CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A.

Taday, MD-MPA V

however, because of the extreme conditions on space, the life

BIOLOGY review 
forms did not survive
________________ ⟶ first life form on earth was formed under the
Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA Level V
Bicol University – College of Medicine sea and mostly dependent on a sulphur food chain
 _______________________________ ⟶ life has no beginning and
BIOLOGY no end; life has been here right from the very beginning of time
 Came from Greek words “bio” means  ____________________________________________ ⟶ life originated
“life”, and “logos” means “study”, natural spontaneously from non-living things
science concerned with the study of life  _________________________ ⟶ also known as the Naturalistic /
and living organisms, including structure,
Physico-Chemical / Cosmological Theory, heavenly bodies,
function, growth, evolution, distribution, &
including the earth, originated from the _______________ of a hot
taxonomy
rotating ball of gas and eventually life was formed from the
BRANCHES: chemical evolution of different compounds present in the
_______________ ⟶ study of structure and functions of plants primitive earth
_______________ ⟶ study of structure and functions of animals
_______________ ⟶ study of classification & naming of living organisms
_______________ ⟶ study of forms and structures of organisms
_______________ ⟶ interaction among organisms with the environment
_______________ ⟶ heredity and transmission of traits from parents
CELL BIOLOGY
_______________ ⟶ changes taking place in organisms through time
_______________ ⟶ study of cell structures and functions
_______________ ⟶ organisms that live in any other body of water
_______________ ⟶ study of chemical composition of living organisms
_______________ ⟶ study of microorganisms
_______________ ⟶ study of single-celled organisms or protozoa
_______________ ⟶ science of the development of an embryo
_______________ ⟶ various structures and functions of living beings

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:
M______________ ⟶ an action by an organism or part of an organism causing GENERAL CONCEPTS:
a change of position or place  All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane.
 The semifluid substance within the membrane is the cytosol,
R______________ ⟶ chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient
containing the organelles.
molecules and release energy for metabolism
 All cells contain chromosomes that have genes in the form of
S______________ ⟶ ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external DNA.
environment and to make appropriate responses  All cells also have ribosomes, tiny organelles that make proteins
G______________ ⟶ permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in using the instructions contained in genes.
cell number or cell size or both  A major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is
the location of chromosomes.
R ______________ ⟶ processes that make more of the same kind of organism
 Eukaryotic cells are generally much bigger than prokaryotic cells.
E______________ ⟶ removal from organisms of the waste products of  Larger organisms do not generally have larger cells than smaller
metabolism (chemical reactions in cells including respiration), toxic organisms—simply more cells.
materials and substances in excess of requirements  The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to
N ______________ ⟶ taking in of materials for energy, growth and development prokaryotes is __________________________: the presence of
membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic
 All living things are made up of cells; _______ – the basic unit of life
activities take place
 Living things are highly organized. _______________ – parts of living
things are arranged in a particular way
CLASSIFICATION OF CELL:
METHOD OF BIOLOGY ⟶ _______________ 1. _______________ ⟶ made up of only one cell
1. Identification of the problem 2. _______________ ⟶ made up of many cells
2. Gathering of data or information
3. Formulation of hypothesis TYPES OF CELL:
 ______________ ⟶ came from
4. Experimentation or testing the hypothesis
5. Analysis and interpretation of data and results the Greek word “pro” means
6. Generalization or formulation of conclusion “_____”, and “karyon” means
“nucleus”, cells without a true
THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE:
nucleus, unicellular, were the
 _________________________ ⟶ based on the book of Genesis in
first form of life on Earth
the Bible, life is believed to have been created by the God
 ______________ ⟶ came from the Greek word “eu” means
 _____________________ ⟶ first form of life might have reached
“_____”, and “karyon” means “nucleus”, with a true nucleus, can
the earth by accident from some sources in the universe;
be unicellular (protozoan) or multicellular (fungi, animals, plants)

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CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

BASIC CELL STRUCTURE

____________________________ ⟶ molecular bilayer of phospholipids
with the proteins arranged at random outer half, inner half of the lipid,
or extended entirely through the bilayer, called as the fluid-mosaic
model as proposed by ____________ and _______________ in 1972
(contains 1 hydrophilic head and 2 hydrophobic tails)

 _______________________  “Shipping & Receiving Center”, process

and package the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that
are synthesized by the cell

FUNCTIONS:

 _________________  “Powerhouse of the Cell”, Sites of cellular

respiration, metabolic process that uses O2 to drive ATP generation by
extracting energy from sugars, fats, other fuels

 ______________  semifluid mixture of water, sugars, ions, and proteins,

which holds suspended particles
 _____________________  semifluid mixture of water, sugars, ions, and
proteins, which holds suspended particles

PROKARYOTE MAIN AND SPECIAL STRUCTURES:  _________________  “Capture of Light Energy”, Membrane-closed
 __________  surrounds the plasma membrane of most prokaryotes organelles that function in photosynthesis or storage in plants and
 __________  sticky polysaccharides, slime layer that helps adhere to algae
many types of surfaces a. Chloroplasts  green pigments
b. Chromoplasts  carotenoid pigments
 ___________  slender cellular structures used for motion
c. Amyloplasts  unpigmented plastids
 _______  protein filaments which helps cling or move across surfaces

EUKARYOTE MAIN AND SPECIAL STRUCTURES:

 ___________  “Control Center”, coordinates all activities of the cell,
contains most of the genes in a eukaryotic cell, directs protein synthesis
by synthesizing messenger RNA (mRNA)
a. _______________  a region of densely stained fibers and granules adjoining
chromatin, where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized and assembled with
proteins from the cytoplasm to form ribosomal subunits
b. ______________________________  semifluid interior portion, and is more  _________________  “Digestive Compartments”, membranous sac of
viscous than the cytoplasm hydrolytic enzymes that many eukaryotic cells use to digest
c. _____________________  allows the transport of molecules across the
nuclear envelope (hydrolyze) macromolecules
d. __________________________________  double lipid bilayer membrane which
surrounds the genetic material and nucleolus in eukaryotic cells
e. ____________  name for all the DNA with associated proteins

 ___________  “Biosynthetic Factory”, serves as channel for protein

production, transports lipids and membrane protein
a. _____________  synthesis of __________, metabolism of carbohydrates,
________________ of drugs and poisons, and storage of ___________________
b. _____________  many cells secrete proteins that are produced by
ribosomes attached to rough ER, ______________________________for the cell

 ___________  “Protein Factories”, spherical bodies that may be

ATTACHED to the ER or FREE in the cytoplasm, the site for protein
synthesis

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CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

 _________________  “Oxidation Experts”, Specialized metabolic

compartment bounded by a single membrane, contain enzymes that
remove hydrogen atoms from various substrates and transfer them to
oxygen (O2), producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a by-product
 _________________  “Diverse Maintenance Compartments”, Large
vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi apparatus
Vacuolar membrane is selective in transporting solutes; as a
result, the solution inside differs in composition from the cytosol
 _________________  “Support and Motility”, Plays major role in
organizing structures and activities of the cell, provides shape of the cell,
involved in cellular division
a. ____________________  found throughout the cytoplasm, involved in
maintaining structure of the cell
b. ____________________________  cytoskeletal components found in metazoan
cells, “intermediate” because their average diameter is between those of
narrower microfilaments (actin) and wider myosin filaments found in myocytes COMPARISON BETWEEN EUKARYOTE AND PROKARYOTE:
c. ____________________  the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton, a structure
PARAMETER EUKARYOTE PROKARYOTE
found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
Nucleus Present Absent

Genetic Recombination

Lysosomes and
Present Absent
Peroxisomes
Microtubules Present Absent or rare
ER Present Absent
Mitochondria Present Absent
Cytoskeleton Present May be absent
Ribosomes Larger Smaller
Golgi Apparatus

Chloroplasts

 Microtubules grow out from a CENTROSOME, a region that is often

located near the nucleus Microscopic in size;
 Within the centrosome is a pair of CENTRIOLES, each composed of 9 sets membrane bound;
Submicroscopic in size,
usually arranged as
of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring Flagella composed of only one
nine doublets
 CELL WALL OF PLANTS  Protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and fiber
surrounding two
prevents excessive uptake of water, *also seen in prokaryotes, fungi, singlets

and some unicellular eukaryotes Permeability of Nuclear

Membrane
CELL JUNCTIONS:
 _________________  perforations in the cell walls serves as channels that Cell Wall
connect cells, connections unify most of the plant into one living
continuum

ENERGY FLOW AND CHEMICAL RECYCLING IN ECOSYSTEMS

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CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

CELLULAR FUNCTIONS glucose to attain ATP resulting to NADH, aerobic conditions

 _________________  also known as _________________, process by which produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate
green plants convert light energy into chemical energy, considered to b. ______________________________  serves as junction in connecting
be the most important chemical process on earth glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondrion, pyruvic acid split into acetyl group and CO2 with
the production of NADH, end-product is acetyl coenzyme A
c. _____________  also called tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) or
citric acid cycle, occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion, utilizes
the acetyl group, yields most of the total ATP, reduces to NADH and
FADH2
d. _______________________  series of carries that accept electrons
from NADH and FADH2 , occurs in the cristae of the mitochondrion,
 _________________  usually broad, flat and thin to ensure the exposure
energy is used to produce ATP, final electron acceptor is oxygen
of all cells to light
a. _________  small interconnected sacks which contain the
membranes that the light reactions of photosynthesis take place
on, contains important protein complexes which carry out the light
reactions of photosynthesis
b. ___________________  stack of thylakoids linked by helical stromal
thylakoids
c. ______________  protein-rich, alkaline, aqueous fluid within the
inner chloroplast membrane and outside of the thylakoid space
 _________________________________  LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION, takes
place at the _________ (grana) of chloroplasts, needs light, chlorophyll
and water to produce ATP and NADPH, and 02 as by-product
 _______________________________  LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION, takes
place at the _________ of chloroplasts, chemical reactions that convert
carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose, three phases to the
light-independent reactions: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and
 _________________________________  refers to the type of respiration
ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration
that takes place in the absence of oxygen, takes place in the
ATP AS UNIVERSAL CURRENCY cytoplasm, carried out in bacteria, yeasts, some prokaryotes, and
 Type of NUCLEIC ACID muscle cells, produces 2 ATP molecules, pyruvate is reduced into
 An ENERGY CARRIER considered to be common ____________ (in bacteria and animals) or _________ (in yeast)
energy currency in a cell
 HIGH ENERGY BONDS: PHOSPHODIESTER BONDS CELLULAR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 ___________________  process in which a gene’s DNA is used as a
 ATP is a stable molecule d/t its hydrolysis has a high
template for synthesis of a specific protein
activation energy
THREE TYPES OF RNA:
 Consists of a molecule of adenosine (adenine + ribose) to which three
a. _______________________ directs the synthesis of a protein
phosphate groups are attached b. _______________________  joins with ribosomal proteins to make
 __________________________________________  moves electrons from ribosomes
c. _______________________  binds to amino acid and holds it in
reduced coenzymes toward O2, this produces a proton gradient and a place on a ribosome until it is incorporated into a protein during
transmembrane potential translation
 ________________________________  set of the metabolic reactions and  _______________________  enzyme catalyzes transcription of DNA
processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert  _____________  segment of DNA where transcription begins
biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
and then release waste products  During transcription, bases pair in a complementary manner:
a. Bases cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) in the DNA
b. Template pair with guanine, cytosine, and adenine (A), in the RNA

 _______________  transcription of the

DNA strand ends at another special
nucleotide sequence
 __________  regions within a gene do
 _________________________  happens in the presence of oxygen, about not code for proteins
2900 KJ of energy is released as a result of the above chemical reaction  __________  regions that do code for
segments of a protein
SUB-PATHWAYS:
a. ______________  takes place in the cytoplasm of every living cell,
 ___________________________ enzymes
that cut out the introns and splice
function with or without the presence of oxygen, breakdown of
together the exons

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CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

 __________________  the process by which a parent cell divides into

two or more daughter cells
 __________________  which is binary fission, a form of asexual
reproduction and cell division used by all prokaryotes (bacteria and
archaebacteria), and some organelles within eukaryotic organisms
(mitochondria)

TYPES OF CELLS:
a. Somatic Cells  refer to all body cells except the sex cells, contain
_____________ number of chromosomes
b. Sex Cells  refers to the gametes, the sperm cell and the egg cell,
contain _______ number of chromosomes

 __________  the cyclical process of growth and mitosis, consists of

mitosis (____%) and interphase (____%)
 ____________  the cell grows by producing proteins and
cytoplasmic organelles, copies its chromosomes, and prepares for
cell division

 Interphase has three sub-phases: the G1 phase (“first gap”), the S

phase (“synthesis”), and the G2 phase (“second gap”)
 During all three sub-phases, the cell grows by producing proteins
and cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and endoplasmic
reticulum

SUB-PHASES:
1. G1 period (________________________)  growth of the cell, RNA and protein
synthesis takes place, building of new protoplasm and cytoplasmic
organelles, enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis are created
2. S period (_____________________)  most critical period, DNA synthesis and
replication take place, RNA and protein synthesis continue
3. G2 period (________________________)  completion of DNA synthesis and
replication, continuation of RNA and protein synthesis, prepares the cell to
undergo mitosis

 ________________  somatic cell division, which is a process that

produces two daughter cells with the same quantity and quality of
_______________ as the parent cell, karyokinesis and cytokinesis
emerges
SUB-PHASES:
1. ______________  phase of preparation, two round objects above the nucleus
are the centrosomes, chromatin is condensing into chromosomes, spindle
poles are created, nucleolus no longer visible and nuclear membrane start to
disappear
2. ______________  the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate, or the
equator of the cell, centromeres of each chromosomes are attached to the
______________
3. ______________  phase of migration, chromosomes split and the kinetochore
microtubules shorten, __________________ is created, cytokinesis begins
4. ______________  phase of reconstruction, the decondensing chromosomes
surrounded by nuclear membranes, daughter chromosomes finally reached
the opposite poles of the cell, cytokinesis completed resulting into two
daughter cells

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CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

a. _____________  a spindle apparatus forms and attaches to

kinetochores of each sister chromatid, spindle fibers from one
pole attach to the kinetochore of one sister chromatid, and
those of the other pole attach to kinetochore of the other sister
chromatid
b. _____________  the sister chromatids are arranged at the
metaphase plate, because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two
sister chromatids of each chromosome are no longer
genetically identical
c. _____________  the centromeres of sister chromatids separate
and two newly individual chromosomes travel toward opposite
poles
d. _____________  the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles,
nuclei form around the chromosomes, which begin expanding,
and cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm, at the end of meiosis,
there are four haploid daughter cells

 _________________  special type of cell division necessary for sexual

reproduction in eukaryotes, such as animals, plants and fungi,
reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid
 MEIOSIS I – separates homologous chromosomes
a. _____________  occupies more than 90% of the time required
for meiosis
• ___________  replicated chromosomes (leptotene) appear as long
slender threads
• ___________  pairing of homologous chromosomes (synapsis), the pair
is referred to as bivalent or tetrad (zygotene)
• ___________  chromosomes continue to become shorter and thicker
(pachytene), a series of exchange of genetic material can occur
(crossing-over), between specific regions of the homologous
chromosomes
• ___________  the tetrad tends to repel each other (diplotene),
crossing-over have taken place, the area of contact between two
chromatids become distinct (chiasma)
• ___________  coiling and contraction of the chromosomes continue,
the bivalents migrate close to the nuclear membrane, the nucleolus
disappears and the nuclear membrane begins to break down, spindle
apparatus begins to form SYSTEMATICS
b. _____________  the tetrads are all arranged at the metaphase  _____________  study of diversity or organisms at all levels of
plate, with one chromosome facing each pole, microtubules organization, includes the taxonomy and phylogeny of organisms
from one pole are attached to the kinetochore of one  _____________  deals with the identification and nomenclature of
chromosome of each tetrad, while those from the other pole organisms, began with the Ancient Greeks and Romans
are attached to the other
 _____________  the evolutionary history of a group of organisms, the
c. _____________  the homologous chromosomes separate, one
scientific basis of classification
chromosome moves toward each pole, guided by the spindle
 ________________________  branching pattern often matches how
apparatus
d. __________________________  movement of homologous taxonomists have classified groups of organisms nested within more
chromosomes continues until there is a haploid set at each inclusive groups
pole, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids,  ____________________  approach to systematics, wherein a common
cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously, by the same ancestry is the primary criterion used to classify organisms
mechanisms as mitosis  ____________  each of which includes an ancestral species and all
 MEIOSIS II  separates sister chromatids of its descendants

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CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

TOTAL
STRUCTURAL METHOD OF TYPES OF NAMED
KINGDOM SPECIES
ORGANIZATION NUTRITION ORGANISMS SPECIES
(estimate)

Small, simple
single prokaryotic cell Absorb Bacteria, blue-green
MONERA (nucleus is not enclosed by food and/or algae (cyanobacteria), 4,000 1,000,000
a membrane); some form photosynthesize and spirochetes
chains or mats

Large, single eukaryotic cell Absorb, ingest,

PROTISTA (nucleus is enclosed by a and/or Protozoans and algae
80,000 600,000
membrane); some form photosynthesize of various types
_________________ food

1,500,000
Multicellular filamentous Funguses, molds,
FUNGI /
form with _________ food mushrooms, yeasts, 72,000
MYCOTA
specialized eukaryotic cells mildews, and smuts

Multicellular form with 320,000

Mosses, ferns, woody
PLANTAE / specialized eukaryotic cells; _____________
and non-woody 270,000
METAPHYTA do not have their own food
flowering plants
means of ______________

Multicellular form with Sponges, worms, 9,812,298

ANIMALIA / specialized eukaryotic cells; insects, fish,
_________ food 1,326,239
METAZOA have their own means of amphibians, reptiles,
locomotion birds, and mammals
 _____________________  “Father of Taxonomy”, published several
books and papers including Systema Naturae, Fundamenta
Botanica, and Genera Plantarum, introduced the use of binomial
 _________________________  based on phylogenetic evolution and
system of nomenclature for all species, credited with naming
molecular data, arranged in phyletic sequence divided into three
approximately 12,000 plants and animals
domains / empire – bacteria, archaea, eukarya
 _____________________  internationally agreed system in which the 1. Domain 1 – Bacteria
SCIENTIFIC NAME of organism made up of two parts showing – genus a. Kingdom 1 – ___________ (typical bacteria)
and species 2. Domain 2 – Archaea
 ________________________  used to identify unfamiliar organisms, b. Kingdom 2 – ___________ (archaic bacteria)
simplify the process of identification, each key is made up of pairs of 3. Domain 3 – Eukarya
c. Kingdom 3 – ___________ (ancient “animals”)
contrasting features (dichotomous means two branches), starting
d. Kingdom 4 – ___________ (protozoans)
with quite general characteristics and progressing to more specific
e. Kingdom 5 – ___________ (brown algae)
ones f. Kingdom 6 – ______________________ (red and green algae
 ____________  the group of organisms in a particular categoryEach and plants)
category could be subdivided into three additional categories as in g. Kingdom 7 – ______________________
superorder, order, suborder, infraorder h. Kingdom 8 – ______________________

KINGDOM SCHEME:

 _____________________  unnatural and not based on phylogeny,

criteria used in classification are types of cells (prokaryote and
eukaryote), mode of nutrition (autotrophs and heterotrophs), motility,
and life cycles
a. Monera
MICROBIOLOGY
b. Protista  Study of ______________________, unicellular, multicellular, or acellular,
c. Fungi / Mycota
encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, mycology,
d. Plantae / Metaphyta
e. Animalia / Metazoa protozoology, and bacteriology

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CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

 Classified according to their structure, chemical composition, and  ________________________  either DNA or RNA but not both, may
biosynthetic and genetic organization contain various proteins (enzymes) needed to produce viral DNA or
RNA

VIROLOGY
VIRUSES:
 Vary in their shape and structure
 ALL viruses have a central core of RNA or DNA
 Have no nucleus, cytoplasm, cell organelles or cell membrane, though some
forms have a membrane outside their protein coats
 Are not cells and are not visible with the light microscope
 Are obligate intracellular parasites
 Contain no organelles or biosynthetic machinery, except for a few enzymes
 Are called bacteriophages (or phages ) if they have a bacterial host

VIROIDS:
 Are not cells and are not visible with the light microscope.
 Are obligate intracellular parasites
 Are single-stranded, covalently closed, circular RNA molecules that exist as
base-paired, rod-like structures
 Cause plant diseases but have not been proven to cause human disease,
although the RNA of the hepatitis D virus (HDV) is viroid-like

PRIONS:
 Are infectious particles associated with subacute progressive, degenerative
diseases of the central nervous system (e.g., Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease)
 Copurify with a specific _____________________ (PrP) that has a molecular
weight of 27 to 30 kDa. They are resistant to nucleases but are inactivated
with proteases and other agents that inactivate proteins
 Are altered conformations of a normal cellular protein that can
autocatalytically form more copies of itself

BACTERIOLOGY
KOCH’S POSTULATES: (P-IG-C-RS)
a. Suspected pathogen should be ____________ in all
cases of the disease and absent from healthy animals
b. Suspected pathogen should be ____________from a
disease host and GROWN in pure culture in vitro
c. Pure culture of suspected pathogen should _________ a
disease in a healthy animal
d. Suspected pathogen should be ____________from the
VIRAL STRUCTURES:
 ________________________  composed of protein sub-units, may be newly diseased animal and ________ as original
surrounded by an outer membranous envelope

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CADUCEUS |Review Center
 KINGDOM ARCHAEABACTERIA  lives on harsh environment
1. ______________  lives in the absence of oxygen
2. ____________________  lives only in high salt
concentration
3. __________________  lives in very acidic hot places like
hot springs
 KINGDOM EUBACTERIA  includes organisms that do not contain
well defined nuclei, they lack most organelles such as chloroplast,
mitochondria, and lysosomes, most abundant and most common
organisms on earth
TYPES OF BACTERIAL CELLS:
According to Shape:
a. ___________  sphere-shaped or globular in shape
b. ___________  cylindrical or rod-shaped
c. ___________  spiral or corkscrew-shaped
According to Composition of Cell Wall:
a. ________________ – with positive layer of murein in cell
which readily bind Gram’s stain, thick cell walls
b. ________________ – with no murein in cell wall, thinner cell
walls
9|Page
Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V
According to Toxin Formation:
According to Method of obtaining carbon and energy:
a. ___________  obtain carbon from CO, and energy from different
sources
b. ______________  obtain carbon from CO2 and energy from light
through photosynthesis
c. _________________  obtain carbon from CO2 and energy from
inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulphide
d. ______________  obtain carbon from organic molecules released
from decaying organisms or by preying on other bacteria and
energy from organic molecules
CHARACTERISTICS OF BACTERIA:
 Lack internal organization which is the distinctive feature of eukaryotic cell
 No membrane-bound nucleus and a system of endoplasmic reticulum
 Cytoplasm contains no internal compartments or organelles
 Have cell walls consisting of a network of peptidoglycan molecules
 Mode of division is binary fission
 _____________________  most diverse bacterial lineage, also include
some nitrogen fixers
 _____________________  are aggregates of bacterial cells that form
in soil and marine environments and the surface of medical implant
devices (e.g., prostheses), they enhance nutrient uptake and often
exclude antimicrobials
PROTOZOOLOGY
 _____________________________  with distinct nucleus surrounded by
nuclear membrane, contain complex organelles which contribute to
“plant-like” and “animal-like” characteristics, includes many lineages
of eukaryotic organisms
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTISTS:
 EUKARYOTES
 Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelle
 Most are UNICELLULAR, some are MULTICELLULAR or form colonies
 They differ in cellular STRUCTURE, mode of NUTRITION, and type of
REPRODUCTION
 May be plant-like, animal-like, or fungus-like
BIOLOGY | NMAT-Review
CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

1. PLANTLIKE PROTISTS (PHOTOSYNTHETIC) 3. FUNGUS-LIKE PROTISTS

a. EUGLENOPHYTA a. MYXOMYCOTA
 unicellular organisms with photosynthetic pigments,  slime molds produce large multinucleated masses
chlorophyll α and b  other times, they produce gametes, which fuse and
 ____________________ have flagella that protrude from a produce a diploid zygote to form a multinucleated mass
gullet and an eyespot that helps them respond to light  found in moist soil, decaying leaves, or logs in a damp forest
(_____________________)
 live in freshwater rich with organic material
b. DINOFLAGELLATA
MYCOLOGY
 unicellular organisms that live in marine and fresh
water CHRISTIAAN HENDRIK PERSOON
 with photosynthetic pigments, two flagella, and cell
 Was a _________________ who made additions to
walls that contain cellulose
Linnaeus' mushroom taxonomy
c. BACILLARIOPHYTA
 Born in ___________________ at the Cape of Good
 _____________ – non-motile, unicellular organisms with
Hope, but studied in Holland and Germany for his
cell walls made of silica
medical education
d. CHRYSOPHYTA
 Pioneering work was in the fungi, for which he
 includes the ___________________, cells are covered published several works, beginning with the Synopsis
by tiny scales of either silica or calcium carbonate
Methodica fungorum
e. CHLOROPHYTA
 The Persoonia is a genus of 98 species of shrubs and
 ______________________, unicellular with small trees
photosynthetic pigments  Origin of Persoon's botanical interest is _________________
 with flagella at some stage of their life  Earliest of his works was, published in three parts, in 1790, 1791, and 1793
f. PHAEOPHYTA
 _______________________, mostly multicellular, and
possess chlorophyll α, chlorophyll c, and  __________________  unicellular or multicellular forming filamentous
carotenoids for photosynthesis masses, does not have chloroplasts so they cannot make their own
 reproductive cells, both asexual zoospores and food, decomposes organic matter, one major difference is that
sexual gametes, are usually _____ fungal cells have cell walls that contain ____________, perform an
g. PHAEOPHYTA
essential role in the ______________________ of organic matter and
 _______________________, mostly multicellular, marine
have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange
seaweeds
 in addition to chlorophyll α & b, with red
photosynthetic pigments (___________)

2. ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS (NON-PHOTOSYNTHETIC)

a. ZOOMASTIGINA
 __________________, unicellular protozoans that move
by means of a flagellum
 others parasitic and cause disease such as African
sleeping sickness (__________)
b. RHIZOPODA
 type of amoeba that performs phagocytosis by
surrounding & engulfing food using pseudopods
("FALSE FEET")
c. CILIOPHORA
 ___________________, unicellular protozoans that move
around and feed using tiny hairs (________),
possesses two nuclei, an oral groove, contractile
vacuoles
d. SPOROZOA
 _____________________ causing malaria and
transmitted by Anopheles mosquito, non-motile,
parasitic spore-formers
 characterized by their lack of flagella and an
amoeboid body form
e. FORAMINIFERA
 unicellular protists produce CALCAREOUS TESTS
(SHELLS) with pores through which the projections of
the cytoplasm extend
f. METAMONADA
 some are parasites
 considered among the most primitive eukaryotes,
diverging from the others before mitochondria
appeared
 all of these groups are united by having flagella
or basal bodies

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 ___________  organisms that feeds on organic wastes and remains, 5. ________________________  only fungi that can break down
the typical label to a fungus ___________ in wood, and are important as decomposers in forest
habitats, during sexual reproduction club-shaped structures called
1. _________________  ubiquitous in lakes and soil, and as described
___________ produce spores
in several recent metagenomics studies, some form colonies with
hyphae, while others exist as single spherical cells
2. _________________  only 160 species have been identified to
date, the tips of the hyphae that push into plant root cells branch
into tiny treelike ARBUSCULES, more than 80% of all plant species
have such mutualistic partnerships with glomeromycetes

 Rust fungi are highly specialized parasites with several unique

3. ________________________  most diverse group, produce sexual
spores in __________, asexual reproduction involves production of
____________________ or _______________
ASCI ⟶ sexual spore-bearing cell produced in ascomycete fungi
a. ____________________________  contains the ______________,
which breaks open when the spores ripen and in this way
sets them free
b. ____________________________  has an elastic ring that
functions like a ________________, on ripening it briefly
expands and so lets the spores shoot out
c. ________________  brittle outer shell and a ________________,
when the spores are ripe, the shell splits open so that the
inner wall can take up water
d. _________________  mostly spherical in shape and they
have ___________________________________ at all
features, rust usually affects healthy and vigorously growing plants, so
the infection is limited to plant parts, such as leaves, petioles, tender
shoots, stem, fruits
 Most prominent medically important species, best known for causing
a severe form of ______________ and __________________ in people
with immuno-compromised state
6. ________________________ – imperfect because no sexual stage has
yet been observed
 FUNGI IMPERFECTI or IMPERFECT FUNGI
 Fungi which do not fit into the commonly established taxonomic
classifications of fungi that are based on biological species concepts
or morphological characteristics of sexual structures because their
sexual form of reproduction has never been observed
 This is because most fungi are classified based on characteristics of
the fruiting bodies and spores produced during sexual reproduction

BIOCHEMISTRY
4. ________________________  mainly _______________ living off plants
and animal remains, when germinates produces wind-blown
spores called ______________ or _________________

SAPROTROPHS ⟶ any organism that lives and feeds on dead

organic matter
 ZYGOSPORIA
 _____________ reproductive stage in the life cycle of many fungi and
protists, made from nuclear fusion of _______________ cells
 Remains ______________ while it waits for ______________________, such
as light, moisture, heat, or chemicals secreted by plants
 When the environment is ________________, the zygospore germinates,
______________ occurs, and haploid vegetative cells are released
 __________________ ⟶ smallest particle of matter non-divisible
by chemical means, composed of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus, and electrons outside the nucleus
 _______________________ ⟶ form when two or more atoms of the
same element reach with one another or combine with atoms
of another element

COMMON ELEMENTS IN LIVING THINGS

Most fungi have _________ as structural polysaccharide, while  __________________ ⟶ a pure substance which is made up of only
zygomycetes synthesize _____________. one kind of atom

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 __________________ ⟶ a pure substance which is made up of two or
more element
 _______________________ ⟶ the attractive force that binds atom
together to form molecules, determined by the electrons that
surround the nucleus, an atom may bond with another atom by
gaining, losing, or sharing electrons
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS:
 __________________ ⟶ electrons are shared, characteristic of most
chemicals in living things, smallest particles formed are called
molecules
 ______________ ⟶ an electron transferred from one atom to another
 ______________ ⟶ two atoms connected by a covalent bond may
exert different attractions for the electrons in the bond, producing
an unevenly distributed charge, an intermediate case between
ionic and covalent bonding, with one end of the molecule slightly
negatively charged and the other end slightly positively charged
 ______________ ⟶ when hydrogen combines with oxygen with
another electronegative atom, weak and can be easily formed or
broken, very important in biological system, important
determining the structure of DNA and proteins
 ______________ ⟶ relatively weak electric forces that attract neutral
molecules to one another in gases, in liquefied and solidified gases,
and in almost all organic liquids and solids
 _______________________ ⟶ always contain carbon and hydrogen,
atoms usually held together by covalent bond, usually composed of
long chains, usually associated with living things
_______________________ ⟶ compounds consist of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen (CHO), excellent for storing energy in living organisms and
are easily digested, soluble in water so it is easier to transport
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES:
1. _____________________ ⟶ simple sugar that is important source of
energy for the cells
a. _________________ ⟶ blood sugar or dextrose
b. _________________ ⟶ fruit sugar
c. _________________ ⟶ milk sugar
 Can be trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, or heptoses
(prefix according to _________________________________ - e.g.
trioses have three oxygen atoms)
 Can be an _________ or _________, depending on whether an
aldehyde group (-CHO) or keto group (>C=O) is present
 Can be a D (right) or L (left) isomer depending on the spatial
orientation of the –H and –OH groups attached to the carbon
atom adjacent to the terminal primary alcohol group; e.g. -
OH found in the right of the carbon adjacent to the terminal
ROH is a D isomer
 Can be a (+) or (-) isomer depending on whether the
monosaccharide rotates the plane of polarized light to the
right (+) or to the left (-)
2. _____________________ ⟶ combination of two monosaccharide
units, principle sugar transported throughout the bodies of land
plants
a. ___________ ⟶ milk sugar (glucose + galactose)
b. ___________ ⟶ malt sugar (glucose + glucose)
c. ___________ ⟶ table sugar (glucose + fructose)
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3. __________________________________ ⟶ sugars that are capable
of reducing (adding electrons, more negative) silver ions to free
silver and copper (II) ions to copper (I) ions
 Reducing power of these sugars are dependent on the
presence of aldehyde groups, an α-hydroxyketone group or
a hemiacetal structure
 Reagents used to detect reducing sugars: ________________,
________________, ________________, and ________________ ⟶
depend on the formation on copper (I) oxide precipitate to
indicate + reaction
 Glucose, galactose, fructose, lactose and maltose are
reducing sugars, but not sucrose
4. _____________________ ⟶ polymer of monosaccharide units
a. _________________ ⟶ structural material in plants
b. _________________ ⟶ energy storage in plants
c. _________________ ⟶ energy storage in animals
d. _________________ ⟶ Intermediate-size polysaccharide
in _______________________ ⟶ compounds consist of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, plus other elements such as sulfur,
iron, iodine, for growth and repair of tissues, component of the cell
membrane, acts as organic buffer, and
 All contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur
 Each amino acid has two functional groups, an amino group
(-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH).
 Amino acids are divided into three groups: ________________,
________________, and ________________.
 _______________________________________ ⟶ depend on the
position of –NH2 ; Only L-amino acids occur in proteins
 ________________________ ⟶ property of an amino acid which
can react either as an acid or as a base
 _________________ ⟶ form in which amino acids exist
PROTEIN STRUCTURE:
1. ______________________ ⟶ simple chain or sequence of AA
2. ______________________ ⟶ held together by hydrogen
bonding between the oxygen of the C=O and the hydrogen
and the hydrogen of the –N-H groups in the polypeptide
chains ; α-helix and β-pleated sheets; provide strength and
support; E.g. fibrous proteins such as collagen
3. ______________________ ⟶ held together by a variety of
interactions between AA side chains: (1) Hy-drogen bonding,
(2) Ionic bonding, and (3) Disulfide bonding; E.g. Insulin and
Myoglobin
4. ______________________ ⟶ complex protein linked by non-
covalent bonds; E.g. Hemoglobin
DENATURATION OF PROTEINS:
 Process that causes the loss of the protein’s natural conformation
without peptide bond hydrolysis, thus only applies to protein
structures beyond primary
 Loss of structure means loss of function of proteins
 Strong acids and bases disrupt the salt bridge bonds of tertiary
structures
 Heavy metal ions and alkaloidal reagents react with carboxylate
and amino groups and thereby disrupt the tertiary structures
 Alcohol & other polar solvents disturb hydrogen bonding patterns
BIOLOGY | NMAT-Review
CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

 Detergents, being surface-reactive agents, probably disrupt the _______________________ ⟶ composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
quaternary structure of protein aggregates oxygen with no definite ratio, and are insoluble in water
 Other denaturing agents: UV radiation, high temperatures,
 Water-insoluble, oily or greasy compounds that can be
mechanical action such as whip-ping or shaking
extracted from cells by nonpolar solvents such as ether,
TYPES OF PROTEINS: chloroform, or benzene
1. ____________________ ⟶ yields only amino acids when hydrolyzed  INSOLUBILITY: (1) Large size, (2) Lack of polar bonds or
2. ____________________ ⟶ polypeptides are arranged parallel charged groups
along a single axis to produce long fibers or sheets
TYPES OF PROTEINS:
a. ________________ ⟶ most abundant protein in vertebrates
1. ____________________
found in bones, cartilage and skin
 Three unsaturated fatty acids are essential for animal nutrition
b. ________________ ⟶ helical protein, principal component of
⟶ ____________________, _______________, and ______________
hair, skin and nails
(produces prostaglandins and leukotrienes)
c. _______________ ⟶ blood plasma responsible for blood
a. ________________ ⟶ esters of fatty acids and glycerol
clotting
b. ________________ ⟶ esters of (HMW) high-molecular-weight
d. ____________________ ⟶ actin and myosin, responsible for
fatty acids and high-molecular-weight alcohols
muscle contraction
2. ____________________ ⟶ composed of lipids found in combination
e. __________ ⟶ pleated sheet protein produced by silk moths
with other compounds
and spiders
a. ________________ ⟶ with protein
3. ____________________ ⟶ polypeptides are so tightly folded into
b. ________________ ⟶ yields alcohol other than glycerol, fatty
spherical or globular shapes
acids, a nitrogen-containing base, and a carbohydrate
a. __________ and __________ ⟶ soluble proteins in animal cells,
c. ________________ ⟶ yields glycerol,
blood serum, milk and eggs
phosphoric acid, fatty acids, and
b. __________ ⟶ the component of vertebrate blood used to
nitrogen-containing bases upon
transport oxygen
hydrolysis; they have hydrophilic
c. Enzymes, antibodies, and hormones
ends that interact with water
4. _________________________ ⟶ simple proteins in union with other
making them good components of
substances
membranes
a. ____________________ ⟶ with nucleic acids
3. _____________ ⟶ composed of four fused rings of carbon atoms
b. ____________________ ⟶ with carbohydrates
with functional groups attached
c. ____________________ ⟶ with fatty acids
 Possess a 17-carbon unit structure containing four fused rings
d. ____________________ ⟶ with pigments
which is known as the __________________

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_______________ ⟶ very large molecules that are composed of smaller

units called nucleotides, containing a carbohydrate molecule, with
pentose sugars ________________ in RNA, and ________________ in DNA),
a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing molecule (pyrimidine
and purine) because of its properties is a nitrogenous base

a. _________ ⟶ single strand important for protein synthesis,

contains ribose sugar Adenine paired with Uracil, Guanine
paired with Cytosine
b. _________ ⟶ important heredity material, Adenine paired with
Thymine, Guanine is paired with Cytosine

 ________________ ⟶ made up of either of the two parent bases -

purines and pyrimidines, and a sugar molecule
 _____________________ ⟶ consist of a purine or a pyrimidine base
linked to a ribose sugar which in turn linked to a phosphate group

d. _________________ ⟶ enzymes that catalyze cleavage of C—C,

_____________________________ ⟶ specific groups of atoms or bonds
within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical
reactions of those molecules
C—O, C—N and other covalent bonds by atom elimination,
generating double bonds
e. _________________ ⟶ enzymes that catalyze the joining together
(ligation) of two molecules in reactions coupled to the hydrolysis
of ATP
f. _________________ ⟶ enzymes that catalyze the joining together
(ligation) of two molecules in reactions coupled to the hydrolysis
of ATP

ENZYMES  Some enzymes _______________________________________________,

 Biologic polymers that catalyze the chemical reactions that make which give no hint of the associated enzyme reaction
life possible  Analysis of enzymes in blood plasma has played a central role in
 Presence and maintenance essential for the breakdown of the ___________________ of several disease processes
nutrients to supply energy and chemical building blocks  Many enzymes are ___________________ of blood, while others are
 Catalyze the conversion of one or more reactants released into plasma following ___________________
(___________________) into another one or more different
compounds (__________________________)
 Selectively channel substrates or reactants into useful pathways
EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY
 NOMENCLATURE:
1. __________________________ ⟶ most commonly used enzyme
names have the suffix “-ASE” attached to the substrate of the
reaction or to a description of the action performed
2. _____________________________ ⟶ an unambiguous system of
enzyme nomenclature in which each enzyme has a unique name
and code number that identify the type of reaction catalyzed
and the substrates involved
a. ___________________ ⟶ enzymes that catalyze oxidations
EVOLUTION ⟶ the change in the inherited characteristics of biological
and reductions
populations over successive generations
b. _______________ ⟶ enzymes that catalyze transfer of
moieties such as glycosyl groups CONCEPTS:
c. ___________________ ⟶ enzymes that catalyze hydrolytic  Characteristics of living things change with time, change in
cleavage of C—C, C—O, C—N and other covalent bonds characteristics of population over the course of many generations
 Change is directed by natural selection process, changes are in
the genetic make-up of the population

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EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION:
 _______ ⟶ a record of the history of life that shows that organisms
have changed over time
 ________________ ⟶ the study of the distribution of life forms shows
that organisms evolve in one locale and then spread to other
regions
 ____________________ ⟶ related organisms share a unity of plan
a. _____________________ ⟶ structures that are the same but
different function
b. _________________ ⟶ structures which have no importance
to organisms
c. _____________________ ⟶ structures that shows descent from
common ancestor
 _____________________ ⟶ related organisms develop similarly
 _____________________ ⟶ almost all living things use the same
basic biochemical molecules, including DNA, ATP, and many
identical or nearly identical enzymes
 ___________________________________________ ⟶ environment can
bring inherited traits, organisms evolved in response to their
environment, organisms develop adaptation to suit in
environment and it was passed from parents to offspring
 Acquired traits were inherited and passed on to offspring
 "LAW OF USE AND DISUSE," or, as we might say now, "USE IT OR
LOSE IT"
 ORGANIC EVOLUTION ⟶change in genetics of a population over
time or generations
LEVELS:
1. _______________ ⟶ small-scale genetic changes within the
populations
2. _______________ ⟶ large-scale results of genetic changes in
populations, including formation of new species and the
evolution of large scale trends seen across species in what
traits they have
 _______________ ⟶ the process where a species diverges into two
or more descendant species
 ______________ ⟶ the process that makes organisms better suited
to their habitat
 ______________ ⟶ Interactions between organisms can produce
both conflict and co-operation
 ______________ ⟶ disappearance of an entire species, appears to
be the ultimate fate of all species
 ARTIFICIAL SELECTION ⟶________________, intentional selection of
traits in a population of organisms
 Three main causes of evolutionary change:
1. _______________________
2. ___________________
3. __________________
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THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION ⟶ the mechanism for evolution,
caused by environmental selection of organism most fit to reproduce,
resulting in adaptation
Darwin elaborated his theory in a book entitled ON THE ORIGIN OF
SPECIES. In a nutshell, here's what Darwin observed:
a. Each species produces ________________________________________
__________________.
b. These offspring _______________ with one another
for the limited resources available to them.
c. Organisms in every population __________________.
d. The offspring with the most favorable traits or
variations are the most likely to survive and
therefore produce more offspring.
PRECONDITIONS FOR NATURAL SELECTION:
 Members of the population must have heritable variations
 After each generation, in the population, more individuals are
produced than can survive and reproduce
 Some individuals possessed adaptive characteristics giving them
greater chances for survival than any other individuals
RESULTS OF NATURAL SELECTION:
 Advance body organization and improve species
 Preserve and accumulate small-inherited modifications that are
profitable for the species
 Favored form increases in number and generally the less favored
decreases, become rare, and extinct
HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM:
 The shuffling of alleles that accompanies sexual reproduction
does not alter the genetic makeup of the population
 No matter how many times alleles are segregated into different
gametes and united in different combinations by fertilization, the
frequency of each allele in the gene pool will re-main constant
unless other factors are operating
 PRINCIPLES (For a population to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium)
1. _______________________
2. _______________________________
3. __________________
4. __________________
5. __________________
GENETIC DRIFT:
 The smaller the sample, the more likely that chance alone will
cause a deviation from an idealized result
 The frequencies of alleles will be more stable from one generation
to the next when a population is large
 In genetic drift, change events can cause allele frequencies to
fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next
 The smaller the population, the more impact genetic drift is likely to
have; an allele can be lost
 Two situations in which genetic drift can have a significant impact
on a population:
1. __________________________ ⟶ natural calamities that may kill
large numbers of individuals leaving a small population which
is unlikely to have the same genetic makeup as the original
population [Drastic reduction in population size]
BIOLOGY | NMAT-Review
CADUCEUS |Review Center
Even if a population that has passed through a bottleneck
ultimately recovers its size, it may have low levels of genetic
variation—a legacy of genetic drift that occurred when the
population was small
2. __________________________ ⟶ occurs when a few individuals
colonize an island or other new habitat; the smaller the group,
the less likely the genetic makeup of the colonists will represent
the gene pool of the larger population they left
The founder effect explains the relatively high frequency of
certain inherited disorders among some human populations
established by small number of colonists
GENETIC FLOW:
 A population may gain or lose alleles when fertile individuals move
into or out of a population or when gametes are transferred
between populations; tends to reduce differences between
populations
TRACING EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY:
 Earliest evidence of life on Earth that comes from fossils that are
about 3.5 billion years old (STROMATOLITES)
 Earth’s history is divided into three eons:
1. ARCHAEAN
2. PROTEROZOIC
3. PHANEROZOIC
a. ________________________ ⟶ age of reptiles; also saw the first
mammals and flowering plants; extinction of the dinosaurs at
the end of the era
b. __________________ ⟶ 65 million years ago; boom in numbers
or mammals, birds, insects, and angiosperms
GENETICS
 _______________ ⟶ transmission of traits from one generation to
another
 __________ ⟶ any difference existing between individuals of the
same species
 _______________ ⟶ rod-shaped body in the nucleus of organisms
that contain hereditary units or genes seen particularly during cell
division
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 _______ ⟶ the unit of heredity occupying a particular location on
the chromosome and passed on to offspring
 ______ ⟶ the location of a gene on a chromosome
 _______ ⟶ the 2n number of chromosomes, twice the
number of chromosomes found in gametes
 _______ ⟶ the N number of chromosomes, half the
diploid number, the number characteristic of gametes
that contain only one set of chromosomes
 F1 GENERATION ⟶ _____________________, first-generation offspring
of a genetic cross that has at least two generations
 F2 GENERATION ⟶ __________________________, second-generation
offspring of a genetic cross
 ___________________ ⟶ a pair or similar
or like genes for any one character
 ___________________ ⟶ a pair of
contrasting traits of two kinds of genes
 ______________ ⟶ the particular genes of an individual that
determine a specific trait
 _______________ ⟶ the outward appearance of an organism,
caused by genetic and environmental influences
 _________ ⟶ a pair of similar or contrasting characters, one of two
or more alternative states of a gene
 _____________________ ⟶ hereditary factor that expresses itself
when the genotype is heterozygous
 ____________________ ⟶ hereditary factor that expresses itself only
when the genotype is homozygous
 ____________________________ ⟶ pair of chromosomes that have
the same shape and contain genes for the same trait
 ______________ ⟶ a sudden change in the genetic make-up, an
abrupt and heritable modification of a character
 ______________ ⟶ used to determine if an individual expressing the
dominant trait is homozygous or heterozygous, the results indicate
whether an individual who has the dominant phonotype is
heterozygous or homozygous, if any of the offspring of a testcross
have the phenotype determined by the recessive allele, the
parent with the dominant phenotype must be heterozygous
BIOLOGY | NMAT-Review
CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

 Affected female DOES NOT express full phenotypic change

 PUNNET SQUARE ⟶ a “______________” grid designed to determine
because of the paired normal allele
all possible genotypes produced by a given cross

 _________ ⟶ the offspring of two parents that differ in one or more

heritable characters

 ______________ ⟶ one-trait testcross, cross in which the parents

differ in one pair of alternative characters

1. If the parent expressing the dominant trait is homozygous,

none of the offspring will show the recessive characteristics
2. But if the parent expressing the dominant trait is
heterozygous, there is a 50% chance that any offspring will
show the recessive characteristics

 ______________ ⟶ two-trait testcross, cross in which the parents

differ in two pairs of alternative characters
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITENCE:
1. If the parent expressing the dominant trait is homozygous,
one of the offspring will show the recessive characteristics
2. But if the parent expressing the dominant trait is
heterozygous, there is a 75% chance that an offspring will
how at least one of the recessive characteristics
GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL ⟶ a German-speaking Silesian scientist and
Augustinian friar who gained posthumous fame as the founder of the
new science of genetics after demonstrating that the inheritance of
certain traits in pea plants follows particular patterns
MENDELIAN LAWS OF INHERITANCE:
1. _____________________ ⟶ the two alleles for a heritable character
segregate (separate from each other) during gamete formation
and end up in different gametes
2. ____________________________ ⟶ alleles of different genes assort
independently of one another during gamete formation
3. ____________________ ⟶ recessive alleles will always be masked by
dominant alleles; therefore, a genotype must be homozygous
recessive to display the recessive phenotype and heterozygous
genotypes will always display the dominant phenotype
 Not all patterns of inheritance obey the principles of Mendelian
genetics. In fact, many traits we observe are due to a combined
expression of alleles. Here are a couple of examples of non-
Mendelian forms of inheritance:
1. _________________________ ⟶ the traits will blend
2. ____________________ ⟶ equal expression of both alleles
3. ____________________________________ ⟶ trait results from the
interaction of many genes, each gene will have a small
effect on a particular trait
4. ____________________ ⟶ product of many different alleles that
occupy a specific gene locus
5. _________ ⟶ genes at one locus may influence the expression
of genes at another locus
6. ___________________⟶ can affect a number of characteristics
of an organism
7. _________________________ ⟶ genes on same chromosome
stay together during assortment and move as a group, group
of genes is considered linked and tends to be inherited
together
 _____________________ ⟶ study of chromosomes; PROCESS: arrest
dividing cells in metaphase with mitotic spindle inhibitors (e.g., N-
diacetyl-N-methylcolchicine [Colcemid]) and then to stain the
chromosomes

 A karyotype is obtained by arranging each pair of autosomes

according to length, followed by sex chromosomes

AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT DISORDERS:  46 chromosomes: 22 homologous pairs of autosomes + 2 sex

 Manifested in the ______________________, at least one parent of an chromosomes (XX-female, XY-male)
index case is affected  _____________ is the most commonly used staining method
 Both M and F are affected and both can transmit the condition
 Involves the use of _____________
AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE DISORDERS:  Approx. 400 to 800 bands per haploid set can be detected
 Largest category of Mendelian disorders
 Occur when ___________________ at a given locus is mutated
 Involves almost all inborn errors of metabolism

X-LINKED DISORDERS:
 ALL sex-linked disorders are X-linked
 Almost all are RECESSIVE
 Caused by dominant disease-associated alleles on the X
chromosome
 Affected male DOES NOT transmit it to his sons but daughters are
carriers

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4. ________________ ⟶ CLUB MOSSES

 Small plants with rhizomes and short, erect branches
 Like horsetails, they were common 300 million years ago when their
extinct relatives were treelike plants
5. ________________ ⟶ WOODY PLANTS
 Conifers bear their seeds in cones (seeds not enclosed)
 With TRACHEIDS (for the transport of water) and well developed
PHLOEM (for carrying nutrients)
 Both roots and stems are capable of secondary growth
 Fertilization doesn't require a water source
6. ________________ ⟶ FLOWERING PLANTS
 With seeds enclosed within a fruit or nut
 Multicellular with highly specialized and developed conducting
tissue for the transport of water & nutrients
 ANGIOSPERMS can be further divided into two classes:
a. ________________  single cotyledon (the embryonic seed leaf),
BOTANY characteristics include flower parts in threes or multiples of
threes, vascular tissues usually in scattered bundles, a fibrous
root system, and leaves with parallel veins
b. ______________  two cotyledons, flower parts mostly in fours or
fives, vascular tissue in distinct bundles arranged in a circle, a
taproot system, and leaves with netted veins

KINGDOM PLANTAE ⟶ multicellular, non-motile organisms that can

manufacture their own food and the cells are surrounded by cell walls

PLANT SYSTEM:
 _______________ ⟶ organ that anchors a plant in the soil, absorbs
minerals and water, and stores food, helps anchor a plant
a. TAPROOT ⟶ consists of a single main root system and usually
grows deep into the ground, large and fleshy, serve as storage
of food
b. FIBROUS ROOT ⟶ extends to a distance outward from the base
of the plant
 _______________ ⟶ constitutes stem, leaves, flowers, and fruits

PLANT PHYLUM  ______________________ ⟶ include the flowers, fruit, and seeds

1. ________________ ⟶ more primitive plants and are characterized  __________________ ⟶ are the stem, roots, and leaves
by the lack of true stems, roots, and leaves
 Anchors in the soil by ____________ (root-like structures PLANT ORGAN:
 Common bryophytes _________, ________________, and ___________. 1. _______ ⟶ for support, conduction, internal transport and
production of new stem tissues
2. ________________ ⟶ ferns are "SEEDLESS PLANTS"
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE
 Among the earliest vascular plants to colonize land  BUDS ⟶ terminal and lateral parts for growth
 Life cycle of ferns involves alternation of generation, in which the  BUD SCAR ⟶ mark of fallen bud scales
dominant stage is the sporophyte generation
 ______________ ⟶ pores that allow exchange of gases for twig
3. ________________ ⟶ VASCULAR PLANTS
 NODE ⟶ point where leaves or branches develop
 With hollow, ribbed stems and reduced, scale-like leaves
 INTERNODE ⟶ space between two nodes
 Although the extinct species were once as large a modern trees,
the surviving species are small and found in wet, marshy habitats

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XYLEM ⟶ carries water & dissolves minerals from roots to leaves & stem
PHLOEM ⟶ carries stored food, sugar by photosynthesis
PARENCHYMA ⟶ most common form of ground tissues; living cells that
are capable of growth and division
COLLENCHYMA ⟶ living, thick-walled tissue closely related to the
parenchyma; specialized in supporting tissue of young organs
SCLERENCHYMA ⟶ highly specialized mechanical elements with thick,
hard and often lignified walls combined into coherent masses
INTERNAL STRUCTURE
Primary Growth:
 EPIDERMIS ⟶ outer covering, single layer, tightly pack, contain
cuticle to prevent water loss
 CORTEX ⟶ external to vascular tissue
 __________________ – innermost layer of cortex
 VASCULAR BUNDLE ⟶ contains xylem which conducts water and
phloem that conducts food
 PITH ⟶ ground tissue internal to vascular tissue
Secondary Growth:
 BARK ⟶ external to vascular cambium
 VASCULAR CAMBIUM ⟶ cylinder of cells
 _____________ ⟶ younger secondary xylem
 _____________ ⟶ center of the trunk
PLANT HORMONES:
MODIFIED STRUCTURE
 STOLON OR RUNNERS ⟶ soft stem grow horizontally on the ground
 TUBERS ⟶ enlarged short underground stem
 RHIZOME ⟶ long and fleshy underground stem
 _______________ – short, vertical, thickened underground stem
 BULBS ⟶ thickened bases of leaves
PLANT RESPONSE TO STIMULI:
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2. _______ ⟶ structure where photosynthesis takes place
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE
 PETIOLE ⟶ leaf stalk continuation of stem
 BLADE ⟶ flattened expanded portion of leaf
 ____________ – main structure that acts as backbone of the leaf
 VEINS ⟶ acts as framework of the leaf
INTERNAL STRUCTURE
 EPIDERMIS ⟶ waterproof layer with cuticle
 _________________ ⟶ pores or openings for exchange of gases and
regulated by guard cells
 MESOPHYLL ⟶ found between two epidermal layers
 PALISADE LAYER ⟶ upper cells, tightly packed and columnar cells
 SPONGY LAYER ⟶ lower half and loosely arranged cells
3. _________________ ⟶ used for anchorage, absorption, storage &
conduction
STRUCTURE
 HYPOCOTYL ⟶ the portion of the embryo axis located below the
cotyledonary node that give rise at its tip to the radius
 RADICLE ⟶ the lowermost portion of the embryonic axis of a seed
responsible for the production of the primary root
 _____________________ ⟶ root from the main trunk or from the
hypocotyl
 _____________________ ⟶ roots that arise from the primary root
 _____________________ ⟶ roots arise from stems, leaves, and other
parts of the plant
 _______________ ⟶ involved in cell elongation & fruit development
 _______________ ⟶involved in stem elongation, flowering and seed
germination
 _______________ ⟶stress hormone
 _______________ ⟶promotes cell division
 _______________ ⟶ripens fruits
 ___________________________ ⟶ in response to chemicals
 ___________________________ ⟶ in response to gravity
 ___________________________ ⟶ in response to sunlight
 ___________________________ ⟶ in response to sound.
 ___________________________ ⟶ in response to water
 ___________________________ ⟶ in response to lights or colors of light
 ___________________________ ⟶ in response to temperature
 ___________________________ ⟶ in response to an electric field
 ___________________________ ⟶ in response to touch or contact
BIOLOGY | NMAT-Review
CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

______________________________________ ⟶ explains how water is

transported in plants to extreme heights against the force of gravity

 Positive pressure potential drives the organic nutrients (phloem sap)

from the leaves in any direction
 It follows the source-sink principle
 Produced from the leaf (source), sucrose is actively transported
into phloem by chemi-osmotic mechanism
 This creates positive pressure potential that causes sap to flow from
the source to the sink
 The sink can be at the roots or any other parts of the plant that
require nutrients

______________________________________ ⟶ explains how water is

transported in plants to extreme heights against the force of gravity
PLANT PRODUCTION:
 Cohesion between water molecules in the narrow xylem tubes _________________ ⟶ reproductive structure found in flowering plants
causes the water to form into a continuous column or stream in the
 __________ ⟶ the outermost whorl consisting of units called sepals,
xylem
these are typically green and enclose the rest of the flower in the
 As water molecules evaporate in transpiration at the leaf,
bud stage, however, they can be absent or prominent and petal-
Cohesion between the water molecules replaces the water by
like in some species.
pulling the next water molecule up the xylem, As the column of
 __________ ⟶ the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units
water is hard to break this pull is felt down the entire column of
called petals, which are typically thin, soft and colored to attract
water to the root
animals that help the process of pollination.
 Transpiration from the leaf puts the column of water under tension,
 __________ ⟶ consisting of units called stamens
tension can pull a column of water to great heights in plants
 __________ ⟶ consisting of one or more units called carpels that
 Tension causes the column of water to be stretched, But the
form a hollow structure called an ovary
cohesive forces between the water molecules are strong enough
to prevent the column breaking Lignin in the walls prevents the
xylem collapsing

ZOOLOGY

KINGDOM ANIMALIA ⟶ multicellular organisms with bodies eventually

becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of
metamorphosis later on in their lives

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3. PLATYHELMINTHES
CHARACTERISTICS  Motile organisms whose bodies are the first to have three cell
 _______________ layers and bilateral symmetry
a. RADIAL SYMMETRY  top side and bottom side but no left or  Acoelomates (no body cavity), can be parasitic, and can
undergo regeneration
right side, easily identified by their circular body pattern, (e.g.
SEA ANEMONE)
4. ECHINODERMATA
b. BILATERAL SYMMETRY  top side (dorsal), a bottom side
 Sessile or sedentary animals with a spiny exoskeleton
(ventral), as well as a left and right side, they also have a head
 They are the first deuterosomes (the blatospore develops into
end (anterior) and tail end (posterior)
the anus), an example of an echinodermata is a sea urchin
 _____________________ ⟶ animals with bilateral symmetry have a
tendency for sensory and neural organs to be concentrated at the
5. NEMATODA
anterior end of the body, leading to the development of the brain
 Roundworms, soil-dwellers that have pseudocoelomate
bodies
 With a complete digestive tract that extends from mouth to
anus, some are parasites

6. ROTIFERA
 Tiny filter feeders that are pseudocoelomates with a
complex, complete digestive system

 __________________________ ⟶ animal body plans can differ
according to tissue complexity
a. DIPLOBLASTIC  two germ layers – ectoderm & endoderm
(e.g. cnidarians)
b. TRIPLOBLASTIC  three germ layers – the ectoderm, the
mesoderm and the endoderm (e.g. tapeworm)
7. MOLLUSCA
 Motile organisms with soft bodies and hard shells
 The first protostomes and the first coelomates (with spiral,
determinate cleavage)
 Members include octopuses, squids, snails, and clams
8. ANNELIDA
 Annelids, segmented worms with two openings: mouth &
anus
 They have a fully developed digestive system, a closed
circulatory system, a developed nervous system, and bristle
appendages (______________)
 The most common examples are earthworms

9. ARTHROPODA
 Arthropods are animals with segmented bodies; paired,
jointed legs; and a chitinous exoskeleton
 They are unusual in that they have an open circulatory
 ______________________ ⟶ some triploblastic animals have a body
system with a dorsal heart
cavity
 Examples include insects, arachnids, and crustaceans
a. _________ these are the early animals lacking a functional
body cavity (e.g. flatworm)
b. ______________  other animals developed a body cavity
derived from the mesoderm, COELOM cushions the internal
organs and protects them from injury (e.g. annelids)
c. _____________________  develop a body cavity that is derived
from the blastocoel rather than the mesoderm (e.g.
nematodes)

ANIMAL PHYLUM:
1. PORIFERA
 Sessile (non-motile) organisms whose bodies constructed of
two cell layers
 Ingest food by drawing steady current of H2O through pores
 Radial symmetry and are acoelomates (have no body
cavity)
10. CHORDATA
 Animals that have a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, a post-
2. CNIDARIA
anal tail, and pharyngeal gill slits at some time in their lives.
 Have a two-cell layered body with a digestive cavity
 Although most are vertebrates (have backbones), some are
surrounded by tentacles that sting their prey  ______________
not.
 They are acoelomates
 Common cnidarians are jellyfish, hydras, and sea anemones

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CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

 The invertebrates include tunicates, amphioxus, and acorn

worms.
 Five characteristics define chordates:
1. ______________
2. _______________________________
3. _______________________________
4. __________________
5. ___________________

CLASS CHONDRICHTYES ⟶ cartilaginous fish

CLASS OSTEICHTYES ⟶ bony fish with skeleton THERMAL RELATION:

CLASS AMPHIBIA ⟶ initially breathe through gills, and then develop
lungs, they can also exchange gas via their moist skin, they have a
three-chambered heart
CLASS REPTILIA ⟶ cold-blooded animals that have eggs with a
chitinous covering, they have a four-chambered heart and are the
first vertebrates to have internal fertilization
CLASS AVES ⟶ warm-blooded, have eggs with shells, wings, feathers,
hollow bones, & four-chambered heart
CLASS MAMMALIA ⟶ warm-blooded animals with a four-chambered
heart, with hair and produce milk to feed their young
 ________________________  animal tissues are warmed by its
metabolic production of heat
 ________________________  refers to the maintenance of a
relatively constant tissue temperature
 _______________  thermal conditions outside their bodies
determine their body temperatures; they are also called
poikilotherms because they have variable body temperatures
 ________________________  animal that thermoregulates by
physiological means (rather than just by behavior)
 ________________________  refers to a difference in thermal
relations from one time to another, or one body region to another,
within a single individuals
 _____________________________  showed by hibernating species of
mammals
 _________  amount depends on the number of atoms
 ________________________  occurs by means of beams of radiant
energy that all objects emit and that travel between objects at the
speed of light; objects can exchange heat at a distance
 ___________________  uses behavioral thermoregulation to
maintain a relatively constant body temperature
 ___________________  can function over wide ranges of body
temperature [e.g. Goldfish]
 ___________________  have comparatively narrow ranges of body
temperature over which they can function
 ________________________  chronic response to a changed
environment if the new environment differs from the preceding
environment in just a few highly
 ________________________  chronic response of individuals to a
changed environment when the new and old environments are
different natural environments that can differ in numerous ways,
such as winter and summer, or low and high altitudes
 Thus animals are said to acclimatize to winter, but they acclimate
to different defined temperatures in a laboratory experiment
 ACCLIMATION & ACCLIMATIZATION  types of phenotypic
plasticity—the ability of an individual animal (a single phenotype)
to express two or more genetically controlled phenotypes

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ECOLOGY
____________ ⟶ scientific study of interactions among organisms and
their environment, such as the interactions organisms have with each
other and with their abiotic environment
 ____________ ⟶ summation of all the organisms of the same group
or species, who live in the same geographical area, and have the
capability of interbreeding
 ____________ ⟶ all the populations found in a particular area
 ____________ ⟶ community of living organisms (plants, animals
and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of
their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil),
interacting as a system
a. ____________ Components ⟶ non-living component, the
physical environment
b. _____________ Components ⟶ living component
 ____________ ⟶ the global sum of all ecosystems
 _______________________ ⟶ the observed process of change in the
species structure of an ecological community over time
1. _________________________________ ⟶ one of two types of
biological and ecological succession of plant life, occurring
in an environment in which new substrate devoid of
vegetation and usually lacking soil, such as a lava flow or
area left from retreated glacier, is deposited, it is the gradual
growth of an ecosystem over a longer period
2. ____________________________ ⟶ one of the two types of
ecological succession of plant life, as opposed to the first,
primary succession, secondary succession is a process
started by an event
3. ____________________________ ⟶ a pattern of vegetation
change in which in a small number of species tend to replace
each other over time in the absence of large-scale
disturbance
 ____________ ⟶ climatically and geographically defined as
contiguous areas with similar climatic conditions on the Earth,
such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms
1. ____________ ⟶ located nearest to the polar region,
vegetation includes lichens, mosses grasses, and low-
growing shrubs, few animals adapted to cool temperature
live in the tundra, polar bears
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2. ____________ ⟶ located just below the tundra extending in the
broad belt across northern Eurasia and North America,
composed of coniferous forest dominated by cone-bearing
trees, animals include birds, bear, deer, moose, beavers
3. ________________________ ⟶ with moderate climate and relative
high rainfall, dominated by deciduous trees, oak, beech and
maple, animals include amphibians and reptiles, together with
other vertebrates
4. __________________ ⟶ located near the equator, considered to
be the richest biome in terms of number and abundance of
species, has a complex structure
5. ____________ ⟶ located in regions where a relatively cool dry
season is followed by a hot rainy one, dominated by grasses and
a large group of grazers
6. ____________ ⟶ support organisms adapted to arid condition ,
plants are succulents, animals require little water or are adapted
in storing water
DIVISION OF THE OCEAN:
 ________________ ⟶ sunlight zone because this is where most of the
visible light exists
 ________________ ⟶ sometimes referred to as the twilight zone or
the midwater zone, in this zone that we begin to see the twinkling
lights of bioluminescent creatures
 ________________ ⟶ referred to as the midnight zone or the dark
zone, here the only visible light is that produced by the creatures
themselves, most of the animals that live at these depths are black
or red in color due to the lack of light
 ________________ ⟶ simply known as the abyss, water temperature
is near freezing, and there is no light at all, very few creatures can
be found at these crushing depth
 ________________ ⟶ deepest part of the ocean, mostly found in
deep water trenches and canyons, invertebrates such as starfish
and tube worms can thrive at these depths
BIOLOGY | NMAT-Review
CADUCEUS |Review Center Prepared by: John Paul A. Taday, MD-MPA V

REFERENCES:
 Campbell’s Biology – 10th Edition 2014
 Cambridge’s IGCSE Biology – 3rd Edition 2014
 Biology Today – Special Edition January 2016
 Princeton Review Biology – 2010 Edition
 BRS Microbiology and Immunology – 6th Edition 2014

“Later on in life, you will realize that it is neither your

success nor your conquests that will give you
satisfaction. It is your contribution that really matters
__________ ⟶ term describing the way of life of a species
– paying back what you owe the community that
FLOW OF ENERGY:
nurtured you.”
 __________ ⟶ sequence of who eats whom in a biological
community (an ecosystem) to obtain nutrition – Jesse M. Robredo
 __________ ⟶ numerous food chains linked together
 ____________________ ⟶ graphical representation designed to
show the biomass or biomass productivity at each trophic level in
a given ecosystem, when energy is transferred to the next trophic
level, typically only 10% of it is used to build new biomass,
becoming stored energy (the rest going to metabolic processes)

RELATIONSHIPS OF ORGANISMS:
1. ________________________ occurs when two populations of two
different species compete for the same limited resource [-,-]
2. _________________  both populations benefit [+,+]
3. _________________ one species (the predator) kills and eats
another species (the prey) [+,-]
4. _________________  consumption of plant parts or algae by an
animal [+,-]
5. Parasite-host, pathogen-host: [+,-]

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