discussed in the succeeding sections.
Equation 6.4
Where,
w = approach width in m,
tb = average blockage time (s) during green and
nB = number of buses stopping in an hour (buses/hour). If there are more than 200 buses
per hour, then should be limited to a practical value of 200.
The adjustment factor for bus blockage is adapted from HCM (2010) with appropriate
modifications. The average width of road section blocked by the buses is taken as 3 m and the value
of the average blockage time during green is taken as 18 seconds. This value is arrived at based on
reasonably large data of bus dwell times collected at various locations having different land use in
urban area. This factor is to be used only if the stops made by the buses at the intersections hinder the
discharge during green interval of the signal, otherwise the factor is taken as 1. Also in cases where
exclusive bus bays are present, the factor is taken as 1.
Equation 6.5
Where,
w = Approach width of the through movement, ‘m’.
wr = Width of approach in m along the median occupied by the standing vehicles waiting for
the exclusive right turn phase.
This factor is to be applied only if exclusive lanes are not present for the exclusive right turn
phase. if exclusive right turns lanes are present.
This factor is applicable to approaches which road width of 7 m or more.
Anticipation and
Green Time Only Only Approach Flare Effect
Approach Flare Effect
of Phase Anticipation
(seconds) Effect Low High Low High
(SR=1.15) (SR=1.35) (SR=1.15) (SR=1.35)
< 15 1.133 1.020 1.047 1.153 1.180
15 - 30 1.067 1.010 1.023 1.077 1.090
30 - 45 1.044 1.007 1.016 1.051 1.060
45 - 60 1.033 1.005 1.012 1.038 1.045
60 - 75 1.027 1.004 1.009 1.031 1.036
75 - 90 1.022 1.003 1.008 1.026 1.030
90 - 120 1.017 1.002 1.006 1.019 1.023
> 120 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Equation 6.6
Where,
Ci = capacity of movement group ‘i’ in PCU/hour,
SFi = Prevailing (after adjustments) saturation flow of the movement group (in PCU/hour),
gi = Effective green time for movement group ‘i’ (in seconds), and
Cy_Time = Overall Cycle time (in seconds).
Equation 6.7
Where,
Xi = Degree of saturation or volume to capacity ratio of movement group ‘i’
vi = Volume of movement group ‘i’
ci = capacity of movement group i (in PCU/hour),
SFi = Prevailing (after adjustments) saturation flow of the movement group (in PCU/hour),
gi = Effective green time for movement group ‘i’ (in seconds) and
CY_Time = Overall cycle time (in seconds).
The critical volume to capacity ratio of the intersection can be determined using Equation 6.8.
Equation 6.8
Where,
XI = critical volume to capacity ratio of intersection
= summation of flow ratios for all critical movement groups ‘i’
C = cycle length in seconds
L = Total lost time per cycle.
Equation 6.10
Equation 6.11
Equation 6.12
The parameters, ‘t’ and ‘u’ are determined from Equation 6.13 and 6.14.
Equation 6.13
Equation 6.14
Where,
g = effective green period (in seconds)
CY_Time = Overall Cycle time (in seconds)
T = Analysis period (in hours)
X = Degree of saturation
Qb = Initial Queue (in PCU) at the start of time period ‘T’
t = Duration of the demand met during the analysis period ‘T’ (in hours)
u = demand parameter
CSI = Capacity of the candidate signalized intersection (in PCUs/hour)
It is to be noted that none of the isolated signalized intersections used for calibration of delay
model in Equation 6.8 have initial queue delay component. The calibration resulted in an equivalent
progression adjustment factor of 0.9. The details of calibration of the model are given in Annexure
6E. The analyst can use Equation 6.8 for the estimation of control delay for a movement group i.e.
Through or Through + Left or Through + Left + Right or only Right as the case may be allowed in a phase
of an approach (entity) by substituting relevant parameters.
Equation 6.15
Where,
dA = Average control delay of a specific approach ‘A’ (in sec/PCU)
di = Average control delay for movement group ‘i, (in sec/PCU)
Vi = Volume of the movement group ‘i’
Intersection delay can be calculated as the weighted average of delay for each approach as
given in Equation 6.16.
Equation 6.16
Where,
di = Average control delay of a specific approach ‘A’ (in sec/PCU)
dA = Average control delay for movement group ‘i, (in sec/PCU) and
VA = Volume on approach ‘A’.
The analyst has the option of measuring the control delay in the field, instead of estimating
it using the above control delay model. The procedure of measurement of control delay in the field is
given in Annexure 6D.
corresponding control delay encountered are derived. Through this survey (refer Annexure 6F),
initially the most important factor(s) considered by the user for assessing the LOS provided by a
signalized intersection are obtained. As the time spent at the intersection waiting for the green signal
has been found to be the most important factors from this rating survey, use of control delay is taken
as an appropriate measure for arriving at the LOS. The users have been also asked to rate the LOS of
the intersection on a qualitative scale of excellent (A)/ very good (B)/ good (C)/ fair (D)/poor (E)/very
poor (F). The control delay and the corresponding Level of Service (LOS) thus evolved is presented in
Table 6.7. These LOS ranges have been arrived based on the above referred extensive user perception
survey. The analyst after computing the approach delay (vide Equation 6.15) and intersection delay
(vide Equation 6.16) can find the LOS at which an approach or the entire intersection is operating.
Table 6.8: LOS based on v/c Ratio Criteria for Signalized Intersections
LOS Volume - Capacity Ratio (v/c)
A < 0.45
B 0.46 - 0.75
C 0.76 - 0.95
D 0.96 - 1.05*
E 1.06 - 1.10*
F > 1.10*
*This needs to be interpreted as demand - capacity ratio
Details SB WB NB EB
Approach Width, w (m) 7 7 7 7
Demand Volume, PCU/h 935 856 756 587
PHF 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
842 770 680 528
Peak Hour Volume, PCU/h
(0.9 x 935) (0.9 x 856) (0.9 x 756) (0.9 x 587)
Presence/absence of exclusive lanes
Absent Absent Absent Absent
for an exclusive right phase
Presence/absence of Bus bays Absent Absent Absent Absent
Number of buses stopping at
0 45 112 0
intersections, nB (buses/h)
Details SB WB NB EB
Initial Surge Present Absent Absent Absent
(A) Anticipation effect Present Absent Absent Absent
(B) Approach Flare Effect Absent Absent Absent Absent
(C) Surge Ratio 1.15 - - -
Phase Number Phase Movement Green Time (sec) Amber Time (sec)
1 25 3
2 25 3
3 25 3
4 25 3
Solution:
Capacity Estimation
The capacity of the approaches is estimated after determining the saturation flow and
capacity model by using the relevant equations given in the above sections. Accordingly, the estimated
saturation flow and the capacity of intersection approaches are presented in Table 6.11.
Approach - SB - - WB - - NB - - EB -
Approach Width, w - 7 - - 7 - - 7 - - 7 -
Adjustment factors
for bus blockage due
to downstream bus - 1 - - 0.903 - - 0.760 - - 1 -
stops, fbb
(Ref. Equation 6.4)
Adjustment factors
for blockage by right
turning vehicles in
- 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 -
case of exclusive right
turns, fbr
(Ref. Equation 6.5)
Adjusted saturation
flow rate in PCU/hour
- 5378 - - 4551 - - 3830 - - 5040 -
/m, SFadjusted
(Ref. Equation 6.3)
Capacity in PCU/hour,
- 1056 - - 895 - - 752 - - 990 -
(Ref. Equation 6.6)
6.10.2 E
stimation of Capacity of an Intersection with Exclusive Right
Phase
The following section gives an illustration of the estimation of capacity at a typical major
- minor urban road signalized intersection. North Bound to South Bound (NB - SB) road is the
major road while the East Bound to West Bound (EB - WB) is the minor road. The line sketch of the
intersection and the phase movements is shown in Figure 6.3. The details of the approaches of the
intersection are given in Table 6.13 and Table 6.14. The analysis period is 15 minutes. The proportion
of vehicles turning right is 7 % and 10 % in NB and SB directions respectively.
Table 6.13: Geometric, Traffic and Control Characteristics of the Candidate Intersection
Details SB WB NB EB
Approach Width, w (m) 10.5 7 10.5 7
Demand Volume, PCU/h 1456 795 1250 658
PHF 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Peak Hour Volume, PCU/h 1310 716 1125 592
Presence/absence of
exclusive lanes for an Present Absent Present Absent
exclusive right phase
Proportion of Right Turn 0.2 - 0.22 -
Presence/absence of bus
Absent Absent Present Present
bays
Number of buses stopping
at intersections, nB 0 145 97 150
(buses/h)
Initial surge Absent Present Absent Present
Anticipation effect (A) Absent Present Absent Present
Approach Flare Effect (B) Absent Absent Absent Present
Surge Ratio (C) - 1.35 - 1.35
1 25 3
2 45 3
3 25 3
4 15 3
Determine the capacity of the above Intersection having exclusive right turning phase.
Solution:
The capacity of the approaches is estimated using the saturating flow and capacity model
given in Section 6.9.1. The calculations and the results are presented in Table 6.15.
Approach - EB - SB NB - - WB - SB NB -
Approach Width, w
- 7 - 10.5 10.5 - - 7 - 3.5 3.5 -
(m)
Adjustment factors
for bus blockage due
to downstream bus - 0.792 - 1 1 - - 0.756 - 1 1 -
stops, fbb
(Ref. Equation 6.4)
Adjustment factors
for blockage by right
turning vehicles in
- 1 - 0.762 0.762 - - 1 - 1 1 -
case of exclusive
right turns, fbr
(Ref. Equation 6.5)
Adjustment factor
for initial 5-second
- 1.067 - 1 1 - - 1.090 - 1 1 -
surge of vehicles, fis
(Ref. Table 6.5)
Adjusted saturation
flow rate in PCU/h
- 4260 - 4080 4080 - - 4152 - 1575 1575 -
/m, SFadjusted
(Ref. Equation 6.3)
Capacity in PCU/h, c
- 852 - 1558 1558 - - 830 - 172 172 -
(Ref. Equation 6.6)
* Approach width taken considering exclusive right turn and given percentage of right turning traffic.
REFERENCES
1. HCM (2000) “HCM 2000: Highway Capacity Manual”, Special Report No. 209, 4th Edition,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
2. HCM (2010) “HCM 2010: Highway Capacity Manual”, Special Report No. 209, 5th Edition,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
3. IRC: SP-41 (1994) “Guidelines for Design of At-Grade Intersections in Rural and Urban Areas”,
Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
4. Majhi, R. C., (2014). “Saturation Flow Modelling using Dynamic Passenger Car Unit under Mixed
Traffic Condition”, Unpublished Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Technology (Transportation Systems Engineering), IIT (Bombay)
Mumbai, India.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Akçelik, R., and Rouphail, N.M., (1993). “Estimation of delays at traffic signals for variable
demand conditions”, Transportation Research Part B, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 109-131.
2. Alam, J. B., Osra, K. A., Al-Bar, H. O., and Zahran, S. Z., (2011). “Signalized Intersection Capacity
Adjustment Factors for Makkah, Saudi Arabia”, Canadian journal of Transportation, Vol. 4, Part
1, pp. 56 - 61.
3. Bhuyan, P.K and Krishna Rao, K.V. (2011), “Application of GPS and Clustering Techniques in
defining LOS Criteria of Signalized Intersections for Indian Cities”, Highway Research Journal,
Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi. Volume 4. Number - 1. pp. 69 - 75.
4. Canadian Institute of Transportation Engineers (2008), “Canadian Capacity Guide for Signalized
Intersections (CCG)”, Third Edition, Canada.
5. Directorate General of Highways, Ministry of Public Works (1993), Indonesian Highway Capacity
Manual.
6. Fambro, D., and Rouphail, N. (1997). “Generalized Delay Model for Signalized Intersections and
Arterial Streets”, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
Vol. 1572, pp. 112 - 121.
7. Hadiuzzaman, M., Rahman, M. M., and Karim, M. A., (2008). “Saturation Flow Model at Signalized
Intersection for Non-lane Based Traffic”, Canadian Journal of Transportation Vol. 2, Part 1, pp.
78 - 90.
8. Kebab, W., and Dixon, M., (2006) “Field Measurement of Delay at Signalized Intersection”,
National Institute for Advanced Transportation Technology, University of Idaho, Moscow.
9. Mousa, R., (2002). “Analysis and Modelling of Measured Delays at Isolated Signalized
Intersections”, Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 128, No. 4, pp. 347 - 354.
10. Quiroga, C.A., and Bullock, D., (1999). “Measuring control delay at signalized intersections”,
Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol.125, No. 4, pp. 271-81.
11. Radhakrishnan, P., and Mathew, T. V., (2009). “Passenger car units and saturation flow models
for highly heterogeneous traffic at urban signalized intersections”, Transportmetrica, Vol. 7, No.
2, pp. 141 - 162.
12. Shao, C., Rong, J., and Liu, X., (2011). “Study on the saturation flow rate and its influence factors
at signalized intersections in China”, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences, Vol. 16, pp. 504
– 514.
13. Susilo, B. H., and Solihin, Y., (2011). “Modification of Saturation Flow Formula by Width of Road
Approach”, Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 16, pp. 620 - 629.
14. Turner, J., and Harahap, G., (1993) “Simplified Saturation Flow Data Collection Methods”,
Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), Technical Paper, PA 1292/93.
The traffic data is extracted by playing these recorded videos. The extracted traffic data is
analyzed for obtaining the needed traffic parameters for carrying out capacity and LOS analysis.
Equation 6B.1
Where,
S = Flow in PCU per hour crossing the stop line
ni = Number of vehicles of type i crossing the stop line during the Count Interval (CI)
Pi = Passenger car unit of Vehicle Type ‘i’ (Ref. Table 6.3)
CI = Count Interval (in seconds)
Saturation Flow (SF) under prevailing conditions is worked out as given in Equation 6B.2:
Equation 6B.2
Where,
SF = Field measured saturation flow under prevailing conditions
∑S = sum of all values of S excluding the values where obstructions were reported but including
startup values (values in first count interval of green in each cycle) if surge conditions were
reported. Startup values are not included if there were no surge conditions reported.
Ne = N – N0 NI Number of count intervals excluding the ones during which obstructions were
reported
Where,
N = total number of count intervals over all cycles of measurement
NO = Number of count intervals during which obstructions were reported
NI = Number of startup count intervals. Intervals with surge flow are added and intervals with
no surge flow are subtracted.
Table 6B.1: Sample Data Sheet for Field Measurement of Saturation Flow
Flow in
Remarks
Cycle No.
Hand/ Animal
Two Wheeler
PCU/h
Bicycle (n7)
Autos (n3)
HCV (n5)
LCV (n4)
Bus (n6)
Interval
5s Time
Car (n1)
(ni×pi×
(n2)
(n8)
720)
1 1 5 3 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 6070 Surge
1 2 6 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 5465
1 3 6 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 5443
1 4 3 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 4680 Obstruction
1 5 4 3 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 5558
1 6 5 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 5566
2 1 5 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 6343 Surge
2 2 4 3 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 5386
2 3 3 3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 5227
2 4 4 2 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 5350
2 5 6 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 5105 Obstruction
2 6 5 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 5436
3 1 5 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 6343 Surge
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Note: The average of all the flow values excluding the ones with obstruction but including the ones with
surge is the field observed saturation flow. If initial surge is not present, the first interval in each cycle
should be omitted while computing the average.
Subject to
Pj min ≤ Pj ≤ Pj max and
S min ≤ S ≤ Smax
Where,
S = Number of discharging vehicles (in PCU) in each saturated interval at constant saturation
flow
The relation obtained between unit base saturation flow and the approach width is as shown
in Figure 6C.2.
Figure 6C.2: Relation between Unit Base Saturation Flow and Approach Width
The relation obtained for the unit saturation flow of the base intersections is as given in
Equation 6.2.
USF0 = – 60.506 * width + 1137.6 Equation 6C.2
≈ – 60 * width + 1140
As the approach widths of intersections considered in this study range between 7 m and 10.5
m, the above relation is valid only between these widths. For widths less than 7 m and more than
10.5 m, a constant USF0 has been proposed as given in Equation 6.1.The saturation flows measured
for non-base intersections have been compared with the base saturation flows and the adjustment
factors have been derived for each of the conditions different from that of base intersection in this
manual. The details of these adjustment factors are given in Annexure G.
Equation 6D.1
Where,
ds = Average stopped delay in seconds per PCU
CI = count interval in seconds
Vi = Number of stopped vehicles in PCU seen at the end of count interval i
Va = Total number of arriving vehicles in PCU during the survey period.
0.9 is the empirical correction factor that accounts for the over estimation error in this method.
The estimated stopped delay is converted to control delay using a multiplicative conversion
factor arrived at as detailed in Annexure 6E. This factor accounts for the delay due to acceleration
and deceleration of the vehicles. The control delay is computed using this conversion factor as per
Equation 6D.2.
d = 1.19 × ds Equation 6D.2
Where,
d = Control delay in seconds per PCU
ds = Stopped delay in seconds per PCU
• The time the vehicle will take to cover the same distance if moving at the average speed is
calculated (t5).
• The time difference (t4-t1) gives the time taken to regain the average speed. The time difference
(t4-t1)-t5 gives the control delay.
• The time for which the vehicle is actually stopped due to control device, stopped delay (t3 – t2)
is noted.
• The ratio of control delay to stopped delay gives the stopped delay to control delay conversion
factor.
The observations with difference between control delay and stopped delay less than 6 seconds
can be omitted as these observations pertain to aggressive driving behaviour of high order.
Equation 6E.2
Equation 6E.3
Equation 6E.4
Where,
g is the effective green period in seconds
C is the cycle time in seconds
T is the analysis period in hours
The parameters t and u are determined from the equations Equation 6E.5 and Equation 6E.6.
Equation 6E.5
Equation 6E.6
This focuses on under saturated signals; initial queues do not exist for such conditions. It
is to be noted that none of the isolated signalized intersections used for calibration of delay model
in Equation 6.8 have initial queue delay component. The delay model is calibrated to estimate the
value of PF. The calibration resulted in an equivalent progression adjustment factor of 0.9. Hence, the
modified delay equation is shown in Equation 6E.7.
d = 0.9 d1 + d2 + 0 Equation 6E.7
Where,
d is the average control delay in sec/vehicle,
d1 is the average uniform delay per vehicle,
d2 is the average incremental delay per vehicle.
The average uniform delay and average incremental delay are presented in Equations 6E.8
and 6E.9.
Equation 6E.8
Equation 6E.9
Where,
T is the analysis period in hours,
g is the effective green period in seconds,
C is the cycle time in seconds,
X is the degree of saturation in PCU/hour,
c is the capacity in PCU/hour.
Figure 6E.2 shows the relation between the observed delay values and the delay model
estimates.
1. Rate the following factors according to their importance in influencing the quality rating of a
signalized intersection in 1-5 scale (1-indicates less influencing, 5-indicates highly influencing).
1 2 3 4 5
Waiting time at signal
Exclusive right turn lanes
Road surface quality
Visibility of traffic signals from queue
Clear/legible signs and road markings
Presence of heavy vehicles
Presence of pedestrians
Obstructions (parked vehicles, bus stops etc.)
Scenery/Aesthetics
2. Please give tick mark for the following attributes pertaining to the intersection approach
being used by you.
A B C D E F
Excellent Very good Good Fair Poor Very poor
Thank you for taking out your valuable time to answer these questions.
Through this user perception survey, initially the most important factors considered by the
user for assessing the quality of service provided by a signalized intersection are obtained. As the
time spent at the intersection waiting for the green signal was found to be the most important factors
from this rating survey, use of control delay is an appropriate measure for arriving at the LOS. The
users were also asked to rate the LOS of the intersection on a qualitative scale of excellent (A)/ very
good (B)/ good (C)/ fair (D)/poor (E)/very poor (F). The observed distribution of the perceived
waiting time into each LOS category based on the number of responses obtained is shown in Figure
6F.1.
Based on the opinion sought from the experts and from field observation, it is observed that
the perceived waiting time is 1.8 times that of actual waiting time. Based on the user ratings collected
over large number of study intersections and their corresponding control delay, the ranges are
worked out are given in Table 6.7.
Table 6G.1: Average Bus blockage time based on land use type
Equation 6G.1
Where,
SR = surge ratio,
SFR = Surge flow rate during initial time and
SFU = Uniform saturation flow rate achieved after the initial surge.
The adjustment factors for flare effect and anticipation effect are worked out by approximating
the area under the discharge profile with rectangles. As per Figure 6G.1, the number of vehicles
discharged (Ns) during a saturated green phase considering the surge effect can be computed as the
area under both the rectangles as given in Figure 6G.1 and vide the following equations (namely,
Equations 6G.2, 6G.3, 6G.4 and 6G.5).
Figure 6G.1: Discharge Profile during Green with Initial Surge of Vehicles
Equation 6G.2
Where,
TU = effective green time, and
TR = duration of surge/anticipation flow
As in the analysis, we use only effective green time, the saturation flow needs to be adjusted
by a factor to get the discharged vehicles as , thus:
Equation 6G.3
Equation 6G.4
Equation 6G.5
Where,
fIS = Adjustment factor for initial surge.
Equation 6G.2 is applicable when there is both flare effect and anticipation effect. When there
is only anticipation effect and there is no flare effect, takes a value of 1.
If only flare effect is seen at an approach and there is no anticipation effect, the adjustment
factor is given by Equation 6G.6.
Equation 6G.6
The adjustment factors given in Section 6.5.3 are derived for various possible situations
arising in the field.
Team Members
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja, CSIR – CRRI, New Delhi
Sh. Manish Kumar, SPA, New Delhi
CONTRIBUTIONS OF STUDENTS
M.Tech Students pursued their Thesis @ CSIR - CRRI and SPA, New Delhi
Ph.D. Students
Ammu G. (ongoing)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the following organizations for permitting data collection and support:
1. Joint Commissioner of Police, Traffic, New Delhi
2. Superintendent of Police, Traffic, NOIDA
3. Superintendent of Police, Traffic, Lucknow
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Title
Number Number
Study Team i
Contributions of Students ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Figures vi
7.1 INTRODUCTION 1
7.4 METHODOLOGY 7
REFERENCES 20
SUGGESTED READINGS 20
7A.2 Retrieval of Gap Data from Video and Data Entry Sheet 21
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Title
Number Number
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Title
Number Number
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Ai Accepted gap of the ith entering vehicle (seconds)
Cr Roundabout Capacity
Ɵ Angle of Conflict
Qc Circulating Flow
Qc Circulating Flow (in PCU/h)
Qc1 Circulating Flow Section1
Qe Entry Flow
Qe1 Entry Flow from Arm 1
QWBL Volume entering from west bound and leaving towards Left
QWBR Volume entering from west bound and leaving right
QWBS Volume entering from west bound and leaving straight
QWBU Volume entering from west bound and taking turn
Ri Speed reduction ratio due to different conflict angles
Tc Critical Gap
Additional width due to geometrics of the roundabout of the vehicle type i and
Xi and Xc
car.
Auto Auto rickshaws (Three and Four Wheeled Rickshaws including e-rickshaws)
CY Cycles
TW Two Wheelers
7.1 INTRODUCTION
At grade intersections are the critical points of a road network where delay normally occurs
due to sharing of space and time between conflicting streams / movements of vehicles. Depending
upon the type of control employed, intersections can be termed as uncontrolled intersections,
stop-controlled intersections, roundabouts, signal controlled / signalized intersections and grade
separated intersections or interchanges. It is necessary to study them to arrive at various capacity and
Level of Service (LOS) norms under different operating conditions. This chapter presents concepts
and procedures for estimating the capacity and LOS of Roundabouts.
A roundabout is a specialized form of at-grade intersection where vehicles from the converging
arms are forced to move round a central island in one direction in an orderly and regimented manner
and move/weave out of the roundabout into their desired direction. In a conventional roundabout,
traffic at entry seek suitable gap in the circulating stream to negotiate at the roundabout.
Roundabouts are categorized according to size and environment to facilitate analysis of
specific performance or design issues. There are three basic categories based on environment,
number of lanes and size.
• Mini Roundabouts
• Single Lane Roundabouts
• Multilane Roundabouts
as pedestrian friendly due to short crossing distances coupled with low speed of vehicles on each
of the entry and exit approaches. A fully traversable central island is provided to accommodate
large vehicles and it serves as one of the distinguishing features of a mini roundabout. It is basically
designed to accommodate passenger cars without requiring them to traverse over the central island
accompanied by the basic philosophy of applicable for the roundabouts so as to provide ‘priority
to circulating traffic from the right’. Vehicles entering the roundabout must give way to vehicles
approaching from the right, circulating the central island. The capacity and LOS estimation of mini
roundabouts has not been dealt within this manual due to non-availability of such roundabouts to
study the traffic characteristics in Indian cities.
speeds at the entry on the circulatory roadway and at the exit are similar or may be slightly higher
than those for the single lane roundabouts. The geometric design will include raised splitter islands,
truck apron, a non-traversable central-island and appropriate entry path deflection.
• Central Island: It is the raised portion around which the vehicles move to negotiate to their
respective destination arm. The basic function of the central island is to convert the direct
conflict points into angular conflict points or reduce severity of conflict points .It is also meant
for providing proper turning radius to the vehicle.
• Entry Radius: It is radius of curvature provided at entry arm so that vehicle entering from
approach arm decelerates and enters the roundabout at designated speed range.
• Entry Width: The entry width is defined as the width of the carriageway at the entry of the
roundabout. It is the distance from the edge of deflecting island to edge of inscribed circle
diameter.
• Exit Angle: It is the angle by which traffic is deflected from the weaving section towards exit
of the roundabout.
• Exit Radius: It is the radius of curvature provided at exit side of the roundabout so that
vehicle from roundabout is accelerated to leave the roundabout.
• Exit Width: It is width of carriageway from edge of deflecting island to edge of inscribed
circle diameter, at the exit side of the roundabout.
• Inscribed Circle Diameter: The inscribed circle diameter is the basic parameter used to
define the size of a roundabout. It is measured between the outer edges of the circulatory
roadway.
• Non-Weaving Width: It is the width of the carriageway used by the circulating traffic. It can
also be defined as the width of the road from the edge of the central island to the deflecting
island.
• Splitter or Deflecting Island: A kerbed island and associated road markings on the
carriageway, located between an entry and exit on the same roundabout arm and shaped
so as to direct and also separate opposing traffic movements onto and from a roundabout
circulatory carriageway.
• Truck Apron: A slightly raised circular paved path along the circumference of the central
island, which help long vehicles turn safely through the roundabout.
• Weaving Length: It is the length of the weaving section.
• Weaving Section: It is the road space used by the traffic where the merging and diverging
of traffic takes place within the roundabout. It can also be defined as the space where the
traffic coming from the approach arm enters and traffic coming from non-weaving section
also enters.
• Weaving Width: It is the width of the carriageway of the weaving section.
Qc = Circulating Flow
Qe = Entry Flow
7.4 METHODOLOGY
The methodology can be applied to three analysis levels for an isolated roundabout
intersection. They are used at operational, design and planning level. The operation level requires
detailed information about the geometric, traffic and control conditions. Design level requires the
information regarding the traffic condition and desired LOS. Planning level of analysis requires
fundamental data and all other input parameters are substituted with the default values. The overview
of the methodology is shown in Figure 7.7.
Table 7.2: Notation used for Entry Flow and Circulating Flow of Roundabout Approaches
The vehicle types considered in this chapter are listed in Table 7.3:
1
s the candidate roundabouts have been considered in typical urban areas in various cities, the proportion of
A
heavy goods vehicles has been found to be negligible and hence combined with buses.
Table 7.5: Critical Gap and Follow-up Time for different diameters of Roundabouts
Figure 7.9: Relationship Between Approach Traffic Flow and Average Vehicular Delay
As mentioned earlier, based on the observed overall vehicular delay at roundabout and
prevailing traffic flow, LOS has been established by using clustering technique to represent the quality
of traffic flow on roundabout. Accordingly, LOS for the roundabout is given in Table 7.7. If the volume
to capacity v/c ratio of a lane exceeds 1.0, regardless of the delay, the LOS of the roundabout is defined
as LOS- F.
Table 7.7: Level of Service based on Overall Vehicular Delay
LOS Average Delay ‘d’ per Vehicle (Sec)
A <5
B 6 ≤ d < 15
C 16 ≤ d < 20
D 21 ≤ d < 35
E 36 ≤ d < 65
F > 65
Solution:
Step 1: Conversion of traffic flow to flow in Passenger Car Units
Arm wise and section wise traffic volume data should be converted into PCU/h.
a) Selection of PCU Values
By using the PCU values for different modes presented in Table 7.4 (vide the diameter range),
the above roundabout falls in the range of 50m -70m and accordingly, Table 7.9 present the PCU
values considered.
PCU
Entry Capacity
(in PCU/h)
Arm 1 C1 2426
Arm 2 C2 1868
Arm 3 C3 2676
Arm 4 C4 2089
Capacity Combinations
Maximum 5620
Roundabout capacity is the maximum of all four combinations of capacities, i.e. 5620 PCU/h.
Step 3: Level of Service Estimation
Section 7.7 gives the LOS equation as y= 0.8*e0.001x for the above typology of roundabout. By
substituting the total approach volume of 4417 veh/h in place of x (from Table 7.8), vehicular delay,
‘y’ is derived at Equation 7.6 as follows:
y = 0.8*e 0.001*4417 = 66.28 seconds Equation 7.6
From Table 7.7, it can be inferred that the delay of 66.28 seconds falls in the range of more
than 65 seconds denoting the existence of LOS-F at the roundabout considered. This implies urgent
measures need to be undertaken for its improvement.
Light
Small Big Heavy Two Three
Total Commercial
Cars Cars Vehicles Wheelers Wheelers
Vehicle
Light
Small Big Heavy Two Three
Total Commercial
Cars Cars Vehicles Wheelers Wheelers
Vehicle
Circulating
464 230 111 18 35 41 29
Section1(Qc1)
Circulating
1100 592 188 21 109 86 105
Section2(Qc2)
Circulating
215 106 50 11 16 19 13
Section3(Qc3)
Circulating
874 400 182 38 90 96 69
Section4(Qc4)
Entry Capacity
(in PCU/hr)
Arm 1 C1 2350
Arm 2 C2 1793
Arm 3 C3 2602
Arm 4 C4 2013
f) Estimation of Roundabout Capacity Cr
Roundabout capacity is defined as the maximum of the summation of entry capacity of one
arm and the entry flow of the other three arms as expressed in Table 7.17.
Capacity Combinations
Cr1= C1+Qe2+ Qe3+ Qe4 2543+512+895+472 4229
Cr2= Qe1 +C2+ Qe3+ Qe4 1077+2144+895+472 4312
Cr3= Qe1+ Qe2+C3+ Qe4 1077+512+2733+472 4663
Cr4= Qe1+ Qe2+ Qe3+C4 1077+512+895+2258 4573
Maximum 4663
Roundabout capacity is the maximum of all four combinations of capacities, i.e. 4663 PCUs/h.
Step 3: Level of Service Estimation
Section 7.7 gives the LOS equation as y= 0.8*e0.001x for the above roundabout. By substituting
the total approach volume as 3150 PCU/h in place of x from Table 7.8, vehicular delay, ‘y’ is derived
at Equation 7.8 as follows:
y = 0.8*e 0.001*3150=18.67 seconds Equation 7.8
From Table 7.7, it can be inferred that the delay of 18.67 seconds falls in the range of 15 - 20
seconds denoting the existence of LOS-C at the roundabout considered.
REFERENCES
1. Anurag Bora (2015) “Evaluation of dynamic PCU of vehicles in a roundabout under various flow
and traffic conditions.” Unpublished M.Planning Thesis, Department of Transport Planning,
School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi.
2. Revathy Pradeep (2015), “Capacity of Roundabout in Mixed Traffic Conditions” Unpublished
M.Planning Thesis, Department of Transport Planning, School of Planning and Architecture,
New Delhi.
3. HCM (2010) “HCM 2010: Highway Capacity Manual”, .Special Report No. 209, 5th Edition,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC. USA.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Akcelik R, Chung E and Beasley M (1998),” Roundabout Capacity and Performance analysis”,
Res. Rep. ARR 321, ARRB Transport Research Ltd, VIC Australia.
2. Bissell H.H. (1960), ”Traffic Gap Acceptance from a STOP Sign” Research Report, University of
California , Berkeley, pp. 24-26.
3. Bhaskar Gowd Sudagani (2007) “Practical Capacity of Roundabouts”, Unpublished M.Planning
Thesis, Department of Transport Planning, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi.
4. Faddah M.Z. (1966), “Capacity of Roundabout Entries,” M.S. Thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, Jordan University of Science and Technology, lrbid, Jordan.
5. IRC: 65-(1976), “Recommended Practice for Traffic Rotaries,” published by the Indian Roads
Congress, 1976.
6. Kimber R.M (1980) “The Traffic Capacity of Roundabouts”, Laboratory Report 942, Transport
and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, Berkshire, England.
7. Masaied R, Faddah Z (1997),”Capacity of Roundabouts in Jordan”, Transportation Research
Record 1572, Transportation Research Board, Washington D.C, pp. 76-85.
8. Polus A, Lazar S.S and Livneh M (2003),”Critical Gap as Function of Waiting Time in Determining
the Roundabout Capacity”, Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 129, No 5, pp. 504-
508.
9. Stuwe B (1991) “Capacity and Safety of Roundabout – German Results,” Intersection without
Traffic signals ii, pp 126-140.
10. Sewa Ram (2013) “Planning and Design Guidelines of Roundabouts in mixed traffic conditions”,
Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of Transport Planning, School of Planning and
Architecture, New Delhi.
11. Troutbeack R.J (1989) “Evaluating the Performance of Roundabout,” Australian Road Research
SR 45, pp 25-31.
12. Troutbeack R.J (1991) “Recent Australian Unsignalized Intersection Research and Practices,”
Intersection without Traffic Signals ii, pp 238-257.
7A.2 Retrieval of Gap Data from Video and Data Entry Sheet
Data extraction involve determining three events, which are necessary to define various
accepted and rejected headway events needed for critical headway and follow-up headway
calculations. Following three time events must be recorded for entry vehicle:
• Time at which vehicle stopped for gap occurrence (at the entry or stop line or any place within
the weaving section)
• Passage time of circulating vehicles that directly conflicted with entry vehicle
• Time at which the vehicle left from the waiting place (at exit line)
• After its entry, the time of front bumper of first circulating vehicle crossing the dynamic
reference line in weaving section should be noted down.
• The front and rear bumper time of all circulating vehicles should be noted down till the entry
vehicle accepts the gap.
• Its exit time should be noted down at the end of the weaving section
The time lapse between the rear bumper and the front bumper of the consecutive circulating
vehicle is the gap between the two vehicles. Figure 7A.2 shows gap data extraction methodology
whereas Figure 7A.3 shows the steps to be followed to measure gap. Table 7A.2 shows Gap data
extraction format for data retrieval from the recorded video. Gap for entry vehicle is rejected till it
is not accepted by circulating vehicle. Maximum Rejected Gap and Accepted Gap are quantified from
extraction sheet.
PCU for different types of vehicles are derived from the following equations namely, 7B.1,
7B.2 and 7B.3.
Equation 7B.1
Where,
Hi = Mean lagging headway of vehicle type i in the entry/circulating stream (in seconds)
Hc = Mean lagging headway of standard car in the entry/circulating stream (in seconds)
Fi = Vehicle width factor (in metres)
Ri = Speed reduction ratio due to different conflict angles
Equation 7B.2
Where,
Wi and Wc = Maximum width of the vehicle type i and car.
Xi and Xc = Additional width due to geometrics of the roundabout of the vehicle type i and car.
Ri = Sin θ { log (Cn/Ci) } Equation 7B.3
Where,
Cn = Speed reduction coefficient for vehicle type ‘n’
Ci = Speed reduction coefficient for standard passenger cars
Ɵ = Angle of conflict
Equation 7C.1
Where,
Ai = Accepted gap of the ith entering vehicle (seconds),
Ri = Highest Rejected gap of the ith entering vehicle (seconds) and
Tc = Critical gap value (seconds).
Using Solver option in Microsoft EXCEL, function minimization can be carried out which is
basically an iterative process and the first value for iteration must be logical. It would be good to use
average of all the highest rejected gaps and all accepted gaps as a first value or starting point so that
it can converge fast and reduce the number of iterations.
Critical gap estimation is enumerated within the Excel worksheet as presented in Table 7C.1.
The values in column A and column B are the Maximum rejected gaps (Ri) and accepted gaps (Ai)
respectively. The initial value of Tc = 5.480 (cell C21) to start the iteration is the average of all accepted
Table 7C.1: Critical Gap Calculation
and rejected gaps (values in cell A3 to B18). This is used to calculate the value of function as given
in column C. The sum of the function is given in the cell C20. The iteration process is started using
the solver function in MS EXCEL to get the minimum value of sum of Root Mean squared values.
The iterative process utilized helped in converging the function value from 44.724 to 44.705. The
convergence was achieved at Tc = 5.384 s, which is the estimated critical gap for a specified vehicle
type.
Critical gap can be calculated mode-wise as the traffic composition varies on each roundabout.
Critical gap for total traffic stream can be calculated as per the Equation 7C.2.
Equation 7C.2
Tc,mix = tc,2W* p2W + tc,3W* p3W + tc,SC* pSC+ tc,BC* pBC+ tc,HV* pHV
Where,
tc,2W = critical gap of two wheeler
p2W = proportion of two-wheeler in the traffic stream
TC,mix = Critical gap of total traffic stream
Tc,j = Critical gap of mode j
Pj = Proportion of mode j in the traffic stream
Dr. Mukti Advani, Senior Scientist, Work Package Prof. Satish Chandra, IIT Roorkee and
Leader, Transportation Planning (TP) Division Prof. Akhilesh Maurya, IIT, Guwahati
Team Members
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja
CONTRIBUTIONS OF STUDENTS
M.Tech. Students pursued their Thesis @ CSIR - CRRI, New Delhi
M.Tech. Students
Dr. Anuj Budhkar, IIT Guwahati Sh. Arunabha Banerjee, IIT Guwahati (Ongoing)
Sh. Suresh Nama, IIT Guwahati (Ongoing) Ms. Sanhita Das, IIT Guwahati (Ongoing)
M.Tech. Students
Ms. Hemavathy, Anna University, Chennai and Mr. C.S. Abhishek, CSIR - CRRI
CSIR - CRRI
Ms. Sanhita Das, IIT Guwahati Ms. Shreya Dey, IIT Guwahati
Sh. Suresh Nama, IIT Guwahati Sh. Subhadipto Poddar, IIT Guwahati
Sh. Nilanjan Adhikary, IIT Guwahati Sh. Vishal Kumar, IIT Guwahati
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the following organizations for permitting data collection and support:
1. Deputy Commissioner of Police, Delhi.
2. Deputy Commissioner of Police (Traffic), Guwahati City
3. Additional Deputy Commissioner of Police (Traffic-I) Guwahati
4. Major Joshi, OC Contract, 87 Road Construction Coy (GREF), C/O 99 APO
5. District Commissioner, Gangtok
6. Er. Aalok Anandmani, Project Director, Jorabat – Shillong Expressway Limited, Guwahati.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Title
Number Number
Study Team i
Contributions of Students ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Figures v
List of Tables vi
List of Abbreviations vii
8.1 INTRODUCTION 1
8.2 DEFINITIONS OF TERMINOLOGIES 2
8.3 BASE INTERSECTION 4
8.4 SCOPE LIMITATION 4
8.5 METHODOLOGY 5
8.5.1 Input Data: Step 1 6
8.5.2 Convert Traffic Volume into PCU:: Step 2 7
8.5.3 Calculate Conflicting Traffic Flow Rates: Step 3 9
8.5.4 Determine Critical Gap Value from Tables: Step 4 12
8.5.5 Calculate Capacity of a Movement: Step 5 13
8.5.6 Level of Service: Step 6 13
8.6 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 14
8.6.1 Estimation of Capacity of Three-Legged Intersection 14
8.6.2 Estimation of Capacity of Four-Legged Intersection 16
REFERENCES 20
SUGGESTED READINGS 20
ANNEXURE 8A : CALCULATION OF CRITICAL GAP USING OCCUPANCY TIME
22
METHOD
ANNEXURE 8B : PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENT BASED ON OCCUPANCY TIME 24
ANNEXURE 8C: GAP MEASUREMENT AT REFERENCE LINE 25
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Title
Number Number
Typical Three Approach Intersection with Four Lane Divided
8.1 1
Carriageways on all Approaches
Typical Four Approach Intersection with Two Lane Undivided
8.2 2
Carriageways on all Approaches
8.3 Conflict area of Three and Four Approached Intersections 3
8.4 Follow up time 3
8.5 Time Gap between Two Successive Vehicles 3
8.6 Time Lag 4
8.7 Suggested Methodology 5
8.8 (a) Vehicular movements at Typical Three-Legged intersection 7
8.8 (b) Vehicular movements at Typical Four-Legged intersection 7
8.9 Conflicting Movements for Right Turn from Major Road 9
8.10 Conflicting Movements for Right Turn from Minor Approach 10
8.11 Conflicting Movements for Through Movements on Minor Approach 11
Conflict Area for extracting Occupancy Time for Through
8A.1(a) 22
Traffic from Minor Approach
Conflict Area for extracting Occupancy Time for
8A.1(b) 22
Right Turning Traffic from Major Approach
8A.2 Cumulative Distribution Curves of Fot and (1- Fa) 23
8C.1 Right Turning Movement from Major Stream to Minor Stream 25
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Title
Number Number
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Cx Capacity of Movement ‘x’ (in PCU/h)
OTi Average Occupancy time of a vehicle type i (s)
OTSC Average Occupancy of standard car (s)
PCUi PCU for vehicle type ‘i’
PLV Proportion of Large Vehicles in the conflicting traffic stream
Vc,x Conflicting Flow Rate corresponding to movement x (PCU/h)
fLV Adjustment factor for large vehicles (vehicle larger than big cars)
Base Critical Gap value for corresponding vehicle type
tc,base
executing the same movement
tc,x Critical Gap (s) for Vehicle Type ‘x’
tc,x critical gap of standard passenger cars for movement ‘x’ (s)
tf,x follow-up time for movement ‘x’ (s)
wi Width of vehicle type ‘i’ (m)
wsc Width of standard car (m)
‘a’ and ‘b’ Adjustment Factors based on intersection geometry
ADV Animal Drawn Vehicles
Motorized Auto rickshaws
Auto
(Three and Four Wheeled Rickshaws including electric rickshaws)
BC Big Cars and Vans
Bus Buses
CVC Classified Turning Volume Count
CY Cycles
CY RICK Cycle Rickshaws
Fot Frequency Distribution Curve
LCV Light Commercial Vehicles
LOS Level of Service
MAT Multi Axle Trucks
OT Occupancy Time
OT Occupancy Time of the subject vehicle
8.1 INTRODUCTION
An unsignalized intersection refers to “an intersection without signal or manual control
and also without any central island”. It is formed when two roads intersect (or join) each other at
grade. Based on the relative importance of the two roads, one of them is generally designated as
major road and the other as minor road. When traffic on minor road is controlled by STOP signs, the
intersection is called a Two-Way Stop Controlled (TWSC). In case STOP signs are placed on all the
approaches of an intersection, it is termed as an All Way Stop Controlled (AWSC) intersection. Due to
weak enforcement of traffic regulations and lack of understanding of priority rules among road users
in India, no distinction is made in this manual between a TWSC and AWSC intersection.
An unsignalized intersection can be three legged, four legged or multi-legged type. A typical
three-legged intersection is formed when a side street joins a major street (refer Figure 8.1). A four-
legged intersection is formed when two roads cross each other. One of the two roads are generally
a minor street but both streets can also be minor / major street (refer Figure 8.2). A limited priority
of movement is followed by road users in India. Considering the above circumstances, the road that
is wider among the two or which carries heavy volume of traffic in an unsignalized intersection is
considered as ‘major’ road and the other intersecting road is considered as ‘minor’ road. The methods
presented in the manual are applicable for three legged and four legged unsignalized intersections
only.
Follow up time (in seconds): The follow-up time is the time headway between successive
minor street vehicles while accepting the same gap size in the priority stream, when there is
a continuous queuing on the minor approach (refer Figure 8.4).
Gap (in seconds): The gap is a measure of the time elapsed between passing of rear end of the
lead vehicle and arrival of front end of the follower vehicle at the reference line along the road
(refer Figure 8.5). A driver in the non-priority stream evaluates the gaps that are presented
and finally accepts the one that the driver believes to be sufficiently large to complete the
desired movement, while rejecting the rest of the presented gaps.
Lag (in seconds): The lag is a portion of the first gap faced by a vehicle in the minor road. The
time interval from the moment a minor stream/road vehicle reaches the intersection (or the
head of the line, if there is a line of waiting vehicles) to the arrival of next major stream / road
vehicle exactly opposite to it (refer Figure 8.6).
Major and Minor Street: A road with higher priority is named as major street and road with
low priority is named as minor street in this chapter. Decision regarding priority is left to the
analyst. However, it is advisable to consider the hierarchy of road network while defining a
road as major or minor.
Occupancy Time (in seconds): This refers to the time that a vehicle incurs in completely
clearing the conflict area of the intersection. It is measured as the time elapsed between
the arrival of subject vehicle at the edge of the conflict area and its complete exit from the
intersection conflict area.
8.5 METHODOLOGY
Various methods for calculating the capacity of traffic movements for three approached /
four approached unsignalized intersections have been reported (Mohan, M. 2017). As mentioned
earlier, capacity of an unsignalized intersection in this manual is based on gap acceptance theory.
Accordingly, limitations of gap acceptance theory are applicable here as well. Since, gap acceptance
theory is primarily dependent on critical gap value, a method termed as Occupancy Time Method
(OTM) has been conceived (Chandra et al., 2014; Mohan, 2017) in this Chapter for the calculation
of critical gaps. Unlike the other methods of critical gap estimation, OTM also incorporates actual
driver behaviour observed on unsignalized intersections largely. As such, OTM accounts for the actual
clearing pattern of the conflict area and the traffic interaction that occurs within this region. (Refer
Annexure 8A for details). Thereafter, the capacity for various movements observed at an unsignalized
intersection is carried out through a series of steps as given in Figure 8.7.
Data regarding the geometry and classified turning volume count (CVC) for each movement
are to be collected at the candidate intersection to be analyzed. Traffic data are then expressed in
terms of equivalent number of standard car using the PCU factor and conflicting flow is established
separately for each non-priority movement.
Critical gap for each movement is computed from the base critical gap values, which are then
adjusted for the proportion of heavy vehicles in the conflicting streams. Using the critical gap for
passenger cars (s), conflicting flow (PCUs/h) and assuming follow-up time as 60 % of critical gap, the
capacity (PCUs/h) for individual movements is estimated. Capacity values and Level of Service (LOS)
presented in this manual are based on the data collected at 12 unsignalized intersections covering
three-legged / four-legged configuration with divided / undivided road intersection typologies. The
methodology presented in this section estimates the capacity of three movements i.e. right turn from
major street, right turn from minor street and through movement on minor street occurring on three
legged as well as four legged unsignalized intersections. The steps to be followed for the calculation of
capacity and LOS of a typical unsignalized intersection are presented in Figure 8.7.
Motorized Traffic
4. Big Cars and Vans BC Cars of engine capacity more than 1400 cc
Non-Motorized Traffic
10. Cycles CY
Figure 8.8 (a): Vehicular Movements at a Figure 8.8 (b): Vehicular Movements at a
Typical Three-Legged intersection Typical Four-Legged intersection
Movement 2
Movement 3
1
Movement 5
Movement 6
Movement 1
2
Movement 4
Movement 7
3
Movement 10
Movement 8
4
Movement 11
Note: Movement 9 and 12 do not have significant effect on other traffic movements observed on Indian
roads
Table 8.4 presents the typical format proposed for recording of classified traffic flow data.
Date:
Location Details:
Type: 3 approach / 4 approach
Approach Details
Number of Divided/
Approach
lanes Undivided
Approach 1:
Approach 2:
Approach 3:
Approach 4:
Classified Traffic Volume Count (1-hour peak) for different movements
Two Auto Standard Big 2 / 3 Axle
Movement LCVs Others*
Wheelers Rickshaws Cars Cars Trucks
Movement 1 ----
Movement 2
Movement 3
Movement 4
……
……
Movement 12
* Note: Number of columns in the above table may be increased / decreased depending upon vehicle types
actually present at the study location
Figure 8.9: Conflicting Movements for Right Turn from Major Road
subject movement as well. Moreover, when there is no divider on the minor street approach, right
turners from minor occupies the right side of the approach causing further hindrance to the subject
movement. The impact of Major Street through movement on the subject movement is enhanced due
to the absence of sufficient waiting space. The expressions for calculating conflicting flows for Rank-2
movements at intersections having two-lane Major Street are given in Equations 8.3 and 8.4.
For two-lane major street
Vc,1 = 1.5v5 + v6 + v7 Equation 8.3
Figure 8.10: Conflicting Movements for Right Turn from Minor Approach
(refer Figure 8.11). This comprises of right turn from far side of major, right turn from Minor Street
and finally merges with major street right turner from the near side and left turner of major on the
far side. Since the major street left turns are channelized at intersections having four-lane divided
major street, left turning movements can be ignored in the calculation of conflicting traffic and the
expression for calculating critical gaps at intersections having four-lane major street are given in
Equations 8.9 and 8.10.
Site-specific critical gaps for different movements can be obtained using the base value and
then adjusting them for the proportion of heavy vehicles in the conflicting traffic streams. So, critical
gap for any movement can be obtained using Equation 8.13.
tc,x = tc,base + fLV × ln (PLV) Equation 8.13
Where, is the critical gap (s) for vehicle type x, is the base critical gap value for corresponding
vehicle type executing the same movement (as given in Table 8.6), is the adjustment factor for large
vehicles (vehicle larger than big cars) and is the proportion of large vehicles in the conflicting traffic
stream. Table 8.7 gives the large vehicle adjustment factors for different vehicle types at intersections
having major streets with four lane and two lane configurations.
Table 8.7: Adjustment Factor for proportion of Large Vehicles in Conflicting Traffic Streams
Vehicle Type
Movement Two- Auto Standard Big TAT /
LCV Bus
Wheeler rickshaw Car Car MAT
Four lane divided intersection
Right turning from major to minor street 0.25 0.27 0.46 0.55 0.48 0.53 0.74
Right turning from minor to major street 0.61 0.64 0.88 0.93 0.86 0.84 0.85
Through traffic on minor 0.34 0.38 0.58 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.27
Two-lane undivided intersection
Right turning from major to minor street 0.38 0.63 0.78 1.02 - - -
Right turning from minor to major street 0.07 0.07 0.01 - - - -
Through Traffic on minor 0.07 0.07 0.07 - - - -
Equation 8.14
Where,
Cx = capacity of movement ‘x’ (in PCU/h),
Vc,x = conflicting flow rate corresponding to movement x (PCU/h),
tc,x = critical gap of standard passenger cars for movement ‘x’ (s),
tf,x = follow-up time for movement ‘x’ (s), and
‘a’ and ‘b’ = adjustment factors based on intersection geometry.
The value of adjustment factor “b” for right turn from major at intersections having 2 lane
Major Street is negative, while the values of all other factors are positive. As such, the negative value
of adjustment factor to account for the aggressive behaviour of minor street right turners in the above
typology of intersection.
Table 8.8: Adjustment Factors for Capacity Model
Major Street Adjustment Subject Movement
Configuration Factors Right Turn from Major Right Turn from Minor Through on Minor
Four-lane a 0.80 1.00 0.90
divided b 1.30 2.16 5.04
Two-lane a 0.70 0.80 1.10
undivided b -0.11 0.72 0.72
Approach details
1 307 30 250 60 23 34
9 163 20 102 31 9 25
Step 3: Convert movement volumes to flow rates and calculate conflicting flow, which is
presented in Table 8.12.
Movement 2
Movement 3 (in case of 4-legged
1 intersection) - -
Movement 5
Movement 6
Movement 1 v5 3852
2 Movement 4 (in case of 4-legged
v2 -
intersection)
Movement 7 v4 + v5 + v1 + 0.5*v2 6044
3 Movement 10 (in case of 4-legged
v1 + v2 + v4 + 0.5*v5 -
intersection)
Movement 8 v4 + v5 + v1 + v2 + v10 -
Movement 9
4 Movement 11 (in case of 4-legged
v1 + v2 + v4 + v5 + v7 -
intersection)
Movement 12
Step 4: Determine Critical Gap Values (vide Table 8.13) from associated Tables vide Table 8.6 and
Table 8.7.
Step 5: Calculate the capacity of each turning movement at the candidate intersection based on
Equation 8.14 and the capacity thus estimated is presented in Table 8.14.
Equation 8.14
Critical Follow-up
Conflicting
gap time Adjustment Adjustment Capacity
Movement flow
tc,x tf,x factor “a” factor “b”
vc,x
(s) =0.6*col-2
Step 6: LOS
LOS for movement 1: Volume/Capacity = 579/334 = 1.73 which implies that the above
movement is overloaded and operating at LOS F. It requires geometric improvements at the
intersection, which can be in the form of converting into a roundabout because such intersections
can be quite efficient in handling the right turning traffic.
Step 3: Convert movement volumes to flow rates and calculate conflicting flow as given in Table 8.17.
Step 4: Determine Critical Gap Value from relevant Tables vide Table 8.6 and Table 8.7 and the
estimated Critical Gap (CG) are presented in Table 8.18.
Base Proportion of
Adjustment factor Critical Gap
critical heavy vehicles
Movement for light and heavy tc,x = tc,base + fLV x
gap in the conflicting
commercial vehicles fLV ln (PLV)
tc,base traffic stream PLV
Movement 1 2.7 0.457 16.94 3.99
Movement 4 2.7 0.457 14.32 3.15
Movement 7 3.8 0.885 16.38 5.22
Movement 10 3.8 0.885 15.70 5.19
Movement 8 6.8 0.583 17.25 8.46
Movement 11 6.8 0.583 24.81 8.67
Step 5: Calculation of Capacity of Turning Movements based on Equation 8.15 and the capacity thus
estimated is presented in Table 8.19.
Equation 8.15
Critical Follow-up
Conflicting
Gap time Adjustment Adjustment
Movement flow Capacity
tc,x tf,x factor “a” factor “b”
vc,x
(s) =0.6*col-2
Col-1 Col-2 Col-3 Col-4 Col-5 Col-6 Col-7
Movement 1 3.99 2.39 1215 0.8 1.3 707
Movement 4 3.15 1.89 1309 0.8 1.3 1075
Movement 7 5.22 3.13 2460 1 2.16 344
Movement 10 5.19 3.11 2507 1 2.16 343
Movement 8 8.46 5.08 3326 0.9 5.04 128
Movement 11 8.67 5.20 3330 0.9 5.04 105
REFERENCES
1. Abhishek, C. S., Advani, M., Kumar, P. and Velmurugan, S. (2014), “Determination of Critical Gap at
an Unsignalised Three Armed Intersections - Case Study”, Transportation Systems Engineering
and Management colloquium, NIT-Calicut. 12th - 13th May 2014.
2. Chandra, S., Mohan, M., and Gates, T. J. (2014), “Estimation of Critical Gap using Intersection
Occupancy Time”, 19th International Conference of Hong Kong Society for Transportation
Studies, Z. Leng, ed., Hong Kong, pp. 313–320.
3. Mohan, M. (2017) “Analysis of Mixed Traffic Flow at Uncontrolled Intersection”, An Unpublished
Ph.D. Thesis, IIT Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India.
4. Mohan, M and Chandra, S. (2016a), “Review and Assessment of Techniques for Estimating
Critical Gap at Two‐way Stop‐controlled Intersections”, European Transport Journal, 61, paper
no. 8.
5. Mohan, M. and Chandra, S. (2016b), “Three Methods of PCU Estimation at Unsignalized
Intersections”, Transportation Letters: The International Journal of Transportation Research.
DOI: 10.1080/19427867.2016.1190883.
6. Velmurugan, S., Bhasin, R., Advani, M. and Kumar, P.V. (2016), “A model for Critical gap estimation
based on deviation of accepted and rejected gap from critical gap values”, A paper published
and presented in the 14th World Conference on Transportation Research (WCTR), Shanghai,
China.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Asha Lata R. and Chandra, S. (2011) “Critical gap through clearing behavior of drivers at
unsignalized intersections”, KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 15(8):1427-1434.
2. HCM (2000). “Highway Capacity Manual”, SR 209, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington D.C.
3. Hewitt, R. H. (1983). “Measuring Critical Gap”, Transportation Science, 17 (1), 87- 109.
4. Miller, A. J. (1972) “Nine Estimators of Gap Acceptance Parameters”, in Traffic Flow and
Transportation, (Ed: G. F. Newell), American Elsevier Publishing Co, Inc., New York, 215-235.
5. Mohan, M. and Chandra, S. (2016) “Influence of Major Stream Composition on Critical Gap
at Two Way Stop‐Controlled Intersections”, 95th Annual Meeting of Transportation Research
Board, Washington D. C., Paper no. 16‐1625.
6. Mohan, M. and Chandra, S. (2016), “Concept of Queue Clearance Rate for Estimation of
Equivalency Factors at Priority Junctions”, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 43, 593-598.
Doi: 10.1139/cjce-2015-0396.
7. Polus, A. (1983) “Gap Acceptance Characteristics at Unsignalized Urban Intersections”, Traffic
Engineering and Control, 24 (5), 255-258.
8. Raff, M. S., and Hart, J. W. (1950) “A volume warrant to urban stop signs”, Eno Foundation for
Highway Traffic Control, Saugatuck, Connecticut.
9. Solberg, P. and Oppenlander, J. C. (1966), “Lag and Gap Acceptances at Stop Controlled
intersection”, HRR 118, Highway Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.,
pp. 48-67
10. Siegloch, W. (1973), “Capacity calculations for unsignalized intersections”, Traffic Engineering
and Control, 20 (3), 255-258.
11. Teply, S., Abou Henaidy, M. I. and Hunt, J. D. (1997), “Gap Acceptance Behavior Aggregate and
Logic Perspective Part 1”, Traffic Engineering and Control, Vol. 38, Issue No. 9, pp. 474 - 482.
12. Troutbeck, R. J. (1992) “Estimating the Critical Acceptance Gap from Traffic Movements”,
Physical Infrastructure Centre Research Report 92-5, Queensland University of Technology,
Brisbane, Australia.
13. Weinert, A. (2000), “Estimation of Critical Gaps and Follow-up Times at Rural Unsignalized
Intersections in Germany”, Transportation Research Circular E-C 108: 4th International
Symposium on Highway Capacity, Hawaii.
14. Wu, N. (2006) “A New Model for Estimating Critical Gap and its Distribution at Unsignalized
Intersections Based on the Equilibrium of Probabilities”, Proceedings of the fifth International
Symposium on Highway Capacity and Quality of Service. Yokohama, Japan.
Figure 8A.1 (a): Conflict Area for extracting Occupancy Time for
Through Traffic from Minor Approach
Figure 8A.1 (b): Conflict Area for extracting Occupancy Time for
Right Turning Traffic from Major Approach
The value of accepted gap and lag varies from driver to driver even for the same vehicular
category. Hence, it is possible to draw the distribution function of accepted lags and gaps (Fa). Similarly,
the occupancy time will also vary among drivers of same vehicle category and can be represented by a
frequency distribution curve (Fot). Therefore, for a lower priority movement to clear the intersection
area safely through the gap in the conflicting traffic, the inequality (refer Equation 8A.1) must be
satisfied.
P(ta > t) > P(OT < t) Equation 8A.1
Where,
ta = accepted gap or lag
t = gap or lag being offered to minor street driver
OT = occupancy time of the subject vehicle.
The minimum value of time for which this inequality is satisfied is given by the point of
intersection of the two cumulative curves as shown in Figure 8A.2 (Mohan, M. and Chandra, S. 2016b).
This indicates the situation when the major street gap is just sufficient for the minor street vehicle to
clear the intersection conflict area safely.
The curves presented in Figure 8A.2 depict the distribution of accepted gap and occupancy
time for one vehicle type making through movement from Minor Street at intersection. The point of
intersection of the two curves suggests that the critical gap for the subject movement under the given
conditions at the intersection is 3.4 seconds
Equation 8C.1
Where,
OTi - Average occupancy time of a vehicle type i (in seconds)
OTsc - Average occupancy of standard car (s)
wsc - Width of standard car (m)
wi - Width of vehicle type ‘i’ (m)
PCUi - PCU for vehicle type ‘i’.
Figure 8C.1: Right Turning Movement from Major Stream to Minor Stream
• Mark a line on the video (shown by red line in above Figure) in front of the median.
• Note the arrival of the right turn on Major Street (movement under consideration) and its type.
Theoretically, this vehicle should stop at STOP line and observe the traffic for availability of
the gaps (Abhishek, et al, 2014). However, in majority of the cases, it will slow down and come
out of the STOP line. Observe the time difference between the arrival of this vehicle at STOP
line and arrival of the first vehicle from opposing stream at the red line. Also, note down
occupancy time of the same vehicle (refer Annexure 8A) and as per the worksheet as shown
in Table 8C.1 for all accepted lags and gaps.
Accepted Lag /
Occupancy Time
Vehicle Type Lag / Gap Gap Size
(seconds)
(seconds)
Standard Car Lag 1.8 3.5
Big Car Gap 3.2 3.4
Two-Wheeler …
Bus ….
and so on …
Values in Table 8C.1 are to be read / interpreted like this. The first vehicle arriving is a standard car faced a
time lag of 1.8 seconds which has accepted the gap and occupancy time of this subject vehicle is found to be
3.5 seconds. Then the next accepted gap and occupancy time for the succeeding vehicle, which is a big car in
this case, is found to be 3.2 seconds and 3.4 seconds respectively.
Dr. Purnima Parida, Senior Principal Scientist, Prof. Manoranjan Parida, IIT Roorkee, RC
TP Division, Work Package Leader
Team Members
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja
CONTRIBUTIONS OF STUDENTS
Students pursued their Thesis @ CSIR - CRRI,
IIT, Roorkee and SVNIT, Surat
Ph.D. Students
Dr. Pritikana Das, IIT, Roorkee Dr. Udit Jain, IIT Roorkee
Ms. G.R. Bivina, IIT, Roorkee (Ongoing) Dr. Jiten Shah, SVNIT Surat
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the following organizations for permitting data collection and support:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Title
Number Number
Study Team i
Contributions of Students ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Figures vi
List of Tables vii
List of Abbreviations ix
9.1 INTRODUCTION 1
9.1.1 Overview 1
9.1.2 Modal Characteristics 1
9.1.3 Human Factors 1
9.1.4 Variations in Demand across Pedestrian Facilities 2
9.2 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGIES 5
9.2.1 Definitions 5
9.2.2 Pedestrian Space Requirements 6
9.3 WALKIING SPEED AT FOOTPATHS 7
9.4 WALKING SPEED AT CROSSWALKS 7
9.4.1 Pedestrian Critical Gap at Crosswalks 8
9.4.2 Pedestrian Waiting Time at Crosswalks 8
9.5 PEDESTRIAN FLOW MODELS 9
9.5.1 Principles of Pedestrian Flow 9
9.5.2 Macroscopic Modelling 9
9.6 FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS 10
9.6.1 Footpaths 10
9.6.2 Stairways 11
9.6.3 Foot Over Bridges 12
9.7 PEDESTRIAN LEVEL OF SERVICE (PLOS) 12
9.7.1 PLOS Ranges for Different Facilities 12
9.7.2 Methodology for Determination of PLOS 13
9.8 QUALITATITVE ASSESSMENT OF PEDESTRIAN FACILITY 15
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Title
Number Number
(a) Signalized crossing, (b) Pelican crossing, (c) Puffin crossing, (d)
9.4 4
Toucan crossing
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Title
Number Number
9.1 Modal Share of Pedestrians in Indian Cities 1
9.2 Space Requirements for Pedestrians in India 7
9.3 Crossing Speed at Crosswalks covering Varying Road Configuration 8
9.4 Critical Gap at different Roadway Configurations 8
9.5 Waiting Time at different Roadway Configurations 8
9.6 Pedestrian Flow Parameters for Footpaths 10
9.7 Estimated Shy distances in Indian context 11
9.8 Pedestrian Flow Parameters for Stairways 11
9.9 Pedestrian Flow Parameters for FOBs 12
9.10 PLOS for Footpaths 12
9.11 PLOS for Crosswalks 13
9.12 PLOS for Stairways 13
9.13 PLOS for Foot Over Bridge 13
9.14 Quality of Service for Footpaths 16
9.15 List of Example Problems 16
9A.1 Statistical Summary of Pedestrian Speeds on Footpaths 22
9A.2 Statistical Summary of Pedestrian Flow on Footpaths 22
9A.3 Land use based Speed of Pedestrians on Footpaths 22
9A.4 Land use based Macroscopic Speed - Flow Models for Footpaths 23
9A.5 Estimated Pedestrian Flow Parameters for Footpaths 24
PLOS for Footpaths considering Commercial,
9A.6 24
Institutional and Terminal Land uses
9A.7 PLOS for Footpaths considering Residential and Recreational Land uses 25
9A.8 Summary of Body Ellipse of Pedestrians 25
9B.1 Crossing Speed at Crosswalks on different Roadway Configurations 26
9C.1 Statistics of Speed of Pedestrian on Stairways 28
9C.2 Estimated Pedestrian Flow Model Equations for Stairways 28
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LOS Level of Service
FOB Foot Over Bridge
Qp Pedestrian Flow Rate
Vp Pedestrian Speed
Kp Pedestrian Density
S Pedestrian Space
S Area Module
PLOS Pedestrian Level of Service
QOS Quality of Service
Ai Importance Weight for physical and user characteristics
Bi Satisfaction Rating for physical and user characteristics
WI Walkability Index
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.1.1 Overview
The definition of ‘Pedestrian’ includes people who walk, sit, stand in public spaces or use
mobility aids like walking stick, crutches or wheelchair, be they children, teenagers, adults, elderly
persons, persons with disabilities, workers, residents, shoppers or people watchers (IRC, 103:2012).
Walking is the basic mode of travel. It is healthy and sustainable to human society. As compared to
railways and vehicular transport, walking can happen anywhere: from roadside to covered shopping
malls and from underground stations to foot over bridges. Walking is still the most universal means
of travelling, especially for the first and the last trip leg of a journey. The importance of pedestrian
movements is understood globally and need not be overemphasized. Hence the pedestrian facilities
are analyzed by using factors like speed, pedestrian flow and density culminating with capacity and
Level of Service (LOS) of various forms of pedestrian facilities. Apart from these quantitative factors,
qualitative factors like pedestrian needs and perceptions of the pedestrians in the form of subjective
data are also included in defining Walkability Index for Footpaths are also dealt in this manual.
provision of adequate street lighting, police patrolling during night time, sufficient activities on the
surrounding built up environment etc. to create a sense of safety and security.
Environmental factors such as comfort, convenience, safety, security and economics of the
walkway system affect the walking experience and consequently the quality of service perceived by
pedestrians. A pedestrian needs to be protected from inclement weather like harsh sun and rain.
Trees protect pedestrians but if planted in an unplanned manner can also act as an obstruction.
9.1.4.2 Crosswalk
A Crosswalk is defined as a path where pedestrians can safely walk across a street or road.
It provides connection between two sides of road i.e. across the road. It should ensure safety of
pedestrians and where they can cross most safely through the flow of vehicular traffic. In India, only
zebra crossings and signal controlled crossings are seen in cities as at-grade facilities. Other crossing
facilities like pelican, puffin and toucan crossings have been defined in this section for information.
These different types of crosswalks are described below.
Zebra Crossing: Zebra crossing is a clearly specified pedestrian track across the carriageway
(i)
and is delineated with the help of alternate black and white stripes, which should have
embossed texture for easy detection by persons with vision impairment. A typical mid-block
zebra crossing is shown in Figure 9.3.
Signalized Crossing: Signalized pedestrian crossings seen in India are mostly fixed signal
(ii)
time crossings where phases of the signal are pre-defined irrespective of the pedestrian and
vehicular flow at the location. This type of crossing clearly segregates the movement of traffic
and pedestrians on road by providing a dedicated green phase for pedestrians to cross the
road. A typical fixed time pedestrian signal is shown in Figure 9.4 (a).
Pelican Crossing: The pelican crossing is a type of signalized crossing which uses far side
(iii)
pedestrian signal heads and a flashing amber/flashing green crossing period, of a fixed
duration, which is demanded solely by push button. A typical pelican signal is shown in Figure
9.4 (b).
Puffin Crossing: Puffin crossing uses near side pedestrian signal heads and an extendable all
(iv)
red crossing period which is instigated by a push button request accompanied by a pedestrian
detector demand. It is intended that the puffin operational cycle will become the standard
form of pedestrian crossing at standalone crossing and junctions. A typical puffin signal is
shown in Figure 9.4 (c).
Toucan Crossing: It is a crossing where both pedestrians and cyclists can cross together and
(v)
thus the name “Tou-can”. Toucan crossing has the same form of pedestrian crossing detector
as the puffin crossing. A typical toucan signal is shown in Figure 9.4 (d).
Variation in pedestrian demand at a typical crosswalk location in India is shown in Figure 9.5.
Work-related trips constitute the majority of morning peak-period pedestrian trips, while shopping
and tourist trips constitute the majority of the mid-day and evening pedestrian trips. Also, pedestrian
demand is a function of surrounding land-use density and proximity to commercial area or other
important locations, in particular.
9.1.4.3 Stairway
It is a way of access (upward and downward) for pedestrians and consists of a set of
steps to reach a higher or lower level of a facility. A typical stairway can be a part of a Foot over
Bridge (FOB) or a separated pedestrian infrastructure in a railway terminal as presented in
Figure 9.6. At the same time, Foot Over Bridge (FOB) is a type of grade separated pedestrian
facility consisting of an enclosed or covered bridge connecting two Footpaths which is
presented in Figure 9.7. It eliminates all potential vehicle conflicts faced by pedestrians while
crossing a road.
Pedestrian volume at station platform increases at the time of arrival and departure of the
trains resulting in variation in walking speeds. At suburban rail / metro transit stations in India, the
frequency of trains during morning and evening peak period is normally 2 minutes whereas during
off-peak period, the frequency is between 4 - 8 minutes resulting in variation in pedestrian volume
during the observation period (Shah, et al, 2017). Variation in pedestrian demand for stairway
movement at typical rail transit terminal is shown in Figure 9.8.
• Gap: The time difference between the tail of a leading vehicle and the head of the following
vehicle in the traffic stream. It is measured in seconds (s).
• Pedestrian Critical Gap: The minimum gap size in the traffic stream which will allow the
entry of a pedestrian to cross the road. It is measured in seconds (s).
• Rejected Gap: Insufficient gaps between vehicles which are rejected by pedestrians. These
are usually smaller than the critical gap. It is measured in seconds (s).
• Accepted Gap: The final gap size which the pedestrian perceives as a safe gap size to cross
the road. It is usually greater than the critical gap. It is measured in seconds (s).
• Pedestrian Waiting Time: It is the time lost between the arrival of a pedestrian at kerb side
or crossing location and starting of the crossing manoeuvre on accepting a gap. It is measured
in seconds (s).
• Frequency of Attempt: Number of attempts that a pedestrian makes to accept the vehicular
gap.
• Platoon Size: It refers to the number of pedestrians walking or crossing together as a group.
Where,
S = pedestrian space (m2/ped)
Where,
S= Pedestrian Space (m²/ped)
General relationships for analysis amongst various pedestrian flow parameters have been
evolved based on single-regime approach, which is presented in Equations 9.5 to 9.8:
Pedestrian speed (Vp) and density (Kp): Vp = a – b × Kp Equation 9.5
2
Pedestrian flow (Qp) and density (Kp): a x Kp – b x Kp Equation 9.6
Pedestrian speed (Vp) and flow (Qp): Qp = Vp (a – Vp)/b Equation 9.7
a b
Pedestrian flow (Qp) and area module (S): Qp = — – — Equation 9.8
s s2
9.6.1 Footpaths
In the case of Footpaths, the above fundamental relationships have been developed covering
different land uses namely, institutional, recreational, commercial, terminal and residential land
uses. Capacity of the facility has been estimated from the models developed for Footpaths based on
data collected across different land uses and also by considering the aggregated data. The models
developed are described in Annexure 9A. Land-use based models will provide optimized design
solutions for Footpaths. The developed macroscopic fundamental diagrams using those models are
shown in Figure 9.12.
The estimated values of pedestrian flow parameters for Footpaths are presented in Table 9.6
and land-use based values are given in Annexure 9A.
The estimation of capacity of Footpath considers effective width of the facility as well. The
effective width of the Footpath is the portion of a walkway that can be effectively used by pedestrians,
which is the width of the Footpath excluding the shy distance. Several types of obstructions tend to
make pedestrians shy away. Shy distances in Indian scenario estimated from the field observations
are given in Table 9.7. The lower value of shy distance indicates moderate value of obstruction along
the linear length of the Footpath and higher value indicates high degrees of obstruction. In the absence
of specific information regarding the degree of obstruction middle value can be used for calculation
of effective width.
9.6.2 Stairways
The average speed and flow of pedestrians observed at 2 typical Stairways in suburban train
stations in Mumbai (catering up to crowded environment) has been deployed to develop macroscopic
fundamental diagrams between pedestrian flow parameters (Shah, et al, 2017) and the detailed
analysis results are presented in Annexure 9C. The estimated values of flow parameters are given in
Table 9.8. In the case of stairways, the flow reduces when the density increases beyond the optimum
level. Subsequently, queuing phenomenon occurs at the ends of stairway and pedestrian movement
decreases until the flow becomes zero and consequently density is identified as jam density.
The methodology for determining the PLOS for stairways is presented in Figure 9.15.
The first step is to estimate the effective width of the stairway. Next, the pedestrian flow rate
and capacity are to be estimated and thereafter, PLOS can be determined using Table 9.12.
Walkability Index is used for evaluating pedestrian infrastructure performance considering the
following factors:
• Physical and user characteristics/parameter
• Importance weight and satisfaction rating of individual parameter
To determine the Walkability Index, the perception of the pedestrians on the quality of
Footpaths available and needs of the pedestrians has been captured through a detailed questionnaire
surveys conducted at Delhi, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Vadodara and Surat by interviewing about
2500 respondents to build the Walkability Index. Thus, the Walkability Index is calculated using
Equation 9.9:
10
Walkability Index: QOS = ∑ i=1 Ai * Bi Equation 9.9
Where,
Ai: importance weight for physical and user characteristics
Bi: satisfaction rating for physical and user characteristics
Physical characteristics and user characteristics are listed in Annexure Table 9E.1. The
mean weights for importance and for satisfaction rating for physical features and user characteristics
computed are given in Annexure 9E (vide Table 9E.5 and 9E.6). Quality of Service (QOS) evolved in
this manual is based on the methodology discussed in Annexure 9E. The results derived from the
above methodology are presented in Table 9.14.
Problem
Description Application
Number
1 Determination of PLOS of a Footpath Operational PLOS
2 Widening required for Footpath Improvement Design
3 Determination of Walkability Index Quality of Service
4 Determination of PLOS and QOS Comparing PLOS and QOS
=4m
Modified width considering shy away distance = 4 + 1= 5 m
Extra widening required for Footpath = 5 - 2.0 = 3.0 m
Step 2: The weighted mean importance ratings (Ai) for commercial area are given in table
below where A1 is the importance rating of footpath surface, A2 for footpath width, A3 for obstruction,
A4 for potential for vehicular conflict, A5 for continuity, A6 for encroachment, A7 for availability of
crossing facilities, A8 for security, A9 for comfort and A10 for walking environment.
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10
3.48 3.35 3.22 3.16 2.32 3.1 3.17 3.05 2.74 2.98
The satisfaction ratings (Bi) have been assessed by the transportation planner by linking the
existing condition of the Footpaths with the help of factors defined in Annexure 9E. For the given
condition of Footpaths, the following satisfactory ratings are provided as given in table where B1 is
the satisfaction rating of footpath surface, B2 for footpath width, B3 for obstruction, B4 for potential
for vehicular conflict, B5 for continuity, B6 for encroachment, B7 for availability of crossing facilities, B8
for security, B9 for comfort and B10 for walking environment.
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10
4 3 4 3 2 3 2 4 4 3
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10
1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 1
Step 2: Using the weighted mean importance ratings (Table 9E.5), the Walkability index will
be computed as below:
10
Walkability Index (WI) = ∑ i=1 Ai * Bi
WI = 2.67 × 1 + 2.18 × 2 + 2.06 × 1 + 2.39 × 1 + 1.79 × 2 + 3.08 × 1 + 2.26 × 2 + 2.22 ×
2 + 1.70 × 2 + 1.92 × 1 = 2.67 + 1.36 + 2.06 + 2.39 + 3.58 n + 3.08 + 4.52 + 4.44 +
3.40 + 1.92
WI = 32.42 say, 32.
QOS corresponding to Walkability Index of 33 is QOS ‘E’.
From the derived results, it can be noted that the candidate Footpath offers PLOS ‘C’ and QOS
‘E’ to the pedestrians.
Thus it can be concluded that through purely from engineering perspective, the candidate
Footpath is found to be operating within acceptable range i.e. LOS-C, whereas the Walkability Index
offered by the facility is not within the acceptable range i.e. QOS-E. Therefore, appropriate measures
need to be undertaken by the concerned authorities from the above viewpoint.
REFERENCES
1. HCM (2010) “HCM 2010: Highway Capacity Manual”, .Special Report No. 209, 5th Edition,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
2. IRC: 103 (2012), “Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities”, (First Revision) Indian Roads Congress,
New Delhi, India.
3. MoRT&H (2015), “Road Accidents in India - 2015”. Publication of Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways, Transportation Research Wing, Govt. of India.
4. MOUD (2008), “Study on Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in
India”.
5. Raff, M. S. (1950), “A Volume Warrant for Urban STOP Signs”. Eno Foundation for Highway Traffic
Control, Saugatuck, Connecticut.
6. Shah, J., Joshi, G., Parida, P. and Arkatkar, S. (2017), “Effect of Directional Distribution on Stairway
Capacity at Suburban Railway Station in India” Transportation Letters, The International Journal
of Transportation Research, Taylor and Francis, 10.1080, pp.1-15.
7. Singh, Natasha, Parida, P. and Advani, M. (2016) “Human ellipse of Indian pedestrians”,
Transportation Research Procedia 15, pp. 150-160.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Das, P., Parida, M., Bhaskar, A. and Katiyar V. K. (2016), “Optimization Technique for Pedestrian
Data Extraction”, Transportation Research Procedia, Vol. 17, pp. 32-42.
2. Das, P “Macroscopic Pedestrian Flow Modelling and Development of Level of Service”, An
unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to Centre for Transportation Systems, Indian Institute of
Technology, (Roorkee), Roorkee.
3. Fruin, J. J. (1971). “Designing for Pedestrians: A Level of Service Concept”. Highway Research
Record 355, 1-15.
4. Jain, U. and Rastogi, R. (2017), “Evaluating Methods of Critical Gap Estimation at Midblock
Pedestrian Crossings under Mixed Traffic Conditions”, A paper published in the 96th
Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, Washington D.C., January 2017.
5. Parida, P (2006), “Planning, Design and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities in Delhi”, An
unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to Department of Architecture and Planning, Indian
Institute of Technology, (Roorkee), Roorkee.
6. Parida, P. and Parida, M. (2011), “Appreciation of Gender Difference in Development of
Qualitative Level of Service for Footpaths”, 4th International Conference on Women Issues in
Transportation, 27th to 30th October, 2011. Irvine, California. pp. 246 - 252.
Statistical analysis of pedestrian flow values on Footpaths is provided in Table 9A.2. The
statistics of speed data for Footpath movement across different land uses are comprehended in Table
9A.3. Developed macroscopic flow models are provided in Table 9A.4. Estimated flow parameters for
land use based Footpath movement are given in Table 9A.5.
Land use Sample Size Min. Max. m/min Mean Median Std. Dev.
Terminal 951 47.00 109.44 76.21 75.52 10.45
Institutional 1517 38.31 103.27 71.85 71.68 10.06
Recreational 1390 28.86 106.07 58.03 57.20 9.20
Commercial 1054 37.18 105.06 62.72 62.18 7.34
Residential 343 35.50 113.21 82.42 80.32 13.23
Combined 951 35.25 106.88 66.35 65.55 11.03
Table 9A.4: Land use based Macroscopic Speed - Flow Models for Footpaths
The area module at capacity is minimum for recreational land use (0.33 ped/m2) as compared
to other land use due to presence of more number of pedestrian in unit area. This value is quite low as
compared to the space value specified for LOS in IRC: 103 (2012). The pedestrians try to reduce their
area module while walking in recreational land use to ensure movement with their family members.
The proportion of more child pedestrians in platoon can decrease the area requirement for individual
pedestrian. The space at capacity in commercial land use is found as 0.47 ped/m2. Due to obstructions
by hawkers on Footpaths, pedestrian try to avoid interaction with them and try to move in the middle
portion of facility. Further, the normal tendency exhibited by pedestrians to engross themselves in
window shopping while walking on the Footpath also contributes for the reduced walking speed.
These causes are collectively responsible for lowering of area module and reduction of speed of
pedestrians in commercial land use. The observed space requirement at capacity in commercial,
recreational and terminal land use is found lower as compared to the values in HCM (2010) and IRC:
103 (2012). Considering the above reported values, LOS values of Footpaths across different land
uses are evolved and presented in Table 9A.6 and 9A.7.
Table 9A.7: PLOS for Footpaths considering Residential and Recreational Land uses
Recreational Residential
LOS
Space Flow Speed Space Flow Speed
(m2/ped) (ped/min/m) (m/min) (m2/ped) (ped/min/m) (m/min)
Average Space
0.1042 0.1519 0.0881
(in m2)
Male
Std Dev (in m2) 0.0425 0.0416 0.0283
95th percentile
0.1700 0.2137 0.1400
(in m2)
Average Space
0.1045 0.1314 0.0695
(in m2)
Female
Std Dev (in m2) 0.04120 0.0367 0.0261
95th percentile
0.1730 0.1800 0.1200
(in m2)
Average Space
Male & 0.1040 0.1457 0.0865
(in m2)
Female -
Combined Std Dev (in m2) 0.0412 0.0411 0.0278
95th percentile
0.1733 0.2080 0.1400
(in m2)
The developed Flow relationships for stairways are provided in Table 9C.2. Developed
macroscopic flow diagrams are shown in Figure 9C.1.
Figure 9C.1: Speed – Flow – Density - Space Relationships for Pedestrian Movement for
Stairways at Suburban Stations
Sample Mean (m/ Median Std. Dev. Min. (m/ Max. (m/
Facility
Size min) (m/min) (m/min) min) min)
FOB 251 58.43 55.81 9.24 37.5 79.4
Developed Flow relationships for FOBs are provided in Table 9D.2. Developed macroscopic
flow diagrams are shown in Figure 9D.1.
Relationship Equations
Flow-Density Parabolic Qp = 60.39 Kp –17.69 Kp 2
Physical Characteristics
Footpath surface A smooth surface (without any cracks or bumps) for comfortable walking.
Footpath Width A measure in metres of the width of the Footpath available to the pedestrian.
The obstruction can be a pole, tree, garbage bin, hoardings, parked vehicle
Obstructions
etc. The number of obstructions per kilometre of the Footpath was assessed.
Potential for It depends upon the condition of footpath; footpath is well protected, raised,
vehicular conflict availability of continuous guard rails etc.
It can be measured in term of ups and downs in particular stretch, kerb height
Continuity
viz., mountable or not.
User Characteristics
The informal commercial activities are an integral part of the Footpath
Encroachment environment in India. It may affect the pedestrians while walking on Footpath.
It is due to presence of hawkers on side walk.
Availability of It is a measure in terms of availability of signal on at-grade crossing, median
crossing facilities refuge, and foot over bridge on road crossing.
A pedestrian should feel safe during the day as well as at night while walking
on a Footpath. It can be analysed considering factors like illumination of
Security
Footpath, good visibility, police patrolling during day and night time, presence
of CCTV cameras.
There must be facilities on Footpath so that one can feel comfortable from
Comfort harsh sun and rain. Comfort is measured in term of availability of trees, public
toilets, benches and dustbins on the Footpath at proper locations.
Walk environment is governed by the surroundings of the facility. The walking
should be a pleasant enough for pedestrian. There should be good plantation
Walk environment
and should be clean without any garbage. The Footpath should be free of bad
smell.
The user perception of the Footpaths has been recorded with the help of questionnaire
surveys by collecting the physical characteristics and user characteristics. These are presented in
Table 9E.2 and Table 9E.3 respectively. Table 9E.4 gives brief description of each parameter.
9.
S.No. Parameters Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Poor
10.
Even surface
Reasonable Moderate quality, Bad condition.
with no cracks
1. Footpath Surface quality. Walking is with few bumps Lots of bumps and No raised footpath
or bumps, tactile
comfortable and cracks cracks.
flooring
(trees, hoardings,
poles, parked
Very few, but Few. Slight Many, some
cannot walk on the
vehicle)
Pedestrian Facilities
Well protected,
raised footpath,
Raised footpath, Raised footpath Footpath not
Potential for vehicular continuous guard
4. guard rails but not but no guard rails sufficiently raised Unsafe
Conflict rails, motorized
continuous and no guard rails
two-wheeler
cannot move
Frequent ups
1-2 ups and Few ups and Long stretches of
Longitudinal and downs, kerb
5. Continuous downs, kerb cuts downs, mountable discontinuity, Non
Continuity height difficult in
Page 9 - 33
provided kerb existent
mounting.
Hawking on
Slightly difficult to
Separate hawkers footpath but Very difficult to
6. Encroachment walk because of Cannot walk
zone provided no problem in walk
encroachment
walking
Signalized at grade Signalized at grade
Unsignalised Unsignalised
Availability of crossing crossing with without median FOB without lift
7. at grade zebra at grade crossing
facilities median refuge/ refuge / FOB with and escalator
crossing
FOB with lift lift/escalator
Well illuminated,
good visibility, Any three Any two None of the
Any one parameter
police patrolling parameters parameters parameters
in favor of
during day and in favor of in favor of in favor of
8. Security pedestrians.
night time. pedestrians. pedestrians. Can pedestrians.
Can walk only
CCTV cameras. Can walk till late walk only till late Unsafe during day
during daytime
Can walk during night. evening. also.
(trees, public
Any three Any two Any one parameter
Very comfortable None of the
toilets, benches,
parameters parameters in favor of
(other than
9. Comfort parameters
dustbins)
in favor of in favor of pedestrians
dustbins)
in favor of
pedestrians, but pedestrians but
pedestrians
trees are essential. trees are essential.
Very pleasant, Any three Any two None of the
Any one parameter
Walking Environment plantation, no parameters parameters parameters
10 in favor of
garbage, no bad in favor of in favor of in favor of
pedestrians
smell pedestrians pedestrians pedestrians
Page 9 - 34
Pedestrian Facilities
The mean weights of importance and satisfaction rating given by the pedestrians across
various land uses are presented in Table 9E.5 and Table 9E.6 respectively.
Table 9E.5: Importance Rating of Pedestrian Facility across Various Land uses
Land Use
Characteristics
Residential Commercial Institutional Terminal Recreational
Footpath surface 3.37 3.48 3.59 2.67 2.58
Footpath width 2.91 3.35 3.39 2.18 2.95
Obstruction 2.68 3.22 3.07 2.06 3.44
Potential vehicle
2.69 3.16 3.08 2.39 3.20
conflict
Continuity 2.03 2.32 2.45 1.79 2.80
Encroachment 2.73 3.10 2.92 3.08 2.89
Availability of
crossing facilities 3.02 3.17 3.14 2.26 3.18
Security 2.66 3.05 3.37 2.22 3.11
Comfort 2.2 2.74 2.58 1.70 3.22
Walk environment 2.09 2.98 2.96 1.92 2.66
Table 9E.6: Satisfaction Rating of Pedestrian Facility for Various Land uses
Land Use
Characteristics
Residential Commercial Institutional Terminal Recreational
Footpath surface 3.03 2.47 3.12 3.04 3.08
Footpath width 3.05 2.29 2.89 2.50 3.25
Obstruction 2.62 2.23 2.46 2.37 2.89
Potential vehicle
conflict 3.40 2.46 2.82 3.08 2.69
Continuity 3.34 2.81 3.06 3.67 3.10
Encroachment 2.69 2.27 2.61 2.53 2.85
Availability of
crossing facilities 2.95 2.23 2.85 2.47 2.84
Security 3.17 2.32 2.72 2.92 2.86
Comfort 3.09 2.38 2.84 2.86 2.79
Walk environment 2.58 2.32 2.98 1.82 3.29
The rating of Footpath facility across varying lad uses is represented using spider net graph
in Figure 9E.1.
Residential
Commercial
Institutional
Recrational
Terminal
Combined
Figure 9E.1: Spider Net Graph on Importance and Satisfaction Ratings on Physical and User
Characteristics of each Land use
Dr Ch. Ravisekhar, Principal Scientist, Work Package Leader, Prof. Gaurang J. Joshi,
Transportation Planning (TP) Division, CSIR - CRRI SVNIT, Surat
Secretarial Assistance
Sh. Daleep Mutreja
CONTRIBUTIONS OF STUDENTS
Students pursued their Thesis @ CSIR - CRRI and IIT, Roorkee
Ph.D. Students
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Title
Number Number
Study Team i
Contribution of Students ii
List of Figures iv
List of Tables v
List of Abbreviations vi
10.1 INTRODUCTION 1
10.2 URBAN AND INTER URBAN CORRIDORS 1
10.2.1 Uninterrupted Flow in Urban Corridor 1
10.2.2 Interrupted Flow in Urban Corridor 1
10.2.3 Interurban Corridor 2
10.3 DEFINITIONS OF TERMINOLOGIES 2
10.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING TRAVEL TIME RELIABILITY 4
10.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION 4
10.6 METHODOLOGY 5
10.7 PROCEDURE FOR TRAVEL TIME RELIABILITY AND LOS 5
10.8 TRAVEL TIME 6
10.9 TRAVEL TIME RELIABILITY ANALYSIS 8
10.10 LOS BASED ON TRAVEL TIME FOR PRIVATE VEHICLES 9
10.11 LOS BASED TRAVEL TIME RELIABILITY FOR PRIVATE VEHICLES 10
10.11.1 LOS Based on PT and BT 10
10.11.2 LOS Based on PTI and BTI 10
10.12 LOS FOR BUS RAPID TRANSIT SYSTEM (BRTS) 11
10.13 RELIABILITY BASED LOS FOR BRTS 12
10.14 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS FOR NORMAL PUBLIC TRANSIT SYSTEMS 13
RELIABILITY BASED LOS FOR INTERRUPTED 6-LANE DIVIDED
10.15 14
ARTERIAL CORRIDOR USING TWO WHEELER TRAVEL TIME
RELIABILITY BASED LOS FOR INTERRUPTED 4-LANE DIVIDED
10.16 14
ARTERIAL CORRIDOR USING CAR TRAVEL TIME
10.17 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 15
10.17.1 Understanding of PTI and BTI 15
10.17.2 LOS based on PT and PTI for car on urban interrupted section 15
REFERENCES 17
SUGGESTED READINGS 17
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Title
Number Number
10.1 Typical Section of Urban Corridor of Uninterrupted Flow section 1
10.2 Typical section of Urban Corridor of Interrupted flow section 2
10.3 Typical Section of Interurban Corridor of Interrupted Flow section 2
10.4 Definition of Travel Time Reliability 3
10.5 Travel Time Reliability Measures 4
10.6 Factors influencing the Distribution of Travel Time 4
10.7 Study Methodology 5
10.8 Average Travel Time and Standard Deviation (SD) on Study Corridors 7
10.9 Variation of Average Travel Time 7
10.10 Planning Time and Buffer Time Comparisons among Study Corridors 8
10.11 Planning Time Index and Buffer Time Index on Study Corridors 9
Travel time Variation in each 30 minutes departure time window on
10.12 12
Typical Route
10.13 CV of Travel time on a Typical Route 12
10.14 Travel Time Variation on a Typical Bus Route 13
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Title
Number Number
10.1 LOS based on Travel Time for Private Vehicles 9
10.2 TTR LOS based on Planning Time (PT) and Buffer Time (BT) 10
10.3 TTR LOS based on Planning Time Index and Buffer Time Index 11
10.4 LOS based Travel Time and Travel Time Variation (TTV) for BRTS 13
10.5 Reliability LOS based on CV for Normal Buses 14
10.6 Reliability LOS based on CV, PT, BT and TTI for Two Wheelers 14
Reliability LOS based on CV, PT, BT and TTI for Cars on Uninterrupted
10.7 15
Four Lane Divided Urban Road
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
∅(t) probability distribution function
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of reliability helps in understanding two operating states, implying thereby
whether the road is connected or disconnected. This binary state approach limits the application to
everyday situation where road links are operating in between these two extremities. Also, the aspects
of this reliability are less useful to the road users than the transport system planners. This limitation,
further led to the development of various network reliability measures such as travel time reliability,
capacity reliability, parking reliability etc. Out of the various network reliability measures, travel time
reliability is considered as a useful tool for the road users as well as for the public transit system
planners. Since 1990, network reliability has been prominent research topic in transport planning
in Japan, especially after the Kobe earthquake of 1990. In its immediate aftermath, measures have
been undertaken on Japanese road network aimed at providing enhanced connectivity and reliability.
Travel Time Reliability concept was introduced by Asakura (Asakura and Kashiwadani 1991) by
considering selected network of roads in Japan. It was defined as the probability that the trip between
a given Origin - Destination (O-D) pair can be made with a certain degree of reliability under varying
time periods of the day and specified Level of Service. This measurement is found to be useful while
evaluating network performance under normal daily flow variations and various uncertainties.
In this regard, travel time reliability is an important attribute of urban transportation
services affecting choice of mode and route of travel. It is a measure of a roadway service quality
in transport network. Reliability by its nature implies about the certainty or stability of travel time
whereby it eliminates uncertainty for travelers in the sense that the travelling public does not have
to travel with any degree of uncertainty in respect of the probable / reliable time of arrival at their
respective destinations. This analogy is applicable to a large extent on the urban and interurban
carriageways and their characteristics are discussed in the succeeding sections.
would get influenced due to merging or diverging traffic joining from the adjoining network.
Moreover, the candidate road section should not have influence due to any form of roadside friction
(like the influence of on street parking, kerb side bus stops) and should not have any influence due to the
presence of any sharp horizontal curves and steep vertical gradients. The length of the interrupted
section is expected to be 1.5 km to 3 km. The location of controlled intersection is at least 500 m away
from the start and the end points of the study section. Figure 10.2 presents the typical interrupted
flow section of an urban arterial corridor considered in this manual.
performance under normal daily flow variations and various uncertainties. If route travel
time “t” is the random variable, travel time reliability can be expressed as the probability
that the trip can be finished within a given period of time or within the acceptable travel time
‘T’. Mathematically, this is explained in Equations 10.1 and 10.2. Figure 10.4 illustrates the
definition of travel time reliability (Ravi Sekhar 2008).
• Coefficient of Variation: It is the ratio of standard deviation to the average travel time which
is given in Equation 10.3.
Standard Deviation
Coefficient of Variation = (CV) ——————— x 100 % Equation 10.3
Average Travel Time
• 95th Percentile Travel Time: Simplest measure of travel time reliability is the 95th percentile
travel time for specific travel routes or trips, which indicates the condition of delay during
travel.
• Buffer Time: It represents the extra time (buffer) to ensure on-time arrival for most of the
times. This extra time is added in order to account for any unexpected delay. It is calculated as
the difference of planning time and average travel time.
• Buffer Time Index (BTI): The buffer time index is the ratio of buffer time to average travel
time and it is expressed in terms of percentage as presented in Equation 10.4.
95th Percentile Trvel Time–Average Travel Time
Buffer Time Index (BTI) = ————————————————— Equation 10.4
Average Travel Time
For example, a buffer time index of 40 percent means that a traveler should have cushion of
an additional 12 minutes for a 30-minute average peak trip time and ensure on time arrival for 95
percent of the time i.e. travel time reliability.
• Planning Time Index (PTI): This index represents the amount of total time a traveler should
have to ensure on time arrival. It also represents the extra time that is included by most of the
travelers when planning peak period trips as given in Equation 10.5.
95th Percentile Trvel Time
Planning Time Index (PTI) = ————————— Equation 10.5
Free Flow Travel Time
All measurement indices are developed based on distribution of travel time. Figure 10.5
represents an idealized normal distribution of travel time with different measurements imposed on
distribution (FHWA 2006).
the Level of Service (LOS) of the candidate test sections considered in this study. The study envisages
the inclusion of road sections falling under Plain Terrain only i.e. average Rise and Fall not exceeding
15 m/per km.
10.6 METHODOLOGY
This section presents the detailed methodology adopted for travel time reliability analysis
for uninterrupted and interrupted urban arterial roads and interurban highway corridor. The
methodology adopted for the estimation of travel time reliability measures and development of LOS
based on reliability measures is depicted in the form a flow chart in Figure 10.7.
Travel Time
Reliability
Travel Time
Reliability
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
hours in a day i.e. 7 am to 11 am and 4 pm to 8 pm) have been used, which included data collected on
1 working day as well as non-working day. As such, the following typical data are to be collected for
performing TTR:
• Classified Traffic Volume data for every 5-minute interval at entry point of the test section.
• Vehicular License plate data for 3 vehicle types, namely Car, Bus/Truck and 2-Wheeler coupled
with data pertaining to time of entry and time of exit along the test section.
• Speed of the individual vehicle data at entry point of corridor / segment on defined trap
length (of 50 to 60 m) considering all the vehicle types.
Step- 2: Travel Time Estimation
License plate matching technique has been considered for collecting the travel time data in
the study sections. In the absence of ITS data, video cameras are to be installed at a vantage point
both at entry and exit locations of the study sections in such a way that the license plates would be
distinctly visible. This technique consists of collection of vehicle license plate numbers and arrival
times at entry and exit points of the section, matching the license plate between entry and exit points
and computing travel time from the difference in arrival times.
Step 3: Estimation of Travel Time Reliability Measures
The following travel time reliability parameters have been considered in the present study:
• 95th Percentile Travel Time:
• Buffer Time Index (BTI):
• Planning Time Index (PTI)
Step-4: Travel Time Reliability with respect to traffic volume:
Volume to Capacity (V/C) ratio is used and reliability measures at different V/C ratios are
estimated based on field collected data.
Step-5: Performance Evaluation of Study Section
The classification of Travel Time Reliability measures is carried out for defining the Level of
Service (LOS) thresholds on urban street facilities as well as interurban highways based on travel
speed as a percentage of free flow speed.
Figure 10.8: Average Travel Time and Standard Deviation (SD) on Study Corridors
Figure 10.10: Planning Time and Buffer Time Comparisons among Study Corridors
Figure 10:11: Planning Time Index and Buffer Time Index on Study Corridors
Table 10.2: TTR LOS based on Planning Time (PT) and Buffer Time (BT)
(in seconds/km)
Table 10.3: TTR LOS based on Planning Time Index and Buffer Time Index
The day to day travel time variation has been analyzed and coefficient of variation of travel
time on typical route is presented in Figure 10.13. These heat maps illustrate travel time variability
based on coefficient of variation of travel time for the different days of the week. The maps have been
developed by considering two week data and a 30-min departure time window. All dark grey areas
depict unreliable service times. These reliability maps can be very useful to the operator to identify
the unreliable periods for different days and hence improvements can be proposed accordingly.
Table 10.4: LOS based Travel Time and Travel Time Variation (TTV) for BRTS
10.15 R
ELIABILITY BASED LOS FOR INTERRUPTED 6-LANE DIVIDED
ARTERIAL CORRIDOR USING TWO-WHEELER TRAVEL TIME
Travel time data is collected through probed vehicular runs for six-lane divided carriageway
along Gauravpath Road of Surat city of Gujarat. GPS fitted on the motorized two-wheeler has been
used as the probe vehicle and several runs (8 runs each in morning and evening period) has been
conducted along the selected 3.9-kilometer corridor during morning as well as evening hours. From
spot speed data of GPS, travel time data for every 10-m segment was extracted and then, reliability
indices have been determined. Speed and flow data of the selected corridor is considered from the
study of Vikas Reddy (2014) and relationship models between two-wheeler space mean speed and
stream speed has been developed. Reliability based LOS thresholds estimated have been depicted in
Tables 10.7 and 10.8.
Table 10.6: Reliability LOS based on CV, PT, BT and PTI for Two Wheelers
10.16
RELIABILITY BASED LOS FOR INTERRUPTED 4-LANE DIVIDED
URBAN CORRIDOR USING CAR TRAVEL TIME
Study stretch of 2 km is selected between Panchavati Circle and Sardar Stadium Paanch Rasta
circle in Ahmedabad city. The study stretch is located on CG (Chimanlal Girdharlal) Road. The study
stretch comprises of three intersections, out of which one is major intersection at Swastik Char Rasta.
The study stretch is selected based on reconnaissance survey for carrying out travel time reliability
study on cars. Traffic direction leading towards Sardar Stadium Paanch Raasta is selected for the study.
Travel time data is collected from registration number plate matching using video graphic technique.
Travel time data of cars is collected for two days for a duration of 8 hours in a day which included
(one-week day and one weekend day). Reliability based LOS are presented in Tables 10.7.
10.17.2 LOS based on PT and PTI for car on urban interrupted section
Car travel time data has been collected along a 2 km four lane divided interrupted road
segment in one of the Indian cities. Travel time data on a particular week day was collected for six
hours (9 AM to 3 PM) through videography method. Extracted travel time data through license plate
matching technique for each one-hour time interval is given in the following table. Estimate LOS
based on PT and PTI.
Synod. Hour of the day Travel time (in minutes) samples
1 9 AM to 10 AM 7.52, 6.53, 3.95, 9.62, 3.67, 5.68, 4.83
2 10 AM to 11 AM 7.07, 4.63, 4.58, 5.03
3 11 AM to 12 PM 6.07, 6.07, 6.48
4 12 PM to 1 PM 4.18, 9.22, 4.55, 4.37, 6.18, 6.37, 6.37, 2.22
5 1 PM to 2 PM 4.30, 6.10, 5.75, 5.88, 7.12, 5.73
6 2 PM to 3 PM 6.17, 6.82, 6.20, 7.63, 6.50, 6.13
*Small number of samples is furnished for illustrative purposes
Free flow travel time for the selected road segment during free flow conditions is observed
as 2.4 minutes.
Solution:
• For each of the 1-hour time intervals, 90th percentile travel time, 10th percentile travel time,
95th percentile travel time has been calculated as shown in the following table.
• Thereafter, all percentile travel times has been normalized to travel time per km by dividing
the percentile travel time values by total length of road segment, which is 2 km as given in
this example.
• PT has been calculated as difference between the 90th percentile and 10th percentile travel
times for each of the 1-hour time interval.
• PTI has been calculated based on definitions mentioned in Equation 10.5.
• LOS based on PT and PTI has been determined using thresholds given in Table 10.2 and Table
10.3.
S.No. Hour of the day PT (minutes) PTI LOS based on PT and PTI
1 9 AM to 10 AM 2.26 1.87 B
2 10 AM to 11 AM 0.93 1.41 A
3 11 AM to 12 PM 0.17 1.34 A
4 12 PM to 1 PM 1.81 1.71 B
5 1 PM to 2 PM 0.80 1.43 A
6 2 PM to 3 PM 0.54 1.55 A
REFERENCES
1. Ankit Kathuria, Parida M and Ravi Sekhar Ch (2017) “Route performance evaluation of a closed
bus rapid transit system using GPS data”, Current Science, Vol. 112, No. 8, pp. 1642 - 1652.
2. Asakura, Y and Kashiwadani. M. (1991) “Road Network Reliability Caused by Daily Fluctuation
of Traffic Flow”, Proceedings of the 19th PTRC, Summer Annual Meeting in Brighton, pp. 73-84.
3. Billnton, R and Ronald N. Allan (1992) “Reliability Evaluation of Engineering System Concepts
and Techniques”, 2nd Edition, Plenum Press, New York.
4. FHWA Report (2006) “Travel Time Reliability: Making it there on time, All the Time”, US
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Web http://www.ops.fhwa.
dot.gov/publications/tt_reliability/index.htm>.
5. Highway Capacity Manual (2010), 6th edition. Transportation Research Board, Washington DC,
USA.
6. Godavarthi G.R, Ravi Sekhar.Ch, Velmurugan S (2014) “Measuring the Performance of Bus Rapid-
Transit Corridors Based on Volume by Capacity Ratio”, Journal of Transportation Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 140, Issue 10, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000698, pp. 1 to 12.
7. Ravi Sekhar Chalumuri (2008) “Measuring Travel Time Reliability Road Transportation System”,
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation submitted to Graduate School of Science and Technology,
Kobe University, Kobe, Japan.
8. Vikas Reddy (2014) “Dynamic Equivalency factor of Mixed Traffic Stream for Urban Arterial
Midblock”, Unpublished Master’s Thesis submitted to Department of Civil Engineering, SVNIT
Surat, 2014.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Akhilesh Chepuri (2015) “Study of Travel Time Variability on Bus Routes in Mysore City”,
Unpublished Master’s Thesis submitted to Department of Civil Engineering, SVNIT Surat, 2015.
2. Akhilesh Chepuri, Sanskruti Joshi, Shriniwas S. Arkatkar, Gaurang Joshi, (2016) “Travel
Time Reliability Analysis on Selected Bus Routes in India: A Case Study in Mysore City”, A
paper presented and published at the 14th World Conference on Transport Research Society
(WCTRS-2016) held during 10th to16th July, 2016 at Shanghai.
3. Amol Wagh, Akhilesh Chepuri, Shriniwas S. Arkatkar, Gaurang Joshi (2015) “Study of travel time
variability using two-wheeler probed data - A case study of urban arterial in Surat”, A paper
pubslished in the Proceedings of the 3rd Conference of Transportation Research Group of India
(CTRG 2015) held at Kolkata.
4. MATLAB (2007) MATLAB and Simulink for Technical computing software, Math works
Incorporation, USA.
5. SHRP-2:L08 (2012), “Incorporation of Travel Time Reliability in to the Highway Capacity
Manual”.