,l\

Chapter 5
EARTHWORKS

Plastic fallric mcsh shect has a basic aclvantagc over solicl materials
when usecl leaction ancl this can be sutficieni [o ctlvc eftjvlrter fr.om wet soil (as stearn
as a h.rizonlar sheet to improve the roacr-bear.ing capacity of nat.rral
LJnlike the mc.sh shceting, the solicl marerials, such ai fibious
soils. ancl water vapour'). Tbe atldition 6li- il" 9fi"e!!,!rye*(1\i-s..pg!9-9I!!-Cn
causecl problems clue to the cloggir"rg of the sheet. Tiris resr,rlted
felt sheeting, being by rqeigl1t of u9t t-q.g aery u)e_t, sofslayey ioit
to-x.!). stryen iill
in a build-Lp it sufficient$tfor site plant to be able to traael act"osii-ti andjor ibe soil
of porc water in the sl-reeting which, in ti.rrn, led to separation of the sheeting
to be bantclled (".g., loacled and cartetl aucty or bu.lklozed aside).
tiom the soil ancr tlt. d"u.l,rptrl"n, .f ,1,r, ..,rf"."ri *4rt.t-, *.nu"n"d ,h"
gfoLl'd stfuctufc. I'olythene sheeting also causes water retention with
res'ltingweakness .clue to the excess of water in the ground above the 5.t 3 USE OF SAI.INT WATER FOR COMPACTING THT SOIT FII.I.
sheeting. Hor'vever, with the plastic mesl-r, or net, the *^t.i.r.,
/"
drain through It is plelclulrlc thet tlre(or4l-,soh,r[[e sa_lrqi (Tgg)_] [he cornpacrcd lill m.rreriel
rhe so :rs to avoid trre cloggi.g a'd weakening eff'ect frorn ponciing do not cxceed about 1%o(1.5%o,maxirnum) by weight of this soil. Using sweet
'resh
layers! water and not saline water is alway.s better.but, in actr,tal pr.actice, if the work
The mesh can bc usecl to reduce the tl'ric;l<less nf road constructign is close to a srline water body, the saline grouncl .n'ater will r.ise up into the
reqr.rired fill thror-rgh 'capillary' actio,n*g11q{. tirne anyway. I{ence, as long as TSS cloes
tralftc t. .se gro,lct .'t]iwer cbn- v).lue wittr :r minim.m ot s.rface
illJ:ii:i- nol cxr't'cd 1lrctrt l!; (1.570 rncxirnunir,lvlry rrnner.essrlily irrt.rcrrsc tlrc t.os[
hy going for .sWeet watel for compactk)n if sweet n'atcr is scarce ancl if the
cxrc rnLrst, horvcvcr,.Jtc takcn to leave sufficient thickncss nf rnor..q.6frori)) suline water will risc r"rp int<> the fill
1-rr'otccti<>n, manlrlow CIIR suhgredes beilg fi.ost su.sceptiltle. .r i-... . _..

'Ihc nrcsh hclps

Iloute uet', tbe folkrut futg ltt"ecautiotts be tahen at site: I
plocluce a high-crensity, shear.-resi.stant layer of soil which
ti>
clistlibtrtes vertical krads (.szei)grre 5.2.):rnd re.strains soft grorrncl a) II.se sweet water for compacting the fill within sllj_],5, m -(nearly r-r Roller-
in the lower wiclth, fol convcnience of rolling) f.o* ".,,n.ff"iffi.r-;6ii,-, r'-,,sn1,
Lrlrslc af the strrrgracre - it is reprrtecl to make the soil mole
c<;rresive.
walls, .r].!:gJ.r--ry41!.s ancl Lightingi)o.sr-f",tglit!,,1:_
'l'he pla.stic uresh ntay also bc r-rsed f<rr .Iletuln/Vir"rg_y1!lr. 'lic
embankrnent r.einfirrcement lising-fn>-nr-!he-f!!). The corlcrere sulfaces toriching the fill shoulcl
I l:illun' 5.. j) -- --"fftrperly covered
by ark:ryrrate Rirrrnrinorrs Mernlrrane, either spra1,-
appliecl.<rr pasted impen,ious flexible shearhing.
5.I2 TUETHODS OF DRYING OUT WATERI.OGGED GROUND b) Llse swect \vater f<rr compacting the fill qrithin 1.5 m bek;w krp of
'l'hc .rxn'l
rvay r>f clearing,rvith wet ground is to improve the crr.ainage, subglade (to ensure litrle salinity in thc 'Sutr-llasc', ,Base, and tl-re
.rs.ally by laying a system of shailow cliains of agr-iculttiral pipes 'Topping' layers of thc load way) ancl f<rr 1.5 m altove culvert-tops.
or porors
concrcte 1lipe.s, to cany tlte \r/ater away frorn the area where
tire earthworks
are to be carriccl out. 5.t 4 S0lL C0IIIIPACT|ON,. PROctO! (l1.{ M0DIFIED PROCTOR), ond CBR
An altcrnativcr is tr> fill thc rrrai'age trenches witl-r broken stonc or gr:rvel 5.t4.t
to Compactior-r of soil is a mechanical process by.whjg! the soil particlcs al-e
fi>nn filter clrains in order to krwer the water table.
constrainecl to be packed rnore closely together 6y reclugi$
$" air. r,<riqls) Soil
h'r cl:ryey srils, one suitarrle treatrnent is to use ,quicklime' (cao: compaction causes clecrease in aif voids and, conseqllently, an increase in dr.y
calciurn
.xide). -rhis irnr'rediately cl-ranges the consistency or tn" clay witl.r the density. 'fhis may result in an increase in shearing str-ength. The possibility of
clay
particle.s tending to flocculate ir-rto silt_sized aggregations, fr,rture settlernent or compressibility decreases, ancl the tendency fbr
tlre soil becorning
nr.rc friable, appa.ently drier and subsequent change in rnoisture c()ntent also decreases. Deglee of compaction
-or" *o.krbt". rn.
stichy ancl its .sirearir-rg resistance increases.
clay becomes ress
is r.rsually mcasured cluar-rtitatively by dry density.
'Q'ickliurc' is bette' than 'hydratecl lirne' as it rakcs s.t 4.2 Inclease in dly clensity of soil due to compaction mainly rlepends on tw()
trp a thircl of its own
rveiglrt in hydr-aring (to CaOFI). Ir.r addition, heat
is generated in this chen.rical f'actors - (i) the 'compacting' moistlr-re cootent and (ii) the 'arnount' of
compaction. I,racli-Cally, lol atl soils, it is found that u'ith an increase in the
52 Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers i ' Rana's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

'cornpaction moisture content', the dry clensity first incl'eases ancl thcn
decreases, compacted by any mcthocl. 'l]his inclicates that Lrnder a given
compactive effort, every soil has an optimurr lnoisture content (OMC) at
which the soil attains maxirnurn chy density (MDD). 'l'his fact was first
recorded by R. R. Proctor in 1933.
5.t4.3 For a soil at a given moisture content, increursing arnoLtnts of compaction
result in closer packing of soil particlcs and an increase in dry density, until
the volume of air voids is decreased to such an extent that further compaction
produces no substantial change in thc volume. It has been found that in all
soils, with all methods of compaction, increase in compacting energy applied
per unit weiglrt of soil resr,rlts in an incre:rse in maximum clry clensify and a
decrease in OMC. In the fielcl, compaction may be carriecl out by (i) applying
pressure on soil layers by means of' rollers, (ii) ramming, (iii) vibration,
(iv) watering, or a combination o[ some of tl'rese, depending upon tl-re soil
type antl nature of tlre projct't.
5.t 4.4 In the laboratory, various types of c()tnpacting equipment and test methocls
have been clevek;ped fbr dcterrnining the 'rnoistlrre-density relationships' of
solls. Tl"rese resrs may t>e classlflecl as :
(i Static corrtpactiot, tests - - an cxamplc of ;r f.est n')ethoil of:this tylrr- is
California static load conpaction, clevcloped at the California Division of
Highways;
(ii) Dltnamic corr.paction fesfs, which are commonly adopted tests in the
laboratory. The test meth()ds which are often followed are (a) Proctor
Test, later standaldisecl by cliflercnt agencies and known as I]S
compaction / IS light corrpaction / and Standarcl AASFITO resrs,
(b) Modified Proctor AASI-I'|O 'fests, also standarclised by IS ancl known
as IS heavy compaction, (c) the indirect application of impact through a
piston as in the Direct 'l'ests or Iowzr Bearing Value Apparatus; and
6ii) 'Kneadi.ng cornpatctor' in which the compaction is achieved by applying
a gradually increasing stress through the rounded encl of a piston and
releasing it gradually after retaininll il for a short interval of time. This is
considered to simulate the type of compacting process czrusccl by rolling
in the field.
5.t4.5 It has been found that the stress-strain bchaviour of a compactcd soil by
'different methods of compaction' is like.ly to vary even if the 'compacting
rnoisture content, and 'dry density' vzrlue.s are the same.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
EARTHWORKS
5.14.6 Procter (and M<ttlifieel Pt'octorl"IegLFiesulJ;t arc usccl for cornpaction
control of soil kryers in tbe fiekl work (Etpee$?.tXs : basical$t spread
the soil lrtyer, sptittkle wate4 contpact bJ,, appropriate number
field densitlt of contpacted la.J,,er
sand replace.ment or core cutte.r nretbod) anrl Fiekl Moistttre Content
and utorh ortt tbe Dry Density). Cbeck tttat tbe lnner satisfies the
specifieet requirentent, e.g., is equal to 98% of MDD (or ub&teaer
reqtr.irecl), if not, tben if its ulater corrteflt ls Jess tban OMC ... spritrkle
,rtore u)ater antel rutr. ,nofe p/'sses but, if greater, tben only run more
pas ses till fielcl density acbieaed
MDD encl OMC, es clcterminecl by the Proctor'(or Moclifiecl Proctor) Tests, are
also usccl for prcparing thc spccimcns for the CBR (Califoraia i]earir"rg Ratio)
'fusts.
For lteut,ier contpaclion,Iltc Motl{ied Proclor Tesl is ntlolttecl and il
fillirtg tbe moulel ht 5 ittsteacl of i krlers ancl using a beauier
irtuolltes
bamnrcr clroPPirtg tbrougb a greater heigltt. 13-' ... .-.---/
5.14.7 Tbe Cali.fornie Beariug Rrtlio (CBR-I Test wrs (i('vcl()pecl lry tlrc Crrliforni:r
l)ivt;ron of tlrghrvays a:; a mcttrocl of classrfyrng ancl evaluatrng soil subgracle
ancl t>ase cotii'se matcrials lirr flcxible pavernents. .just alter \W'rrrld \Wal II, the
U.S. Colp.s of Enginecrs acloptecl the Clllt test fbr use in dcsigning base course
fix' airflelcl p.lvernents. Thc iest is empirical ancl re.sr,rlts can not be related
accurately with any {-rrndarncntel pr(4)erty of the matcrial. 'Ihe rnethod <-rl test
has bcen stanclarclisecl by the lluleau of Indian Stanclalds also.
The CBR is :r mcrsure of resistance of a matelial t() penetration of a standard
plungcl under c<.rntrollecl clensity :urd moisture conditions. The test proceclure
shoulcl be strictly aclhere.l [() if a high degree of reproclucibility is clesired. The
Cill{ tcst may be c()nductccl on remoulclcd or undisturbed specimen in the
laboratory. II.S. Corps r>f Iinginccrs have also recornmendecl a test procedure
fol in-situ test. fulany l'ncthocls exi.st today which utilise rnainly CBR test values
for clesigning pavement structule. 'l'he test is simple ancl has been extensively
investigared f<rr fleld correlations of llexible pavement thickness requirement.
Briefly.. the tcst c()nsists of loacling a cylindrical plungel of 50 mm diameter to
penettite a pa\/cment c()mp()ncnt material at 1.25 mm/minr-rte. The 'loads' for
2.5 rnm and 5 rnm penctrations, ancl each expressed as a percentage of
'stanciard i<>acl' causingiiiire penctLatlons in 'st.rndald crlrshed stone' s_ample,
arc noted ancl the biggcr valuc is considered as the CBII.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 ii
Chapter 5 EARTHWORKS
ji
:l
rl Usr-rally the CBR at 2.5 fim penetration is bigger (and is reported). Flowever, 5.t 6 soil. t{tolsTuRE
ji
if CBR at 5 mm is bigger, then the test is repeated and the CBR finally
:i feported. ol o soil ore greotly olfected by its moisture tonlenl.
1j 5.t 6.t The properlies
:1
r!
5.t4.8 Ilry Densl.tlt of soil ls plottecl aersus its CBRifor tbree specimens and. a Soil moisture may be classified as follows:
!t straigltt lineJtitted tn From tbis straight line, tbe CBR can tben be read
I
Gravitational water: This is not held by the soil, but drains from it under the
'j
off for tbe d.ry d.enslty of a compacted ktyer in the field. That dry influence of gravity.
I
denslty, uthlclt giaes tlre required. CBR in tbe fielQ bcr.s to be ensured
Capillary water: This is held by surface tension forces as a continuous film
'
I for tbe required. conzpactlorl
rising tl.rrough the capillary pores.
,t
:r Tltis ls extretnellt useful in la.yer cornpaction in tbe field because tbe
cont?ol of compactlon in tbe fieldfor ensuring requlred CBR can tbus Hygroscopic water: This is absorbed (or, more cortectly, 'adsorbed') from
water vapour in the atmosphere and found on the surface of the particles.
be made tbrouglt d.enslty measurements.

5.t 5 COITIIPACTION TTSTING 5.16.2 Grovilotionol Wotet

The maximum dry unit weight density obtained in this test is regarded as
standard for comparison purposes and is known as 100% compaction (density).
Actual field measurements of compacted soil density are compared with this
standard. It sluruld be nored thar solls, whlch have been very well rolled, may
have a compaction figure in excess of 100%. Colnpaction may continue until
virtually all the air voids have been removed, at wl-rich stage the moist soil is
said to be 'saturated'.
As indicated earlieq as the moisture content of a soil increases, the unit weight
increases, up to a certain value, after which the unit weight decreases. The
value corresponding to maximum density is known as the Optimum Moisture
Content. Based on these tests, the range of unit weights and'their OMC of
some soils is as shown inTable 5.7.
lVlien moisture enters a soil as a result of rain, the tendency is for it to drain
a
downwards through the soil due to the pr"rll of graviry. The rate at which
drainage occurs is mainly dependent upon the texture of the soil and its
structure. Fine-grained soils, although having considerable porosity, are noted
for the long period of retention of gravitational water (due to longer
percolating passages and higher side q'all fi'iction than most other soils).
The downward percolation of gravitational water continlles until a depth is
reached below which the soil pores are sarumted with water. The water in this
zone is known as Groundwater and the upper slrrface of this is called the
water Table. Groundwater is not a[ rest in a soil, but tends to flow laterally
and it should be noted that the watel table is not horizontal, but tends to be
a subsurface replica of the ground surface.

Table 5.7 5.163 Copillory Woler

Material Max. DryUnit Optimum Moisture If soils contained only gravitational water, then the pores in the material above
wetght (kg/m) Content (7o) theiwatel table would be dry at all times other than while gravitational water
was flowing through. However, if a cross-section is taken through the ground,
Clay 1450 - 1700 20-30 it is iound that a zone edsts, above the water table, I'ithin which the pores
Silty clay 1600 - 1850 75-25 are wholly or partially filled with moisture. This zone is often termed as the
Sandy clay L750 - 2150 8-L5 'Captllary Fringer and its thickness in various matelials is as shown in Table
5.8.
Sand 1950 11
Gravel:sand:clay 2070
mix

--^ Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge eng,nee." ffi f, Rur"t ri" H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers --.------m
 Chapter 5 EARTHWORKS

Table 5.8
5.17 coNslsTEllcY 0t A solt
Material Capillary Fringe Thickness Theconsistencyofasoilisameasureofitsresistancetoflowandisaffected
Coarse sands considerablybythemoisturecontentofthesoil.Theconsistencyisspecified
20-50mm according to one of six stages of cohesiveness' based
on moisture content
Medium sands limits, as follows:
720 - 350 mm
Fine sands
350 - 700 mm
5.17.1 limil of Yiscous tlow
Upper
Silts
700 - 1500 mm Theuppertimitofviscousflowisthepointabovewlrichthemixtureofsoil
Clays and water flows like a liquid.
2000 - 4000 mm

The pores in a soil above the water tabre can

be considerecr to fcrrm an 5.17.2 liquid Limit
which the soil and
irregular mass of interconnectecJ capi|ary tubes.
Tl-re smailer the size of the This is also called the lower limit of viscous flow, above
pores, the grearer is the height through which waterflowasaviscousliquidandbelowwhichthemixtureisplastic,limitof
the warer wiil .* au. to th.
capillary action. being liquidY.
capirary flow of moisture can occuf in any direction,
not iust vertically.
5.r 7.3 Stkky limit
The stability of fine-grained soils, particurarly crays, stick, to a steel
upon the moistr.rre content. For a soil above the water
is very heaviiy dependent Above this, the mixture of soil and water will adhere, or
table and within the spatula or any other oblect that ls wetted by water
capllary fringe, the cohesion of the material is mainry
capillaryivatel |.,resenr, this mouturc bcing held b.L*"".,
.r"f""a""t upon the
*d.;;r;",I particles.
5.17.4 (ohesion limit
vhSn a soil is'bompacted,. the soir particles are pushe<l in contact with
and the warer tends.to be pushed out from u"m"""-irr.,.i,
more crosery
"if together, At this limit, crumbs of the soil cease to adhere when placed
compaction is applied, it is possible ro reach -wheresufficient each other (no more cohesion)'
the conctition the soir
pores are fulr of watei alr the air having
been rqr".r.J-*i, ancr the soil
cohesion befween particles is lost. 5.1 7.5 Plustk Limit
Thisisthelowerlimitoftheplasticrange(nomoreplastic),atwhichthesoil
5.16.4 palm of the hand'
Hygroscopic tttloter starts to crumble when roiled into a thread under the
'When a soil is
dried in air, say in a laboratory, moisture is removed
by
evaporarion until the,moisture remaining in ttre
soii is in etuitin.ium with the 5.17.6 Shrinkoge Linit
moisture cohtent in the air. at which there is no
Thi6 can also be called the lower limit of volume change'
e'ater is evaporated from the soil'
If a sample of the soir is then dried at 1050 -r10o C and furt]rer shrinking (decrease in volume) as
the moisture conrent
driven off is determined, rhe varue obtained is
cailecr it-r" iie;.;;ib Moisture
Content. Knowledge 5.18 TIOUID TIMIT AilD P1ASTIC tIilffi
.of this hygroscopic moistr;re .or_rtJ.r"t is required for
Iaboratory tests, involving the addit-ion of controlled amounts of
water to the soil. These are of importance to highway engineers''
on site, it must be remembered that the hygroscopic
content can be a variable
quantify for a given soii, as its value-J"p"n&
,rr" ,Jp"ruture and 5.1 8.1 liquid limit (ttl
humidity of the air above the soil at the time the "n (expressed as a percentage
t"rt i, .urri"J il-,i. The liquid limit of a soil is that moisture content
by weight oiifr" ou"., dry soii) above which it is liquidy (can flow)' below
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway ana gr,.dge
Eng.eurs rieb Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
ffi f Ratnas
Chapter 5
EARTHWORKS

which it is plastic (cannot flow). There is a special

appalaqus fo{ determining
the liquid limit. The typical values of LL moisture content 5.20 PTASTICITY I}IDTX VS. CBR
are as follows:
Sotls tottlt hi.glt lf.qud llmtts bante poor engineering propertles. Lot'tt
(a) Clays 40 - 600/o plasttctty tndex indlca.tes a. granular soil utl.tlt llttle cobesion.
(b) Silty soil 25 - 50o/o For road construction purposes, the relative srength of the soil is measured
(c) Sands Sandy soils do nor have liquid lir-nits and are
by the CBR test. The CBR test values for various soils are related to the
plasticity index as showri in Table 5.10.
considered to be non-plastic. i : ,,

5.18.2 Plasft (ptl Table 5.10

Limir
This is defined as the moisture content of the soir Tlpe ofSotl Plasttclty Index CBR (o/o)
at the boundary betryeen
plastic and semi-solid srares, i.e., it is the moisrure
.""*rt=ai;tr?i a sarirfre Heavy clay 1.-2
of soil begins to crumble when rolled into a thread 70
, i i ,r.ra.. tn. fuh of the
hand (is no rnofe plastic):. ,. .... bU t.5-2
Pure sands are non-plastic and cannot be rolled <n 2-2.5
into threads.
Silry soils have a plastic limir.of 5 _ l5o/o. 40 2-3
Clayey soils'havb a plasdc limit of l0 _ 36o70.. Silty clay ao 3-5
5.19 ptAST|( I,IMIT Sandy clay 20 4-5
PIASTICITY ll{DtX = ttOUtD LtfiilT - ' irl '
,,.
10 57
i.e., Pl = [[ - PL Sands .... poorly graded Non-plastic 10-20
i..il
ii Sands .... well graded Non-plastic 75-40
Table 5.9 Comparison of Soil Characteristics .t:
! Sandy gravel Non-plastic 20-60
Charactedsttc of Soils of equal liquid Sotls of equal plastictty
tlre Sotl lfmii with plasttctty index wtth ltqutd limtt
index lncreaslng (i.e., l+creasi$g rvith.
Crie.,
with reduclng pL) increaslng pL)
(,
Compressibiliry irbout the saime rncreases
Permeability
llTftr*1ff",1i',,:,-. : i.i,,., iw.€lPs
Rate of volume chalrge increa.sps.

Dry strength lncreases

Rainats Fietd Manuatfor Highway ana Bridoe

enoineers nainas ld Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
f ! Fie
 6.0 DRATNAGE

6.I ROAD DRAIIIAGT SYSTTTS 6:7 BTDDIIIG

5.2 SUB-So[. DRANAGT 6.8 r.AYiltG PtPts
6.3 ROAD DRAIIIAGT 5.9 Bloq( DRAtltS
6.4 ilATIR|AT.S 6.t0 DrT(H,r$,/..(AilA.rs
5.5 SmilG oUT 6.r I IilPORTATIT }IOIES
6.6 txftVATtol{
6

f n rus rre H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

Chapter 6' DRAINAGE

6.0 DRAINAGE
6.I ROAD DRAII{AGE SYSTTMS ottohplt
dlsoonneung
chambqr
In roadwork, the main drainage requirements fall into two categories:

6.t.r
//'
There must be a provision of sub-soil drainage to cope with water in the
ground and to ensure that the water table can be kept low enough not to
allow saturation of the road structure and its surrounding soil. Excess water
of this nature causes the structure and ground to become plastic and o
.a \
incapable of withstanding:'J^fftc loads. It also helps ro prevent frost damage @

g E
to the road stnrcture by keeping it drained. *r*g:.t g I
.F o
d
o rl
6.1.2 of the Corricgewoy
Figure 6.1 sub"solt Dralnage
The surface of the road musr be kept clear of standing water in erder not to
pgsition
lncrease the dangers to road users. 'lb accomplish tfris,:,Jpa(s should be
camlereclwben srraighr, laid to cross falls on hends, and aiFql,.rety froviclecl
r" rain warer which falls on rhe carriageway. \with most new works in rural afeas, the construction alternates between cut
,-*tt@tie: $p$"f and fill, with the design, where possible, using the surplup;fr.o.-rn''tle.icutting. tP
In many cases, the drainage of this sur.face water and the sub,soil .water is form the embankments
connected to the same systems of piped drains or open ditches through which
t
the water is removed to a safe distance from the carriageway.itself. t
french
;d.raln,
6.2 suB-soil. DRA|ltAct a

This is usually associated .with the construciion of new roads, .but it:1nay aiso
become necessary to lay a new drainage system for an existing road system,
particularly where there have been other works, such as large-scale building (.
projects, adjacent to existing roads.

In new works, grabt care must be taken to keep the water table below
road (subgrade) formation level. This, in low-lying wet areas, may require the
the
Outfall
I
1
I iii . ilUti iTI ? ): ,;t

provision of a system of land drains, collector drains and a long outfall pipe il I
or open ditch before thd ground can be drained sufficiently for the strucrural
work of the road building to be started.
ll ' i''r" '

Figure 6.2 Embankment Diztnage

Raina's Field Manuat foiHighway and eitdge Engtneers
f R"inrt ri" b Manualfor Highway and Erldge Engineers
-I
f
-
 Chapter6 ,:.: . .i... :ii-'r.' ; .-;"_.:. l;tr'.':i;:i"' :,.i
... r _r DRAINAGE

Before the work of cuttin^g and filling begins, it is good pmctice lower' inform
dlains along the lirnits of the roadworks (drains A and
to lay French
'6.2). appears higher at any point than the stream bect or significantly
B in Figure On tfr. a.fr.e. ind find o.ti if tl.t" invert level should be adjusted'
completio. of earthworks, similar drains shor-rld immecliately
verges and central reserve, in order to keep the
u" ruia i,, ,r'. The secondary settinf] out is usually offset by tape from reference
points and
formation of the new roacl by the A.R E' or Superuisor'
clear of surface water. this sl.rould be checked
All these drains are laid to fails and connectecl
suitable natural water course by an oufali drain.
together. and li'ked to a 6.6 TXCAVATION
The Contractor will be instructed either on the drawings or
by the- Resident
Engineer, if soft material is to be removed from the formation' If soft material
6.3 ROAD DRAINAGT
still rernains after excavating to the specifieci depth, ensure that the A R'E' is
For new roadworks in urban areas, which tencl to has to be carried out'
be of the estate road informed. He can then decide if more excavation
development type, there is generally an existing sewerage system
associated
with tl're exi.sting storm sewens to which the drainage oncorrrpletionofanyexcavationofsoftmaterial,thepitmustbemeasured'
frorn the new roacls musr
be connected. If, however, trre gror-rnd surface Ifitisalargevolunre'tlrenthisshouldbeclonebytlresurveyors;otlrerwisc
revels clo not permit this to be
done, a new outfalr storm sewer must be provided itslrouldbedonebytlreA.R.E.orSupervisor.ItiSimportanttlratthisisdone
to discharge .itrr..- to
natural lvatef course or i'to thc same of another
storm sewefage .system at a" jointly witl"r the Main contractor's repi.esentatives, and the records signed.
point away frorn the site. must
During any excavation for culverts and pipes, the A'R'E' or Superuisor
I' this type
of constructi.n, an adequate system of road gullies thc grouncl for any potential failure of the sides of the excavation
will r>e ncecrecl "*onli_r"
with new storm sewers, r-rsr-rall1' loicl in thc roacl or alorigside and notify the Colltractor immediately
cach gully can be connected.
it, tnio *tri.n
Findoutwhatmaterialistobeuse<lforbackfillingsoftareas.Ensr'rrethatit
is placed ancl compactecl in accordance with the specification'
6.4 II{AIERIATS r"-
t1
The supervisor shourd ensure that he is aware
to be usecl at any location for cLainage works.
of trre correct materials that arc 6.7 /.BEDDING -I
, or the A.R.E. the type of bedcling rhat is ro be used
from the drewings
0,,.,0 our
\7he. an'ive at the site, they sr'rourcl be checked for fol the pipe/culvert at each location'
'raterials size to ensLrre
that they are c()rrect accordir-rg to the drawings or as approved
by the Engineer.
Tlrebeclclingshouldbeproperlycompactedandlevelledtothecorrectfallfor
The materials sh.r-rld also be checked for damage.
Any materials that are the pipc/culvert.
obviously defective shourd be rejected, ancl the conrracror
should be told to
rerlove them frorn the_site. If there is any reluctance
contractor
on the part of the
to do this, inform the A.R.E. I' the case of minor 6.8 tAYlilG PlPts
ao-age, ..r".
,o straisht lines and
the A.lt.E. for his instruction as to whether the
material can be usecr or not. Pipelines of any sort for drainage works shoulra u" rnia in
and any ,ugt ot high spots must be corrected by the
to even gradients,
6.5 SETTING OUT Contractor irnmediatelY'
and in accordance
The primary setring out will be done by the Contracror-
and checked by the The materials must be handled carefully by the Contractor
R E rs surueyors. Ensure that the necessary with the sPe('ification.
requests are sent to the surueyors
in good time.
In concrete pipe runs, the ioints must be checked to see that they are
Check the setting out by eye, particularly the inver.t level acceptable. \X'h"., rno.turecl loints are used, check that
these are neatly
of any pipe or
finished and tl-re mortar well rammed into place'
.
culvert relative to the warer course that is goi'g
to flow through it. riirri^i*"n
f.[6.r Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers €5i:1
 DRAINAGE
Chapter 6

Make sure thar you know the crass of matefiar to (c) Setting out of lines and level shall be checked and approved before
'where be used for backfilling.
filter media is required, ensure rhar the laboratof n^ commencing anY excavation.
for grading resrs.
,"i.. ll-pr",
(d)
' ' Prior to commencing any excavation, .the Contractor's proposals - for
Backfilling should be carried out uniformly on both sides ,"f"ty, signing for traific control, etc', shall be checked and approved'
of a pipe/culvert ro
The sides of all excavation shall be properly supported to avoid any
prevent displacement.
dung", to workers within by collapse. of the sides or subsidence'
6.9 BI.Ofl DRAINS Conltruction and other heavy plant shall be prevented from approaching
care must be taken when excavating for block too close or operating in a way which might destabilise the excavations'
drains that a good firm
bedding can be obrained. (e) Drainage Installation
All joints berween block drains should be fuly packed .Closeinspectionsshallbecarriedoutbythesupervisingstafftoensure
wirh moftar and. neatly
pointed off. prop., pip" placement, connections and fittings during the course of
In order ro ensure that the backfi'ing to the sides drainugi installution. Backfilling materials shall be placed carefully to
eroded by water, ir is imporrant to make sure
of brock drains is not avoid disturbance to completed pipework'
rhar the backfiliing ;;';.d;y
compacted. with confined space and manual
labouq contractors tend to relax - .ffhere concrcting the manholes and other chambers is required, all
on workmanship. Beaoare, formwork shall be checked and approved before placing' the concrete
placed with care, and adequate vibration and compaction ensured'
6.t0 D|TCHTS/(ANA|S
- Records of manholes and pipework inspections shall be written on the
These must be dug to falls.as with any other standard forms, clearly in<licating location of any buried connections
with
drainage. Always check that you
know thc invcrt widtl arrd the required side slope. fefereltce Lu the concerncd manholcs
Local undulations in the existing gro,na
may result in a ditch/canal - Locations and levels of gullies and gully covers shall be checked against
deep enough [o contain the flowl being
'ot design proposals, e.g., cover to be set 15 mm below finished asphalt
Try to anticipate probrems before the contractor desiln leve'1, and actual low points as determined by completed kerblines
reaves the area. Remember
that remobilisation of plant and machinery be &ecked against gully locations to ensure proper clearance of surface
cosrs more money.
water to avoid Ponding.
6.r I il[PoRTAt{I 1{0fis f) Dralnage ComPletion
(a) In orcler to place the proposed underground facilities
guliies, chambers and as
proceeds'
on any furtber roadwork construction
may exist. mlght not have
' design stage and can onJy be preciseiy apparent at - This is particularly impoftant in the case of connections of new works to
established on completion of trial
pit excavation. Should conflicts occur, some redesign existing roads or surfacings. Larger scale drawings and checks of
may become necessary. Minor adjustments can of the proposals will often be required to ensure smooth connection and
alignm*ent tie-ins
whereas extensive redesigq should be referred
often be agreed to, pr6per dispersal of surface water. Any necessary additions _to or
to the superiors. In either
case, they must be informed and their approval alterations of proposed drainage must be identified and corrected at an
obtained and confirmed
in writing. earlystage.ReferencetoDesignDepaftmentmightalsoberequired.
(b) \ffherever existing manholes or chambers
require to be opened, necessary - on completion of all drainage works, and before issuing the certificate of
application shall be made in advance by th;
contractor for substantial compldtion, an inspection of the new drainage system shall
reasons of
safery. be canied out together with the Contractor and representatives of the
nurrs ld Manual tor Highway and Bidge Engineers
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and aiage Engineers W
ffi riu
Chapter 6

utilities. Any faults identified at this time must be corrected to rhe

approval and acceptance of the stakeholders.
g) Ducts ,
- Duct locations, sizes and numbers shall conform with those shown on
approved drawings, wherever possible. Should any conflicts occur, rhen
relocation of the affected ducts shall be agreed to with the authoriry
concerned before any alterations are notified to the Contractor.
- All necessarydraw cords and stoppers shall be properly fitted, checked
and approved before bacKilling. Co-ordinates and level details for Duct
Register be recorded before closing the trench and
Forms submitted by the Contractor on

Duct markers shall be placed only when the associated draw cords have
been identified, locatecl and their ends positioned under the proposed
marker.

,7.O PAVEMENT TYPES AND

7.1 PAVTIITIIT TYPES 7.6 BITUTTTII

7.2 AGGRIGATIS TOR BIIUIIIII{OUS 7.7 BtTUiltNoUS PAVff[fttT SYSTtilS

ROADWORK (Sproyed or Premixed-qnd-lqidl

7.3 STRUCIURI OT THE ROAD 7.8 INIX DESIGII OTOEilSI.GRADTD

7.4 GEIITRAI.
BtTUrrill{0us iltxTunEs

7.5 TORilIATION

tr

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

) I a"in^'" ri"!d Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chapter - 7
PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS
F-,lT:I
7.O PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIAIS Therocksmostcommonlyencountered,togetherwithabriefdescriptionof
;;;;-;a their properties rheir suitability for usi'in roadworks, are
7.1 PAVIIUIENT TYPIS ^.,d
indicated in Table 7.1.
Pavements can be broadly classified as under, based on their structural for
Table 7.1 Rock Sources, Rock Properties and Suitability
Bituminous Roadworks
1. Flexible ..;
sl. Classification Tlpe of Properties Suitabllity for
2. Rigid
Bituminous
I No. of Rock noc* generallY
I
3. Semirigid encountered in Roadworks
I
4. most varieties
t Composite
A flexible paaernent has a low flexural strength. The external load is Igneous Granite L. Hard, durable. 1. Good for base
transmittedto the soil with limited lateral distribution. The pavement is 2. Texture varies . and wearing
composed of a number of layers, the stronger ones occupying the higher from fine to courses.
levels and the weaker ones the lower levels. The upper layers are generalry coarse grained. 2.Canbe used with
made up of materials using bitumen as a binder, and the lower layers are of cationic emulsions.
3. Bulk density
granular materials. ' 3. Can be abrasive
below 2.8.
has6*"""t"*r4J)*
In conrrasr, a r-tgtd pauement pavemenr 4. Resistant to to crushing
carries the load due to the beam action ol rhe pavement abrasion. equipment.
slab, n'hich is
constructed in l-righ-strength cement concrete. 5. Low water
absorption.
A seml-rigidpaaement is an intermediate between the flexible and the rigid
fype of pavementlj.Vrleduh C_oqllqlly used injhiO.-Uqe of pavemenr are Hard, durable. 1. Good for base
2 Igneous Basalt 1.
.
*-T"ompostte jin{ lime-fly ash-s-tibilised soil. )
s-oil-cemenil_e_alt_egtcrgle
2. Fine-grained and wearing
paaernent is one whictr ha;-"fip;;;;.e of them rigid textufe. courses.
and some of them flexibleQ! good exarnglg-ig3-pavemenr having a Rolled 3. Bulk density in the 2.Canbe used with
Cement Qoqglglgkle
Td_al{qtrn9y.s-yearing courie. j --"- range 2.8 to 3.0. cationic emulsions.
4. Resistant to 3. Can be abrasive
otserlays of bituminois material are often placed on all of the above rypes
abrasion. to crushing
of pavement, at some stage in their lives, in order to improve their riding equipment:
5. Low to medium
quality and/or to strengthen and extend their useful life. .
water absolption.

7.2 AGGREGATTS FOR BITUIUIINOUS ROADWORK

Sedimentary Sandstone 1. Moderately hard 1. Good for base
3
Stone aggregates form an important constituent of any pavement, They are and durable collrses.
used for granular bases and sub-bases, bituminous courses and in cement 2. Fine-grained 2 Several varieties
concrete pavements. They impart stabitity to the pavement and provide texture not suitable for
abrasion-resistant and anti-skidding properties to the road pavement. 3. Bulk density in the wreaf.4g courses.
rarige 2.3 to 2.V. '
Aggregates are obtained as a result of crushing rock or from natural sources.
4. Generally, high
They may also be obtained from processing slag.
water absorPtion.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway anO AnOge engneers
ffi nrr"s fl" H Manialfor Highway and Bridge Engineers ---'
fffi l
 PAVEMENT IYPES AND MATERIALS
Chapter - /

Camber
SI Classiftcation Tlpe of Properties Suitability for
generally Bituminous Wearing Course
No. ofRock Rock
encountered ln Roadworks Kerb
!a- Basecourse
most varieties

4 Sedimentary Limestone 1. Reasonably hard 1. Good for base

+* Road base

and durable. courses. Kerb bed

2. Certain varieties 2. Certain varieties & backing
liable to polish to unsuitable for .*# Sub-base
a smooth surface wearing courses
under traffic. owing to
tendency to
Formation
3. W'ater absorption
fi
may range from polish. t
low to high. 3. Suitable for use
with anionic Subgrade
4. Very good adhesion
to bitlrmen. emulsions. Figure 7,1 Section through Pavement

5 Sedimentary Kankar 1. An impure form of 1. Suitable for By definition,;formc,tlott is the surface af tbe ground, ln its fVnal shape
limestone. granular bases. after completion of the earthworks and consolidation, compaction, or
2. Some varieties can 2. Generally not stabilisation in situ.
Lreso[t, not suitable for'
The four layers of the road structure are :
durable and water wearing coLlrses.
absorbent. 1. Sub
(a) which assists in load spreading;
6 Metamorphic Quartzite 1. Reasonably hard 1. Good for base
and durable. and wearing (b) assists sub-soil drainage (if a free drainage material is used);
2. Fine to medium courses. (c) acts as a temporary road for construction traffic'
grained. 2. Can be abrasive
3. Resistant to to crushing 2. Road
abrasion. equipment.
g.hich is the main load-spreading layer of the structure.
4. Low water
absorption. 3; Basec9grse--
5. Bulk density in the which supports the wearing course and also assists in protecting the road; and
range 2.5 to 2.8.
4. Weartng cout€e *
a) provides a skid-resistant surface;
7.3 STRUCTURT OI THE ROAD b) waterproofs the pavement;
This usually consists of four layers of road construction material, built up on
c) withstands the direct loading of the traffic.
the formation as shown in Figure 7.1.

rrgr""." $ Rrirrt ri" H Manua! for Highway and Bridge Engineors

ffi--*-- Raina's Field Manual for Highway ano er,'ag" ffi
 Chapter - 7
it
l
ii PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS

It is cusromary to shape the fo.rnation with a fall to the sides, or.camber, in b) The CBR (i.e., the relative strength) of the eartl.rworks will have been
order to assist clrainage of the surface. checked by the laboratory and the thickness of sub-base confirmed to the
If it is being lelt r"rnprotected for a time, an overfill of 150 mm is needed to I
Contractor.
protect the formation. c) "fhe tolerance on the formation level is generally plus 20 mrn and
Tl-re term subgracle is r-rsecl to define the natural for.rndation (cut or fill), rninus 30 mrn. The finishecl wolk sl'rould lie between these lirnits.
which dilectly receives the loads from the pavement. Hence, the top surface d) \Xzhen the formation level has been o !""jyl_"-t li!S$g!! ug
of thc subglrcle is the formaLion. *_-s11919!ed .129_tw99p _thg mark*e1g- 9n
distance between the line and the earth
7.4 *-_-l'ldpl') shows the formation to be higher, the Contractor must remove the
GE}IERAI.
surplus mxteri:rl.
a) Before pavement constniction can be allowed t. proceed, it is necessary e) If the dip shows the formation to be lower, the Contractor should scari$z
for both the horizontal and vertical alignments to be cl-recked ancl to a deptL of 150 add the
confirrnecl by the Resiclent Engineer.
Contractor rlay ect to a gfeater stt at his own cost.
b) Ttre level of'thc fbrmatior-r will be confirmed to the contractor in writing Tltis is acccpteblc lrut inlorm thc A.R.E. Check to{sec that Ihe maxirrrum
-
by the Resiclent Engineer, givi'g the required thickness of sub-base. This l:ryer tlricltncss of srrb hesc will not be exceeded. f
infirlmation will be given to the Supervisor by the A.R.E. l) The levels (clips) which are accepted should be recorcled with the
c) on embarrkrlett arcas, thc wiclth of thc car.thworks shoulcl be checkecl Contractor on thc standard dip sheet and signed .jointly with the
tu rjrsLrrc ilrat rhe ernbankmcnt width has been constructecl cluly ancl that Cnnf re.f()r's represenf/rlive
thc contltaction of the l;lopcc il; satisfactory. g) Sin.:e the cross-scctions are gcnemlll' 10 rn apart, check b1. e1'e that the
'fhe detailecl methocl ol'setting out will vary between areas in between are reasonable, i.e., no hr.rmps or vallegs. If in d<>ubt,
cl) clifferent contractors check by using the nylon linc diagonally across the carriageway.
ancl will be agreecl r<; by thc iie.siclc-nt Engineer. Essentially, some form of
markers will be reqtrired at set interyals (usually 10 metres) along the roacl
to enable the line and levcl to be controlled. Normally, these are shoft
7.6 BtTUmtil
ler-rgths ol'steel rebar ltammered ir-rto the subgracle. l. Derivolion
'I'he line of these gives the horizor-rtal alignment, and the ve'tical Bitumen i.s understood to be 'a uiscous l.iquid or solid material, bLtck or
alignurent is set by tape.s, paint rnarks or chalk marks at a given distance brotun in cokxtr, bauing adhesiue qu,alities, consi.stin{! essentially oJ'
ab<;ve the hrrmation lcvel. bydrocarbons, deriued from petroleum or occurring in natural aspbalt
-l'he and sohtble in. carbon disulpbide'.
c) chccking of both line and level will be done by the R.E.'s surveyors.
pitumen derived fiom petroleum by a refinery distillation pror:ess is
l) Always "eye inrr the pins to see that tl-rey give an acceptable line. I

sometimes referrecl to as resiductl bihtmen or as straigbt-run bitumen.

,(
i
7.5 FORMATION 2. Ro* Asphult

7.5.1 Chetking Formotion

a) If the Contractor has allou'ed the
moving plant, he vrill have protective
formation layer.
,16
Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
This usually consists of a rather porous limestone, or more rarely
sandstone, natr-rrally impregnated with bitumen, with approximate
ear-th works to be trafficked by earth- proportions of 90% stone and 1070 bitumen.
to remove to expose the
It is now normally used only in mastic asphalt,. which is an expensivc
surfacing and, therefore, uied only to a limited extent.
i :
ii";ftl.:l Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers i 77
^rrua
 PAVEMENT ryPES AND MATERIALS
Chapter - 7 ffi
st!
't,
fil
l-'
wlrichcanbemixedwithaggregatethatiSeithercoldoronlywarmed
See 8.5.1446for more information on mastic aspbalt. *-I rn1!1[ :urFaae--1]rY.
sufficiently to
E I::
Blending of different rocks may be necessary to obtain the desired itt ,
Cut-back bitumens are prepared by bl,ending a pen-etration-grade
binder material. -i bitumen with a volatiie oii, @{g@}uring manufacture in the
{ refinery. This slows down the riie a'Tl;fiiln the binder will set until the
3. Loke Aspholt .g
;E
*-a volatile oil evaPorates.
This is a naturally occurring asphalt in which the mineral matter is finely if! The more common cut-back bitumens are:
divided and dispersed through the bitumen, which is the maior .i,t
3
20/30 40/50 80/120 1591240-350/400 seconds
constituent. The whole mass is capable of flowing. s. T. v. (rtel4".d-ta.-yatue)al4qE--.
C.'
*, ffiiues are obtalned b! testing in tbe stafld'rd tar
4. Sourles of Relinery Bitumen :?
aiscometer and, are expressed as seconds offlott) ln tbe standatd
by industrial refining of crude oil, is known as
Bitumen, produced
_1
tar oi's cofleter at 44&-*
Tesldual' bltume4'strai.gbt-run' bitumen 6r'steann-refined.' 'a
Deferred set binders: These are prodr,rced by blending a less volatile
bltumett The term rrefinery bitumen' is, howeve4 the most descriptive .:
oil,e.g.,gasoil,withabitumenduringmanufactureinthemixingplant.
and appropriate. tue deferrea set bind.er allows tbe bituminous material to be used
Bftumen is produced. from selected crude oils by the distillation of eaen utben it is cold, e.g., depot stock.
petroleum. The distillate is obtained by first heating to about 350oC under
atmosrrherlq jressure to drive :off light fractions, such as gasoline,
7'@ 'l'hls
I Kefosene ancl sas oil. ) tsitumen emulsions consist of globules of bitumen dispersed in water.
leg------.J
,llrixture, is achievcd by thc usc of ernulsilying agents (soaP fype
5. Penelrolion-grode Bilumen substances).ThebitumenisCariedbythewater;thisobviouslymeansthat
Straight-run and air-rectified bitumens produced as described above can, the resulting mixture is 'tliinner' than bitumen, h9{1!g-!e-ry-W1!9-l-- '
"S9-qs-l9
by varying distillation and rectification conditions, be made into a wide high--bin.der
some .--7''"v content grades) aird,.rlll-elejgler is.elsiel t93PP!y'*
range of viscosity grades. ' '
Wn"n reference is ma'de to a percer.tage, sucb a's 'tctck coat 3O96"
grades, in terms of oenetration 25o C (or thi.s me-ans tbat the bi'tumei content ts 3O%' Therefore, a 6O%
maintained for
- '-five
,qi-** ^t
seconds) are emulsion ls tbicker'tltctn a 3O% emulsiott
1.0/20 30/40 40/50 50/60 60/70 90/rro 190/210 280/320 Wben reference is made to a'n emulslon breaking'. tltis I's tbe
400/500 cltange from a' l:iquid to a coherent fitm (tbe suspended partlcl'es
Tbe first sign oJbrea.kfug ts a cha'W11t= colaur
(These penetrarion values are ii-i/ibifis
"i-d;., to blask
Some.of $-reg-e.p91lg!-r.a!iqn.grade bitumens are made by fluxing aharder
The rate ofbreak ls dependent upon tb e follauting factors:
grade with a softer grade or by fluxing with an oil of high boiling range.
(a) The composition of the emulsion.
These types of bitumen are used as binders with roadstone, and these
mixed materials must be laid while still hot (at specified temperatures), (b) The rate of evaporation of the water, which in turn is dependent
shortly after mixin!. upon wind conditions, ielative humidiry, atmospheric temperature,
rate and method of aPPlication.
6. CuFbork Bilumens (c) The porosiry of the.surface to which the emulsion is being applied,
For use in surface dressing, and similar applications, it is necessary to and the consequent removai of water by capillary attraction'
have a binder that can be handled at relatively low temperatures and
Rrirus r," H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers "'- - -'
Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers I f
 --':t
I
Chapter - 7 '..t

(d) The chemical and physical influence of the aggregate with which
.

(a) Class K1: Rapkl acting: An emulsion charactcrised by rapid

the ernulsion comes into contact.
cleposition of binder on contact with road surfaces and aggregates
(e) The rnechanical disturbance of the emnlsion/aggreflatc system followed by early rdsistance to rain. Unsuitabic for mixing with
<luring laying and rolling or by the acrion of rraffic. aggreg^res; high binder coritent grades usecl hot, other grades cold
Thele are two types of emulsions : aniortic and catiottic. (b) Class l{2: Meclium acting: An emulsion in which the late of
. ]mulslent deposition of binder is sufficiently delayecl to permit rnixing with
Aqionte
certain clean coarse aggregates, before breaking to form a
These have alkaline emulsifiers ar-rcl the break rches principally on /oss continuolrs adhesive film without stripping; used cold.
oJf uater by euaporatior4 therefore, difficulty can be experiencecl in (c) Class K3: Slow acting: An emulsion in which the rate of deposition
obtaining the 'break' during periods of wet weather.
of binder is sufficiently delayed to permit mixing with certain fine
Anionic emulsions are classified as follows: aggregates before breaking to form a continuous adhesive iilm
without stripping; used cold.
(a) ClessAl: Labile: An emulsion witlr lapid lrreal< on eppliceriou and
normally unsuitable for mixing with aggregate; used colcl. Cationic slurrJt seal emubiorts: are includecl in Class K3, ancl are
suitable fol handling in special mobile mixing machines only'
([t Class A2: Semi-stable: An emulsion with sr-rfficient stability t() permit
mixing with certain gracles of aggregate before break ()ccLlrs; usecl
Sumrnory
cold.
Due to their rapid break (changing from 'liquid' to a 'cohet'ent film') and
(:lrss A-1. sfrhlc An emulsion with stability lor mixing with
(c)
adhesive pfopefties, cationic emulslons are the rnost suitable lor all
at{gregatesi used cold. vear-round annlication
(d) Class A1r: Slurr,v seal: rJ7ith the adclitkrn of wzlrer, sr,rft'iciently stzrblc As all emulsions contain wateq they shor-rld be protected frour the
to form a free-flowing slurry with the specified aggregate .lnd extremes of temperature. If stored in clrums' turn the drttm over
capable of sustaining this condition throlrgh()ut thc laying occasionally.
procedure adopted. Setting time of the mlx may be within a few Under no circumstances, sbould one ttix tbe catiortic lrtith tbe
minutes or extended as desired. Special proprietary emulsions may a.nionic emu.kions; tltis t'rtl'll resttlt irt cottgulation. If using spraying
include additives used at the timc of laying. equiprnent, ctzan the pipes' purnp, etc,, tborougltlit r'uitb diesel oll
This class is subdivided as follows: dai$t and ahtays befote cbantgittg to anotlter type-
(D Class A4: Slow setting: Suitable ftrr mixing in simple rrrixers for 8. Mostk Asphalt
'l
handlaying, in bulk transit concrete mixers or rnobile mixing a
This is rock asphalt, ground to powder, to pass a 2.36 mrn sieve end
machines. musr pass a 75ltl.gigYg,
n-rinimum of 5olo
(ii) Class A4: Rapid setting: Suitable f<rr hanclling in special mobile 73-76o/o of asphaltic cement'
The powdered rock asphalt is mixed wlth
mixing machines only. heated to between 175o and 2I5oC. lf not used immediately, it is cast into
C cr.tiottic Emrtls ion s blocks weighiog 25 kg (approx.) with 20-300/o
These have acid emulstfiers and the break is controlled by chernical asphalt is generally only used on bridge decks (for
coagulation and not loss of water by evaporation. Tberefore, tbese ,oater-proofrng) and occasionally on city streets which carry very hearry
emulsions are partiatlar$t suitablc for use in u.,et Laeatber. raffic densities.
Cationic emulsions are classifiecl as follows:

ffi:, Raina's Field Manua! for Highway and Bridge Engineers '

F..liirti] ar.rt ri" H Manuat for Highwav and Bidge Engineers -- -- " i 'iit=.
Chaptet - 7 ffi liii...",:i;:iiir#:ii! i#a€S}Strd pAV E M E N T T yp E S A N D M AT E R t A L s

9. Ior The final process in the preparation of refined road tar is to pump
measured quantities of selected distillate oils and base tar into a large
The word 'tar' is generaliy prefaced by the name of the material from
which it is obtained; giving rise to names such as crude wood or crude heated and insulated vessel. Blending of these components is by paddle
coal Lar.
stil'rer or slow agitation witir compressed air.

However, the tar used for road purposes is a product of coal by the 10. Generol Description of Biturninous Moleriols
carbonisation procebs and it must be refined before it can be used. (See
B,S. 76).
.'.-. '-. '\ ol lntrodudion
There are three stages in the preparation of this material from coal: Coated. macadams are defined as 'road material consisting of
(a) carbonisation of coal to produce crude tar; . graded aggregate that has been coated with a tar or bitumen, or a
mixture of the two and in which the intimate interlocking of the
(b) refining or distillation of rhe crude rar; particles is a major factor in the strength of the compacted
^ggtegate
(c) blending of the distillarion residue with distillare oil fracrions to road bise or surfacing'.
' produce the desired road tar. Hence, tar macadam is coated macadam in which the binder is
wholly or substantially road tar, and bitumen macadam is coated
Hordness ol Tor macadam in which rhe binder is wholly or substantially bitr.rmen.
The hardness of the residual base tar (or pitch) can be altered by varying
fhe extent of the distillation. bl (lossificdion
Coa.tecl macadarn is classified by:
The ring and batl test is used fo derermine the 'hardness,. pitch is
described as 'hard' if the softening temperature is above B5o C; 'medium- - Nominal size: This is the size of the largest pieces of aggregate
soft' if the softening temperatllre is between 73" C and B2o C; ,soft' if the in the material, subject to a smail permitted amount of oversize.
softening poinr is below 65. C. - Texture: The surface texfure is controlled by the nominal size
Two grades are commonly used for road tars: and fines content (fines are those particles which pass the
3.35 mm or 2.36 mm B.S. sieve).
1. Softening point (ring and ball) 30o C upwards.
The types of texture are:
2. Softening point (ring and ball) about g0o C.
- Open-textured: where the fines content does not exceed 75o/o.
Types of tar (a^s specified in B.S. 7A: - Medium-textured: 10 and 6 mm nominal size aggregates with
- Type S: for surface dressing and base coi.rrses. 4o-600/o fines. These are used only as wearing course materials.

- Type C: for tarmacadam wearing courses and carpets. Fine-textured: 6 mm (maximum) nominal size aggregate with
75-1000/ofines and also used only as a wearing course,
Preporolion - Dense: having a fines content of about 37o/o.
current pmctice for the production of road tar consists of distillation until
a suitable base tar or pitch remains, this being 'fluxed, or roiled back, to
cl ldentificotion
the required viscosiry by replacing some of. the tar oils which have Coated macadarru for roads and other paved areas are listed in B.S.
previously been distilled off. Fluxing oils of different boiling ranges are 4987 of 7973 as follows:
required for the different fypes (s and c) of road tar and to provide tars Group One: road base material:
of different viscosities within each type. - 40 mm nominal size dense road base macadam.
Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway ana ariage engineers ffi R"rrt ri" H Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers --.--
fi -^
- -* --ffi
 i.:.:,.:,ri',,..:..:'.t_: .., .' .. .. ,-" - .",:,.:,,
,:-.:r ,..'. ?AVEMENTTypESANDMATERTALS

Group 1'wo: basecourse material:

- 40 mm nominal size open-textured basecourse macadam,
- 20 mrn nominal size open-textured basecourse macadam,
- 40 mm nominal size single course rnacadam,
- B.
40 n-rm nominal size dense basecourse material,
- 28 nln nominal
size dense basecourse material,
- 20 mm nominal size dense basecourse material.
Grr>up_IhIcc: laeal-ing course materiaL
7.7 BITUM|N0US PAVIIIJIENT SYSTIIUIS (Spruyed or Premixed-ond-loid)
The two broad categolies of bituminous pavement construction are:
A. Sprayed or Penetrating Bitumen Layer Systems, and
Prernixed Aggregate and Bitumen Mixture Systems
Spralted or penetration ktyer qtstems are prutaided by placing bitumen
and a.ggregate (tabere approtr riate) in separate courses or layers.
l' Aggregate ancl bitumen are ,tot nixed prior to krying and compactiott
I In premixed aggregctte and bitumen ,nixtures, tbe aggregates ancl
I

- 14 mm nominal size open-textured wearing course rnacadam, i bituminous bhtder an.e mixed beforehantd in a suttable ptant before
laying ancl contpactiort at the site.
- 10 rnm nominal size open-texiured wearing course macadam, I

- 6 mm nominal size medium-textured wearing course macadam, NOTI:

- 14 mm nominal size dense wearing course macadarn, - Although references have been made to various BS/IS/IRC specifications r

- 10 mnr nominal size dense wearing course macadam, at varioLrs places in this Manual, you lnust follow the contractually
- 10 rnm nominal size medium-textured bitumen macadam applicable specifications.
(coalse cold asphalt), Information on flexible paver-rlent matcrials may bc obtaincd fronr lritiii-rt-
- 6 rnnt norninal sizr. fine-rexrrrre,J bittrrncn macadem (fine cold Standards, I-lK Department of Transport Specific:rfinns end circrrlrrs, Rnrd ;

asphalt), It{ote 29 and booklets produced by Asphalt and Coatecl Macadarn i

- 5 mrn nominal size fine-textured tarmacadarn_ Association, US Asphalt Institute Publication, various IRC ancl IS ,
nutlli111ions, a.:,zlppr op{iare
id) Dense Tor Sudociry - B.S.52ILj
A. SPRAYID OR PINETRATING BITUIIITN TAYER SYSTEIVIS
- 14 mm norninrl size
- 10 rnm nominal size l. lnlerfoce Treutment Systems
For all types of bituminous constrr.rction, it is necessary that a
e) Hot Rolled Aspholt - 8.5. 594 bituminous layer is provided with an adequate bond with the
Roaclbase with 6o0/o and 650/o coarse aggregate content using underlying course. Also, where appropriate, the underlying coul.se
crushed rock, gravel or slag. should be rendered impermeable to biturnen to avoid loss of bitumen
from the applied bituminous course. The interface treatments include
Basecourses with 55o/o and 650/o coalse aggregate content Llsing applying the foilowing :
ctushed rock, gravel or slag.
if/earing courses with 0%, 750/o,
a) Prime Coat (pC)
30o/o, 4oo/o coarce aggtegate content
using crushed rock, gravel or slag with an additional 550/o coarse b) Tack Coat (TC)
aggtegate content for crushed rock only.
Coated chippings (for application on wearing courses only) using
2. liquid Seol(oor (L!!!*._
20 or 40 mm nominal size chippings. 3. Bilurninous Penetrotion Mocodom (BPllll
ir84 i
pffi
Raina's Field Manuat tor Highway anO efl.Oge Eng,neers
F.ffi tt td Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers il"dbi:]
^urn"a
 PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS
Chapter - 7

TabLe7,2
4. Built-up Sproy Groul {BUSGI
Tlpe of Surface ICinematic VlscositY Rate of Spray
of Primer at 60'c (cst) (Kglm)
5. Surlace Dressing (SDl
Low porositY 30-60 0.6 to 0.9
6. fog Sproy (FSl (e.g., \XtsMArMM)
For each of the above mentioned bituminous constructions, a brief 70-140 0.9 ro 1.2
1;-
Medium porosity
description of the type of construction, its use/purpose and
(e.g., Soil Cement)
inforrnatlon on tbe materials (both aggregates and bituminous binder)
involved are indicated below; but reference must be made to the High Porosity 250-500 1.2 to 1.5
applicable specifications. ''ji (e.g., Gravel Base)

A-l.ol (ool
Prinre The correct quantity of primer will be the maximum amount that can be
Description: Prime Coat is an application of a low viscosity bitumen absor.bed by the surface without causing run-off of excessive primer
emulsion to an untreated absorbent base in preparation fol a bituminous (sometimes r.eferred to as ,'finger',) to form at the lowef edges of the
course. Good penetration of the prime coat (upto 5 mm) into the base is primed It will, therefore, be a matter of trial and judgement, to be
desirabie, which is why low viscosity primer is preferred. decided ^re^.
by the Supervising Engineer at the site'
Use: The purpose of priming is: The area to be primed must be clearecl qf all excess loose material and,
while the prrmei will act to blncl s'ali quarrtities of loose matcrial to the
1. To plug the capillary voids. road surface, it cannot be used as a cure for a poor finish to the surface
2. To coat and bond loose materials on the surface. of a granular base laYer'

3. To harden or toughen the surface.
4. To promote adhesion between the layer being primed and the
superimposed bituminous layer.
Matedals: The binder ordinarily used for priming should be a bitumen
emulsion complying with the requirements of lS:8887. The use of cutback
bitumen should be restricted to sites at low temperatures or for
emergency operations.
The selection of the prirrrer will depend on the porosity ol the surface
to be primed. The recommended ranges of viscosity for primer for
different types of surfaces are given in Table 7.2.
,.i
For environmental reasons, emulsion primers are to be used, in
preference to cutbacks, as the cutting agents therein, after dispersion, can
teharmful pollutants, whereas the water used in ihe manufacture of
emulsions is not subsequently harmful to the environment'
In case the biruminous primer has not been completely absorbed by the
base within 24 hour.s, it is good practice to apply a light sand dusting to
blot up the excess primer material.
A-1. bl Totk (ool
t- 'bescription: A Tack Coat is an application of low viscosity liquid
bituminous binder to an existing bituminous surface prior to the
superimposition of bituminous mix.
Use: It is used to ensure a bond befween the new construction and the
:

old surface.
.ffhen an additional course is placed within a couple of days on a freshly
laid bituminous layer that has not been used by traffic or on an old bitumen-
rich surface in warm weather, the tack coat may be dispensed with'

E---__ Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Endge Englneers S

p natnas rre H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chaptet - 7 @;sii;"}it-,[&str*s1t$+ffi5 PAvEMENT IYPES AND MATERIALS

Binder: The binclet used for tack coat should be bitumen emulsion b) Binder shor,rld be bitumen of a suitable grade appropriate to the
complying with lS:8887, the preferred grades being SS-1, SS-lh, CSS-1 and region, traffic, rainfall and other environmental conditions or other
CSS-1h. The use of iutback bitumen as per IS:277 should be r.estricred approved cutback or emulsion satisfying the requirements of IS:73;
only for sites at iow temperatures or for emergency applications. 217; 454 or BBB7, as applicable.
Quantities: The quantity of binder should be carefully chosen; the goal Quantities of materials: The quantity used for spreading the stone
being a very thin but uniform film of bitumen. Too much of tack coat may chippings shoulcl be 0.09 m3 per 10 m2 area. The quantity of bitumen
lead to fattening of the surface and slippage between the two payment should be 9.8 kg Per 10 m'.
courses, the binder acting as a lubricant rather than as a bonding.medium.
The rate of application should be as given in'fzllite 7.3.
A-3. Biluminous Peneltolion lhocodom
Table 7.3 Rate of Application of Tack Coat
Description: A Penetration Macadam is a compacted layer of coarse
Tlpe ofSurface Quantity of Ltqutd into which bituminous binder is introduced. The binder
Bltumlnous Matedal in kg/m, "gg."gut.,
penetrates into the layer through the voids and binds the stone
Normal Bituminous Surfaces aggtegales. A layer of smaller aggregates' called key aggregates' is spread
0.20 to 0.25
on the surface and rolled so as to fili in the surface voids in the coarse
Dry and Hungry Biruminous Surfaces 0.25 to 0.30 aggregale layer. A seal coat is provided to make the surface more
Granular Surfaces treated with Primer 0.25 to 0.30 impervious to water.
Non-Bitumino us S urfac es : Use: The penetration macadam specification was in vogue as a base
Granular Base (Not Primed) 0.35 to 0.40 material lor pavcrrrerrt [ol]stfuction many dccadcs ago. It is not advocated
Cement Concrete Pavement 0.30 to 0.35 for use in heaw traffic situations, for which the more efficient coated
macadam is oreferred. However, it is still used in femote areas where it
A-2.Liquid Seol Coot is difficult ro transpoft mixing and laying equipment. It can also be used
Desctiption: Liquid Seal Coat comprises an application of a layer of as a tempofary emergency material to repair a pavement damaged by
bituminous binder over an existing bituminous surface, follorted by a rains and floods.
coo e7' o1f s tone c hipping s.
Materials:
Use: The application of liquid seal coat over an existing bituminous
surface is for the purpose of sealing tbe oolds ln the bituminous surface. a) Aggregates . . as per applicable specifications.
It is an alternative to a premixed seal coat. b) The binder should be paving bitumen of suitable penetration grade
within the range of S-35 to S-90 as per IS:73 or approved cutback or
Materials:
emulsion as per IS:217 or 454 or 8887. \7hile in a coated macadam,
a) Stone cbtpplzgs should consist of angular fragments of clean, '' a binder content of a minimum of 3
o/o is generally used, the quantity

hard, tough and durable rock of uniform qualiry thtoughout. They
should be free of 'soft or disintegrated stone, organic or other
deleterious matter. Srone chippings should be of 6.7 mm size
defined as 7000/o passing through a 7I.2 mm sieve and retained on
a 2.36 mm sieve. Stone chippings should satisfy the required
physical requirements; except that the upper limit for water
absorption should be 1%0.
of binder (including that fol seal coat) needed for construction of a
penetration macadam is of the order of 6 .%. Thus' some extra
binder is needed for construction of a penetration macadam, and
this is often considered to offset any advantage it has in terms of
avoidance of use of hot mix plant and paver.

Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

fi S Rrrrs ri" ld Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chapter - 7
A-4. Buih-up Sproy Groul
Description: It consists of a two-layer composite construction of
compacted crushed coarse aggregate with application of bituminous
binder after each layer and key aggregates on top for the second layer. It
is similar to Penetration Macadam but with less interlock and binder. The
thickness of a single course is 75 mm.
Use: lt is used only for emergency repair work and other temporary
constructions.+F
Materials:
a) Aggregates for this .... as per applicable specifications.
b) Binder: The birumen should be paving birumen of penetration
grade as per IS:73 and of penetration grade 30/40,60/70 or 80,/100.
The actual grade of bitumen should be appropriate to the region,
traffic, rairtfall and other environmental conditions. The quantity of
binder to be used should be 15 kg per 10 sq.m (in terms of residual
bitumen) for each of the first and second sprays.
' roads. It is then also known as a seal coat'
A-5. Surfore Dressing
Descdptlon: Surface dressing, also known as 'surface treatment' in the
USA, is a form of construction, whereby, a thin film of bituminous binder
is sprayed onto the road surface. covered with a layer of stone chippings
and well rolled. The bituminous film acts as a water-proofing seal. The
stone chippings protect the film of binder from damage by vehicles and
form a durable, skid-resistant and dust-free wearing surface.
The binder and chippings can be applied in one application each, when
the work is called single-coat surface dressing, or in multiple applications,
when the work is called fwo or more coats of surface dressing. If tnro
coats of surface dressing are to be done, it is customary to have a course
consisting of larger stone chippings, and therefore heavier application of
bitumen binder, followed by a lighter course of smailer chippings and less
binder. The smaller chippings of the second application will normally fit
into the interstices between the larger chippings of the first applicatiop,
thus, locking them in place and giving the combined layer much greater
stabiliry.
The chippings can be applied with or without pr€coaring by binder.
Precoating can serve to promote adhesion, particularly in cases when the
aggregate being used does not have a high natural affinity for bitumen.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana ariage engineers
J I
{@ PAVEMENT TYPESANDMATERIALS
Severalprecoatingagentsmaybeused,incluclingemulsionsand
cutbacks.
Purpose:Surfacedressingisusedinavarieryofsituationstoperform
various functions. These are:
1. As a surfacing in its own right, in the case of relatively light traffic
roads, over gravel or other untreated road bases, often to prevent
gravel loss, and particularly to reduce dust nuisance'
2'Toprotectfreshlylaidwater-boundmacadamorsimilarunbound
bases from the action of pneumatic tyred vehicles' which' unless
prevented from doing so, iend to draw out much of the fines from
the macadam and thus deprive it of stability'
3.Toacrasawatelproofsealarrdpreventtheentryofwatefintothe
lowerlayersofaroadpavement.Forlong-termwatefproofing,a
double seal is Preferred.
4. To arrest the deterioration of an.existing bituminous surface, which
isshowingsignsofdistress,aSpaftofperiodicmaintenanceof
5. To increase tlre skid resistance of a smooth surface'
6.Toactasatemporarybituminoussurfacingonnewlyconstructed
roads so u, to ullo*'for settlements due to traffic before costlier
bituminor.rs layers are provided'
Itsbould'benoted'tbatsudacedressingisatbintreatmentanddoesnot
enbance tbe structural strengtb of tlre pauement. similaily' if tbe existing
road, is full of irregutarities and undulations, it does nothing to inxproue
riding qttalitY'
Materials:
1 Blnder:
The binder to be usec.l in surface dressing should have a viscosity,
at the time of application, such that it is fluid enough to permit
uniform spraying. After the cover aggregates are rolled into position'
the binderuhoJd b""o-e hard enough to hold them in position
against displacement bY traffic.
nainat Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chapter - 7 PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS

2. Stone Chippings: Use/Purpose:

The choice of chippings size is generally governed by the extent of 1. To renew an old bituminous surface that has begome.dry and brittle
(oxidised) with age.
embedment expected of the chippings into the road surface which,
in turn, is governed by the softness of the existing surface onto 2. To seal small cracks and surface voids.'
which the surface dressing is to be applied, and the volume of 3. To inhibit ravelling 1+d whifoff o.f cfrip,gi+e1 .by tnffic on newly
heavy traffic expected ro pass over it. Larger chipping sizes are finished surface dressing.
required for use with softer bases and heavier traffrc. Sizes and
It is mainly a maintenance tibatment'in itslowll"rifiht, and may not be
, grading requirements are as per applicable specifications.
regarded as a substitute for surface dressing, -renew-al seal coat or slurry
'r.It. ny penetrating into the dracks anci'vbiits aiib coating the loose
Quantities: aggregates on the surface, it can prolong the life of pavements and may
The quantity of bituminous binder required will depend on rhe nominal permit delaying maiot maintenance cir rehahilitation work.
size and the shape of the surfaci^g aggregate to be used, and on the
Materials: Grades of bitumlnous.emulsion normally used are SS-1' SS-
expected extent of its embedment into the surface. Table 7.4 is a guide to
the approximate rates that m y be expected u.nder average conditions.
th, CSS-1 or CSS-1h. The grades SS-lh and CSS-1h arq however, to be
preferred. (The SS grade of emulsion specified in 15:8887-1995 has the
,"." rtng" of viscosiry as the above grades and may also be considered')
Table7.4 Rates of Spread of Blnder and Chtpptngs
Quentitles: The quantiry of emulsion used is usually in the range of 5 to
Nomtnal Size of -Blnder (Pen. Grade) Chtppings m./m, 10 litres (per l0 sq. rri) of dlttt'ted' materills,prepared by addittg etttulsiutr
ctttpptngp (mm) kg/1o m' and water in equal ProPortions.
The precise amounts to be used'will depend on the degree of cracking
1,9 12.0 0.015
.
or ravelling, dryness and texture of the surface, over which the fog spray
13 10.0 0.010 is to be applied. If the applied emulsion is found to be in excess,.a light
10 sand dusting mzy have to' be 'u.sed ap. in the case of exc€ss prime coat.
9.0 0.008
-I{IIXIURT
6 7< O:004 B. PR EMfi ED AGGR TGATE AIID BIIUilITII SYSTEr{IS

rJ7hen cutbacks The common rypes of constructions falling under this category are:
and emulsions are used, the quantity of binder must be
increased so that the residual quantity of binder, after dispersment of the
l. Open'groded Bitumlno&i mresdonif(0ftll)'i' ' i{} i"!i
c 2. Den're-groded Bituminous Works such os3' ' ''
cutting agent or the water portion of the emulsion, is as g;ivbn in Table 7.4.
Anti-stripptng Agent tl7here a significant loss.(i.e.,strippinp
of stone
ch]ppings during trafficking in wet weather is considered to bi a risk, an (D Dense Bilumln6u.s Macadam (EBilI)
adhesion agent (to prevent stripping) may be added to the binder as per 't!.l'i ,1, : , ,:

appficable specificationd..In oider to rest rhis effectiveness of the anti (ii) Sem.i'Densg $itumifl'ows Concrete (SaFQ,
strfpping agenr, standard tests should be adopted. (iii) Bituminous Conbrae (BC)

A-6. Fog Sproy 3. Open-groded Premix Surfocing (OGPSf

Descriptlon: A Fog Spray (or Fog Seal) is a light application of a slow_
setting emulsion, diluted with water, to an existing surface.
4. dose-grodeil Premix Surlocing ((GPSI
Raina's Ftetd.Manuat for.Htghway and Arfdge,Engineers
l J aaina's ri"u Manuat for'Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chapter - 7 PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS

5. Premix Seol (ool (PS(l use/purpose: A layer of bituminous macadam serves as a base/binder
i-rnediately after mixing, on a previously prepared base'
."*r"Jiia
6. t{lorlk tuphoh (mAl
Materials:
7. Sluny Seal (SSl a) Aggregates: The aggregate for this should meet the various physical
requirements as laid down in the specifications.
8. Recyding of Bituminous PuvQment
o/o' The grade of
b) Binder: The bitumen content varies from 3 to 4
o/o

9. Stone Moslic Asphoh (SMAI
10. Sond Aspholt Bose (ourse (SABCI.
The oremix methods/olant mixe.s have a number of advantases over the
penetration layered systems. In these methods, a proper, uniform coating of
coarse and fine aggregates by the bituminous binder is ensured before laying
the mix at the site of work. The dense-graded bituminous mixrures are
scientifically designed with the optimum binder content determined by
established design methods (like the Marshall Method for hot-mix, hot-laid,
dense-graded mixtures) ensuring a minimum stability, per cent voids in
mineral aggregatel per cent air voids, per cent voids filled with bitumen, etc.
The speed of construction because of adopting the premix methods/plant
mixcs is much hisher. and also more effective oualitu control can be exercised
durins construction in comoarison to the construction of Denetration soraved
laLered systems.
For each of the above mentioned bituminous constructions, a brief
description of the type of construction, its use/purpose and
infonnation on tbe materials (both aggregates and bituminous binder
involved) are indicated below, but reference must be made
applicable specifications
B-1. Open-groied Bituminous lUlorodom
Description: Open-graded Bituminous Macadam (i.e. open-graded
coated or precoated macadam).consists of open-graded aggregate, coated
with a biruminous binder. The main source of strength of the mixture is
from the mechanical interlocking of the aggregate particles, and the
cohe5ion imparted by the binder. The binder bonds the aggregates
together and, during construction, lubricates the aggregate particles, thus
facilitating the compaction of the mixture. Because of the open-gradbd
aggregate matrix, the voids content can. be ag high as 20-25 0/0.
The layer is generaliy laid to thicknesses of 50 mm to 100 mm, depending
upon the design.
bitu-.., is 30/40, 60/7o ot 80/100. The choice of the grade of birumen is
governed by factors such as:
1. Intenslty of Trafftc: Heavy traffic or difficult site conditions
requires binders of high viscosiry.
2. Sea'son of the Year: A general reduction in viscosity may be
permittedduringwintermonths.Similarly,highviscositybindersare
used in suffuner months.
Recipe mix: Tbe bltumlnous ma'cadann is bctsicalljt a reci'pe typg of
@otion a.ncl tbere is no needfor a mix desigtt- For. controliing
Test.
t-he dlnsity of compaction, it is usual to perform the Refusal Density
is a minimum ol L)I n/o of
Rolling is continued till the density achieved
Pcrccitage Refusal Density (PRD). Gr.ridance on Refusal Density Design
may be had from standard literafure.
B-2-(il Dense Biluminous Mocodam (DBMI
Descriirtlon: Same as in B-1 above except that the stone aqgtegates xe
,rror. .t"r"ty graded. As a result, the resultant mixture is more dense. It
to the may be laid to thicknesses varying from 50 to 200 mm' When the
thickness is greater than 100 mm, laying should be carried out in not less
than two laYers.
use/Purpose: Dense bituminous macadam is .used as a base/binder
course for pavements subiected to heavy traffic'
Materials: As per applicable specifications'
The Flller sbould ltaoe a plastlctty lfldex not greater tban 4. Tltis
' requlrement d'oes not uppty i'f theJtttlef is lime or cemlmt. \rhen the
is of non-calcareous material, 2 o/o by mass of total
"oirr. "ggr"gate
uggr.gurJTf Fortiand Cement or hydrated lime is not required when the
The incorporation of 2 o/o of hydrated lime
.II.rJ uggt"gare is limestone.
as above is recommended in all cases for mixtures, which fail to meet the
water requirement.

Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana aridge engineers f Rur"t ri" td Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
ffi
 PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS

Binder content: "rhe bincle' content should be optimised using the The quantity of binder fbr obtaining the premixed material is as under:
Marsball rnethotr of Mix Design for. cletermining the optimum binder Penetration Gracle Riturnen : 14.6 kg per 10 sq. rn
content. ilnrrrlsion or Cutback : 20-23 kg per 10 sq. m

B-2-(iil SemFDense Bituminous (ontrete (SDBC) A.seal coctt is nonnallypr.ouielecl on an opert-textured premix c&rpet
to make the finishe<l surface less pervious to water.
Description: Tl-re semi-dense bituminous concrete is a variant of
bituminous concrete, the difference being a lower binder content and the
B-4. (ose-grcded Premix Surfocing/lUlix Seal Surladng (MSS)
aBlgregate used being less dense-gracted. It is laicl in a single course
over
a previously preparecl bituminous base. t. Description: close-graded premix Su'facing or Mix seal Surfacing (MSS)
is a closely graded mix used as a tbitt carpet. Thicknesses in the range
use/Purpose: It is usecl as a bincrer/wearing course on roads carrying
of 12 mrn to 40 mm can be laid. 'l-be rnaterial is an alternatiue to tbe open
relatively lower traffic in terms of equivarent standard axle roads (e.sa), l

gracled prenilx catpet uith seal coat an.d bas tbe aduantage that it may be
generally less than 10 msa.
co n s tn t ctecl it1. ot1.e operat knt.
Materials: As per applicable specificatior-rs.
Use/Purpose: It seryes as a thin wearing cout.se for. light traffic roads.
Mix Design: l'he sen-f-clense bituminor-rs concrete rnix is designecl on the
basis of the Ma'shall pr.cecltrrc. 1'he requireme'ts should be in the Materi:rls: As per applicable specifications.
appl icablr- spct ifit etiorrs. The binder r-rsccl is generally a biturnen of penetration grade 60/70 or
ft0l100. The quantity of bindel used is approximately 5 o/o t>y weight of
B-2-(iiil Bituminous Concrete (B() the rni::. Thr.rs, for a 20 mm thick layer, approximatcly 22 kg of binder" is
Descriptio': lJitumi'ous corlcrete layer is conrposed or. a thr-rro.ghl). nceclecl f<>r ar :tret of 10.0 sq. m for finel ancl 19 kg per 10 sq. m for
compactecl clense-g.acled bituminous rnixture of very well gracled c,rarse coarscr gradlngs.
and fine aggregates wirh flller ard a relativety higher ,r'r-ror,.rt of bitumen
comparecl to DBM and SDBC. B-5. Premix Seol (oot (PSCI

use,/Purpose: A bitu'rin.us concrete laye. serves as a wearing course for Description: Prernix Seal Cr>at is a thin application .f a bituminous
coLlrse ()ver anr>ther bituminous surface.
heavily trafficked highways.
Materials: As per applicable specifications. use: It is intendcd t<';r seali.ng the aoicls in the bituminous surface ovcr
which it is laid at-rcl is ueecled only for tltose suqfaces whicb ane
Mix Design: Mix design i.s usualry clone by the Marshalr methocl. Ttre opert-lextur"ed, e.g., ant open-graded premix carpet.
requirements for the mix a'e given in the applicable specificatio.s.
Materials: As per applicable specifications.
B-3 Open-groded Prernix Surfacing (OGPS) !. Thc re<luiremenls for thc type and grade of binder are the same as for
Open-gradcd Premix Surfacir-rg.
Description: Open-graded premix Surfacing, also krtowrt by otber l:

,t&mes, such as, precoated Chipping iarpet and Opeti_gradecl
Crripping Cctrpet, is a popular. .specification for a thin -""rp!r. l, l,
generally laid to a thickness of 20 mm. A seal coat is prouicted to
rencler it less pernteable to u)/tter.,
use/Purpose: It seryes as a wearing co.rse on ligr'rt tr.affic roads or for
temporaly improvement and maintenance.
Materials: As per applicable specifications.
[.;,b6 i. Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
The quantity of penetrarion gr-ade bitumen usecl is 6.g kg per 10 sq. m. If
an emulsion or curback is used, the quantity is 10 to 12 kg per 10 sq. m.
8-6. llloslk Aspholt (MA)
Description: Bitumen Mastic, alternatiuellt knou.tn a.s M.rstlc
Aspbalt, is a mixture of biturnen, mineral filler and fine aggregates in
suitable prop(xtions clesig'cd to yield a voidless compacl rnass. Its
i .-' 1' : Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Briclge Engineers ,sig7:'i
 PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS

consistency is such that it flows like a viscous fluid at temperatures of

B-8. Recyding of Biluminous Povement
around 200"C br.rt, on cooling to normal tcmperatures, it solidifies into a
dense mass. Tl-rus, its constrlrction requires no compacting effirt. Description: Recycling process can be categorisecl into in-situ recycling
'fhe rnatelial derives its rnechanical stlength from (where processing takes place in !j!9)-an5l central plant recycling (where
strair-t resistance of the
continuous matrix of fine aggregates, filler ancl bitumen. The final product the r.eclaimed marerial froriGite iJprocessecl gfls.ltc), The process can be
is very hard, durable, fully impcrrneable, resistant to deformation and self- achieved by the hot mix or cold mix techniques.
healing. It is norrnally laicl to thicknesses of 20-50 mm.
The work involves the following steps:
Use/Purpose: Because of its superiol properties, it is used as a wearing
course material for hea4r-duty pavernents, city streets carrying high
1. Remoaal of tbe existing suqlface,
volurne of traffic, bus stops where heavy tangential forces are expected, 2. Testing and eualuatiott of the remoaeel rnaterials,
iunctions where cornering stresses are preclominunt, and on bridge decks. 3. Detennining tbe optintun blend of reclainecl materia'ls,
Thin mastics are also used for footways. It does not, l-Iowever, provide
goocl skid resistance, and rncasr.rres arc norrnally taken to enhance this
additional material attd bindery
aspect of its performance. 4. Mixing,
Materials: As pel appliczrble spccification.s. 5. Laying and comPactittg.
Mix Design: the mastic asphalt should havc a hardness number (dcfined Use/Purpose: Recycling of a biturnin<)us pavement is the reuse, after
as the depth, in hunclrcclths of u cm., ftt which a star-rclard steel rod will some processing, of a pavement material that ha.s serued its filst intended
pcnetrate at stanclardisecl tempcrattrle ar-rcl loacling conclitions) at the time
purpose. Tl-re advantages of recycling are:
of menrrfrcfrrre end prior to lhe of coers<: lt',greg t.e, of 60 to B0
arlrlifir>rr
(i) -.iectuctio"l"-."i"it.ri l-t.ight of paveuent tltat
\
at" 25"C, and 10 t() 20 at 25"C at tlre tirnc ol' laying aftel tl"re acldition of n'ray be caused by
coarsc aggrcgatc. ', uverlays, -
The hardness number shoulcl bc clctelminecl in accorclance with the (iD effectivc use ancl conservation of materials,
method specifiecl in IS:1195-1975 or cquivalent. ,
1*
(iii) econorny.
The binder contcnt shor-rld be so flxccl as to achieve tl-re requirenents of
tlre rnixture as abovc ancl shoulcl bc in the range of 14 o/o to 17 o/o l>y Removal of the existing surface: The existing surl'ace can be removed
weight of total mixture. by the hot retnoval process or the cold removal process. In the hot
procesll1G iiia cl iirifiidei"ii-lieiate<1 lry means and In the
B-7. Slurry Seol (5Sl cold process, the removal iq,do39 machines or
Description: Slurry Seals arc r-nDitures of u,cll-gracled fine aggregate, by other equipment, :y-.Agr*.e-9gifi9l.s-:iiPPstsl
pordand cement filler, bituminous eurulsi<-rrr ancl additional water. When
*-**.',""
Testing. Evaluation and Mix Design: Samples of the removed material
freshly mixed, ttrey have a thick consistency and can be spread to a
are tested for composition, analysis ar-rd properties of the binder. The
thickness of 1.5 - 5 mm.
results of mechanical analysis usually reveal deficiencies in tl're grading of
Use/Purpose: Slurry seals can bc u.sed for both preaentiae antd. the material, and from it can tre estimated the types and quantities of
cor-rectiae tnaintena.nce of agecl bittnnittotts surfaces a nd surlfaces
various sizes of aggregates and filler to be added to meet the grading
toitb JFne cretcks. They seal surface cracks, fill voids and minor
depressions, and provide a m()l'c cven riding surface or base for further ;}
requirements. The properties of the bitumen in the recovered material
treatment. They may also bc used on top of ir single c<;at surface dressing. wotrld reveal its penetration, and thus give an indication of the extent of
I its oxidation. The quantity of fresh binder and any recycling agents
Materials: As per applicable .specifications for Slurry Seal. i
I needed to reiuvenate the existing binder may then be determined.

t98 Raina's Field Manual folr Highway and Eridge Engineers : ..

fre ld Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
l...
f;ir'.fi nainat

B-9. Stone Mostic Asphoh (SMA)
Description: Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) is a gap-gradecl rnixture wirh
about 70-80 %o stone content, 6-7 o/o of bincler, B-12 o/o of filler and abor-rt 0.3
% fibres o. similar modifier. The high stone content of the fcrrms a
skeleton-type strucrure offering high resistance to deformatior-r.'-rl<ture
Tl-re fibres <>r.
tnodifier prevent drainage du.ing manr-rfactt re. t.anspo.taticrn and laying.
The mlxtrlre is laicl at a thiclaress of 30 to 45 mrn.
Use/Purpose: The material, being very durable and rut-resistant, is used
in very hear.y traffic situations.
Materials: As per applicable specifications for SMA.
(a)
Coarse Aggregate: The coarse aggregates consist of cr.ushccl rocl< or
crushecl .slag. They should be clean, hard, durable, of fairly ctrbical
shape, and free from soft pieces, organic or other cleleterious
substance.s. Tl"re aggregares should satisfy the specifiecl physical
requirements. If the aggregates are of the stripping type as inclicatecl
by 13:6241, the water sen.sitivity test sholrlcl be performed. if the
aggregates do not pass the water sensitivity test, the bitr,rmen shoulcl
l;e trcat-ed witlr auti-stripping agents of appr.oved qualrty rn surtable
doses.
(tr) Fine Aggregates: comprising fraction passing 2.36 rnrn sieve zrncl
l'etained on the 0.075 mm sievc, may be blcndecl with not more th:rn
50 7o natural sand. These should be clean, harcl, durablc, cly ancl
free from soft pieces, organic or other cleleterior-rs substances. .fhc
sand equivalent test value (a rapicl field test to .show the relativc
amounts of plastic fines ir-r graclecl aggregates ancl soils, IS:2720 part
I 37) for the fine aggre34ate shoulcl not be less than 50, ancl fines
should be non-plastic.
i
(c) Filler:
The filler should be in with the applicable
accorclance
specilications excepr rhat addedfitler should be bydrated litne,
ct'ttsbed limestone or Portland Cetnent and should be at least
2 % by mass ojf total aggregate.
The combined grading of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and
filler should conform ro the applicable specifications.
(d) Binder: The binder should be eirher a modified binder
alternatively, bitumen with stabilising additive. The bitumen shoulj
be a paving bitumen of the specified penetration grade. If modifiecl
binder is used, the base bitumen should have a normal penetration
of S 65, S 90 or S 200.
i.too Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers I
PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS
TLle fibres or modffier en.slrre that the brndel does not clrain
di.rring transport and handling.
(e) Stabilising Additive or Modified Binder: Vhen paving bitumen
complying with IS:73 is used as thc bincler, a stabilising adclitive at
least 0.3 %o by mass of total mixtute shoulcl be uscd to eusut'e that
binder drainage cloes not occur duting transport and hanclling.
Stabilising additives should be cellr-rlose or minelal or other stritable
fibre.
(f) Aggregate Grading and Binder Content: Wl-ren testecl in
accordance with 15:2386 (part 1) (wet sieving nethod), the cornbined
grading of the coarse and fine aggregate and aclcled fillcr fol the
panicular mixture sl-rould be within applicable specifiecl lin-rits as also
the type and quantity of bitumen, ancl appropriate thickness.
Mix Design: The mix is clesignecl in tlic labomtory by preparing
specimens as per the Marshall Method lt rnalr be notccl tl-rat f<rr SMA, the
Marshall stability ancl flow valtres maLbe rr-rislcacling :rncl are not suitablc
for evaluation of a iob mix forrnula fbr SMA. Thc lo<>se mixtulc ancl
compacted specir-nens shoulcl comply with tl-re rccluiremcl'tts o[' billcler'
contcnt and air voicls ls per applicable spccifications.
Binder Content: Whcn testecl at the talget colllp()sition, the loose
r-nixture should demonstrate not rltore th21n 0.3 o/0 m()rtar clrainagc, by total
mass of mixtule, at a temperature of 175oC.
Air Voids: Three cornpacted specirnens shor-rlcl l;c m:rnttflrctttrccl at the
talget composition, and the ail void contents ol thesc shoulcl be tneasurcd
by the plocedule described in AS'I'M DJ20J using:
(a) the maxirnum density of the mixttrre, obLrinecl r:sing the theoletical
maximum specific graviry of the loose .tnixlut'e, dcterminecl in
' accordance with ASTM D204i and converted to relative density
using the appropriate correction factot';
(b) the bulk density of the specimen, determinecl in accordance with
BS:598, Part 104 Clause 4, as the bulk density required by ASTM
D3203.
or
At ttte tct 'get composition, the air aoid' content of tbe ntixture sball
be uitbin tbe range 2-4 %.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
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Chapter - 7 t{ PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS
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ti
B-10. Sond Aspholt Bose (ourse (SABCI 1..
c Hig,b--stability, ulticb i.s tbe abiltty to reslst permanent
Description: Sand Asphalt Base Course is composed of a mixture of l1 d.eformations,-
sand, mineral filler where required, and bituminous binder, placed and i.i ---'"'
T
c Good d.urability and. Iong llfe, including reslstance to abrasion by
compacted upon a prepared and accepted subgrade. I tralffic,
----
Use: Sand Asphalt Base Course ls used. l.n special situations, like :
c Good ela.stic Properties,
quality coarse aggregates not being available within economical leads
and/or water needed for conventional base course construction not being t:
i
e Good resistance tofatigue,
readily available, as in d.esert areas. 4""
);
ii o Lout oermeabilitrt to u)oter and. ain
^
Materials: l; -.----4t€.',,..F*
lg c Good workabilit! uthen bat.
(a) Sand: Should be clean, naturally occurring or blended material free i.:

from any deleterious substances, well graded within the applicable

la In addition. when used to form road surfacing:
limits and other physical properties. o Good skid resi.sta'nce,
(b) Filler: \When required, should consist of finely divided mineral a Good. ri.ding quality,
matter, such as rock d.ust, ltyd.rated. lime or cement.
o Acceptable leael
(c) Bitumen: The bitumen should be paving bitumen of penetration "f "or"n-,*ot!!"5_gy-y![f:.
grade 565 or S90 as per IS:73 (see applicable specification). Also. pavements made with these mixes must be:

Mix Design: Apart from conformity with the grading and quality
rcquircments for individual ingredients, the ulixtu(e shuuld nreet thc
applicable requirements for SABC. The Marshall Method for determining
the optimum binder content should be adopted for design.
7.8 IIIIX DESIGN OF DENST.GRADED BITUMINOUS IIIIXTURTS
7.8.t lntroduclion
In the early period of bituminous work, it was a common practice to adopt
"recipe" mixes. The unprecedented lise in traffic volume and vehicle weight
in the recent years has underlined the need to produce dense and
impermeable mixes. There are many desirable properties which modern
bituminous mixes should have, which can only be achieved if careful thought
is given to the selection of materials and their blending.
This is the objective of mix design. " Ihrabtttft is acbleaed by incorporatl.ng ltard and touglt
Mix design is a prerequisite in all modbrn "non-recipe" type of specifications
for dense-graded bituminous mixtures.
7.8.2 Desiroble Properlies of lUlixes
For good bitr-rminous mixes, the following properties are desirable:
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ano er'age engineers
ffi
o Economical not only in tbeir lnitial cost, but also in terms aJ tbei'r
maintenance need.s tl'u,ring their dcsign life.
A good mix design strives to produce a material that has most of the above
properties at an economical cost.
A carefnl selection of the type of aggregates, their shape and grading, the type
and.quantity of binder, and the degree of comPaction of the mix are necessary
in order to obtain high stabilit,v (the abilicy to resist permanent deformations).
Stability is produced by internal friction between the aggregate particles and
the cohesion supplied by the binder. For a given grading of aggregates and
compactive effort. the stability of a mix is at its peak at a particular binder
content. A binder content lower than the optimum.prcsenis difficulties in
compastioni whereas, at a higher binder content. the bitumen reduces the
inter-particle contact.
aggregates
(ulticlt can witbstand ttte gtlrra'tnte laadlng and tbe abrastott caused by
trafftc), by tbe selection of tbe cotect btnder type und amcltt tt in tbe
mix a.nd by good compactlon Prooided. tltere are suffilcnt alr oolds in
a ,nlx, optimum bi.ndcr content belps ln achieul.ng long ltfe, Lout btnder
cofltent resuhs tn a tbtnfilm coating tbe aggreSote partlcles a'nd btglt
ai,r aolds, botb of uthicb l.ncrease tbe rate of oxidatlon of tbe bttumatu
A thtcker fibn delays the oxidatlon process. Tbe aolatiles ln a blnder
ffi a, td Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers
^uruo
Chapter 7 ' I ,, ,".:; " .. ', . .::. PAVEMENTTYPESAND MATFRIALS

eaa.parate clurhtg tlte life of tbe paaement. There need to be sufficient \ A highway designel must always look to economy when selecting a_pav9_!l9t-1!
aolatiles ht tbe bincler to keep it elastic. It, tlterelfore,.follous tbat tbe \t"tr;;io
-r,er;ul. As hiturnen is becoming scariFr anc[6liGi thc sdli'ctign o:f lhe mix
arnount ancl tlpe of binder and its aiscosity ,rr..tst be carefully selectetl be' carefully done. The initial cost is, of course. very iniportant. but
The elastic property of a mix imparts flexibility to the pavement la}'er.
eqtlall@ApoorIydesignedpaVemcntmatct.ial
enabling it to flex under a load without cracking and to leturn to the oriilinal may be cheaper initially, bllt it is false economy to always base decisions on
position after the passage of the load. The type and quantity of binder are initial cost only!
important factors that cletermine the elastic properties of a mix in addition to
the interlock of the aggregate matrix. The mix rnust be able to withstand the 7.8.3 Generol (ontepls in Mix Design
tensile strain caused blr loacls. a) Stages in Mix Design: Mix clesign involves the following three stages:
Repeatecl passage of loads causes fatigue stress in pavement layers. A long life o Prelirninary Desigq
is possible onlir if the n-rix has fatigue-resistant properties. The quantit,v of o Job-Mix Forttul<t,
bitumen has a significant effect on the fatigue resistance of mixes. Up,lto-a
point. ar-rcl provicled that othcr n-rix requirements are not ieopardised. the o Routhrc Constt'uctiott' ControL
highcr the bincler content. the gteater is the fatigue resistance. Dense-glaclecl 'fhe prelininary desigtt o1f mixes is done in the laboratory after str-rclying
rnixes tencl to have gleater fatigue resistance than relatively open-gracled rnixcs. thc availability of materials, their suitability and cost. Trial blends can
Ilowever. particularllr in hot climates. minimum optimurn bincler',content is determine the optin-rum ancl most economical tnix.
bcficr job ,nlx
TLrc Jforrruil.u trallslates tlte laburatt-uy trtlr itito the production
'fhe lif'c of a pavqment layer is, inter alia, dcpendent upon its veids cantgnl. process in a plant, acljusted zrs necessary after laying tfials with planlproclucecl
A clense mix with low voicls content is impermeable t() water ancl air. Thc rnix.
pres<:nr:e of wefer is detrimental tr,i adhesion between aggregates ancl tl-rc 'l'|rc routhrc testing crnd. cotttrol of ntaterials and mixcs are thereafter
bir-rcler'. ancl ail oxiclises the binder. It is, thus, very impofiant that the mix clone to ensnre that tl-re final procluct conforms to the design requirements and
shor.rlcl be denbc and highly impermeable. is acceptable. In the eaent of material uariations ar,d,/ar problents witlt
A ntix must be capable of being laid and compacted without unclue difficulty. tbe nd.x, adjttsttnent to the job nix formula may be required'
This properry of the mix is known as itstuorkabl/ify. A caleful selection of b) Mix Design Methods:
gradation of aggregates. binder content and lalring ternperature is necessar),
Mix design methods are specified in the constrl,lction specifications.
to ensr.rrc good workalrilitir.
Though there are rnany design methods being followed, the basic
Smooth surfaces cause skidding, especially under wet conclitions. Aggregates principle behind them is to arrive at the optimum binder content, given
that are prone to 'polishing' undel traffic must be avoided in 'surfacing' mixes. the gradation selected and the mechanical proPerties desired. The most
The texture of the aggregates imparts skid resistance. Mixes, wl-rere the voids common method being practised is the Marshall Method" altho]ugh the
content is too low, will bleed when complessed under load and will become Hveem Method is also in use. Tl.re Marshall Method is indicated below:
slippery. Carefirl selection of the amount of voids filled with biturner.r ancl
remaining air voids is. thus. essential. 7.8.4 The ltilorsholl Method of Asphaliii fri'iiffiil
Noise from traffic is increasingly becoming a pollution hazard. part of it i.s
a) Orisin and Current Status:
contributed by noise generatecl at the tyre-road interface. Rituminous surfaces The Marshall Method was originally developed b)' Bruce Marshall of the
normally create less noise than concrete pavenents. Generally, a smooth Mississippi State Highway l)epartment. The method is now standardised
surface is less noisy. by many organisaiions, including ASTM, AASHTO, U.S. Corps of

Raina's Field Manual for Highway ancl Briclge Engineers Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers r,10q'.
 l
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, PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS
Chapter - 7

Engineers" and British Standards Institution. The method is apPlicable

orri,,, ,o hou.i* bir,rntino.rt Ou,ritt* ,'titt* Ott-t"tt"tiott ttud"
'''i*,uttt. trl
bitirmen and containing aggregates with a maximum size of 26'5 mm' If &l
<t
the material contains fractions retained on26.5 mm sieve, such a fraction
may be replaced by aggregates passing 26'5 mm sieve and retained on
EI
>l
{-a
the 22.4 mm sieve. Alternatively. there is a modified Marshall Method ot
described in us Asphalt Instituters MS-2. which may be used for materials dl a g t
cl A
containing higher size aggregates. M I d
ol
U
! I
b) Outline of the Method: ol
xt
t VT

Figve 7.2 shows this in a FLO1W CTIART format. The Marshall method 2l
uses standard test specimens of height 64 mm and diameter 102 mm' The ol
t !
I
specimens are prepared using a standard procedure. for heating, mixing EI I
and compacting the mixture' Compaction is done by imparting 50 or 75
blows on each sicle of the specimen; 50 blows are used for medium traffic
,El
ot
2l
?l
_.*,_,r.il{
,El
$
roads ancl 75 blows are used for heavily trafficked roads'
l dI
.id
B8 I o
(t
In"rhod u,. o d"r"i*-uoitl' u''t"[ttit
I !
>t
Th. O.in.iprl f"u*r", of ,1-r"
"td
n ,{
q
d!k
6ua
I
l o
00
o 6g I
1b !')

ffi
o da I
stabiliry-flow test of the compacted specimens' N
I * !$
The stahility is a measure of the strength of-the mixture' It is th
bb
ii i9$ I
d $ f, OE

t. tsl:
{!! I ..;i
load resistance in Newtons! which it wlll develop at 60oc wllell l-estcd irr 4dedd !t %
b9
the standard Marshall equipment. The flow value is the total deformation
in units of 0.25 mm. occufring in the specimen between no load and
b
6 i:::::
T
uI
E

E e E'g
i ac
;{ilii il;
x

maximum load during the test.

The test specimens are prepared with varying bitumen content in 0,5
increments ovef a range (e.g., 4 o/o lo 60/0) that gives a
o/n

well-defined
s

a
a
I
ffi ffi: ,irl llqQt *itr
ar !n
$ oo
{?
maximum value for specimen
,density, and'stabiliry'. At least two bitumen Ir I eE
content values should be above and ftvo values below this maximum
!$
point. Usually, \or 6 values of binder content are selected' For each
titr-"tt (bind"r)'"ont.rrt. ,tot-ullt thr.. t"tt u'""i-"t'tt ut" Ot"Out"d' tZ + o
and an average of the three specimens obtained' l3
o g
o
u
o
I fl!lr
H !
t 6
8o
dd
o

a5
o
h t-i
AE
d
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aa
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o oot&
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ba d
d
b .5 -iI Es ts
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bo
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I !ir l!iB !
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Rainat td Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers

Raina's Fietd Manuai for Highway anO anage engineers ffi ffi Fie

i
I

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I Chapter - 7 PAVEMENT TYPES AND MATERIALS
I

i
I

i
The test machine is an electrically powered testing device designed to operator to feed aggtegates of various sizes, filler and binder into the
i apply loads at a constant rate of strain of 5 cm per minute and is provided plant so that the final mix is as close as possible to the laboratory design
with a calibrated orovins rins to measure the load. Tlte maximum load mixes.
I
atfctihne is the stabtitty oalue. A flow meter records the deformation The job mix fortnula ls dctennined. tentatioely on tbe basis of test
:
at the maximum load when failure occurs. sannplcs takenfrotm trre aggregates dellaered and stockpl.Ied and
c) Analvsis of Results: processed.from tbe hot btns of tbe Ttla.nt to be used Reftnements
are made a.fier tbe plant ts ln regular operatlon a.nd tbe
The test results give data for performing a'd.ensity-oolds' analysls.
:r. cbaracterl.stics of tbe actual nl.x la.id, bante been determlnedfrom
_
TbeJollouiln! grapbs are dranrtn- ; i '
tbe samples.

Marsball stabtltty os, bi.tumen content,

.-, 3.
, Percbntdge air oolds Ln total mlx3ts bitumen content,

{4, ' Percenta.ge oolds ln mlneral aggrb$gles tss. bitumcn content,

---5: Flano oahte as. bltumen content
Frbm these graphs,. the bitumen content is obtained for the
following conditiono:
/ t./ Polnt of maxim,um, stnhllitlt,

,ri
:,& Point of m,axhnum dcnsity,
Potnt of 4 % alr oolds ln totalmtx.
Tbe optlmum btnder content is tben taken as tbe aaerage aalue of
tbe abooe tltree, and ls used in the d.estgtt, proatdcd lt satisfies all
otber design crlterla,
At tbe optimurn bitumen content, it is desirable to prq)are furtber trial
samples.foi putposes of cbecking tbe design parametery, like uoids in the
mineral aggregate, air uoid content in.tbe mi.x and retaimed stabilit!.
For hiehwavs where traffic is heaW, the minimum stabiliw value mav be d
specified as 80b0 N with specimeriE --compacted with 75 blgws on each
side. the Der cent air voids in the ranse of 3 to 5 and the flow value in
mm in the ianee of 2 to 4. :

d) Iob Mtx Formuta

After the laboratory investigations and Maishal tbsts are carried out, the
next stage is the formulation of the job mix formula. In this stage of the
work, the results from the laboratory analysis are translated into the actual
working of a mixing plant. The job mix formula enables the plant
Raina's fietd Manuat for Highway and Bridge engineers' f ! Rurrs ri" H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

-
 8.O PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

8.I.A SPRAYTD OR PTI{IIRAIIO}I IAYTR A.3'Bituminous Penekalion ilocqdom

BrTuMlilous PAvtiltlll woRl(s A.4 Buih-up Sproy Groul

8. I .B PRt-ttllXED Bllulrtlllous PAvtltltlll A.5 Surfoce Dressing .

WORKS A.6. L{rrlid Srol toot

8.2 PRE.COI{SIRU(IIOI{AfiIVITIES A.7. fog Sproy

8.2.1 Supply ond Storoge of Aggregoles B. Premixed Bituminous Pdvement l{orks

8.2.2 Slotoge ond Hondling of Bitumen CAUIIO}{ #I

CAUII0N #2 Generol requircments for
8.2.3 &nerolPtecuulions
hdr mii ilonrs
8.2.4 Preporclion of Surfoces
CAIJTION #3 SuletY osPecls
TOR IHE PAVTMTIfi WORKS SIAIED II{ 8.I
CAUTIOI{ # 4 (ore in poving operotions
A. Sptoyed or Penelrolion loYer (AUT|ON # 5 Segregolion
Biluminous Pavemenl Works
UUTI0N # 6 (onslrudion of poving ioinls
A.l Prime &ql
CAUTI0N #7 Rolling operolions
A.2 Isck (oal
8.1 0pen-groded Bituminous Mscqdom

f a"in"'" ri"td Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineerc

Chapter B
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

8.2 Dense Biluminous Mocudom,

Semi-Dense Biluminous (onoele, 8.O PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Biluminous (oncrele
8.t Thls Cbapter deals uitrr aar'lous '@ and
8.3.(l ) ()pen-groded Premix Surfocing sqlient 'construction aspects' of tbe follothlig pauement utorks. (Note
using Bilumen tbat tbeir Apes, descripttons, purpose/use and'tna.terietl requirements
8.3.(2! 0pen-groded Premix Surfocing baae alreacly been lullcated in tbe preaious cboptef).
using (olionk fmulsion 8.1.A or Penetration Paaement Works
8.4 0ose-groded Premix Surfodng,/
A.1 Prime Coat (PC)
Mix Seol Surfocing
A.2 TackCoat(TC)
B.i Premix Seol [oot

8.6 fttoslk Asphoh

A.3 Bituminous Penetratlon Macadarn (BPM)
8.7 Slurry Seol
A.4 Built-up Spray Grout (BUSG)
8.8 Recyded Eiluminous Puvemenl A.5 Surface Dressing (SD)
8.9 Slone Moslic Asphoh {SMA} A.6 Liquld Seal Coat (ISC)
8.10 Sond Asphuh Busecourse A.7 Fog Spray (FS)
8.3 PRTPARAIORY WORK BTIORE I.AYIIIG 8.1.8 Premixed Bltuminous Pa.uement Works
8.4 U.K. DTPARTiITilT OF TRAIISPORT
8.1. Open-graded Bituminous Macadam (BM)
SPI(IFICATION ]OR I.AYING OF
ElTUIillltous InArtRtAts 8.2 Dense-graddd Bituminous works -
8.5 CHECKTISI WHTII I.AYII{G ROAD
(i) Dense Biturrrinous Macadam (DBM)
TIAITRIAT (li) Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC)
8.6 DftrVrRY ffE(KS AND @l{IRotS (iii) Bituminous Concrete (BC)
8.7 PoSSrBr.t CAUSES 0t fllrx-DEflCrtil0rs 4.3 Open-graded Premlx Surfacing
HOT:frtlX ASPflAtT (0UTLltlED BY THI
11{
- using (1) Bitumtn, (2) Cationtc Emulslon
us ASPHAU I{SflIUTEI
8.4 Close-graded Premix Surfacing/Mix Seal Surfacing
8.8 oUAutY CoilIRoilil RoAD t'; (CGPS/MSS)
COIISIRUCTION
8.5 Premlx Seal Coat (PSC)
8.5 Mastic Asphalt (MA)
8.7 Slurry Seal (SS)
8.8 Recyded Bitumlnous Pavement
8.9 Stone Mastlc Asphalt (SMA)
8.10. Sand Asphalt Basecourse (SABC)

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and eridge Engineers ffi Raina's Fle ld Manua! for Highway and Bridge Engineers
-re

Chapter I
NOTE: An extreme$,t in portant a.spect of ttll bituminous consttuction utorks is
tbeir adaers" i*po"t on tlte enaironment; tbe necessary steps to be
ta.ken toraards frotection oJf the enoironment are brielflit detailed in'
41 a.bead-
8.2 PR r-(ollsTRUCTloll ACTlvlTlts
8.2.r Supply ond Storoge of Aggregotes
Slte selection: The storage of aggregates requires a large area of land, the
use of which must be carefully planned in advance. Not only does there have
to be sufficient space for the aggregates themselves, but there must also be
space for haulage and loacling equipment to manoeuvre between stockpiles
when delivering and re-handling the aggregates. Stockpites must be s/ell
spaced to ensure against inter-mixing of stockpiles of agg|egates of different
sizes andlor gradings.
Ir is impoftant that the area selected for stockpiling is well-drained and is
surfaced with a well-compacted and carefully levelled material capable of
withstanding the action of heavy equipment without rutting or generating
muci. It -"y b" necessary to imporf a good gravel material to the stockpile
area an<l level and compact it to form a firn-r base for stockpiling. The material
may be treated as sub-base material and treated with water, premixed before
levelling and compacting.
Material handling: The surface of an aggregate stockpile keeps going up
and down as material is addecl and removed and is subject to segregation due
to the tendency of the larger size pafticles to roll down towards the base more
'When extfacting material from sucl-r a stockpile with a
than the smaller sizes.
mechanical shovel, it is necessary to dig well into the base of the stockpile to
aid remixing. A skilled loader operator is an imporlant factor in making sure
that segregated material is not placed in the cold bins. clear marking of
size at stockpiles and on stofage bins will help to avoid accidental
^ggr"git
placing of the wrong size in a stockpile or in a bin.
cold feed arrangement: The cold feed arrangement is the fitst component
oi the mixing plant. It consists of two to five compartments, one for eaclt
nominal size aggregate. The compartments are open-top bins, which are
usually fed by a iront-end loader or a clamshell bucket crane, which usually
loads the matefial directly from the stockpile. Alternatively, a tunnel
arfangement under the stockpiles can also be provided. Materials are
stockpiled over the tunnel by a belt,conveyor, truck, front-end loader or
@-- Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Eridge Engineers
PAVEMENT CONSIRUCI/ON
crane. Another possible afrangement is a series of bunkers or large bins, from
wl-richaggregatesmaybyloadeclbydr.ag.lineafrangement.Binsarenormally
covered with screens to restrict the entry of larger size in the bin' which may
eventually choke the openings of the bin.
Filler: Filler is a fine material, often cement or slaked lime or crushed
G"rto.t". which is likely to be vulnerable to moisture and the action of wind.
It is necessary to handle it separately, and to store it in a covered bunker'
8.2,2 Sloroge ond Hcndling o{ Bilumen
Bulk supplv: The bitumen supplied in bulk is received in tankers and
transferred to fixed, purpose-built stofage tanks. The site selected for storage
of bulk bitumen should be as close to the mixing plant as practicable, but
capable of accommodating the unhindered movement of trucks'
Bitumen in Drums: For smaller jobs, bitumen may be delivered an<l stored
in drums. In such cases, equipment must be available at the site capable of
handling drums and hoisting ih"- to the decanting point for transfer of the
bitumen to storage tanks or directly to a mobile bitumen boiler'
8.2.3 GenerulPrecoulions
Thefollottting precct'utions sltould apply to all utork sltes:
1. Alt tbe signs and. clelineators sltould. be malnta'ined in a clean and'
brigbtly painted cond'ition at all times' There should be a penaltJt
clnuse ln tbe contract usben the contr*ctor does not achieae
agreed' Ieaets of mai'ntenance and cleanli'ness of signs' markings'
dekneators' etc.
2. Adequate ll'gbttng ntrra'ngements sbould be made for praper
alstitkty durtng tie negotiation of the utork are, especial$t ,ulten
it is dark
3,;:'Adequate al?ungemet ts ltke frequent sprinkling of usater sltould
be made to keep t te area dust-free.
4. Workmen must be trained ln the use o1f tools a'"d pla."t'
Gurn boots, spectacles, etc,, ,nast be giuen to persons bandkng
5,
bitumen
6. First-aid trainlng must be gioen to all utorkmen and enough sa'fetjt
kl.ts.sltould be aoailable at the slte.
ffi ou,nr" r," ld Manual tor Highway and Bridge Engineers - -ffi
ffi
 Chapter B ;
7. Workers required on site cluring nigbt bours tntr.st be ltroaided
uitlt lfluorescent Tellou Jackets with rejflectioe tctpes.
8. As lfar a.s posslble, tbe tnaterial equipment ancl ntacbhrcry sbould
be stacked,/installctl,/parked ht places sufficient$t auay from the
road berrns in auailable roacl lantd. At[t in uncr.uoidable cases
sltould tbelt be ahoured near tbe edge of tbe bernts, but neaer on
berms near a.nd. ort crtrues;
9. Macbhtery sltould be parked at atppropriate pktces raitb reelJlags
and. red. kgbts on; ancl
10. Only tbe mhthnunt quantity of material requir.edfor one operation
sbotr.Id be stacked as aboae.
8.2.4 Preporolion of Surfores
a) Preliminary operations: Before any new constl'Lrction can be laicl, the
condition of the surface should be carefully inspectecl ancl mcasurcs taken
to prevent deficiencies that can otherwise come in the newly laid cr>Ur.se.s.
If the existing sulface is granrrlar, it rrr:Ly l;c lcLcbsuly lo scarify, rcslral-re
or lecompact the top layer or place adclitk>netl ffesh tnateriel where
requirecl. All loose, disintegt'atecl ancl extraneou.s mattcr must bc lernovecl
by means of a mechanical broora or '.u1y other apploved
equipment/methocl. Ihe use of an ail jet from a cornpress()r t<l l-ll<>q' away
dust or loose matter should be specified where appxrpriate. Any
settlement in fills near approaches to strllctllres, l'utting along whecl
pirths, etc., should be repaired.
On new roxds, it is of printc inlport:lnc(- tltat tlte gr:UtUl;rr l:rvcr aflr'r'
rlbrrnation'lrrrs ilre cr>r'rect grade and clown. Curvc"s slr,rr-rld lre plovicicd
with the ciesigr-r superelevation right from the sr-rbgrurde ancl granulzu base
course layers. Priming of granular sr-rrf:rce should Lre carliecl out bcforc
laying of tlre bituminous hyer.
A cold joint should be carefi"rlly trimmed with a iack hammer or any
other suitable cutting device before placing hot rnaterial in the area
adjoining it.
Any damage on existing bituminous surfaces, like cracks, shallow
depressions, ruts, corrugations, shoving and potholes shoulcl be repaired
as outlined in the next chapter.
:'1 16 Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
I
;aii
PAVE M EN T CO NSIR{JCIION
b) Profile comection course: Most bituminous oucrlay wtrlks lequire thc
construction <>f a cotrectiort cour"se in order to cofrect the carnbcr of the
existing surface and recti$r local irregularities in the longitudir-ral profile.
The profile correction coLlrse may be laid as part ol' the
overlay/strengtliening or as a separate layer'. In the former case, the
naterial fol the profile correction course should bc the same as that of the
overlay/strengthening course. If it is laid as a separate layer, it must have a
specification at least the equivalent of tl-re layer over which it is to bc laid.
The icleal metltod for determhuttion of profile co/.rectit)e cour.se
requirentent is by ltlotting tbe cr.ass-sectiotts oif tbe existing roatl
surface, tben runni.ng a desigrt ktttgitudhml gracle lhrc througlt
tbem anelfixing tbe crotDfl l)oints ancl edge poirtts xoith ,-espect to
tbe existing cross-sections, Ihe r?qu.ired quantitiesfor cutting and
filling can4 tbus, be calcttktted.
In certaht si.tucttions of lacal clistortiort, humlt or. u.nclukttiorts oaer
Iitnited areag the establishmettt o1f tbe design gracle line may need
milhrtg, colcl planing or bot pktnhtg
UnbrUken sug,s or deltressktfls ntay be set ,lgbt by placlug a
nutnber of layers of leaellirrg course, The maxintunt layer tbickness
at art! poittt sltoukl be 7OO nm.
This proceelure elhnhtates forntatiott of ,trrtltiple joitfis at tbe top
ttttcl tbe ltossibility of btttttp fottttatiott by squeezing of materiak
from tlte lower layers.
Ihe cor"rectiott of cannber sltottkl also be cs.rriecl out.
A tack coat i.s generally needed pfior to laying of tbe profile
cot'rectiae cottrse, antcl, talten laicl, tbe profile correction. shoukl be
trhnm.ecl to trre cot'r'ect lcaels and tborougltly compacted-
FOR THT PAVEMilT WORKS
STATTD IN 8.I
A. Sproyed or Penelrolion loyer Bituminous Povement Works:
In this type oJf constructlon, bitunten as btnder is sprayed on the
surJface to be treate4 bitumen. ancl aggregate are not ,nixecl prior to
Iafing, but at'e phtced irt separate courses or Inyers.
Raina's Field Manua! for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Chapter I
width to be sprayecl to give a clean sharp edge, and provide a run-on and
o) Equipmenl run-off, so that spraying at the required discharge rate is achieved
The success of surface.treatments is very much dependent on the binder throughout the length.
being applied uniformly at the correct rate of spread, and this is governed
The metal sheets,lsed for stopping and starting work should be cleaned
by the qualiry, maintenance, calibration and operation of the binder
after each run and the troughs used for testing should be cleaned at the
distributor. Salient features of Bitumen Binder Distributors are described
end of eacl-r day's work.
in the following publications:
During spraying, all kerbs, road furniture, culvert headwalls, and the like
IRC:SP:34-1989, General Guidelines about tbe Equipment for should be protected from bitumen spray; and any such feature, which is
BituftTinous Surface Dressing.
accidentally marred by bitumen, should be made good.
IRC:72-1978, Recommended Practice for Use and Upkeep of
Equipment, Tools and Appliances
Constru.ction.
for Bituminous Pauement d Toleronces
The rate of application of bituminous binder across the width of each
Tbe US Aspbalt Handbook, Manual Series No.4, 1989 spray run should not vary by more than +/- 10 0/o from the rate specified.
The avelage application rate of binder for each single run of the spray
85:3136, Part 2 : 1972, Specification for Cold Emulsion Spraying
truck should be at least equal to this rate. Tray tesrs should be raken ar
Macbines.for Roads
least once a day during spraying operations to check calculations basecl
BS:1707 - 1970, Spectfication for Hot Binder Distributorc for Road on dipping of spray trr-rcks.
Surface Dressing.
dl Sofely Precuulions
bl Sproying All necessary precautions should be taken to avoid fire. It should be
The edge of the area to be sprayed is marked out with a line of string or ensured that operations in respect of bituminous construction work are
wire pegged down at interwals not exceeding 15 m on straight lines or not hazardous to the health and safety of the public or contractor's labour.
7.5 m on culves. In particular, it sltould be ensured that:
Hand-spraying is permitted only in smali areas, which the distributor --.(a.) Bitumen is heated onljt to the tenpera.ture requirecl for tbe
cannot reach or to make good defective areas, such as those caused by a
6' patticutar applicatiory ---
blocked nozzle.
does come in to contact u)itb tuqter;
Nozzles should be arranged to give a uniform spray and should be tested
prior to spraying by discharging on to suitable material (such as building not present in the aggregate as it may
paper, metal sheets, etc.) or into purpose-made troughs. Testing should
not take place on the road or directly onto the ground, and any bitumen agent may be requlred
spilt on the ground should be remcved. (d) Suitable protectloe gogg/rs, boots and glaoes a.re
If, during spraying, a nozzle becomes blocked or develops a defect, the suppked to, a.nd used by, operators uben .bandling bot
spraying should be immediately stopped. Any area incompletely sprayed
should be made good with a hand-spray. The machine should be repaired (e) Dust is suppressed a.nd reduced to a minimum;
before further spraying is carried out with it.
ct) Bitumen products and solaents a.re not spih on to tbe ground
At the points where spraying coflrmences and stops, sheets of building or i.nto ditclres or inta ua.ter
paper or sheet metal at least 2 m wide should be spread across the full

ffi nainas nie H Manuat for Highway and Brtdge Engineers

ffi - Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway and Bridgu Engineers ffi
Chapter B Fl*:";ftr"t*5ffil#, PAVEMENT CONSrRuCTtoN

!'** (d Any bitumen products or solaents wltlclt are spilt a.re The temperature of application must be high enough but no higher to permit
i
L remoaed the primer to be effectively sprayed through the iets of the spray bar and to
and. in a pla.ce a.nd. ma.nner suclt cover the granular base surface uniformly in the desired quantity. The binder
enuironmental risks a.nd. hazards are negated.; tenperature shouid be in accordance with that mentioned Table 8.1.
Waste or oaer-beated. bttumen or solaents are not d.isposed Table 8.1. Binder Temperatures for Primers
off by burning. Cutback Bitumens Temperature Range
Because of the highly flammable nature of the solvent, great.care is MC - 30. 30"c - 55'C
required when using rdpid-curing cutback bitumen. MC-70 50'c - 80'c
MC - 250. 75'C - 100'C
THE DETAII.S OTMMS Bitumen Emulsion
A.r T0 4.7 (STATED tl{ 8.t} SS-lH,css-/ORcss-lH 20'c - 60'c
" See item 7.6.6 in chapter 7.
A.l Prime coat
Curing of primer and. openi.ng to traffic: A primed surface is allowed to
Wea.tber and. sea.sonal timitations: Bituminous primer should not be cure for at least 24 hours or such other period as is found to be necessary to
applied to a wet surface (except when emulsion is used as a primeq in which allow all the volatiles to evaporate before any subsequent surface treatlnent
case the surface should be damp but not wet) or during a dust storm or when or mix is laid. Any unabsorbed primer should first be blotted with an
the qreather is foggy, rain1., v.indy or when the temperature in the shade is application of sand, using the minimrtm quanriry possihle. A primed sttrface
less than 10oC. should not be opened to traffic other than that necessary to lay the next
coLlrse.
Equipffient: The primel distributor should be a self-propelled or towed
hitumen pressure sprayer. Hand spraying of small areas, inaccessible to the There could arise a sltuatlon utben afresbllt laid and primed granular
distributor, may be allowed and power brooms and blowers may be base in balf widtlt, autaitlng bituminous base course, is to serae as .t'
supplemented by hand brooms. dfu.tersion u)trlle tlre construction is ln ptogress in tbe otber ba'lf widtlt
of the road In suclt a. sltuatio4 a ternpora'ry uea'ring course of single-
Prepara.tion af road. sur1lface: The surface to be primed is first prepared. coat suqface d.ressing sltould be prooided, in order to mlnimlse
The practice of producing a smooth finish on a graded granular base by damage to the prlrned sur;1face.
wetting and heavy vibratory compaction, theleby drawing fines to the surface,
should not be permined. The fines produce weak surface layer and also Tack Coa.t: Before laying a bifuminous treatment or mix on a primer coated
inhibit.the penetration of.the primer. Immediately prior to applying the surface, aTackCoat should be applied as explained ahead.
primer, the surface should be carefully swept clean of dust and loose particles
preferably using .an air compressor, care being taken not to disturb the A.2 luck Qat
. interlocked aggregate. This is best achieved when the surface layer is slightly Weatber and seasonal limitations: Bituminous materi^l should not be
moist (lightiy spraye{ with water and the surface 4llowed to dry) and the applied to a wet surface or during a dust storm or when the weather is foggy,
surface should be kept moist until the primer is applied. rainy or when the temperature in the shade is less than 10oC. When emulsions
Application of bltuminous pfr.mer: The viscosiry and r^te bf application of are used, a slightly damp surface is preferred.
the primer should be chosen so that the surface absorbs all it can, with a Equlprnent; The tack coat distributor should be seli-propelled or a towed
penetration of 5 mm to 10 mm, and only a thin film is.left on the surface birumen distributor complying with the requirements. Hand spraying of small
which dries quickly. The rate of spray to be used must be determined by site areas, inaccessible to the distributor, may be allowed and power brooms and
trials. The bituminous primer should be sprayed uniformly. blowers may be supplemented by hand brooms in such ateas.
-*-- rut *---- " -_- - ffi
re* Raina's Field Manual for Highway and eriage engineers fi ff R ri" M Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 'l
Chapter I i . PAVEMENT CONSIRUCNON
ii
:l
::
1i
Preparatiort of base: -fhe surlace ()n which tlie tack coat is to be applied
il
'j shoulcl be cleaned of dtrst ancl any extr:rneoLls material before the application
li
:i
of the bincler, by using a mechaniczrl broom or any other approved
equipment/method.
1i
t:
Applicotior, o1f bincler: Thc bincler is spraycd uniformly, in accor-dance with
..
the requirernent.s, at a rate determined by trials on site. Vork sl-rould be
ii
plar-rned so that no morc than the ucccssaly tack coat for the day,s operation
i1 is placed on the sLrrface.
t'
rl
't Curing of tack coat: coat should be lefr ro cure till all the volatiles
The. tach
have evaporzrted before zrny subsequent constftiction on it is startecl. The use
t:
I o1f rapiel settirrg cutbacks or emulsions for tack coat ,relps to heep tbe
1
i: xaaiting tirne to the minintunt. No plant or oehicles sboulcl be alloued
on the tack co&t otlter tlcan tbose esser,tialfor the constructiorL
4.3 BiluminousPenelrotionMocodsm
V'ectther antl seasonal limitatiorts.' Ilituminor-rs material should not Lre
applied t() a wct surf:Lce (cxcept when cnrulsi<>n is r.rsed as a primer, in which
case the suffacc sl-rould be damp but not wet) of cluring a dust storm or when
the weather is foggy, r':riny c>r when the ternpel'atllre in the shacle is less than
100c.
Preparatiott of tbe base: The basc on which the penetration Macadam
Course is tr> bc laicl should be prcpalecl, shaped and conditioned to the
specified lines, gracles and sections. A prirnc coat where ncecled, shoirlcl be
applied over the base. A taclt coat shoulcl lte applied as cletailecl above.
Spreadhtg antcl conr.pactirtg coan.se aggregate: l'hc coarse aggregates in a
dry and clean forrn are sprcacl uniformly and evenly at the specified rate,
preferably with the help of a scll'-propellcd or tipper tail mounted agrlregate
spreadcr capable of spreadir-rg allgregare unifbrmly at the specified rates <;ver
tl-re requircd widths. 'l'he surface o['t]re layer should be careftrlly checked with
camber templates ancl all high ancl low spots remedied by removing or acldir-rg
aggteg tes as may be requircd. If this acljustrnent is substantial the rate of
spread should be adjusted accorclingly. The spreading should be carried no
further in aclvance of the rolling ancl penetrating operations than c:rn be
completed in that day's work. Seglegatecl aggregates or aggregates mixecl with
earth or otirer foreign substances should be removed and replaced with
graded aggregates.
Compactiotx After thc spr-eading ol coarse aggregates, cly rolling is carried
out with an 8 to 10 tonne smooth-wheeled steel roller.
't 122 Raina's Field Manual tor Highway and Bridge Engineers
Afier initial rotling, the surlace is checked with a crown tetnplate ancl 3 metre
straillht-eclge. Thc sttrface shottlcl not valy lnore than 10 rnm from the
,.r-,-,pl"t" or straight-edge. All sulface irregularities exceeditrg the above limit
shoLrlcl be correctecl by removing of adding aggl'egates as requirecl'
The rolling shoulcl be continucd until the compacted coarse aggfegate has a
firm surface true to the cross-secti()n shown on the plans ancl has a textufe
that will allow free ancl Llniform per-Ietration of the bitumir-rous matefial.
Applicatiott. of bituminous ttaterial: After tl-re coafse aggl'egate has been
rollecl a.,cl checkccl, the biturnilous binder is appliecl at the specified rate. The
spraying telnper2rture t>f penetration gracle biturnen should be 130oC +' the
m:rxirnunt temper'.itlrre being below that at which fogging occLlrs'
Ar rhe rime ol applying the binder, the aggregates should bc surlace cly for
the full clepth of'thc leYcr.
The volume of'the appliecl bitumen is about one thircl the volurne of the total
voicls in the conpactecl coarsc aggrcgate. Il it is found that insulTicient
bitur-nen is rcmaining at the top of the coarse aggfegate mat to hold the
keystorrc secr.rrely, cuttsidtt:ttiott shtiuld bc givcn to placing a bed of clean
sand ol cy.rarry fines, nt>t exceecling about 10 mm in thickness, on the
prepalcd fc>uttdattcx-t ]rclore placing the ct>arse aggreS'ate. Dur:ing compaction
,1.r"-.,ru.r" aggrcgatc will penetrate into tl-ris bottom layer.'fhis operation will
be assistcd if tl-re sancl is slightty weltecl, iust sufficicnt for it to slurry up during
rhe cornpurcti<)n pr()cess. 'l'hesc fines thcn effectively fill the voids at the base
ol tlte compactccl coa|sc aggregate mat and prevel-It tl-re applied bitumen from
pcnetr.lting too far. $irhen cutback is usecl, if floocling of the bincler tends to
occur', it sl-ror-rlcl be appliccl in two operations, half at a time'
Apphcatiott of key aggregates: Immecliately alter the first application of
llitunr.t-t, the key aggregates in a clean and dry state should be spreacl
rrniformly over thc surface by means of an approved mechanical spreacler or
by approved manual methods at the specified rate.
If nccessary, the surface shoulcl be broomed and the quantity of key aggregate
adjusted to enslrfe uniform application, with all the surface voids. in the coarse
;:,
:.:
i::.
aggregate being fillecl but without excess. The entire surface should then be
.ij rollecl with a B to 10 tonnc smooth steel wheel roller and a vibratory roller'
&.'
{-!
Su.rface fitdsb: The su|f)ce finish of the completed construction should
l::: conform to the rcquirements laicl clown in the spccification'
d::
ii: :
lt1,
ii': 1.123
Raina's Fietcl Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers ;i.
t;.
Chapter I PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Surfachtg: The penetration mac2lcl2rm shor-rld be providecl with a surface
bincler/wearing course witl-rin one or two days. If there is to be any clelay, the
cor-rrse should be covered bv a seal coat.
4.4
Gtout
wbatlcer antd seasonal limitations.' Bituminous material should not
applied to a wet surface (except when emulsion is used as a primeq in which
case the surface .should be damp but not wet) or during a dust stol'm or when
the weather is foggy, rainy or when the temperature in the .shade is less thar-r
10"c.
Preparatiort of base: The base on which the built-up spray grout is to
laid shoulcl be preparccl, shaped and conditioned to the specifie<l lines, grades
and cross-.sections. A prirning coat, wherc needed, should be appliecl with
suitablc primt.r'.
Tack coat: A tack coat over the base, where needecl, .sl-roulcl be applied as
explained earlier'.
Spreadhrg and rollirtg tbe coarse aggr.egates for tbe lirst hyeti
Immediately after the applicatkrr"r of tack coat, the coarse aggiefJatcs in a cLy
:.rnd clcan fbrrn sl-rorrlcl bc :;prcacl trniformly and evenly, prcferal.,ly by
mechanical tneans, at the l':rte of 0.5 cum per 10 sq. ln area. Tl-re surfacc of
the layer shr>ulci be carefully checkecl with templates, ancl all high ancl low
spots remcdiecl Lry rernoving or aclding aggregates as rnay be required.
Lnmediately al'ter sprcading the aggregates, the entire surface shoulcl be
rollecl with an B to 10 tonne .smooth-wheeled roller. Rolling shoulcl commence
at the edges ancl progress towards the centre except in superelevatcd and uni-
directional cambered portions wherc it should proceed frorn the lower edge
to the higher edge. Ilach pass of the roller shoulcl uniformly overlap not less
than one-third of the track made in the preceding pass.
After initial rolling, the surface should be checked transversely
longitudinally with templates and any irregularities correcred by loosening the
surface, adding or removing nccessxry anlounts of aggregate, followed by
rolling.
Rolling should be stopped before voids in the aggregate layer are closed to
such an extent as to prevent free and uniform penetration of the binder.
Appkcation of bincler - Jfirst sDtAy: The binder should be heated to the
temperature appropriate to the grade of bitumen approvecl by the Engineer
and sprayed on rop of the aggregate layer ar the rate of 15 kg,/10 sq. m
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
(measr:recl in telrns of residr-ral Lritumen content) in a uniform manner with
thc lrctp of a rnechanical sprayer capable of spraying bitumen uniformly at the
specifiecl rates ancl temperatures. The spraying temperature of penetration
gracle bitumcr-r sl'rould be 130"C+, the maximurn being that at which fogging
()cclu's. Excessive deposits of binder caused by stopping or starting of the
sprayers or through leakage or any other reason should be correctecl
be promptly.
Spreading cmd rolling of coarse aggregates fur ltp_;peg&_tapet
Imntccliately alter the first layer application of the binder, the second layer of
coarse aggregates shoulcl be spread and rolled as above.
be Application of binder - second'sltra-v: The seconcl aggregate layer should
tlren lre given a bindel spray at the rate <>f 15 kg/lo sq. m (measured in terms
o[ residr,ral bitumen c()ntent) as above.
A\IrLictttiorr. oJ'ke7t aggregnfes-: Lnurediately after the seconcl applicrtion of
bir-rdcr, key xggreg2rtcs in a clean and clry state shoulcl be spread ttnif<rrmly and
cvenly, pref'erably by rnechanical means, at the rate of 0.13 cr.rrnllO sq. m scr
as to c()vcr the surfirce complctely. If necessary, the snrface shoulcl be
il<xrmccl to cnr;ure r-rniform application of ke1' aggregates. The entire surface
sl-rotrlcl thcn be rollecl with an tJ to 10 tonne smooth-wheeled roller as indicatecl
ebovc. \X/hile rolling is in progless, aclditional liey aggregates, where tequired,
shoulcl lre spreacl by hanc1. llolling .shoulcl be continued until the entile colust:
is tllrroughly compactccl and the key aggregxtes are firmly in position.
Surface Jinisl:t.' Thc surfzrcc finish ol' construction .should conform to the
l-cquirernent.s leicl down in the specifications.
Fburl surfachtg: The br-rilt-up spray grout should be plovided with final
sur'facing within one or two clays. If there is to be any delay, the course sl-ror-rlcl
be c<;velecl by a seal coat.
A.5 Surface
ancl
Weatber and seasonal lhnitatiotts.' Bituminous material shoulcl not be
appliccl to a $/et surface (except when emulsion is used as a primer, in which
czrse also, lhe surface could be only slightly damp but not wet) or during a
dust storm ol when tlte weathcr is foggy, r'ainy, wirrdy or when thc
temperatllre in the shade is less than 10oC.
Preparati<tnof base: The base on which the surface dressing is to be laid
slrculd bc prepared, sl-raped and conditibned to the specified lines, grade and
. cros.s-section. Prime coat, where needed, should be applied as indicated.
lwl-rere the existing surface sl-rows signs of fatting up, the excess bitumen
t
' Raina's Field Manual lor Highway and Bridge Engineers 125
 Chapter I : :
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCIION

should be removed iry br"rrning off or manually. 'I'l-re bituminor.rs surface to be Vhere a significant loss of chippings during heavy traftlc in wet weather is
dressed should be thoroughly cleanecl either by usinS; a rnechanical broom or consiclered to be a risk, a suitable anti-stripping a[Jent in the required amount
any othel apploved equipment/method. Dust removed in the process sl-rould may be added to the binder.
be blown off with thc help of compressed air.
As an altern&tiue to tbe use of anti-stripping agent, tbe chippings ma!
Appliccttion of bincler: The application temperatulc for the grade used be precoated before tbey are spreacl, except uthen tbe sprayed bincler
should be as inclicated in'fable 8.2. The surfacc on which tl-re binder is to be
applied should be dry (ir-r the case of emulsion bincler, the surface should be
film is a bitumen ernulsion. Precoating is likely to be particularly beneficial
if the chippings are poorly shapcd.
demp).
Table 8.2. Spraying Temperatures for Binder Precoating tbe cbippings may be done by one of the following lwo
methods:
Binder Grades Whirling Spray Jets Slot Jets
Min. oC Max. oC
Min. oC Max. oC
a) Mixing tbem witlr O.75 o/o to 7.O o/o of trtauing bihr'men by tueigbt of
cbippinS4s in. a su.itable ntixer, tlse cbippirtgs being heaterl to 16OoC aruL the
Binder Grades hihLn'ten. b its applic(ltion temperature. The precoated cbippings are
MC 30 50 60 40 50 allouted b cure Jbr at least one uteek or until tbey becomc non-sticky ancl
Ri/Mc 70 65 80 70 .(ut h( sltrettrl ensil.1t.
RC/MC 250 g5 115 80 90
RC/MC 800 115 135 105 115
b) Spruyin.g tlse cbippi.ngs uilh a liSlrt applicatioll rtf creosote, cliesel oil or
kerosene at an.bient temperatLu'e. Tltis sprayirtg can be done in' a cotTcrete
RC/MC 3000 135 150 120 130
ni,i.xet' or oil, r,r br:lt conur:yin51 the chippitl.gs from stockpile to Sritting iorfies.

Penetration Grades Syncbronous spreadittg: A relatively recent technology of sttLface dressing

400/s00 160
aims at acculately co-orclinating with the operaiiolls of bitr-rmen spraying and
170 140 150
.spleading o['stone chippings. \With synchrouous spreading, the inter-contact
280t320 165 175 150 160
B0/200 170
tirne between binclel spraying and aggregate spreacling is lirnited to one
1 190 155 165 -l'he spraying of bitumeu automatically comes to a stop as soon zls
scc<>nd.
B0/1 00 180 200 16s 175
aggregate spre:rding ends, i.e., there is never any excess of binder waiting for
Ngte: I3ecattse of tlse itrflcuttrnable nature of tlse soluent trsed in RC-Wz thc agglcgates to be spread. Ihe neut technologit of syncbronous
cutback-s, 6pplicotion temperahres.for RC grades shou.ld be restrictecl spreacling is specially beneficiotl utlten bigb aiscosity birrders are usetl
to tbe louter uaht.es of the ranges indicated aboue. ctrtcl irt areas uitlt harsb climate and bigb euaporalion
Atteil.tio?t is also clraun to the need to extinguisb Jlames ancl probibit Rollittg: Pleferably, r'olling of the chippings should be carriecl out by a
smokittg utben beating, pumping or spraying all cutbacks. Fire pneumatic tyred roller. Traclitional steel wheeled rollers tend to crush the
extittgu,isbers sb<tuld ahtuys be readily at band. aggregates, ancl if theil use camot be avoided, their weight should be limitecl
Application of stone cbippings: For relatively small areas ol surface to B tonnes. Rolling should commence at the edges and progress towards the
dressing, careful application of chippings by hand may be acceptable. centre except in superelevated and unidirectional cambered portions where it
Immediately after application ol the binder, clean, dry chippings (in the case shor,rld proceed from the lower edge to the higher edge. Each pass of the
of emulsion binder, the chippings may be damp) should be spread unifbrmly roller shor,rld uniformly overlap not less than one-third of the track made in
on the surface so as to cover thc surface completely with a single layer of the preceding pass. While lolling is in progress, additional chippings shouid
chippings. If necessary, the surface shoulcl be broomed to ensure uniform be spreacl by hand in necessary quantities required to make up irreguiarities.
Itolling should be continuecl until all pafticles are firmly embedded
spread of chippings. ^ggreg{e
in the bindel and pt'esent a uniform closed surface,

[it?-sl Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers ' Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers i'tliz :

Chapter B I
Altpliccttiott ojf second coat of surface dressiltg: vhere
.surface clressing
in two coats is specified, rhe second coat shoulcl not be applied until rhe first
coat has becn under tralfic for 2 or I weeks. The surlace on which the seconcl
coat is laid must be clean and free of dust. The construction operations lor
the second coat should be the san-re as described above.
Opening to trtJmc: fiaffic should not be permitted to rult on any newly
surface clressed area Llntil the following clay. In special circnrnstances,
however', the roacls may be opened to traffic imrnediately after rolling; but in
such ca.ses, traffic speed should be iimited to 16 km/hr until the following clay.
surlface finislr.' 'fhe .surface finish of constmction should confir.m to rhe
requirement.s laicl down in the specification.
4.6 Seol Cool
weatber anul seasonal limitatiotts.' Bituminous material shoulcl
applicd to a wet surface (except when emulsion is used as a primcr, in which
czrse the surfacc sh<>ulcl lre clamp but not wet) or clur.ing a cJust storm or whcn
the weathcr is foggy, r'ainy, wincly or when the temperatlrre in the shacle is
lcss than 100C.
Appliccttiott of bittdcr": straight-r'Lur bitumen
sl-roulcl bc lreatcd t.
150.c -
163"C ctepending o'thc- gl';rrlr: (lhe m:rxir-nr.rrn temp61.21urs being bekrn,that
at which fogging occurs), ancl .sprayccl at the specifieci rare on the clry surface
fl'ee of any cltrst or loose material, in a unifbrm manner with help of sclf,,
pr.pclled mechanical sprayer.s. If a c.tback or emulsion is r.r.secl, it rnay be
sprayecl at the rare specifiecl following the spraying pr.oceclure as explained
earlicr.
Application af stone cbippings: Imr.necliately altcr thc application of binclcr,
stone chippings shoulcl be sprezrd unifbrrnly at rhe rate specified o' the
surface by means of a self'-propelled or towed mcchanical grit spr.eader so as
to cover the surface cornpletely. If necessary, ihe surface shor,rld be broomecl
to ensllre unifolm spreacl of chippings.
Rolling: In"ulecliately aftcr ihe application of the cover material, the
surf'ace should be rolled with an B to 10 tonne snooth-wheeled steel roller,
an B to 10 tonne staric weight vibrating roller, ol other approved equipment.
Rolling shoulcl commence at the edges and progress towards centre Lxcept in
superelevated ancl unidirectional carnberecl portions where it shoulci p.oceecl
from the lower edge to the higher edge. Each pass of the rollei
unifonnly overlap not less than one-thircl of the track made in the prececlilg
pass. !7hile rolli'g is in prog.ess, aclditional chippings shoulcl be spreacl by
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
PAVEMENT CONSIRUCflON
hancl in nccessary quantities reqr-rired to make up in'egularities. Rolling shotrld
continue rrntil all aggregate particles are firnlly embedded in the binder and
present a uniform closed surface.
Opening to trctffic: 'flaffic shor,rlcl not be permitted to run on any newly
sulface dressecl area until the following day. In special circumstances, the
roacl may be opened to traffic immediately after rolling; but in such cases,
tralfic speecl sirould be limited to 16 km/l-rr until tl-re following day.
4.7
Weatlrer and seasonal limitatiorts: Spraying should not take place when it
is rzrining or when the surface to be sprayed is wet or when the tempetatttre
is less than 10oC, or in windy or dusty conclitions.
Eqrtipmertt: The fog spray shoulcl be applied by means of a self-propelled or
towecl bitun'ren pressure sprayel. The spray bar should be protccted frorn
n.t be
gusts of wind by means of a hood.
Preparation of base: "fhe surface on which the fog spray is to be appliecl
shoulcl be thoroughly cleaned of all dust, dirt and loose material. Unless low
l;iturnen contenl emulsion (459o) is being used, llte surlace slrould Lrc liglrtly
clarnpened.
Apltlica.tian: The ratr: of applicarion of the emrrlsion shorrld he clet.ermilled
by trials on site using the following ranges as guides:
.t') Either 0.45 to 0.9 litres/m' for ceftain IS grades (refer to II?C Manuctl) after
clilution with water, or
l'>) 0.45 litres/m' for the IIS glades (without dilution).
Blinding: If necessary, the fog spray should be 'blinded' as follows:
Aftel the emulsiorl has started to break (see item 7.6.7 in cbapter /, a light
coating of bitumen-coated gdt should be applied to tl.re sprayed surface. The
grit should consist of fine material, graded from 3 mm to dust with not more
than 10 0,6 passing 0.075 mm sieve, coated with not more than 3.5 Voby weight
entir.e of bitunren. The rate of application should be between 2.5 kg/m''ro 5 kg/m',
according to the texture of the surface. \fhen the required rate is at the high
end, the r;ite of application of the fog spray should be increased by
approxirnately 50 %. Richly coated grit sl-rould be avoided because it cannot
be spread unifonnly by mechanical gritters and may not work into the carpet
shoulcl satisfactorily.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers 'i...tro,
 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Chapter I

should be able to function in a wide range of ambient

Quality control of tlork: For control of the quality of materiais supplied and d) The plant relative humidity' Also' it should be
the works carried out, the relevant provisions of the specifications apply. atmospheric ,nua" t"i-'poutures and.
ftign attitudes and in high wind velocity
Ar-rangements for traffic: During the spraying operations, appropriate suitable fo, op"'utio^'J "'
(preferablY uP to 120 km/hr)'
arrangements for traffic should be made. The surface should not be opened
various power units should be capable
of being driven' either
to traffic for 24 hours after spraying. If pick-up does occur, a light blinding of e) The
crusher dust or sand should be applied. individuallyorincombination,byelectricmotofs,asm^ybespecified.
convenient accessibility to all
f) The design of the plant should provide
B. Premixed Bituminous Pavement Works components' ,"b-^';;;il for cleaning' maintenance and
""a'putt
rePairs.
some cAuTloils !!! on the mixing platform
Adequate unobstructed space shouid
be.provided
s) the mixer to obtain samples
cAuTtoit # I with easy and *f" ut:t"" to a location above loading space
.i in the blns and also in and around the truck
In tbis type of constructiott" the aggregates "gg."i^r* inspection of the
and bituminous binder are with a ladder or platform to permit easy ancl safe
mixed beforehand in a suitable plant, before laying and compaction. Most of mixture being delivered into trucks'
the high-quality bituminous surfacings for pavements subjected to high-speed designed thaf overloading of an1'
traffic and high-load intensity traffic (where high structural strength and high- h) The various components should be so
is immediately relieved by breaker bols or
level riding quality requirements are to be satisfied) are constructed by premix part as a result
"f l"*rnitg
methods using plant mixes. Basically there are two broad rypes of plants, viz., ihear Pins or similar devices'
Batch Plart and Druru Mix plants used fc,r the nixing of aggregates and r) Gearilrg should as ro have ample strength and to
bc so designed
^' rise'
bituminous bincler. The rrarions requirements for mixing plants, salient aspects adequa"tely withstand wear and temperature
of hot mix operation, safety measures, transportation of materials, paving j) Lubrication means should be provided
for all bearings and all other
operatlons and rolltng Operatlons followed by salient constructioh aspects of
moving parts requiring lubrication'
different types of bituminous base, binder and wearing courses are given in
the following paragraphs.
cAullotl # 3 ftIgj:lrttt--)
(AUTtoil # 2 1. No open ,hot'iJT allowed around bitumen or fuel storage tanks'
fir",
requiremenls for hot mix plcnls
from a safe distance' should be
a) The capacity of a hot mix plant should be denoted by the output rating of 2. Control valves, which canbe operated
the hot mixed material (in tonne per hour) at 5 o/o ancJ 2 o/o moisture installed.
moving
content in aggregates and aggregate output temperature of 1700C. 3. All gears, pulleys, chains, belt sprockets' couplings' dangerous
subiected to high operating temperatures or are
b) The materials used in the manufacture of various components, in ancillary purri parts which are
equipment and in power units should be in conformity with the relevant
"rra
r'energised J;"|'rJ ;" nsulateJ' well-guarded and protected'
"r".tri.uiiy
be provided to all parts of the
standards.
4. Covered stairs and platform ladders should
c) The plant should be classified as (i) Static, when designed to be erected operating Plant.
on a permanent site with no special arrangements to facilitate its removal,
(ii) Portable, when so designed that it rriay be easily disassembled into 5. Ail stairs and platforms should have handrails'
lines or iacketing on bitumen
sections which may be transported by road or rail, (iii) Mobile, when so 6. There should be no leaks in steam
designed that it may be readily separated into sections (dimensions not distribution lines'
exceeding 10 m x3mx 4.5 m), equipped with pneumatic tyres of
Safefy valves should be installed
in all steam lines'
adequate size and overrun and parking break.
7.
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers ffi Rainas Fie ld Manual for Highway an-d Bridge Engineers
ffi

.,".r{ri{*i*,:,e1t}sF.'.r.',rrtn'','.,"'t'*.$1963-.::.'' -1"':jtE:.-tIl-
'
Chapter B affiFs- i'W PAVEMENT coNsrRUCrtoN

The screed (and tampers) shoulcl be heateci after being placed on blocks
I

8. There should be no leakage in hot oil heating lines. l

9. The bitumen level should never be allowed to go so low so as to suck air
or cause a dry mixture.
10. There should be a platform near the truck loading atea from which the
mix may be observed and from which temperature of the mix in the truck
may be taken.
11. There shoulcl be an emergency switch located at a shofi distance from the
plant, which will stop all plant operations in the event. of an emergency.
12. Installation of combustion devices, boilers and fuel tanks should conform
to safety regulations.
13. Lubrication means should be provided for all bearings and all other
moving parts requiring lubrication.
74. Fire extinguishers should be installed at all strategic points.
15. A First Aid Box should always be available, in the control room.
It is desirahle, if nor necessary, that all workers engagerl in the operation of
bifuminous piant and machinery should be adequately covered by risk
lllsLllallcc.
$uTtoil #4 (ore in
There are a large of points requiring careful attention to produce
quality paving work. Some of the more important ones are described below:
1. A fully detailed work plan for co-ordination of production of bituminous
mixture and its laying and compaction must be established before work
corunences; and all necessary equipment, materials and labour must be
in place prior to the commencement of work.
2. The bottqm of the screed plate must be inspected and seen to be clean.
Similarly, the hopper sides, screws and conveyors should be clean and
without any old mix material sticking to them. The two small blades on
the screed shafts, which feed mix inwards, into the gap created by the
central bearing housing, must not be worn out or broken.
3. Prior to comrnencement of paving operation, the screed and tampers
should be heated to the required temperanrre.
All other metallic tools and implements, shovels, boards, etc., should
heated separately on a pan.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
ffi
4.
equal in rhickness to the level of the loose material to be laid and not
i while in contact with the existing pavement.
5.W.orkmayonlycommenceafterconfirming.theavailabilityofa
continuous suppiy ol materials ensuring that all component parts of the
paver machine are functioning properly and the fuel tanks are full for
continuous work and establishing that there is no break or uncertainty in
the entire flow chain of production, transportation and laying'
6. rJrhen work is stopped, the stationary screed tends to sink into the
bituminous material. The material covered by the screed retains its
tempefatufe, but the material deposited in a heap in the hopper tends to
form lumps. The material abeady laid out but which cannot be compacted
by rollers (which cannot approach too close to the paver) cools down.
\x/hen the paver is activated again, the screed, on being forced to move
from a hotter to a cooler material,.moves upwards and forms a ridge. The
difficulry of proper compaction of the cooled material is an added
burden. These difficulties are likely to lead to a defect in the surface finish
ancl possibly to reiection, resurfacing, wastage of costly material and
pruvisiurr of a fc,rced transvcfsc ioint at the location. segregation and
tther blemishes in the rnr^ompacfecl srrrface can usullly be overcome by
the "rake rnarrtr, and the crew who work behind thc machine. This. is vety
skilled work, which must be carried out before the first rolling'
7. With particular reference to the setting of the screed and the selection of
the speed of the paver, the first spread obtained should be critically
examined, both before and after rolling. The spread surface should be
checked with a straight edge and the uncompacted mat inspected for
propergradeandline.Ifrequired,necessaryadiustmentsofthehopper
ieed, spreading screws, lampers/vibrators. and the screed inclination
should be made in the light of the surface obtained.
CAUIION # 5
(a) By most common problem in construction with bituminous
far,
If of the material is observed,
. mixtures is segregation. segregation
spreading ope.rations should be immediately suspended, and th'e cause of
the segregation identified and remedied before resumption of work.
Segregation may occur:
- in the mixing plant,
be
- during transportation of the mixture, and/ot
- a result of deficiencies in paving operations.
^s
Rainas ld Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
ffi Fre

i: 1i'..,r1 iid'.*ll'i:in'
"a;ld
 PAVEMENT CONSIRUCIION
Chapter B

The common factor in segregation is the separation or partial separation
of coarser material in a mix from the finer material by the action of
gravity. After laying, areas of mix with excess of coarse material attracr
irt .rtior-, because they detract from the .smoothness of the finished
surface. However, the major problem is mainly with the remaining mix,
which is deficient in coarser sizes; it contains a disproportionatq
percentage of bitumen and is prone to bleeding and all the other
associated with low air voids'
Segrega.tlon at trre Plfunt: In a hot mix plant, segregation t'nay be due to
the following:
1. Arching or hang-up of feeds may occur in the bins (specially
because of moisture in fine aggregates) leading to its subsequent
collapse suddenly releasing an excess of fines into the mix'
2. Provision,of inaclequate mixing time in the pug mill and release of
material before uniform mixing is achieved.
3. Lack of timely replacement of broken, tlvisted or othetwise
incffcctivc paddles in the pugmill,
4, The level of rnaterial in the pugmill being too high or too low'
5. Pugmill gate not opening quickly and smoothly for discharge As a
r"trrlt, the discharge comes out in lumps and not in a smooth flow'
6. Vhile the mix is in motion, either in free fall or sliding down a steep
chute into a hoPPer or truck bodY.
retained
when low temperature sometimes occurs due to higher percenlage of
in the aggregates, the defect may not manifest in the form of
moisture
segregation because of presence of moistute.
in Transport: During transportation, segregation may
-{Xegreg,ation
result due to the lollowing reasons:
1. Especially for coarse-grained mixes, if the material deposited is not
uniformly spread out in the truck bed but is deposited in heaps of
conical formation. During movement, the coarse aggregates roll
down the slope of the cone and collect at the outer edges of the
cone.
One way to avoid this is to move the truck during batch loading' so
aStoensureamoreevendistributionofthebituminousmixture.
2. If a small batch charge is deposited in a large truck body where it
will be in a heap with unsupported sides for the coarse aggregates
tend to roll clown and collect at the bottom of the pile, as in 1, above.
into the paver hopper, the rear gate of the
3. If, when discharging
truck does ttot op"tt futty, the partial openlngs will preverrt.smooth
flow and cause hang-up, resulting in segregation during fall'
4. Formation of segregated bands at the edges of the lane may be due
to segregation on both sides of the delivery truck during its iourney
u.,a ln" material being dropped in the paver hopper in this
condition.'

Common reasons for segregation in drum mix plants are: 5. Likewise, segregation of material at the front and back of the truck
' bed may give rise to the occurrence of transverse segregated zones
1. Overloading of drums causing flights to miss some aggregates, along the lanes
' 2. Damaged or ineffective flights,
(d.) Segregttion in a Paaer Ftnisber: Segregation may occur during paver
3. Insufficient mixing time.
laying due to the following reasons:
In a hot mix plant, segregation is more likely to occur in the contents of the 1. If the spreading screws are working with insufficient material, the
hot bins than in those of the cold feed bins. I screw movement may throw larger particles towards the edges'
mixes, where segregation is a persistent problem, a slight decrease in the
l
In causing segregation.
minUs 75 micron fraction (to decrease pefcentage of surface to be coated)
i

2. ' Conversely, if there is too much material with a large quantity above
may be resorted to, provided that the design range can accommodate a small \ the level cif the auger, the top material above the live zone will not
I
change. be moved by the screw and will simply slide to the edges, resulting
Mixing at toq low a tempefature, resulting in insufficient coating of material, I
I in segregation. The goiden rule is to keep the spreading screys
rnuy ulto lead to segregation. Temperatpre correction is the appropriate
I
i
s.rO*ergea in material about two-thirds of their height to get the
remedial measure in such situations. However, in many drum mix plants,
t
best result.

Raina's Field Manua! for Highway and Enaga Enginee," ffi nainus Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
ffi

Chapter I PAVEMENT CONSIRUCI/ON
3 If the level of the auger is fixed too low, it may result in a rough
open-textured surface.
4 It is believed that ihe
centlal drive system for two-piece augurs
(with gears and bearings in the middle) is also, to an extent,
responsible for segregation and formation of a segregated stretch in
the middle ol the lane.
In some makes, provision of paddles on the auger shafts, adjacent
to the central housing, has been made to avoid the problem.
However, worn or broken paddles often cancel this benefit.
5. Coarser, leaner mixes are more prone to segregation. Even more
care.and attention is, therefore, reqirired against the forrnation of
segregated zones in road base courses (rather than in wearing
courses) and. in surfacing with harsh mixes.
,,'-:-**-.-".'.^-*-
CAUITON
\-____:*_:-r_.-*-' iointr )
# 6 (Construdion ol poying
(ol Tronsverse Joint (Dg; Joinf _,
The construction of transverse joints (joints perpendicular to ihe
nomral ditection of traffic {Iow) requires tlrurouglr Lalc, as cvcu a
minor deficiency in its compaction, level or smoothness will be
immediately reflected in the riding quality of the surface. The
construction of transverse ioints, therefore, requires very thorough
compaction and smooth merging with the surrounding surface.
For a hot mix bituminous rolling iob, the day's work stafts with one
transverse ioint (where the previous day's work was left) and, in the
absence of forced interruptions, ends on anotlter one at the end of
the day's operations.
'When the last charge of the day is being spread and the paver is to
stop soon, with material falling below the rwo-rhird level of the
avge4 atrangements are made to leave a transverse ioint in the
surface.
3. Stoppage or interruption in paving work for any reason (such as, in
the event of mechanical failure, etc.) will also need provision of a
transverse joint at the location where the work was stopped.
4. A ffansverse ioint can be folmed with a vefiical face or with
sloping face.
Raina's Fietd Manual tor Highway and Brldge Engr"ur ffi
tl
'i
I
,
i
I
l
A vertical face can be obtained with the help of a heavy wooden
support beam with vertical sides and straight edges and of the same
,thickness as the layer. The wooden beam is placed in front of the
paving operation at a point where paving is to be halted. The
wooden beam can be additionally supported by an amount of mix
material oir the side lurthest fr"- tir" approaching construction,
forming a short ramp. As soon as the pavei screed passes over the
beam, paving work is stopped for the day; ihe paver is shifted and
the mat up:to the beam compacted.
Tlre beam and the supporting ramp, if any, are removed on
commencement of work on the subsequent day before'the paver is
in place to resurne construction.
6. An alternative method for achieving a vefiical transverse ioint is for
the paver to lay material at the design level up to the location of the
joint and then form a short smooth ramp. All the placed material,
including the ramp, must be compacted.
On re-commencement of the work, the ramp must be removed and
a vertical face created by sawing through the mat, the point of
sectioning being at least 25 mm back from the end of the firll
thickness mat where compaction is assured.
If a sloping ioint is to be constructed, the material must be carefully
formed and shaped into the slope with the help of a wooden
straight edge and then adequately compacted along the slope
before leaving work for the day.
The next day the screed will start working from the point where the
level starts tapering, the .new material thickness on the sloping
portion being carefully arranged by straight edge to a loose
thickness which is expected to give.the correct level after compaction.
'When the final surface is not of the corect level, because of
differential thickness of compaction along the slope, the material,
while.,still hot, should be loosened, additional material placed or
excess material removed and the mat on the slope again compacted
to correct thickness.
B. ,"When executed with care, both rypes of joints function well. A
a yertical face is easier to construct but involves some waste of
material. A sloping joint requires additional care during construction
but does not lead to any loss of material and, according to some,
fi nainas rie M Manuat tor Highway and Bddge Engineers

Chaptef I
provides a better seal as, with time, it is progressively compacted by
traffic. The longer length and larger surface of contact between the
new and the old material discourage ingress of moisture.
However, this method involves raking out a possibly 15 mm
maximum size to zero, and possibty crushing of some stone in the
second layer aggregate. \X/ith a tapering section, the additionai
thickness to be laid, taking into account compaction, varies along
the ramp, and a satisfactory longitudinal profile is difficult to
achieve. A vertical joint cut with a saw or jackhammer and painted
with bitumen is often preferred.
9. Transuersgjgints-sbauW-be-$tsgge. ted_ t carriagewaYs.
'Where two or more layers of bituminous material are to be paver
laid, care must be taken to ensure that transverse joints in successive
layers do not coincide. Transverse joints in upper and lower layers
should have a minimum offset of 2 metres. Similarly, transverse
joints between tlvo adioining paver lanes should have a minimum
offset of 2 metres.
10. Daily work output should be planned in such a way that the
number of ioints required is kept to a minimum.
11. If the newly constructcd layer, containing the transverse loint, is to
be used by traffic within 36 hours, a ramp of full lane width made
up of hot or cold mix material should be constructed with a slope
of 1:20 if the design speed of the traffic on the road is more than
75 km per hour, and with at least a slope of 1:10 if the design speecl
is less than 75 kmph.
Suitable cautionary signs and lights should be placed before the
occurrence of such a ioint.
On resumption of work, the material for the ramp should
removed and discarded, and may not be reused on the site.
72. In general, transverse joints are perpendicular to the alignment of
the carriageway. However, sometimes slightly skewed (6:1) ioints
are provided but only in the binder and the wearing course.
L3. In all cases of joiru construction, the following points should be borne
in mind:
(i) Joint faces should be sprayed or painted with a thin but uniform
coat of bitumen (suitable emulsion paint may also be used)
before fresh mix is allowed to be placed against it.
ffi- Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway ana anoge engrneers
PAVEMENT CONSIRUCI/ON
(ii) The paver screed should be properly heated prior to laying of'
the mixture.
(iii) Tire joint line shoulci not be irregular and must be true to ioint
alignment.
1. Longitudinal ioints in various courses should not be located along
the same liqe.
On the top surface, the ioint will normally be along the centre line
for a two.lane carriage:way and along the lane edge for multi-lane
Forallpreviouslayersunderthetoplayer,theiointlocationshould
be shifted by at least 150 mm from that in any other iayer'
2. Locating joint offsets may present a problem, and, therefore' an
-plan
for all joints mllst be macle before commencement of
overall
work on the lowest bituminous cotlrse'
3. The ioint should be parallel to the alignment of the cattiageway
centre line,
- 4. The ,olnt nrust luve a vtrtical face'
5'Jointfacesshouldbesprayedorpaintedwithathinbutuniform
' .ou, of bitumen (suitable emulsion paint may also be used) before
fresh mix is Placed.
6. The longitudinal joinr may be rolled directly behind the paving
oPeration.
7'Thecorrectnessoflanealignmentiscriticaltothesuccessof
longitudinal ioint formation. Therefore, it is essential that the first
be
cf, lane material placed by paver is absolutely true to the alignment
(pavertravelcontrolledbystringlineorelectronicguidelines).
B.Iftheiointalignmentadiacenttofurtherworkhasbeen.brokenor
damaged oy trarric or for any other reason, the edge line should first
'becoffected(bystraightedgeorstringline)andtrimmedbefore
commencing fresh paviog or rolling operation'
g.Wlrilespreadingthematerialalongthejoint,thepavershouldbe
runinsuchamannerthatthematerialspreadoverlaPs25to50mm
.ontothepreviouslylaidlanebeyondtheverticalfaceofthejoint.
* ffi
ffi ffi arr"s ri" d Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 Chapter B
Care must be taken to see that the depth of fresh material over the
previously laid surface is uniform so as not to create a rolling or
irregular joint after compaction. The thickness of overlap material
should be approximately a quarter of the final compacted thickness
of the mat or as indicated by the screed setting of the paver for
loose material in the new lane to be laid.
'.-$---*.-__
CAUTION # 7 Qglrg.qpetdlgu )
a) Temperature: Temperature is an extremely irnportant factor in
compaction of bituminous mixes. \rhile temperature during laying and
for rolling may be specified, in realiry, during consrruction, there may be
significant temperature variations throughout the thickness of a single
layer of bituminous mixture. The bottom of the layeq in contact with tl.re
old surface, and the top of the layer exposed to the armosphere and in
contact with roller wheels, and the water applied to them to prevent
sticking, soon lose heat, while the middle portion of the layer may rerain
its temperature for qr.rite some time. Trial nrns are likely to be the best
guide for the ideal time to commence rolling.
The need for quick and efficient rolling rnay be more acute with thin
layers u'hich losc hcat quickly lathel thirn r-rrr tlrick layers, urlrich rrray
retain heat and remain in plastic condition for a longcr duratior-r. Thus,
rolling full-deprh base lifts may, sonlerirrres, offer a longer time-scale than
thin surfacing for which prompt acrion is essential.
b) Test strlps-i There are tbree distinct phetses
relating to
production and laying, each with equal importance. Ir is essenrial that the
specification is written to accommodate these phases.
First ts tbe ,,Laboratory Job Mlx Design,, prrase, Once rhis
approved, the Contractor has to demonstrate that (in second. pbase) his
bot tnlx plarrt can ma.ke trtrs mix within tolerances speciiied. This is
the "Plant Trlal,, phase. The last of the tfuee phases is, if the plant trials
are successful, then the contractor must demonstrate that he is able to lay
the material and compact it successfully. This pbase (third) is knoutn
as "Iaying Trialsu.
Laying trials should be conducted off road, on a base equally as firm as
the road laying conditions, and with the same pavet laying crew, ancl
compaction equipment. cores taken from the laying trial are tested for
clensity, and if tbts tneets tbe spectfied percentctge of tbe Marsltail
'bake", tlten the mlx can be a.pproaed, on cortditlon trrq.t tbe
macbines end utork personnel do not cbange.
ffi------
i
Raina,s Field Manual for Highway ana eriage engmeers
PAVEMENT CONSIRUCI/ON
If a machine breaks down and is substituted with a different.rype,/weight
of machine, then technically another laying trial should be conducted.
Laying triak should rcormally be beld for not less tban three days prior to
actual work, on a test laying area of 30m to 6onx in lengtb of tbe same
tbickness as tbe design and of a uidtb to allow at least tbree parallel
rolling zones for tbe roller. It is essential tbat tbe material underlying the
trtal area sbould bebaue in a similar rnanner to tbe materials ouer wbich
tbe bituminous ftiixture is to be laid in practice. Tltis often rneaTrs that it is
necessary to construct special sections oftbe sub-base and base on ubicb
to perforft, the trials. It is of little ualue to establish rolling patterns, wbicb
will acbieue acceptable densities if tbe same process tuill not giue
acceptable lalter tbickness, surface tolerances or tbe required finisb.
Among tbe many weful pieces of information tbat sbould be obtained
from trials aretbe speeds tbat are necessa?y.for tbe rollerc to keep pace witb
tbe pauer and tbe suppb) of matedal and tbe number oJ passes required to
acbieue tbe specffied densityt. It nu,6t be kept in mind. that eacb We of
roller bas an opthnum top speedfor efficient compactio?x.
c) Estlmation of rollcr requirement: From an indication of the speed of
upclatiun arrd the uumbet of roller passes necessary, an approximatc
assessment can be made about the number ol rollers to be depioyed on
the job and the rolling patteln to be followecl.
Tile roller requirement can be calculated by surface area capacity or t>y
volurne (or tonnage cap^ciLy of the roller).
asphalt
rl
Nr = number of rollers required on surface area basis,
is Nv = number of rollers required on volume basis,
total surface area in square metres to be rolled per hour,
X : total volume in cubic metres to be rolled per hour,
p : number of passes required,
w - width of drum in metres,
speed of roller in metres per hour, and
efficiency factor for roller working,
ffi ffi Rainas rie H Manuat fot Htghway and Bidge Engineers
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 PAVEMENT CONSIRUCI'ON
Chapter I
Timber or steel plate boards of thickness equal to the mat should
a.p be placed at the pavement edge so that the roller can move on to
then, NA = after reaching the edge
s.w.e
(2) Rolling of LongitudinalJoint
v.p There are two generally accepted rolling patterns used for
Nv= compaction of longitudinal ioins.
s.w.e
One is to position almost the entire width of the roller on the
previously compacted lane, except about 50 mm of the drive roll
Efficienry factor is the ratio of net practical capacity of the roller to its (rear roll in case of three-wheeled roller), which should be on the
-
theoretical capacity. It is always less than '1' as the rolling time and effort
freshly placed mixture; and then in successive passes, cover greater
spent on overlap, lane changes, reversing and run on compacted widtir on the uncompacted material, progressing by 150 mm to 175
pavement for joint compaction, etc., are required to be deducted from
mm in case of tandem roller or by half-width of drive roll in case of
actual application, Experience suggests tha.t 'e' sltould be ter.ken as
a three-wheeled rolier to cover the ioint completely by the full width
O.5 to O.6for bituminous usork.
of drive wheel.
For all large-size project work, there should be a suitable number of In the alternative methocl, the roller is positioned alffIost entirely on
stand-by machines to guard against mechanical failure.
the new mix with oniy 100 mm to 150 mm of the width of the drum
d) Rolllng soquutas;-Itolling is generally carried out in accordance q,ith the on the pre'rriously compacted lane The roller should continue
following sequence: compacfion until the ioint is completely compacted and the overlap
(t) transverse joint, matenal, placed on the previously lald lane, ltas beett fr-rlly prussetl
(2) into the old surface and the joint.
longitudinaljoint,
(3) (lower) edge rolling, Although both the procedures described above are acceptecl as
standard practice, the former is considered pref'erable.
(4) breakdown rolling,
(5) In case of multiple pavers operating in echelon (laying parallel lanes
intermediate rolling, and
side by side), no overlap of material is necessary but care must be
(6) finish rolling or polishing taken to ensure that the loose matelial in adjacent lanes abuts
(1) Rolltng of Transvers e loint (Day Joint) exactly without any gaq.

Rolling should start with the roller first moving along the akeady
compacted longitudinal joint with the adjacent length for some
length towards the transverse ioint, then the joint rolling
commenced transversely from the corner of the transverse joint with
the longitudinal joint with aimost the entire roller being on the mat
compacted.earlier except about 150 mm of the drum width of a rear
wheel (in case of a three-wheeled roller) on the new material.
The successive passes should cover about 150 mm to 175 mm of
additional fresh material in case of a tandem roller and half-width
of a rear wheel for the three-wheeled roller till the entire width of
the drive roll is on the fresh mix.
'-- Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway and.Eridge engr""r"
In such ca.ses also, all tbe longitudinalJoints sbouM be rolled'
prid'to the compaction of other areis o1f spread material
Constructlon planning sltould ensure, to t re extent practicable,
tbat a.djaeent lanrcs are constructed on the same day so tba't no
unmatched lengtlt of lane ts lefifor tbe next day.
Wbere leaalng an unmatclted longltudtnal lane becornes
uh.haotdable and uben tbe roay' ls i9 6e used by trafftc witbi'n
36'icours, tbe aertical sede eiie sbpuld be proolded uitb a'
sltoi support rarnp uttb qot lass tlta?t 75 slope and sultabtz
cauti.onary slgns a'nd ttghis placed on tbe road suifficlent$t in
adoance to ensure Public sa'fetY.
nainas rred Manual for Highway and Bridge Engtreers
ffi ffi -*'--
Chapter I
/..-G) Edge Rolling
Immediately after the longitudinal ioint (and concuri.enrly with it
when sufficient numbers of rollers are available), the lower edge
should be rolled.
Before compacting the material, the edge should be suitably butted
or supported by timber boards or similar material approximately
equal in thickness to the expected compacted thickness of the layer,
so that the roller can begin work right at the lane edge, witl.rout
causing excessive distortion of the layer edge.
' (4) Breakdown Rolling (Le., Inlttat Rolling)
1. Lane rolling must start with breakdown rolling. This
should be caded out by smooth-wheeled rollers of
adequate weight. The three-wheeled roller was extensively
used. in the past with satisfactory performance. But now
with the advent of vibratory rollers, the preferred method
ls to use a tandem vibratory roller in static mode initially
to pfess the mat. Once the mat is lrressed dnwn, the
vibratory mode can be switched on. A desirable practice is
to position the roller such that thc Lcavier drurn ls near
the paver.
A static 8 to 10 tonne tandem wheel roller can al.so be deployed
for breakdown rolling, provided the specified density
achieved. Breakdown rolling mr"rst achieve the maioritlz of the
required compaction at the first application. An ineffective first
pass may make the final compaction significantly more difficult
to achieve.
2. Tbe weight of the breakdown roller required for a particular
, layer will depend on a number of factors, including the final
density required, the layer thickness and the constitr"riion of the
niixture, but steel-wheeled rollers of g to 12 tonnes are generally
considered necessary.
.., 3. Compactiott ls eiffected pr--tfia.rilJ/ by imparting oertical
( mouemcnt to tlre aggregates and otber materiak in tlte
ni.x tbrougb ilte roller load. Ifouteoer, tf this is
a.ccoflpariled by excessiae borlzontal moaetnent, tbe
purpose utl.ll be defeated
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge engineers
W Engineers
,. .-. 'r'- j ,1.\.', :!
PAVEMENT CONSIRUCI/ON
' Horizontai displacement will cause heaving of the material all
around the point of loading and will generally be rnanifested by
a'tcrawling" of the mixture ahead of the roller and formation of
ridges on both sides of the roller in the transverse direction. This
- 1."d, to compaction in varying thici<ness and, therefore, leaves
an uneven final sulface after compaction.
Wbere tbis occurs, it may be necessa'ry to allow tlte
material to cool a. kttl'e (to a temperAture sometirnes
refened to a's tbe "breakdanpn ten perature") in order to
deuelop greater interna'l reslstance.
'S?ith repeated passes of the roller, the paving mixture will
continue to settle until the resistance of the mix aggregated over
the total area of contact equals that to support the wheel load.
Although a low temperature will increase the resistance ancl
prevenr horizontal displacement, it will also inhibit vertical
movement of the material .and, therefore, will tend to reduce the
amount of comPaction achieved.
Ontl a sultable combinatton of temperature, stabihty a'nd'
material contenl in the thickness of the laiter utill leetd to
satisfactory cornpactlorl It is oery mucb a matter of
experience supplctnented by actual obseruations cluring
is trials.
4. It is veryimpoftant to commence breakdown rolling soon after
laying and, in any case, complete it before the temperature
cools down below the rolling temperature indicated in Table
8.3. If trre temperature of tbe 'mix falls belout tbe
stipulated minhnum temperature, tbe mix sboukl be
rejected
qt' Comptaction betps in retaininS beat. Once inilial rolling is
started, beal loss reduces - tbis is .anotber reason wby inilial
co,mpaction sboutd be carried out as soon as possible. ,.*
5. It is important that, while carrying out breakdown rolling, the
roller nioves with the drive wheel forward in the direction of
travel. The greater linear loacl of the drive wheel inpars alarger
load, and the turning force in thd drive wheel tends to pack the
material under the wheel, thus, achieving mor-e effective
compaction.
ffi
ffi Rainat rre H Manuat for Highway and Brtdge
 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCIION
Chapter I
weight are
Pneumatic Tyred Rollers (PTR) of 1'2 to 15 tonnes
Ifa vibrating tandem roller is used, the vibrating roll should be
suitable. Tandem vibratory rollers of static weight of
considered
towards the paver, and first two passes (forward and back), for
s-;t ro tonnes may also be used' when specified' or after
the full width of the lane, should be without vibration. - demonstration of their effectiveness in a trial'
6. nolling pattern
Trre intermediate rolling by pneumatic rollers
may not lead to
By this stage, it is necessary to have decided upon rhe rolling
2.
s,,bstantiveincreaseindettsitybutitdoesincreasethestabiliry'
patiern to be followed. This is done after assessing the speed of an '
of the mix by kneading and re-orientation of the particles'
the paver, the length of spread and the total width of lane or duration exposure to rubber tyred trucks
effect similar to long
.lanes to be covered. Tben tbe lcngtlt of tbe actua.l roll:ing
on roads, ensuring-minimum diitortion under further wheel-
zo,ne lsflxe4 ulttch ttill generally be of the order of 5O tn
loads.
Generally, parallel rolling zones are used for compaction, a zone
3. The use of pneumatic rollers ensures a more even load
consists of a section of the width of the material ro be
distribution over the road surface and leads to equal and
compacted, each zone being less than the width of the roller to
be used.
'u,,ir--"".p"ction,unlikesteel-wheeledrollers;also,lessheat
loss occurs in contact with the tyres'
Starting from tbe. outside la.ne tbe roller adoances along a sealing
tlte paued material up to tbe end of tlte selected. zone, utith 4. The intermediate rolling provides the surface with
tlte drioe utbeelfonaard and agaiq along exactllt the sa.me effect which increases imperviousness of the surface
rttheeQtath, rcfitms back to the starting pait t. It tben ' Tlie tyre pressurc during rolling should he as high as
possible
cba.nges lane, to the next zone, by otsedapping the jirst
5. provided it does not
fO.Z t" O b
MPa is considered adequate)'
ntlled Isne by 15O tniln ln case of tandem rollcr or by ,toA- lead to lateral disPlacement'
tltdtlt of rear wheel ln case of tbree-ubeeled roller and
procgeds agaln as before. 6. Since the final rolling will not contribute anything to futther
the interlediate roiling should be continued until
ttt.'*itti^t'* specified density is achieved' (This
The cbanges of lane sbould. always be undertaken on tbe fully ";;;;;i"", may
' cornpacted pauem.ent or on a pottion of tbe pauement wbich bas by the use of a
.o"""oit'ltly be checked' approximately'
receiued at least sonte ofitsfinal compactiott.
suitably calibrated nuclear densiry gauge')
The cbange in dirqction of trauel (reuersal) on tbe pauer end
ro r brea kdown
sbould be progressiuely staggered for eacb zone (at least by 1
metre) so tbat if any ridge is created by reuersal, tbis does not ' i,fi:l?iJfi il ::$'li'I ;:;f:0i,,!nli,, #
become continuoLls. (6) Ftntuh Rolling (Poltuhtng)
A,fier all tbe tbree rolltng zones haue been so coaered by at provided bY the use
lcast tNt)o passes, tlte roller aga.in mooes on to the outer (with the vibration
edge in its ortgina.l positio4 ultere the material bas by
switched off).
nout stightljt cooled to repeat tlte operation till the desdgn
warm and-at least
num.ber of passes /s acbleaed ooer tbe entire widtb. Ieast Finish rolling is provided while the material is still
lnterferense to trafitc sboukl be ensured- J"ir""ui"'"i" ugh fot remoial of Ityre narks or lndentatia"s
:
(5) IntermedlateRolling tefiW tbe PTR :
Only the top
I. Intermediate rolling should be Finish rolling may not be required' on- all .surfaces'
started immediately after the binder may require finish
breakdown rolling is completed, when the mix has nor lost ;L;ttg-;;?rce anic somedmes
much heat and is still in a plastic or comparible state. rolling'

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

W f, Rarhas Fie td Manual for Highway ana Brlige
Engineers -*--@
-*
:4.,:, i :.:r':;'
' :. ; .,rrrirtr!:ai.:
Chapter B PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

Excessiue lflnisb rolling specially on ,nats usitb barsb mixes The latter solution may not always be satisfactory as it may fail to attain
may tnduce tbe surlface uith appearance olffine bair cracks, adequate volume reduction and densiry.

e) Rolling (Compaction) of difficult mixes uith atendency to be tender sbouldbe

Generally, tnixtures red.esigned.

-(fj rrarsh Mixes f) General precautions for rolling:

The search for more and more effective load-bearing material to match Listed below are some of the more important points to improve results
the increase in traffic loads on highways has led to bituminous mixfures achieved during compaction:
for use in high traffic intensity corridors, tending towards the use of harsh (i) A steady and unifurm speed uill aluays giue good performance in
mixtures. In general" the strengtb of a rnix lncreases u.titb rolling.
lncreastng aggregate slzes, increastng proportion of a.ggregate in (ii) Tbe roller should' be continuouslJ/ on tbe ft7oue and neuer allbwed to
the nlx a.nd lncreasing bardness of bltumen (or decreasing stand on tbe mat being compacted or euen on a newly compacted
penetration oalue). surface.
The compaction of these mixes needs the use of g to 12 tonne rollers. use (iii) Any roller especially a uibrating one sbould' not be left parked on an
of vibratory rollers in the intermediare stage is also considered helpful. unconxpacted bituminous surface.
_ 2) Tender Mixes (iu) Jer@ starts, sudden braking and sbarp cbanges in direction should
not be made wbile rolling.
Tender mixes are mixtures.with relatively low resistance to deformation.
There may be various causes for mixes fo have hecome renr:ler, inch,rding (u) Change of Lane sbould be made only wben on an already compacted
swrJace.
- Mix design imbalance, jain.ts an'rl, in, sm,all u,nde.fi'ned areas' rolling
Qti) Erc@t an trlnsuerse
- Lon' air voids resulting from mix cotnponent flucruations during sbould aluays take place in a longitudinal direction.
production,
fuii) In areas inaccessible to rollerc, small compactols or uibrating
- Excess use of middle-grade.sand, mecbanical band-beld tarnpers may be used
- Less fines (below 75 micron material), It sbould' be borne in mind tbat contact of the mat witb steel wbeek
- Use of very soft grade of bitumen, and is one causefor beat loss in tbe mat material and sprinkling of uater
(to preuent pickup) may add to tbis loss.
- Remnant moisture in mix, acting as a lubricant.
(uiii) Pneumatic tyred rollerc also cause heat loss and, wben tbe $/res are
Compaction of such mixes is difficult and is generally accompanied by stilt cold, tbey tend to pick up m'aterial from tbe surface'
excessive horizontal displacement. During the process of densification, the
wheel surface of the roller and the receiving becl of the lower course provicle
o [Jse of a wetting pad or apptication, of a small amount of
detergent to the tyres ma! be made until tbe 4)res uarnx up in
the upper and lower confines; but the lateral confines and actual resistance to
''' contAct u)itb tbe bot bitunxinous ml'xture' A tbin application of
volume reduction (consisting of stabiliry of the'm.ix through inter_particle (cookind oil is aho effectiue.
uegetable
friction and cohesion provided by the binder) is low.
o Oils deftimental to bituminous sudaces or an excess of water
once the mix has been made and no change can be made in the aggregate and must not be used.
bitumin content and,grade of binrmen used, there are only r*o .on.r"r op".r, (ix) Alter rolling, tbe surface sbould be irrcpected for palcbes of loose
- one is to allow the mix to cool sufficienrly to increase the viscosity of the material, broken edges, materials mixed witb dirt or otber
bitumer.r and evolve resisiance to roller pressure, and deficiencies. Such materials mtnt be remoued and replaced witb
- the other is either to off load the ballast of the roller in use or use a lighter .fresb bot nTix recompacted to merge uitb tbe sunounding area
in
roiler, whose load the mix can tolerate. densitY and smootbness.

@- -- ----' Ra,na's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge fngr"ur ffi tr nur"t ri"H Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers

..,, . _..-j. rli;: :,i.-..1 ;.:i.t;tl,1 f

 :is'ldsllitiigrFiffi:Hfl sfr ffi $sffiiPAvEMENrcoNsrRUcr/oN
Chapter I
Tabte 8.3. Manufacturing and Rolling femperatures
THI DITAII.S OF ITTTUIS
Penetratlon Bitumen Aggfegate Mixed Rolling (c) l.aylrrg
B.r T0 B.r0 (STATED tit 8.rl Bitumen Mixlng fC) MlxingCc) Material ("C) ec)
160-175 170 Maximum 100 Minimum 130 Minimum
B.l 0pen-qrodedBituminousMacadom
35

65
160-170

r50-'\65 1.50-170 165 Maxirnum 90 Minimum 125 Minimum

a Weatber and sea.sonal limitations: Laying should be suspended while
free-standing water is present on the surface to be covered. Laying should
be avoided as far as is practicable during rain, fog and dust storms, and
if these conditions threaten to be prolonged, laying should be suspended.
Laying of bituminous mixtures qhould not be carried out when the air
temperature at the surface on which it is to be laid is below 10oC or when
tlre wind speed at any temperature exceeds 40 km/hr at 2 m height unless
specifically approved, and then only provided that rolling can be
completed before the mixture cools below the specified minimum
compactioll temperature for the mixfures.
Preparation of tbe base: The base on which bituminous macadam is to
be laid should be prepared, shaped and conditioned to the required
profile, and a priming coat where needed should be applied.
Tack coat: A tack coat shor.rld he applied over the hase, where reqr.rired
Spreading: Mixing should be accomplished at the lowest allowable
temperature and in the shortest time that will produce a mixture with
complete coating of the aggregate and at a suitable temperature to ensure
proper compaction. The ideal mixing and compaction temperatures for
the particular bitumen in use should be obtained from the Bitumen Test
Data Chart and should correspond to a viscosity of 2 Poise (0.2 Pas.) and
3 Poise (0.3 Pas.) respectively, based on the original (unaged) bitumen
properties. For guidance, tbe ranges of accepta.ble mi.xing a.nd.
roll:ing ternperatures lfor some tlpical penetration gra.de bitumens
are sbown in Table 8.3.
a Rolling. Generally, the initial or breakdown rolling should be done with
B to 10 tonnes dead weight smooth-wheeled rollers. The intermediate
rolling should be done with B to 10 tonnes dead weight or vibratory
rollers or with a pneumatic fyred roller of 72 to t5 tonnes weight having
a tyre pressure of at least 0.7 MPa. The finish rolling should be done with
10 to 72 tonnes weight smooth-wheeled tandem rollers.
1,40-150 140-r55 155 Maximum 80 Minimum 115 Minimum
90
Rolling should be continued until the density achieved is a minimum of
9t VoLf percenrage Refusal Density (PRD): see applicable specifications;
pRD Tesr as per BS 598 Part 104 OgBg).If the density criterion according
to Marshall specimen is specified, the rolling should be continued till the
entire sttrface has been rolled to 95 % of the average laboratory density'
surJace jlnisb and quality control of toork: The sttrface finish of the
.oript"tJa construction should confo|m to the requirements set out in the
specifications.
protection of tbe la.yer: Tl-re bituminous macadam should be covered
with either the next pavement course or wearing course' as the case may
be, within one or two ctays. lf there rs to be any delay, the euurse should
he cttveretJ lly a seal Loat beforc allowing any troffic over it'
8.2 Dense Bituminous mocudum (DBInl
Semi-Dense Bituminous (oncrele (SDB(I
Biluminous Concele
a Weatber and seasonal l:imitations: Laying should be suspended while
free-standing water is present on the surface to be covered. Laying should
be avoided as far as is practicable during rain, fog and dust storms, and
if these conclitions threaten to be prolonged, laying should be suspended'
Laying of bituminous mixtures should not be..carried out when the air
qlemp;rature
-ihe at the surface on which it is to be laid is below 10oC or when
wind speed at any temperature exceeds 40 kr,/hr at 2 m height unless
specifically approved' and then only provided that rolling can be
compteted before the mixrure cools below the specified minimum
compaction temperature for the mixtures.
a pfeparwtlon of the base:The base on which these bituminous materials
areio be laid should be prepared, shaped and conditioned to the profile
required for the particular layer. The surface should be thoroughly swept
free of dust and foreig.t matter using a mechanical broom, and the dust

ffi* - Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge engr""r" ffi
Iff R"rrt fi"H Manual for Highway and Eridge Engineers
 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Chapter I
proposed for use in the works
removed or blown off by compressed air'. In locations where mechanical a Job mixformul'a: The iob mix formula
means cannot reach, other approved methods should be used. A priming shoul<l give the following details:
coat, where needed, should be appliecl. i (i) Source and location of all materials;
a Ta.ck coat: A tack coat over the base should be applied where needed. (ii) Proportions of all materials expressed as follows where each is
Tack coat is only required where the prime coat has been exposed to apPlicable;
traffic. (a) Binder as percentage by weight of total mixtuie;
a Spread.ing: Mixing should be accomplisl.red at the lowest allowed (b) Coarse aggregate/Fine aggtegate/Mineral filler as percentage by
temperature and in the shortest time that will produce a mixture with weight totut aggtegate including mineral filler;
complete coating of the aggregate and al a suitable temperature to ensure "i the mixed
proper compaction. The ideal mixing arld compactl.on temperatures of (iii) A singte definite percentage passing each sieve for
the particular bitumen should be obtained from the Bitumen Test Data aggteg te;
Chart and should correspond to a viscosity of 2 Poise (0.2 Pas.) and (iv) The lesults of tests;
3 Poise (0.3 Pas.) respectively, based on the original (unaged) bitumen (v) Test results of physical characteristics of aggregates to be used;
properties. For guid,ance, the ranges of dcceptablc mixing and
roll:ing tentperatures for some typical penetration grade bitumens (vr) Mixing temperature and compacting temperature'
that it
are sboutn in Tablc 8.3. Wbile estabtishing tbe iab mix formula' it 'nttst be ensured of tbe
sample
a Rolling Generally, the initial, i.e., breakdown rolling should be done with is based on o .orr"Jt and trut, representtttiae and' tbat tbe
I to 10 tonnes dead weight smooth-wheeled rollers. 'lhe intermediate tnaterilals tltttt r't''ill actun'll1t he used in tbe utork
different tngred'ients satisfy the physical and
rolling should be with a pneun-ratic tyrecl roller of 72 to 15 tonnes weight tnircture and its
having a tyre pressure of at least 0.7 MPa. The inch'tsion of pneumatic strengtb re qulre ment s.
tyred rollcrs sltould be ma ndatory. Tlie finish rolling should be done cbange i'n tbe source of materiats is proposed" a new
iob
If any"7"r*"1" before actual$t using tbe
with 12 to 15 tonnes clead weight smooth-wheeled tandem or th-ree-drum hti sbould be estiblished
roller. The exaci pattern of rolling should be established at the iaying trials. materials. Plant and Inying trials must be catied out u)i'tb eacb

Rolling should commence at the edges and progress towards the centre cbange of tbeJob mix.
usually permissible
longitudinally except that on superelevated and unidirectional cambered Pertnlssi'blc aariatlon from iob mtx formula: The
portions, it sl.rould progress fiom the lower to the upper edge parallel to variations from the iob mix formula are as under:
the centre line.of the pavelrrent.
Permissible Variation
Rolling should be continued until the specified density is achieved, BasetrBinder wearing
typically a minimum of 93 o/o and a mean value of 95 o/o of Percentage Course Course
Refusal Density (PRD): refer to BS 598, Part I04 (1989). For Marshall +l'8o/o +l'7o/o
Aggregate passing 19 mm sieve or larger '
asphalt, a density of 98 0/o of the average l^boratory densily is often +l'7o/" +l- 6o/o
Aggregate Passing 13.2 mm, 9'5 mm
specified for wearing course, and 95 0/o for base course. The required +l- 6ok +l- 5%
frequency of testing shall be as per specifications. Aggregate Passing 4.75 mm
+l- 5o/o +l- 4%
Aggregate passing 2.36 mm, 1'18 mm, 0'6 mm
+l- +l'3o/o
Failure by plastic deformation in continuously graded mixtules occurs Aggregate'Passing 0.3 mm,0'15 mm
40h

very rapidly once the air voids are below 3 o/o. Therefore, the aim of +l- 2o/o +l- 1s%
Aggregate Passing 0.075 mm
Refusal Density design is to ensure that there still are at least 3 o/o voids +l- 03% +l- 0.30h
Binder content
in the mixture. +/- 100c +/. 10oC
Mixing temPerature

nainat Fietd Manuat for Highway and Eridge Enginsers

Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana Briage Engineers fi I
 Chapter I i*;'::i;-llit'ii-i'r+'l'$PAZEMENTCC,NSTRUCT/oN

a Openlng to trctffic: Traffic may be allowed after completion of the final cspreadingand'roll:ing:Thepremixedmaterialshouldbespreaclby
grades and crossfall (camber),
rolling when the temperature of the asphalt layer at the mid-depth of the suitable means to the desire<l thickness,
required to fill up
completed layer has cooled to the daytime maximum ambient making due allowances for any exlra quandry -
temperature. !7hen daytime maximurn ambient temperatures are in depressions, if any The crossfall should be
checked by means of camber
of 35"C, great care is needed to ensure that this criterion is met, evened out' Excessive use of blades or rakes
excess boards and'inequatities
of bitumjnous material
particularly where slow-moving heavy traffic is involved. It is preferable should be avoided' As soon as a sufficient length
rolling should commence with an B to 10 tonne
roller'
to allow at least 24 hours and, if possible, 36 hours before allowing traffic has been laid,'smoot.-h
Lo run on the surface. of wheel three point' or tandem type' or other
preferably progress
approved Rolling shoulcl- begin. at the edge and
"q,,ip*t"t'
toward ttt"'"J"t" longitudinally' t*t"pt that on superelevated and
8.3.(ll 0pen-groded Premix Surfoting using Bilumen from the lower to
unidirectional cambereJportions' it should
progress
a Weatber and seasonal l:imltatlons: Laying should be suspended while line of the pavement'
upper edge parallel to the centre
free-standing water is present on the surface to be covered. Laying should
.W.hentherollerhaspassedovefthewholeareaonce,anyhighspotsor
be avoided during rain, fog ancl clust storms. Laying of bituminous
which become apparent' should be corrected by
removing
mixtures should not be carried out when the air temperature at the depressions, ^Rolling
pt"-J"a -"'erials shoul<l-then be continued until the
surface on which it is to be laid is below 10oC or when the wind speed . or adding
at any temperature exceeds 40 km,/hr at 2 m height unless specifically entiresurfacehasbeenrolleclanclal-ltherollermarksareeliminated.In
shouid. be overlapped
approved, and then only provided that rolling can be completed before each pass of the roller, the preceding track
wheels should be kept damp
the mixture cools below the specified minimum compaction temperature uniformly ti,^ar\"ost-l/lJ width. The rolier
the wheels no case should
of thc mixturc. to prevent ;he p"*ix from adhering to .In
thin coating of
fu"l/luUrltaiing'oil b" used for this pt"pt)st' although
I
a
a Preparation of hase: The underlying base on rn hich the bituminous vegetable i.oo"r.irrg) uil [ray bc uscd. Excess use of water for this purpose
surfacing is to be laid should be prepared, shaped and conditioned to the
should be avoided'
specified lines, grade and cross-section. A prime coat, where needed,
should be applied. Rollersshouldnotstandonnewlylaidmaterialwhilethereisariskthat
completed in
it will U" a.f"ttt"a thereby' Rolling operations :l?"id.b"
a Tack coat: A tack coat should be applieci over the base preparatory to
everyfespectbeforethetemperatureoftlremixfallsbelowl00oC.Joints
laying of the surfacing, if the prime coat has been opened to traffic, or
uto.,g uoa i'"nsverse to the iurfacing laid
and com-pacted earlier should
has become contaminated in any other way, say by flooding or by a dust
I

becuttotheirfulldepthso^"o"*io"freshsurfacewiichshouldbe
coat of upptopiiut" binder before the new mix
stoIm.
l
is
painted *iif' u
I
i

Prepara.tion of premix: A hot mix plant of appropriate capacity and i

'nit'
placed against it.
rype should be used for the preparation of the mix material. The hot mix !

(otionic Emuliion
piant should have a separate dryer al'rangement for heating aggregate. Ptemix
lieatber and seasonal kmitations: LaYing should be susPended whi'le
a
For guidance, the ranges of acceptable mixing and rolling temperatures to be covered. LaYing should
free-standing water is present on the sllrface
for some typical penetration grades of bitumen are shown in Table 8.3. and dust stofms, and if these conditions
be avoided during rain, fog
The mix should be immediately transported from the mixer to the point threaten, laYing should be suspended. l,aYing of bituminous mixtures
air temPerature at the surface on which
of use in suitable vehicles or wheel barrows. The vehicles empioyed for should not be carried out when the
below 10oC or when the wind sPeed at any temPerature
tfansport should be clean and the mix being transported covered in it is to be laid is
approved, and then onlY
transit. exceeds 40 km/hr at 2 m height unless sPecificallY
be comPleted before the mixture cools below the
provided that rolling can
i
for the mixture.
l specified minimum comPaction temPerature
.
-^-'''- Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge Enorneers
f, nainat rreb Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
I I
 I
Chapter
Prepa.ration of tbe ba.se: Tbe underlying base on which the premix
surfacing is to be laid should be prepared, shaped and conditioned to the
specified lines, grades and cross-sections. A prime coat, where needed,
should be applied.
a Preparation of binder: Before opening the cationic bitunren emulsion
drums, these should be rolled at low speed, to and fro, 5 to 6 times, for
a distance of about 10 metres, to mix the contents properiy.
a Tack coat: A tack coat should be applied over the base preparatory to
laying of the surfacing.
a Prepara.tlon of premix: premixing of cationic bitumen emulsion and
aggregates can be done in a suitable mixer such as a cold mixing plant
as per IS:5435 (Revised) or a concrete mixer or by shovels in exceptional
cases for minor work. However, for large works, a continuous mixing
operation can be done either in batch or continuous mixer units suitable
for emulsion mixes.
$7hen using a concrete mixer for preparing the premix,0.lj5 cum (0.09
cum of I3.2 mm size and 0.045 cum of 1I.2 mrn size) of aggregates per
batch, may be used as this qLlantity will cover 5 sq. m of road surface with
2O mm average thickness,
The aggregates requirecl for one batch shoutd be stockpiled near the
mixer.
First, the coarse aggregates of 13.2 mm size should be charged into the
mixer followed by 5 to 6.5 kg of cationic bitumen emulsion, and then the
11.2 mm size aggregate_addecl, followed by 5 to 5.5 kg of carionic
bitumen emulsion. After the mater.ials have been mixecl thoroughly, the
mix should be immediately transported to the laying site in suitable
vehicles, Too much of mixing should be avoided as it may result in
decoating of aggregates.
'When mixed manually
by shovels, 0.06 cum of aggregates can be
conveniently mixed in one heap, with an appropriate quantiry of
emulsion. It is preferable to make the aggregates damp before mixing as
it reduces the effort required for mixing and also assist with better coaiing
of aggregates. The 73.2 n'rm size aggregares and emulsion are mixed first,
and then the 11.2 mm size aggregates and remaining quantify of emulsion
are added and mixed.
a Spreading a.nd rolling: The premixed cationic bitumen emulsion and
aggregates should be spread within 10 minutes of applying the tack coat.
Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
] auinu'"
F
{
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
The mix is easily workable for about 20 minutes after mixing and, hence,
I . all levelling, raking, etc., slrould be completed within this time for easy
workabiliry and subsequent compaction.
The mix should be spread uniformly ro the desired thickness, grades and
crossfall (camber), rnaking due allowance for any extra quantity required
to fill up depressions, if any. The crossfall should be checked by means
of camber boards and any irregularities attended to.
The rolling should start immediately after laying the premix' A smooth
wheeled tandem roller of 8 to 10 tonnes can be used but a three-wheeled
T
d
i:
steel roller of equivalent capacity is preferred. \Zhile rolling, the wheels
I.
of the roller .should be clean and a suitable application to pfevent the
: premix from adhering to the wheels should be used as previously
mentioned.
Rolling shoutd corrunence at the edges and progress towards the centre
longitudinally except in the case of superelevated and unidirectional
cambered sections where rolling should progress from the lower edge
towards the higher edge parallel to the centre line of the road'
After one pass of roller over the whole area, depressions or uncovered
spors slu-,uld be correcte,J by aclding prcmix material. Rolling should be
ctntinued until the entire slrrface has heen properly compacted and all
the roller marks eliminated. In each pass of the roller, the preceding track
should be overlapped uniformly by at least 1/3rd width. The roller(s)
should not stand on newly laid material while there is a risk that it will
be deformed thereby. Joints along and transverse to the carpet laid and
compacted earlier should be cut to their full <iepth so as to expose ffesh
surface which should be painted with a thin surface coat of binder before
the new mix is Placed against it.
o seal coat: A seal coat should be applied 4 t9 6 hours after laying the
gpremix carpet. ,.
eopeningtotraffic:Trafficshoutdnotbeallowedoverthepremix
surface, with or without seal coat; for 6 to 8 hours after rolling. In case of
singleJane foads, traffic may be allowed earlier, but'the speed of traffic
must be sffictly controlled. lf any premix material is'picked up by vehicle
tyreq, the spot should be filled by new mix and . compacted. It is
preferable ttot tq.op.n the road to traffic for at least 24 hours'
ri"ld Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
]
Chapter I PAVEMENT CONSIRUCIION

8.4 Premix Mix Seol wheeled roller. Rolling should be continued until the premixed material
is lompletely sealed, and a smooth uniform surface without voids is
a Constrttction operations: Requirements are as stated in 8.3.(1) obtained.
mentioned earlier. when
Opening to trafric: Ttaffic may be aliowed soon after final rolling
a Opening to traffic: Traffic may be allowed after completion of the final cooled down to the surrounding temperature'
rolling when the mix has cooled down to the surrounding temperature. tti. pretnix.d material has
Surface finlslt and qualtty control of toork: The surface finish of
a
construction should conform to the requirements given in the
8.6 ltloslic
while
specifications. a Weatber and seasona'l limita'tions: Laying should be suspended
Laying should
free-standing water is present on the surface to be covered
8.5 Premix Seol (ool
'
be avoided as far as is practicable during rain, fog and dust storms'
and
a Weatber and seasonal limltatlons: Laying should.be suspended while if these conditions threaien to be prolonged, laying should be suspended'
Laying of bituminous mixtures should not be carried out when the
free-standing water is present on the surface to be covered. Laying should air
be avoided as far as is practicable during rain, fog and dust storms, and the on which it is to be laid is below 10"C or when
i"*pJtu,.rt" at surface
if these conditions threaten to be prolonged, laying should be suspended. m height unless
the wind speed at any temperature exceeds,40 km'/hr at 2
Laying of bituminous mixtures should not be carried out when the air approved, u.td th"tt
sfecifically only piovided that rolling can be
tempelature at the surface on wl-rich it is to be laid is. below 10"C or when *-pt"t"i before the mixture cools below the specified minimum
the wind speed at any temperatlrre exceeds 40 km/hr at 2 m height unless compaction temperature for the mixture'
specifically approved, and then. only provided that rolling can be
completed hefore rhe nlixnrre cools helnw rhe specified minimr-rm a Prepdra'tionoftbcbaso:.l.hebaseonwhichmasfi(:aspllaltistobelaid
In
compaction temperature for the mixture. rnoitfa be preiared, shaped and conditioned to the profile required'-
the case of a cement concrete base, the surface should be thoroughly
a Preparatiot of base: The seal coat should be applied immediately after
laying the bituminous course required to be sealed. Belore application of powerbnrshedcleanandfreedfromdustandotherdeleteriousmatter.
seal coat materials, the surface should be cleaned free of any dust and Under no circumstances should mastic asPhalt be spread on a base
other extraneous matter. containing a binder, which migl-rt soften under high application
temperatures used for mastic asphalt'
Coflstrrtction of premix seal coat: A mixer of appropriate capacity and
type should be used for preparation of the mix material. The plant should a Tack coat: A tack coat should be applied on the base'
have separate dryer arrangements for heating aggregates.
Prepatation of mastic a'spba'It: The presenlation of mastic asphalt for
The binder should be heated in boilers of suitable design to the are
temperature appropriate to the grade of bitumen. Alsci, the aggregates q,,lmrieaiat
-'outlined.below
should be dry and heated to a suitable temperatLrre before the same are in the paragtaphs (A) and (B)'
placed in the mixer. Mixing of binder with aggregates to the specified (A) For.Immediate Use: The preparation of mastic utqry-! consists of
proportions should be continued till the latter is thoroughly coated with t*o ,tug"r. The ftt'st sfage consists of mixing of filler and fine
the former. uggr.gu'or.u.rdthenheatingthemixturetoatemPgratureoflTooC
The mix should be.immediately transported from the mixing plant to the tozlo.c.Requiredquantityofbitumenisheated.tolTooctolS00C
point of use and spread uniformly on the bituminous surface to be sealed. andaddedtotheheatedaggfegate.Theyare'mixedandcookedin
'. an approved type of mechanically agitated.mixer called ma'stic
As soon as a sufficient length has been covered with the premixed till the materials arc thoroughly mixed. Initially, the filler
material, the surface should be rolled with an B to 10 tonne smooth- "ooii,
aloneistobelreatedinthecookerforanhourandthenhalfthe
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana Ariage ergineeis
f, nainat Fietd Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
!

Cltapler B
quantity ol binder acided. After heating and rnixing for somc time,
the fine aggtegates and the balance of the bincler are to be added
and further cooked for about one hour. The second strrge is
incorporation of coalse aggregates ar-rd cooking the mixture for a
total period of 3 hours. During cooking and mixing, care is to be
taken to ensure that the contents in the cooker are at no time hcated
to a tempemture exceeding 210"C.
(B) For Casting into Blocks: Where the material is not reclr-rirecl for
immediate use it should be cast into blocks consisting of filler, fine
aggregates and binder, bur without the acldition of coarse aggregate,
weighing about 25 kg eacl.r.'I'he mastic asphalt blocks sl-rotrld show
on analysis a composition within the limits as given in Table g.4.
Before use, these blocks should be reheated to a temperature of not
less than 175"C and not more than 2l0oC, ancl tl-re coarse aggregate
should then bc thoroughly incorporated in the masric. Mixing
should be continued until. laying operations are completecl ancl site
is ready, mair-rtaining the aggregates in suspension. At n() stagc
during the proces..j of rnixing should thc tcmpcraturc c;<ccccl 210"C.
Tatrle 8.4 Composiflon of Mastic Asphalt Blocks
without Coarse Aggregates
lS Sieve Percentage by weight
of Mastic Asphalt
Minimum Maximum
Passing 2.36 mm but retained on 0.600 mm 0 i
Passing 0.600 mm but retained on 0.212 mm 4 30
Passing 0.212 mm but retained on 0.075 mm 1B
Passing 0.075 mm tq 45
Bitumen Content 14 17
The suspension mixture should be transported to the laying site in
suitable mixer,/transporter having an arfangement for stin'ing and keeping
the mixturc hot during Lrsnsportation.
a Spreadlng: The mastic asphalt should be laid, normally in one coat, at
temperature between 175"C and 2100C and spread uniformly either by
hand-held wooden fioats or by machine on the prcpared ancl regulated
surface. The thickness of the mastic asphalt and the perceutage of adcled
coarse aggregate should be in accor-dance with the specifications. Vhere
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Y
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
necessary, battens of tl"re requisite dimensions shor,rlcl be employcd. Any
blow holes or blisters that appear on the surface should be punctr,rred
while the material is hor, and the sr-rrface made good by further floating.
a
-existing All
Joittts: constluction ioints should be properly made by wal'ming
mastic asphalt and by tl-re applicatiol-r of an excess quantity of the
hot mastic asphalt rnixtttre, which afterwards should Lre trirnmed to leave
it flr-rsh with the surfaces on cither side.
a surfacefini.sb.. The mastic asphalt surface can have poof skicl fesistance
oft". floaiir-tg. In order to provide resistance to skidding, the rnastic asphalt
aftel spreading, while still hor and in a plastic condition, should be
coverecl with 2 layef of stone aggregate.
'Ihis aggregate shoulcl I'te 13.2
mm size (passing the 19.0 mm sieve and retained on the 9'5 tnm sieve)
or 9.5 mm size (passing the I3.2 mm sieve and retained on the 6'7 mm
sieve) subject to approval by the Engineer-in-Charge Hatcl stone chip's,
complying with the qualiry requirements, shoulcl be pre-coated with s-65
penetratio,r grade bitumen at the rate of 2 o/o (+/- 0.4%) by weiglrt. The
<>f 2 o/o ol filler complying with the requirements rnay be requirecl
"d.litlon 'fhe chips
to enable this quanrity of binder to be l.reld witl]out draining.
should then be appliecl at rhe rate of 0.005 cu.m peI 10 sqm and rolled
or othenise pressed into the sr.trfarr of tl-re mastit: layer whcn thc
temperatLlre of the rnastic asphalt is not less than 100"C'
a Openhtg to trc,ffic: Traffic may be allowed after completion of the work
-h"r] th" mastic asphalt temperatllre of the complete.l mastic asphalt
layer has cooled to the clay'tirne maximrlm ambient tempcrature'
fiflislc ctncl qu&rity control uofk: Tl-Le sttrface finish of the
I
a str.t"face
I
.o-plet.d construction shoulcl conform to the requirement and testecl
with a straight edge 3.0 m iong, placed parallel to the centfe line of the
I
I
carriageway (no depression greatel' than 7 n-rm).
I
I
8.7 Seol
a
i t w'eatber a.nd seasorrttl tirnltations: Laying should be suspended wl'rile
free-standing water is present on the sulface to be covered. Laying should
I
i
be avoided as far as is practicable during rain, fog and dust storms, and
il these conc.litions threaten to be prolonged, laying should be suspended.
I
a
i Laying of bituminous mixtufes should not be carried out when the air
temp;fature at the s'rf'ace on which it is to be laid is below 10oc or when
the wind speed at any remperature excceds 4o kn/hr at 2 m height unless
specifically approved, and then only provided that rolling can be
ti
i
I
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers 'liqi,''
i
I
I
Chapter I @i€idil:;i*:ig"*:cgtiqea+*i'*#;iii{i1{iPAvEMENrcoNsrRUcrtoN
cornpleted before the mixture cools below the specified minimum Appl;ication: Transverse ioints for machinelaid areas should be formed
oJiih spreadlng starting and finishing on a protective strip not less
than
compaction temperatufe fof the mixtufe.
Transverse
100 mm wlde at each end of the lane length being treated'
a Surface prepara'tiotr Any necessary remedial work to'the road surface pints should be formed such that there are no ridges or bare strips'
and structure should be completed before application of the seal. and should be
The longirudinal joints should coincide with lane markings
Before the slurry seal is applied, street furniture and road markings, kerbs, formed iuch that there are no ridges or bare strips'
etc., should be masked using self-adhesive masking material or other meet the
matefial firmly secured against the passage of the spreader box or the Handwork around street furnitute and other ironwork should
,u*" p.rfot-ance requirements and -form a homogenous'surface
tools used for hand laying. Any packed mud or other dePodits on the
surface and all organic growth should be removed by suitable means, and matching with the rest of the treated caniageway'
Footways and other confined ateas rnay be spread by-hand.
the surface swept free of all loose material. using
,q,r".g"",an<J brooms. Transverse joints should be formed with
a Ta.ck coat: If required, a tack coat may be applied prior to the slurry seal,
rj-n&"g starting and finishing on a protective strip not less than 100 mm
with or without grit or chips, in order to seal the existing surface and
enhance the bond to the existing road sttrface. The rate of spread of *id.u."eachendofthelanelengthbeingtreated.Transverseioints
strips. Kerb
tack coat should be 0.20 to 0.25 kg/m' for bituminous surfaces and should be formed such that there should be no ridges or bare
should.be suitably masked with
0.30 to 0,35 kg/m'for concrete surfaces. eciges ancl ether areas not being treated
sef-adhesive masking material. Footways should be finished by dragging
Mixlng a.nd. tra.nsportation of mixture: Mixing (and laying) a dampened broom iransversely over the footway under its
own weight'
teqhniques vary according to the rype of emulsion used. For class 44 ln
rapid. setting and I(3 emulsions, onljt specictl mobi'le mixing All voids, cracks and surface irregularities should bc complctely filled
warm c1ry weather, the surface, immediately ahead of the spreading'
ntacbhrcs sltould. be uscd. Tbcse ca'rt1t supphos o1f aggregates'
emulsio4 utater a'nd filler (e.g" ord'inary Portla'nd Cement or should be made slightly damp by mist water spray applied mechanically
ltydt'ated lhne) and. an'e iltted uitlc metering deaices to fced the or a hand-operated pressure sprayer'
ingred;ients ln tlteir correct propor"ti'ons to a mixer 1fttted' to tbe Rolkng: Vhere rolling is requirecl, a pne.umatic tyred roller having
an
a
rea.r of tlte macbine. From tbe mixer, the slurty is fed into tbe indiviiual wheel loacl between 0J5 and 1'5 tonnes should be used'
screed box towed by tbe macbine. Rollingshouldcornmenc€aSsoonastheslurryhassetstrfficientlyto
ensure that rutting or excessive movement will not occur'
For all other emulsions, mixing may be by hand, concrete mixer or
Opening to traffic: Masking should be removed after the slurry seal
another mixer which effectively coats the aggregate uniformly and has
a
produces a slurry seal of suitable consistency for satisfactory laying. For t i"., up-pf.a arii stabilised without cJamage ro_the edge
of the surfacing,
large areas. a bulk transit concrete mixer may be r.rsed into which the and before opening the road or footway to traffic'
ingredients (including water) are measured and mixed as the mixer ttavels
to the area to be treated. A screed box fitted with an adjustable rubber Aftercloselvmonitoringforaminimumperiodof2hours'thelaneshould
screed should be towed by the mixer which feeds it during laying.
t! l*"p, igain if n".Errrry. The monitoring should continue until the
,"4 reached sufiicient stability to carry unrestricted traffic. If
,f"rrl, fras
procedures or
The specia.l moblle mixing macbine. utben used, sbouW be capable there are signs of distress' traffic safery and management
of untform appkcatlon to proald.e a continuous surJace witlrout action necessary to prevent further damage should
other such iemedial
rldge s or segregatiott- be adopted.
Wbere tbe naterlal is to be band lald- tbe sluny may be suppli'ed should be
Further operations to remove subsequently loosened ^Sgtegate
nefi The treated and adiacent side
to site premlxed Ln sultable contolners and steps takefl to ensure carried out over the 48 hours. areas
tbat tbe materlal in eaclt contai'ner ls o1f a'n eoen conststency free of
roads, footways and paved areas should be kept substantially
work'
througltout trle contait er, lmmediately prior to use. loose aggregate for a period of 30 days after completion of the
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Srfage Engineers fi E Ruirus n, td Manuat for Highway and Btidge Engineers

Chapter I
a fi.nlsb and quality control of utork: The surface finish of the
Suryfa.ce
completed construction should conform to the requirements and, in
addition, the finished slurry should have a uniform surface texture
throughout the work, without variations of textuie within the lane width,
or from lane to lane, due to segregation ofaggregates or due to variations
in the emulsion/water content of the mixture.
The finished surface should be free from blow holes and surface
irregularities in excess of 3 mm beneath a 1 m straight edge (due to
scraping, dragging, droppings, excess overlapping or badly aligned
longitudinal or transverse joints, damage by rain or frost, or other defects,
which lemain 24 hours after laying).
8.8. Biluminous Povement
Recycling of bituminous pavement involves pavement removal, stockpiling of
materials from the old pavement, addition of new bitumen and untreated
aggregate in the requisite proportions, mixing, spreading and compaction of
the blended materials. The rec)zcling process can be categorised into central
plant reclzcling (where reclaimed material is.processed off site) and in-situ
recvclinq (wlrere Drocessrng takes olace on site). 'l'hese orocesses can be
hrrther subdivided into, hot and cold processes. The hot mix recycling is
described below while the cold mix recycling has been described after that.
HoI Mix Recycling
(A)
Centrol Plont Mix Recyclinq
(ol
Removol und Redunrotion ol the Bituminous Pavement
This is generally done either by milling or by ripping and crushing,
and the reclaimed material stockpiled where necessary
by rnilling, with special machines,
employed for thin layer reclarnation or partial depth
reclamation work and is very suitable for urban areas, particularly
as its use may permit continuous traffic on the road in areas where
closures would cause congestion.
In thin layer reclamation and rerycling work, it is sometimes
convenient to use continuous single-pass, in-place recycling
equipment although milled material may also be transported to a
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana eriage engineers
l
PAVEMENT CONSI'RUC I ION
central plant, stockpiled and used for hot or cold mixing. Milling,
when properly done, helps to correct and improve the sulface
profile.
Advantases ol millins are:
- high productivity,
- no further need of crushing involved;
- very little dust, toxic fumes or heat generation,
- achieving bettei texture and profile of the existing surface, and
- milling work can be carried out on a single lane while other
adiacent lanes remain open to ffaffic.
Milling can, however, lead to degradation of aggregates and
production of excessive fines; this rnust be taken into consideration
.in any mix design using the milled material.
(ii) Rioping and Crushing: Ripping and crushing are required
generally when full-depth removal of bituminous pavement is
involved. This will normally result in traffic closure for a substantial
duration. Conventional eqrripment include rippers fitted to bull
dozers, front-end loaders, and motor graders, used for ripping and
breaklng operations; tbe cunsequanl u.ttuh'lu'rlt:e ctf tbe ueed to
procure specialist milling equlpment ls ofien seen as an
adactntage.
The product of the ripping operation is then transported to a
convenient processing site where it is crushed and pulverised witl-r
grid-rollers (pulverisers), hammer mills or specialised pulverising
equipment. Standard iaw crushers with two sets of rollers have also
been successfully used. The first roll forms flat pieces (like
pancakes) out of the big chunks, and the second roll breaks the
'pancakes' into smaller fragments. For optirnum perfcrrmance,
attempts should be made to crush the reclaimed material to a 4O-
is mm size (although, in practice, it is often necessary to accept an
upper'limit of 50 mm). Every effort must be made during the
brushing operation to avoid loss of material, particularly the fines.
(iu) Stockpillng: Because of the probable time-lag between different
construction operations, and also because it may not be possible to
use the entire reclaimed material in one iob, the reclaimed
bituminous material will usually be stored in stockpile. Owing to the
presence of bitumen, with time and under pressure of the load, the
fi Ru^"t ri"b Manual for Highway and Btidge Engineers

Chapter B
stockpiled'material tends to congeal into chunks. Segregation can
also be a problem.
Some general precautions:
- Use only front-end loaders foi stockpiling (bulldozers tend to
compact the stockpiled material).
- Limit the height of the stockpiles, preferably to 2 metres, but
nevef more than 3 metres.
Provide good drainage to the stockpile area and try to avoid
excessive wetting-up of the stockpile.
Reclaimed material from different sources should be
separarely, and the separate sources clearly marked.
(b) ftlixing in (enftol Hot Mix Plont
Reclaimed material is often recycled with the addition of virgin material,
in
eithera batch type or drum type of mixing plant, with minor
modifications. The commonly used method of heating the reclaimed
rnaterial is by the 'heat ffansfer' merhod, tn which rhe superheared virgin
aggregates are mixed with the cold reclaimed material, transfering their
extra heat to the reclaimed material.
In the batch lype of plans, mixing of the virgin aggteg te is performed
in the standard hot mix plant channel through feeders, dryers, elevators,
etc., to the pugmill mixer. The reclaimed material is fed directly to the
pugmill weighing box by separate channel consisting of its own feeding
^
bin, conveyor beit and chute.
It is possible, in this way, to proces$ material in which the ratio of
reclaimed materiai to new material is in the range of 35:65 to 50:50. The
proportion of reclaimed material that can be processed depends upon:
i. the percentage moisture in the reclaimed matedal,
ii. the requirecl final discharge temperature,
iii. the temperature of the material at stockpile,
iv. the temperature to which the virgin aggtegate can be heated, and
v. the exhaust capability of the pugmill or the weigh-hopper for steam
generated from the moisture cgntent in the reclaimed material.
For obvious reasons, the higher the production rate required, the lesser
will be the exit temperature of the mixture. As the superheated virgin
aggregates come into contact with the moist reclaimed material, a large
re*-*- - Raina's Fietd Mani.tat for Hlghway ana eridge engineers
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
quantity of steam is generated which must escape' Some steam escapes
tirrough the reclaimed material entry chute; but for a large quantity
production, a separate exhaust duct needs to be provided in the pugmill
tr the weigh-box. This avoids a number of significant problems'
Tbe foltoutiig guidelines hetp ln acbieaing better Performance:
(i) Bitumen is a bad cond'uctor of beat, and heat transfer from fresb
aggregates to tbe bitumen-coated reclaimed nxateria'l is a time-
process and continues euen after discbarge from tbe
"oiti*ing
pugmitl. Ceieralty, in order to rnake it cornplete, the mix material
-ts
Tept for an intermed'iate duration in an insulated bot nxix
stockpiled
storige-silo (surge bopper) before being deliuered to tbe truck' The
waiting period' in tlte storage silo completes tbe beat ffansfer'
(il) Tbe cotd. feed' bin for reclaimed material should not be uery big or
deep and sbould baue a broad opening at the bottom to preuent
congealing.
of uibration to
(t11) Tlte feeder bin sbould not be subiected to any type
preuent comPacilon of tbe feed'
(tu) The recluitrrcd ntaterial sltouid tlot bc tbc first material in the
sequence of loading into tbe ueigh-box in order to preuent
cornPaction due to tbe weight of material ouer it.
(u) For bigb production rates, tbe wet scrubbing system of dust
exffac;on-cyclone sbould be prouided instead of a simple cyclone'
Drum mix plants can also be used for mixing recycled material'
Several improvements have been introduced to eliminate blue
smoke emiision and also to relieve material build-up' Many of the
devices ate proprietary and v^ry, depending upon the
manufacturer
As in the batch-type plant, the production rate in the drum mixer
is influenced by a number of factors:
- the initial temperature of the fresh cold feed and the
^ggtegate
reclaimed material,
- the temperature required in the final mix as per design, and
- the moistr-rre content of the reclaimed material and the fresh cold
feed.
] f, n"r"t Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chapter s
Cornparlng pl"ant Jfor plant, tbe drum mtxer ts able to use d
bigber ratlo of reclaimed. ma.terial and also, genera.lbt, ltas a
blgher productton rate. A commonljt used ratCo of reclaimed
materlal tofresh material is 6O:4A, to 7O3O,
The advantzges of a drum mixer recycling plant are:. .
- a higher production rate,
a higher achievable ratio of reclaimed material to fresh material,
- achieving.better mixing by drum length adjustment, and
- the plant is more colnpact and portable.
k) Spreoding ond Rolling
In general, the work of taying and compacting recycled bituminous
material is similar to that for other hot bituminous mixtures. However, a
general observation has been that recycled mixes are telatively stiffer than
fresh hot bituminous paving material. They may, therefore, require
application of a more compactive etTort to achieve the required
compaction.
Because of the general complexity of the nature of the work and chances
of variation in the constituents of the recycled mixtures, the need for
stringent quality control is even more crucial for recycled work than it is
for new constrLlction. Because it is difficult to maintain the strict aggregate
grading requirements of the Marshail mix design method, recycled
material is better sr,rited for use in a mofe open textured macadam.
(Bt ln-situ Hot Reryclina
In in-situ hot recycling, the entire series of operations is carried out at slte,
which consist of either milling or ripping, breaking, pulverising and then
mixing materials with binder and a rejuvenating
^gent.
o Reclataa.tlon: Conventionally, reclamation of existing bituminous
material for use in in-situ recycling, can involve 'the use of milling,
provided that the thickness to be recycled is not more than 25 mm. For
thicknesses greater than 25 mm, bulldozers with rippers, front-end loaders
or motor graders with hardened cutting edges are used fbr the
reclamation operation. Speciai pulverising equipment like grid rollers or
hammer-mills are then used to reduce the recycled material to the
required size and grading.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway. and eridge Ensineers
:.rgr*i;ii*i!&&ffisffiffiffi qAvEMENT coNsrRucrtoN
o ailtin&The cold milling machine has a cutting drum with a series of
tungsren carbide-tippecl cutting tools. These tools are attanged in a
double-helix ilight design to cut upwafd into the pavement material,
bottom to top, as the machine moves forward'
Theproductofcoldmillingisvery,finematerial,often5mmdown;
whereas hot milling will reclaim the stone with a grading.much as it was
laid.
c Hplfllauiag;In this process, the road surface is heated before scarifuing'
Heating is usually by means of infrared heaters or plates heated by gas.
The equipment should maintain a continuous slow progressive
movement, as static heating may overheat the binder'
planing musr follow closely behind the heaters, and a milling drum with
tungstencarbidecuttingdiscsshouldcloselyfollowtheheaters.
T5e depth and wiclth of the rnatelial to be recovered, and speed of travel
of the equipment can be controlled to suit design requirements'
Common processes of In-situ Hot Recycliirg: Hot in-situ recycling
' pfocesses may be subdivided into tbree categories, according tO the
intended ptrrpose of the operation:
o resbaPing
. rebaalng, and
o retnixi'ng.
These categories are outlined below:
o Reshaping: This is generally.carried out for puiposes of minor reprofiling
as well as reiuvenation of the asphalt surface and may involve operations
up to a clepth of not rnofe than 20 mm. The equipment hot-planes the
surface, scarifies it and then mixes it with a recycling agent and a new
binder. The mixrure is then placed to the reqtiired profile and rolled. This
process thus improves the riding quality, reseals the road against water
penetration, and improves skid resistance'
The original thickness of the pavement is, however, not changed in any
significant way during the reshaping process and is.of no use in cases ![
base failure'
If, for any reason, the reclaimed material is not to be used, it should be
stockpiled for subsequent use in footpaths, park roads or similar
situations where less stringent specifications are applicable, and a fresh
bituminous mixture prepared for use in resttrfacing'
j lff nrrrs f," ld Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
chapter B lii-'l:l:.1:-fii.,l":r:'::,.-:"
f iii '; :
C Re4aahtg: The life of a ro:tcl witlr e sotrnd base structure may Sometimes
be extended by this process. 'I'he cxisting pavement surl'ace is preJ-reated
(by infrared or similar devices) and scarifiecl (for a better boncl with the
existing pavement) br-rt the scadfiecl m.rterial is not renxrved. A layer of flesh
bituminous mix material prepared in the intcgtated rnixing unit of the plar-rt
'fhe
is then spread evenly on the scarified surface to give a unifolm profile.
spfead material shoi-rld be compacted as soott its possible after laying. In this
process the total thickness of the pavement is increased by up to 50 ml1'
There are single-pass machines, with a frorrt-hopper t() receive fresh l-rot
bituminous mix from a central hot rnix plant, a set of infrared heaters to
heat and soften the pavement, which is then looscned by a scarificr
following the heater. New lrot mix material is carriccl by a heated
conveyor belt and spreacl evenly to the rcquireci profile by a scteecl over
the heated and levcllecl scarifiecl layer. Thc sprcad material is tarnpecl by
a vibrator an<1 finally compactecl by a loller ftr completc thc repaving
pfocess.
a Remixing: During this process, the scafifiecl nrzrtcrial should be tzrken
trom the road surface and translerrecl to tlte rrrixirrg uilit of the plant
wherc it is recycled with fresl-r bincler, aggrcgatc ancl t'eiuvenating agent.
Then the recycled mixture is spreacl on thc pre-hcatcd sut'fecc ancl
coulpactecl to the reqllirecl profile.
\With the single-pass machines, menti()ned allove lbr 'Repaving' purposcs'
if 'Remixing; is to the scarifiecl material insteacl of being heated
Lre ckrne,
and levellecl, is tran.spoftecl to the miclclle of the machine where a pr.rgmill
mixes the olcl ancl the ncw materials. I.'rom the pugmill, thc recycled mix
is fecl into the scrcecl where the screws evenly sllread it in front of the
screed which then levels it to the requi|ed profile. tlolling provicles the
final compaction.
The process of remixing also involves soure incrca.se in the overall
ihickness of the pavement.
Mix Recvcling
(At (enlrol Plsnl Cold Mix 0perotion
The procedure for colcl mix operatiot-t itr a central plant, u'ith regarcl to
reclamation, har-rlage, stockpiling, etc., is the sanle as for hot mix operation.
The material can be pulverisecl at site or at thc plant. Hotaeaer, sonrc
differerrces tbat sltoukl be noted are as follottts:
[:lio Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Btidge Engineers
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Since no beating is required" tlte recycling ntay be carriecl ottt toitllottt
adclition of neut aggregateq Le, tbe sanne rnaterial utill be gioen a. ,teu)
Iife u,ith fresb bhtder antd rejtnenatirtg agettt (if required'), prouided
tbat .tbe reclaitteel ,r.aterial exbibits acceptabl'e grading
characteristics. It is a usu.al requirentent that tbe recyclecl layer is
couered by a1fiu'tber bot bitumhrcus surilface layen
For roacls str.bject to ntediutn to bea.D! traffic, tbe cokl recycled layers
cort. sewe as ant irnproaed. ancl strttctural$t strong base.
Irt practice, tbe cokl central planfi is cottsiclered to acbieue ltigber
ndxittg efficiency ancl ltigber productiott. rates tlxun itr.-sittt cokl ntixirtg
(described ht paru. (B) belou) and is, tlterefot'e, preferred.
(B) ln-situ Cold Mix Recyding
Conventionally, the in-situ method of colcl recycling involves cither milling of
the existing surface, usr-rally when less than 25 mrn thick, ol ripping, breaking,
pulverising the same (q4ren thickness is large) r.rsing bulldozers with rippers,
. front-end loaders ol motor gladers. Flowcver, modern recycling machines c:rn
rnill up to 300 mm depth and recycle up to 250 rnm depth, thr,rs avoicling the
use of a bulldozer up to 250 mm depdr. 'When thc broken size is l.uge, it is
reducecl by methods sirnilar to those fol hot in-situ l'cc),cling. Colcl emulsifiecl
binder and reiuvenating agent are then sprayecl on the layer. If fiesl-r material
is to be addecl, a cold mix of emulsion and aggregates, in clcsign qLlantities,
is then spread on it. The two materials are thcn rnixed, splercl to the requircd
thickness ancl profile, and compacted by roller.s.
The process of milling for cold in-situ rccycling is the s.lme as descril>ed under
the hot process. Tl're actr-ral recycling work may, hrowevet-, t;rke various fot'n-rs.
A aery simple and econornical uay of irt-si.ttt recyclirtg is to break the
existing course i.n ltlace, puluerise tbe loose aggres.tte cottpositiott
and tben spread tbe new aggregate, i.r. quarrtities irt ctccoxlance uitlt
tbe design requirenrcnts, ortto tlre scat'iJiecl suryfoce. Enr.ulsifiecl
bitumen sltoukl be sprayed. onto the suryface and tbe material ntixecl
insint antd cotnpactecl by roller, preferably to reftt.sal
Clearly, the method described above is imprecise and shoulcl only be used on
light traffic roads and on roacls where the bitumen in the wearing course has
become oxidised and brittle (aged).
Before openhtg tbe suqlface of tbe road to traJffic, a single or double-
seal surJface dressirrg sltottld. be proaided, Tbe process is sontetitnes
called'retreathtg' and is cottsiderecl to be a. cost-effectiue nraintenance
measure in approprtate liglot traffic situatiotts.
i...: '-:. n"r"t Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers : 171
 :.5 I

rSl
:41
I
1i, PAVEMENT CANSTRUCTION
1!.

For medium trafficked roads, deeper in-situ pulverisation followed by in-situ
addition of emulsion may be used. However, these restored courses are
seldom used as the final wearing surface and'are usually overlaid by a new
bituminous wearing.course or a new strengthening course.
For highly trafficked roads, the in-situ cold mix recycling is not considered
suitable, and central plant cold mix recycling must be resorted to which gives
high production rates and close control of mix design.
8.9 Stone Moslic
Weatbet' and. seasonal l;imltations: Laying should be suspended while
free-standing water is present on the surface to be covered. Laying should
be avoided as far as is practicable during rain, fog and dust storms, and
if these conditions threaten to be prolonged, laying should be suspended.
Laying of bituminous mixtures should not be carried out when the air
temperature at the surface on which it is to be laid is below 10oC or when
the wind speed at any temperature exceeds 40 km/hr at 2 m height unless
specifically approved, and then only provided that rolling can be
completed before the mlfiure cools below the speclfied mlnlmum
compaction temperature for the mixtures.
a Prepara.ti.on of base: Existing surfaces should be prepared as indicated
irr 8.2 (DBM, etc.) SMA shuuld always be laitl ovcr a bilutrtirrous base and
a prime coat is therefore not required.
Tack coat: A tack coat over the base shouid be applied. The preferred
tack coat is K 1-40 cationic bitumen emulsion. It should be spray-applied'
at a r^te of 0.3 - 0.5 litres/m' to break completely before the stone mastic
asphalt is laid.
Preparatlon and transportatl.on of tbe mlx: A batch plant must be
used. The temperafure of SMA on discharge from the mixer pugmili must
be in the range 150oC to 170oC for S-55 or 5-65 birumen, to facilitate
subsequent compaction. Thele are sevbral .ways to proportion the fibres:
- Feeding in loose fibre (details in preuious cbapter) from plastic bags
by hand;
- Air blowing loose fibres directly into the mixer pugmill;
€ A mechanised method of addition shoulcl be used; exacr proportioning of
:\
+ fibres and their homogenous distribution in the mixture before the
4
bitumen is added are very important. To enhance the quality of SMA,
ra)
mixing time should be extended by 10 to 15 seconds compared with that
used for dense-graded bituminous mixtures, and should be at least
g4
50 seconds.
#
e a Spreading: Generally CAUTION * 4 (stated earlier in tbis chapter) is also
flt applicable to this operation. The temperature of the mixture in the hopper
*
.d
s
of the paver should not be below 150oC. Compaction temperature should
{'it be as high as possible, consistent with a minimum rolling temperature of
tf 100"c.
i:. i
+,
Rolkng: The ternperature of the mixture in the hopper of the paver
i should not be below 150oC. Compaction remperature should be as high
as possible, consistent with a minimum rolling temperatllre of 100oC.
ri i
A tandem drum roller should operate directly behind the paver, while
another (steel wheeled) roller should be used for completion of rolling
i and the removal.of all roller marks. Any use of vibration should be kept
fu a rrrililrulr (urre or Lwo passes) to preclude aggregate fracture and/or
:
flushing of bitumen to the surface. Pneumatic tyred rollers sltould not
be used-
RoIHag sbottltl be continuecl until tbe densi,tlt achieoed. is a
ntlnimurn of 93 % and a tnean ualue of 95 0z6 of Percentage Refusal
Density (PRD). The required frequency of testing is defined in
applicable specifications
a Opening to traffic: Stone mastic asphalt should nor be opened to traffic
until the asphalt temperature, measured ar the mid-depth of the layeq
drops to 40"C. To improve earlyJife skid resistance, dust-free grit may be
applied after the first roller pass, at the following application rates:
- 1 - 2 kg/mz of 4.75 mm - 2.35 mm crushed coarse aggregare, or
-irr 0.6 = 0.9 kg/m' of 2.35 mm - 0.6 mm crushed fine aggregate.
All loose material must be removed at the completion of compaction.
B.l0 Sond Bose (ourse

- Proportioning of pellets (approximately 50 % fibres and 5O o/o low- c Weather and seasonal llTnitations: Requirements of 8.3.Q) indicated
melting binder) with a screw. conveyor; eadier are applicable here.
- Premixing of bitumen and pellets in an agitated vat. c Preparatlon ofbase: The surface on which Sand Asphalt Base Course
material is to be laid should be prepared, shaped and conditioned to the
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and ariase Enoineers I
f, R r"s ri" b Manua! for Highway and Bridge Engineers
l\
Chapter B ; .
profile required for the particular layer. The surface sl'rould be thoroughly
i*ept cl"ur-r, free from dust and foreign mattef, by using a mechanical
broorr, and the dr-rst removed or blown off by compressed air' In
locations where mechanical neans cannot reach, other approvecl
methods should be used. A priming coat, where needed; should bc
aPPlied'
c Tack coat: A tack coat over the base sl-rould be applied'
o spreadittg: Mixing must be accomplished at the lowest allowable
teflperature and in the shortest time that will produce a mixtufe with
complete coating of the aggregate and at a sr:itable temperature t() enslue
proper compaction. The ideal mixing and compaction tempefatufes fof
tlie par.ticr-rlar bitumen in use sl-tould be obtained from the Bitumen Test
Data Char.t and shoulcl corfespond to a viscosily of 2 Poise (0.2 I',as.) and
3 poise (0.3 pas.) respectively, based on the original (unaged) bitumen
propefties. For guidance, the ranges of acceptable mixing ar-rcl rolling
tempefarures for t1'pical penetratk)n grade bitumens are as in Table 8.3.
t Rollittg: Generally l|'rc initi,al i.e., brectkcloun rollittg should be carriecl
-l'hc
out with 8 to 10 tonnes dead weight smooth-wheeled rollers.
ltrlernteili,ttle rul.l:futg should bc donc rn'ith il rc 10 tonnes dead $'eight
or vibratory rollers or with a pneumatic tyrecl roller of 12 to 15 tonnes
weight having a ryfe pressure of at least 0.7 MPa. The fittislt rolling
-fhe
shoutd be done with 8 to 10 tonnes dead weight tandem rollcrs.
exact pattern of rolling should be established after compaction of a trial
strip.
Rolling shoulci be continlrecl until the densiry achieved is a rninimum of
o/o of Percentage Refusal Density (PRD)
93 o/o and a ntean value of 9i
o Opening to traffic: Traffic may be allowecl after completion of the final
rolling when the temperature of the mixnrre at the mid-depth of the
completed layer has cooled to the daytime maximum ambient
temperature. \7hen daytime maximum ambient temperatufes .rre in
excess of 35"C, great care is needed to ensure this criterion is met,
particularly where slow-moving heavy traffic is involved.
8.3 PRTPARATORY WORK BTIORE LAYI]'IG
a The existence of satisfactory sub-drainage ancl, in new constrtlction, a
sub-base of adequate strength to bear the equipment which will be used
to lay the coatecl n-racadam or hot rollecl asphalt. is assumed. Solne f<rrm
R!Z{,I Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Enginears
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
.. -, ,,",.;.: ,"ll,., .1 .,,;ll.:"';:;1,,:'.,..",;,.:.:,:t-,'. PAVEMENTCONSIRUCI/ON
of permanent lateral support should be given to the material, such as
previor-rsly laid kerbing, kerb bed and backing.
a \fhere the prcvious course is either of coated macadam, rolled asphalt or
of othel granular material, it is essential tl-rat it is adequately compacted
using a roller exerting at least as much a load per unit width of roll as that
used for rolling the coated macadam or rolled asphalt.
a When an existing road is to be surfaced, all weak areas should be
strengthened; major inequalities of profile remedied, and depressions
fillecl with suitable material thoroughly compacted prior to the laying of
coated macadam or asphalt su.rfacing. Any large depressions or
in'egularities should be taken out using the paver and this can be done
by sctting up a line to the correct profile/gradient for the paver to work
to. Any excess of tar or bitumen on the old surface sl-rould be removed.
Fleating ancl planing is the usual method used.
a Rritisl.r Standard. 4987 states that the accuracy of the finish of the surface
on which the 'coated macadam' is to be laid should be determined in the
longitr-rdinal direction by placing a I rn straight edge at any position 6'n
the roacl parallel to the centre line of the carriageway. The clepth of the
gap at anlr place betn'een the pointo at q.hich the straight cdgc is in
contaci with the roacl should not exceed 25 mn below two course work
or 13 mm below wearing course work. The transverse profile should
conlbrm to a similar standard of accuracy, using a correcdy shaped
template instead of the straight edge.
a For hot rolled asphalt work, the limits ale more rigici. BS 594 stares that
for resurfacing work, "where an existing surface is to be improve<l if
necessary by heating ancl planing and/or by the addition of a regulating
course so that the maximum depression under a 3 m straight edge placed
lor.rgitudinally and under a suitable template placed transversally, does
not exceed 13 mm when the asphalt surfacing is to consist of two course
work, or 10 mm when the asphalt is to be a single (wearing) course."
a The surface on which the material is to be laid should be free from
standing water, loose materials and foreign matter.
Provision should be made for draining by off+akes at rhe level
a
bottom of the new material.
of the
-"-trJ$
Chapter B
a Iock (oats
A30o/o or 40%o biturncn emulsion is normally used, and may be anionic
or cationic. (See e*"1>lanati<tns irt. itent. 7.6.7 in preuiotts cbapter.)
'Where the old surlace is very sn-rooth ol polished. or has been heat-
planed ar-rd tl-re resulting surface is not sufficiently ror'rgl-r
deficient in binder. the engineer may dccide that it is necessary to
use a tack coat to promote adhesion between the oid and new
material. Unless a w.c. is laid on a new base course, a tack coat will
normally be required uncler a fine textr.trecl wearing course. Tack
coat is nornally sprayed at a r2Lte of 0.4 - 0.6 litte/m', and may be
covered lightly with 6 rnm chippings ol fine cold aspl.ralt to avoid
being picked up by tony wheels or the workmen's boots (couerage
ccm be checkecl etLsily b\t spraying tbe xtr-face usittg rtfull clnr'm and
meantring tbe area couererl).
'Pooling' of ernulsion should be avoided, and tl-re spray shoulcl be
fal enough aheacl of the work to allcxv the emulsion to break. A
mention has bcen rnaclq of anionic and catir>nic emulsions as these
are wirlely rrserl, lrrii tht:y tuill txot ntix,If. is essential that the sprayer
be cleanecl by spraying, say 20 litles c>f gas oil through the machine
ltefote clr:rrrgirrg, {rum or-ie ttt the other.
r Tranrporling Flexible Rood ltllateriols
- Bituminous materizrls rnust be transported in clcan vehicles and shall
be coveled over when in trzrnsit or awaiting tipping. Ihe use of
d.ust, coated cltrst, oil or u)ater on tbe interior of tbe aebicles
to facilltate discbarge of tlte mixed materials is permissible
brtt tbe arnoutt sball be kept to a tninintunt, ancl ctny excess
sbaA be retnoaeel by tipping or btushing.
- The rnixcd rnaterial shall be supplicd continuously to the paver and
laid without clelay. The rate of delivery of material to the paver shall
be so regulated as to enablc the paver to be operated continuously.
wherever practicable, material shall be spread, levelled and tarnped
by approved self-propellecl pavers.
8.4 U.K. DTPARTMTNT OI TRANSPORT SPECITICATION FOR I.AYING OF
BITUMINOUS MATTRIATS
It is also necessary to bear in mincl the U.K. Depafiment of Transport
specification in relation to the laying of thc bitr-rminous materiai. An extract of
its Clause 705 reads as follows:
F$6: Raina's I-ield Manual tor Highway and Bridge Engineers '
PAVEMENT CONSIRUCT/ON
1. The rate of travel of the paver and its methocl of operation shall be adiusted
to ensure an even and qnifbrm flow of rnaterial across the full laying width,
fieedorn fio.n clragging or tearing of the material and minimum segr.egation.
2. Materials shall be compacted as soon as rolling can take place without
ol is causing unduc displacenrenr and while this has rt least thc minimunr r.olling
temperaturc stzrted in tl.re appropriate British standard. It shall be uniformly
compacted by an B to 10 tonne smooth steel-wl"reeled roller having a width
of roll not less than 500 rnm or by a multi-wheeled rolier having a width of
roll not less than 500 rnm or by a rnulti-wheeled pneumatic tyred toller of
equivalent weight except that wearing cource and base course material
shall be surface finisl'red witl-r a srnootl-r wheel roller.
3. I'he material shall be rolled in a longitudinal clirectiou from the sicles tcr
the centre of tl"re carriageway, overlapping on s.ccessive passes by at
least half the width of the roll or i' the case of a pner.rmatic ryred
'ear of one tyre.
roller, at least the n<;rninal width
4. Ilollers sl-rall not stzlncl on ncwly laid material while tl-rere is a r.isk that it
v.ill be deformecl thercby.
5. I)avers shottlrl not be usecl :rcliacent to expansion joints on bridgcs a.cl
viaducts to avoicl foLrling of the ioints with the mater.ial.
5. w'hen wearing cor-lrse matL'r'ial leicl by a pave'is to have coated chippi'gs
applied t() the surf'ace, ttreir application shall, whcrever practicable, be by
means of a mechanical chipping spleacler capable of operating with even
distribution. Aclclition of chippings by l.rand operation shall be limitecl to
the fcrllowing circumstar.ces:
(a) to confinecl space.s where it is impracticable for a cliipping spreader
to operate;
(b) as a temporary expedient when adjustrnents have to be rnacre to the
distribution mechanism;
(c) wherc l-rancl laying of the wearing course is in progress;
(d) to corect unevenness in the distribution of chippings.
7. All chippings slrall be lpplied.nilormly to rhe srrrlacc and be rolled inro
the wearing course in such a manner that they are effectively held and
wili provide any specified textured depth.
B. Hand-raking of wearing course material which has been laid by a pavet
and the additio' of such material by ha'd-sp'eadi'g to the paved area fo,
adiustment of level will be permitted only in the folbwing circumstances,
i --.1 .': Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers '177
h...
 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Chapter a

(a) at the edges of the layers of material, and at gullies and manholes;
a tuilher Notes for Guidonte when loying Mocodoms
(b) at the approaches to expansion ioints at bridges or viaducts;
(a) Dense material should be machine laid and. must be compacted
quickly before the material cools.
(c) where otherwise directed by the Engineer.
(b) Cold asphalts are laid warm. They will tend to creep under braking
9. Handlaid work shall conform to all specification requirements of the or turning traffic. A tack coat should always be used unless the base
Clause except those relating to the manner of operating pavers. is very rough. The coat must not be laid mote than 25 mm thick
10. \7here joints between laying widths or transverse ioints have to be made with 12 mm precoated chippings rolled in.
in wearing courses, the material shall be fully compacted and the joint (c) Dense bitumen macadam roadbase material is used up to 200 mm
made flush in one or other of the following ways, method (c) always thick. It is laid hot and sets rapidly into a dense concrete-like layer.
being used for transverse joints: Joint cutting is most important.
(a) By heating the joint with an approved joint heater at the time when (d) In generai, ioints (transverse and longitudinal) should be cut back
the additional width is being laid but without cutting back or to a vertical face and tack coated before any new material is laid
coating with binder. The heater shall raise the temperature of the against the old.
full deprh of the wearing course to a figure within the rolling (e) The sicles of gully and manhole frames should be tack coated as
temperature range specified for the material and for a width not less
should the face of the kerb up to the channel level prior to laying
than 75 fiun on each side of the joint. In this case, however, the
macadam.
Contractor shall have available for use in.the event of a breakdown,
equipment necessary for operating method (c). (f) Laying thicknesses and rates of speed are given in the applicable
(b) opecifieations/standards.
By using two or more pavers operating in echelon where this is
practicable and close enough for adiacent widths to be ftrlly
compacted by continuous rolling; or by using a multiple-lane-width 8.5 ST WHTN TAYING ROAD IVIATER
paver.
(c) modine
By cutting back the exposed ioints to a verttcal face of not less than
the specified thickness, discarding all loosened material, and coating Before starting, make sure that the screed is clean.
the vertical face completely with a gtade of hot tar or hot bitumen 2. Check the tamper.
suitable for the purpose before the next width is laid.
3. Heat the screed plate.
11. All joints shall be offset at least 300 mm from parallel ioints in the layer
beneath. 4. Do not allow sheets to be removed before time..

12. For the resurfacing of existing roads, the Engineer may direct the
application of a tack coat.
13. Base course material shall be covered by the wearing course or surface
treatment (whichever is specified in the contract) within thiee days after
being laid. The Engineer may extend this period if weather conditions or
any other reasons, such as awaiting the results of tests, make this
impracticable.
5. Have at least fwo loads on the fob before you start.
6. Keep a steady feed on the screed. Ensure steady lorry contact to avoid
lifting the screed unit. The lorry should be stationary and allow the paver
to come up behind it. Do not reverse the lorry directly on to paver rollers.
7. The material at the side of the hopper should be shovelled in towards the
centre to prevent'it from becoming cold.
8. rVhen laying is interrupted, empry ihe rnachine; roll off; cut the ioint.

9. Leave narrow strips at the side a little high to allow for compaction.

R inrt rle H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers *.*@

Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana AriaOb enOireer" ffi f ---
 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

' 70. r-eave the m tenal,il'igbtly,high at the.joints and pinch ir with the roller as
soon as possible.
8.6 DtLMnY ffECKS Al'lD C01{TR0[S
11.. r$fork strictly within the prescribed temperature ranges when laying and
rolling.

Spreoding by Hond
1. Tip the load in no more tbaTt twoheaps on a clean hard surface, and turn
it over at least oncg before laying.
2. Protect the heap with'.aqpaulin sheers.
3. Use heated tools, especially with hot laid materials.
4. Follow up closely with the roller.
5. Vatch for segregarion, and comecr it witfr fines/eVeC.
6. Lay one load completely, if pogsible, before the next load is tipped.
7. Adjust the leVel of manhole covers:and frames, gully frames, etc., after the
9. , Rbgistration number of delivery yehicle(s), . ' >
base course, and before laying the wearing course. - _ I
-,
j

. 10 Delivery note number,

Rolling 11. Remarks.' (This, should ittlfra" any other releVaht information -*,ni
1. Roll with a suitable roller without delay. extrerire wehiher conditrions, sample thken, plant breakdowt, ._dfc.) ^,
2. Use the largest i5li nearesr' ;o rhe ,nr"hin" (e.g., rear rollers of The,Elgincier fnal debide tnat att tnis-iiif".;1ryfi6" ir
three- ""i*a"-i.La1r",
wheeled smooth roller). certdin:materials.

.-ffior|from the lower edge.

the joint first.
Roll straight and steady
6. Stagger the reversing points by 1 m or so.
7. on some materials, urffiI6iiJuehiird the machine followed by
a 10 tonner. Always use two rollers.if the area is over 40-00 mr,
8. Make a minimum of six passes (half a roll overlap) and leaye no marks.
Dp qot co.tnmence.toa eafly, especially with very,hot materials. Keep off
when compaction is achiev.ed,
9. Do not allow traffic.onto nevly laid material unril it has cooled sufficiently
to withstand the traffic without deformation.

Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Aridge En1ineers I naina's rieu Manuat tar Highway and Btidge Engineers
f
 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCI'ON

8.8 OUAIITY CONTROI. IN ROAD COI{STRUCTIOI{

o c
3 eE 'o
n
o
co I !
F
8.8.t a Quality control and specifications in road construction must cover
! o o
o co x o
!
p workmanship and materials. The two most important means of specilying
o c ! ! P 6 .E
6:€ c E .x o .E F o
q o
a finished product are: (1) by method, and (2) by end result. The more
.g
!
P E= I o E
o
c .x .E o
f
=
3s d uc E o = .I c .E .g reliable is the latter, but there are circumstances where this cannot be
.g
EE
ts9
ts
o o o
,! c o
E c
!
o
c
o a
e
q o ' E
a applied and a method specification must be used. An example is in the
6E EE so I
I o F 'o .E o E
F o s-l c
l J o
production of concrete. It is usual to require an end product.(a
J !
F
o
FH
qc
o
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o
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c
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(
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p E
strength for the concrete, that the designer can rely on in his design).
set

I
o I U f, E F ! &
o. '6
= = = = Vhile it is possible to test the end product by cutting and testing cores, it
6urdues ,{llneJ
(t,
wlaodo lwtd Ptnoill
is more usual to control the production by method (gauging the
cement, and controlling the amount of water added, and the
x a sulq u! uop€IBqs lsru Fuorseoco TD
^ggreg"tes,
mixing time). Check testing is carried out during production with such
.a
E
pasruoqctdg 1ou peq ale6a66v puelFqdsv O o
=
F
t
E eFO duno I$eJ (n tests as slump tests, and cubes are cast with the finished product, which
o
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!
l
salppEd uoa s l6s,{lodqdul c) to are crushed after curing to ensure compliance as a check. However,
o
z e
,odord pu eul 6umf{ dl control of production is largely by method.
a q
q9leq aasa^oJo aasapun GI dl dt
ut paulsnhe Jo tnoJelon ll€qdsv o o Quality contrql rests with the Resident Engineer and his staff (particularly
6
z
i,l
6
luoulanhclo lno 3qas iluqdsv ul a qualilietl Materials Engineer), and conrrol tesilng ls cenffed on a Slre
lrJ ote6a66e ileqdse p uorFqulsp Laboratory. The Site Laboratory must be equipped to deal with all testing
c'6
o lpqdsB qonu @l ^Wel
in an expeditious manner to avoid delays to the progress of the work and
tr ! lpqdse l$pUlnsl claims by the Contractor. On such projecs, because of time constraints, it
lu
o o
o
aguanbs 6u!q6FM Jad0dul
is not possible for sar4ples to be sent away for testing elsewhere except
* .9
sulqpq ur solebar66e lu€!.|!nsul
ujolun pu lollu lBaru lo pasl ([
in the special case of non-standard, non-urgent tests, if any such tests are
=
IL o 6uq0pa redudul dl dT (D
required. The personnel appointed to carry out the field and laboratory
o F Uo sq@s ap6or66v (n ql (n testing will generally be qualified and experienced specialist technicians
o
lrJ
o^
o
luaulsnhB ro
suoarJs burp€ole^o ol flp sutq ul ja^ofueC and engineers; and the site laboratory should be equipped to perform all
at, surq ul oF6a66slo uoleoaOsS but the very speciaiised tests, which are required very occasionally.
:f =
slq,$teal (n
.x dl
C) E. duruolpunl 1ou uopano urg (D 8.8.2 Sampling of poving mixes
IIJ
J e= uoDsJado ussJcs @
dl E,O
!f saus lno
^)lnej
mM trl
c.. . Visual Cltecklng and Daily Repor.ting: It is importani tb visually check
o
@
dfi q0q ool enFJaduel aleoaJmV
the mix as it is being discharged from the plant into the truck and as it is
6c leaving the plant on the way to the paving site. Whether the temperature
o ,i Uaul$Ipslo lro JolFtpur dual
o- OA uql@edo rafuo radodul of a load of mii is within the proper range can be very quickly and
\
€ ;{ d?aF ool las Ja/QO conveniently gauged by visual inspection. U tbe ntx temperature is
Eo
o9 too hlgh. bhte smoke rlsing frorn tbe trucktoad of the mix ls an
o5 Atrd€€Irp palaJso
s3 ps fuad&d lfl sle6 p3q qe6o.6fu lndlcator. tbe mlx sbous a
uole€des ralunq slenbapeul slttggislt appearance as lt ls deposlted in tbe tntck; non-unifonn
lomool sl?0a66v distributlon of bl.tumen and a.n abnormally lttgb peak in a
truckload are ofien the indicators of undcr-lteating. I$ houteoer,
ffi-*-- Raina's Field Manuat fot Highway and Bridge Engineers
Q S Ratnat rie ld Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers

: ' , r i;Cfr"aa';.q.ii-:.:t1:ii!r::i:'.:'!r :::i-:1r r;til'n:-.: I

Chapter I PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

tlte mlx shtmps ,Dlttrout a protrier pea.k in tlce truck, it may be PLANT INSPECTOR'S DAILY REPORT
lndlcatiae of excessiue bitumen or excessiae' moisture. Eaen Name of
tltouglt oisual inspection is extremeljt lrelpfut, it ls necess.rry to Material Mixed By_ At lah

measttre trre teflpera.ture of tlte rnix in tbe trttck, using a d.iat and. Consigned To_ At _Road Project_
artnoured stetn tbertnometer, a.t lcast 5OO ,nnl lang. Type of Plant_ Mix Time Per Batch

It is also necesQatry tbat the plalrt operator giues a da.ttlt reporl A

MATERIALS
BITUMEN Grade Source Truck No. Date Received Amount
fortnat sugge, sted b1t tbe Asphah Institute of IISA is sbousn in Table &5. AGGREGATE Type Source 63mm 50mm 37.5mm 25mm 0.075mm
Coarse
(-. Fine
Filler
Combined
Gradation
Job Mix Formula
ANALYSIS OF HOT BIN AGGREGATES
BIN No. 63mm 50mm 37.5mm 25mm 'l9mm l2.5mm g.smm 4.75mm 2.36mm 0.075mm
1

4
Mineral Filler
Sand Equivalent

BATCH WEIGHTS
MIX TYPE BIN 1 BIN 2 BIN3 BIN4 FILLER BITUN4EN TOTAL
% of Total Mix Weight (kg) 100

ANALYSIS OF MIX
SAMPLE HOUR TEMP.c 63mm 50mm 37.5mm 25mm 19mm 12.5mm 0.075mm
Average for day
Job Mix Formula
TEMPERATURES OF MIX
TIME 8AM 9.30AM 11.20AM 6PM
"c
CHARACTERISTICS OF MIX
SAMPLE TIME or THEORETICAL SPECIMEN %THEORETICAL STABILIry FLOW
LOCATION LOAO ruo. DENSITY DENSITY DENSITY
From Truck
WEATHER AM-PM TEMPEMTURE AM-'C PM-"C
FROM_ PRODUCTTON ryPE OF MtX
TO_ TONS PREVTOUS
TONS TODAY
TONS TOTAL
SAMPI.E No. _ REPRESENTS TONS OF , FOR DATES
SAMPLE No. _ REPRESENTS _ TONS OF _ FOR DATES _
SIGNED

(PIANT INSPECTOR)
Table 8.5 -
Plant lnspector's Daily Reporting Format (Source: Asphalt lnstitute MS4)

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Brid7e Engineers riud

ffi ] R"in"'s Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 I PAVEMENT CONSIRUCI'ON
Chapter

and, aggregates: For specifications

8.8.3 Tests for llloteriuls; Stondcrds ond Atteptonce (riteriu - Testsfor ra.te of sfuread of blnder
d.)
i^.rri"g uindei to be sprayed and aggregates to be spread, the rate of
Standards to be met by all materials after processing are defined in the to required to be checked' At least one test per 500 sq m of
spread ii
specifications. The minimum frequency of testing varies with the type of of work dong is a good norm.
area
material and is given in specifications (for the contract). The rypes of testing
required are listed and comnented on below (a'lso see Cbapter 25 abead) e) Tests on rntxes: The following tests are conducted on premixed material:
a) Tesis for aggregates: The following tests are carried out for aggregates . 1. Aggregate grading, individual sizes before mixing and combined
used in bituminous construction: before placing in mix and after extraction,
^ggreg^te
1. Deleterious material and cleanliness, 2. Stabiliry, flow value and density - void analysis,
3. Hardness number (mastic asphalt),
2. Plasticity Index on material passing a 0.425 mm sieve, \ffater sensitivity,
4.
3. Aggregate Impact Value/Los Angeles Abrasion Value, 5. Binder content,
4. Specific gravity and bulk density, ti
6. Densiry of comPacted laYer,
5. Flakiness Index and Elongation Index, .lt
7. Thickness of comPacted laYer.
6. Stripping Value of Aggregates, 'i- The frequency of tests is indicated in the applicable specifications.
Non-destr,act&te and Destr:uctioq Test Metbod's for Paaement
7. Water absorption, f)
l
B. Gradation, .l

i ."" bL checked by lNon-destructive' and 'Destructive' methods for

9. Potished Stone Value, . meetlng the specifiecl detrsity.

10. Durability, i
I
o Non-destructive Method
I

11. Percentage of fractured faces (gravel). Afterthefinalrollinghasbeencarriedout,aNuclearDensicyGauge

:i
isplacedonthematanddensityofcompactedlayerisdetermined
b) Testsfor binder: For 'paving bitumen', the criteria for conformity as per immediately, while the mat is still hot This method has the
i1
I

IS:73 requires 3 essential tests to be carried out, viz., softening point, . advantagethattheContractorimmediatelygetstoknowwhether
penetration and ductilitY. :. the speclfied density has been achieved of not. In case the specified
For 'cutback bitumen', the criteria for conforrnity as per IS:277 requires 3
;! ' density has not beien achieved, h€ still has''the'time to carry out
furthei rolling, since the mix is 'still hot enough; to-attain the
.i

essential tests to be carried out, viz., kinematic viscosity, flash point and
specified densiry.
ductility.
For. 'bituminous emulsions' as per IS:8887, the various tests to be r Destructlve Method
conduited :ire listed in Table 1 of the standard In this method, a core is cut out from the completed mat after the
for temperature of binder. hot aggregates and mlixes: mathascooleddown,generallythenextday'Aseriesofteslsis
c) Tests The
conducted on the extracted core, including its density, stability,
temperature of binder at the time of spraying and premixing is checked
flow, percent air voids and the percent voids filled by bitumen, etc'
frequently at close intervals.
This method suffers from the serious disadvantage that in case the
The tests for temperature of hot aggregates and the mix at the mixer and specified density has not been achieved, it is too late to carry out
at the time of laying and rolling are also carried out at regular intervals. any further rolling, since the mat is too cold to be subjected to
further rolling.
Raina's Field Manua! for Highway and 8nd9" Engin"ers E a"in"'" rietd Manuat for HQhway and Bidga Engineers
I
 :i
Chapter B
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

8.8.4 Suolity Conlrol of Finished Puvemenl Table 8.6 Tolerances in Surface Levels
a) Besides the various controls on the qualiry of bituminous binder, 1. Subgra{e - +20 mm
aggteg tes and bituminous mixtures as ilready describecl, appropriate
-25 mm
controls have to be exercised just.after the construction is complete, on
the finished pavement. The various field controls on the finished 2. Sub-base
pavement are: a. Flexible pavement +10 mm I -20 mm

r .Surface Texture, b. Concrete pavement +6 mm / -10 mm

(Dry Lean Concrete or Rolled Concrete)
r Surface Tolerance,
o Com.pacted Layer Thickness, 3. Base course for flexible pavement

o lompacted Densiry, which may be derermined by one of rhe a. Bituminous course +6mm/-6mm
following methods: b. Other than bituminous
o Per cent of Laboratory Density, (i). Machine laid +10 mm / -10 mm
r Per cent of Maximum Theoretical Density;
(ii). Manually laid +15 mm / -15 mm
r Test Section (Control Strip) Density. ,
4. Wearing course for flexible pavement
b) A sr-ritable core cutting machine capable of coring 10 cm diameter cores
a. Machine laid +6mm/-6mm
is commonly uecd'for dctcrmining the i,-situ 'clerrsity of a compacted
bituminous layer; .but, in many circumstances, 15 cm diameter b. Manually laid +10 mm / -10 mm
.or", ,r.
more appropriate as they give a more accurate measure of density and 5. Cement concrete pavement +5 mm
are more suitable for additionai tests on the asJaid material when this is -6 mm"
required. As a measure of expediency, the use of nuclear density gouges
is also popular, the testing procedures being both non-destructiie arrd 'This may not exceed -8 mm at 0-30 cm from the edges.
fast. An important element of cutting cores is to verify the adhesion
between layers. Table 8.7 Maximum Permltted Number of Surface Irregularities
c) The data on <lensiry, thickness and airvoids, etc., obtained lrom field tests Surfaces of carriageways
Surfaces of lay-bys,
should be statisticalfy analysed to ensure that the various requirements of service areas and all
lrregularity and paved shoulders
bituminous base courseg
the-job mix,form'la are indeed satisfied..Various requirements for the
surface finish of different types of bituminous layers ai set out in Tables 4mm 7mm, 4mm 7mm
8,6 and 8.7 musr be satisfied.
Length (m) 300 75 300 75 300 75 300 75

National Highways/Expressways* 20 I 2 1 40 18 4 2

Roads of lower category" 40 18 4 2 60 27 6 3

*Category of each section of road as described in the contract.

Raina's Field Manual fot Highway ana BridOe Engineers

!'&.es*#S'bi.r;'.
I S n"r"t Fietd Manuat lor Highway and Bridge Engineers -:---- -ffi
 9.O PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE

9.t InA[{IlllAilcE AolvlTlts AilD 9.7.5 llungry or leon Surfoce

OPERATIONS 9.7.6 (rocks, ilreir Redificolion qnd Prevenlion

9.2 ASSTSSilGlltAlllTtilAll(t ]{ttDS 9.8 SURTAG DEFORTIATIONS AIID IHTIR

9.3 RIDING OUAI.ITY RTCTIIICATION

9.4 SK|D RTSTSTANCI mtASURIlffilTS 9.8.1 Generol

9.5 SIRUCIURATTVALUAIIOII 9.8.2 SlippogeDeformolion

9.6 txlsilllcf,AvEfllilll (RUST AilD 9.8.3 Rutling

SUBGRADT CHARAOTRISII(S

9.7 SURTACE DtTTfiS AND IHTIR . 9.8.4 (orrugolions (Wovesl

9.8.5 Shoving (Plosfic Movemeil Bulge)

RICTITICAIIOlI
9.8.6 ShollowDepressions
9.7.1 Generol
9.8.7 Sefilemenl ond Upheovol (l-orge
9.7.2 fotly Surfoce Deformolions)
9.7.3 Smooft Surfqce
9.8.8 Disinlegrotion (trogmenlolionl
9./.4 Slreoking

6'iJ :
f auin"'" ri"H Manuat fot Highway.and Bridge Engineers
 r:t
l-it
+i
ji
Chapter g i{:;..{iii;4;t:,3i-al;If,iqAVEMENTMAINTENANAE
si
{
ond its Rectificotion
:

9.O PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE

o) Slripping (Peoling of Eitumen
Cooling from Aggregctes)
rri

:i
9.I IIIAINTTI{AI{G ACTIVITITS AND OPERATIONS
b) los of Aggregote ,tl Malntenance a,ctioities- are diutded under tbe foltouting beads:
cl Rovelling{surfcceDisintegrotion)
!
ii (a) Ordinary Repairs: These include routine maintenance such as crack
sealing, filling of potholes, depressions and ruts in a biruminous surfacing,
d) Pofioles :li

,i
repairingof shoulders, etc., among a large number ol other routine
el Edge Foilure maintenance items of work.
ii
9.9 SPICIAI.IST RIPAIRS ii (b) Periodic Renewals: These include provision of renewal coat to the
9.t0 POSSIBTE DTffCTS IN HOT TAID FI.TXIEIE t: wearing surface at a predetermined frequency, with a view to
PAVEIJIINTS ((ouses ond Defects)
I
safeguarding the pavement crust and also improving the riding qualiry.
-i These renewals are envisaged to be calried or-rt with mechanised
equipment and in a continuous stretch of at least 5 to 10 kms.
(c) Special Repairs: These include works of original nature such as minor
:
improvement to curves, visibility, repairs over culvefts, bridges, etc.
i
(d) Emereencv Reoafuss These include imnrecliate lepairs to roads affectecl
by heary rains/ floods, cyclones, land-slides etc., needed to restore traffic.
Malntenance apergtriontcan be cla.ssffied. lnto tltrce groups:
l. Routine Maintenance. which is the day-to-day rype of wolk tlrat is
necessary to preserve and keep a pavement as close to 'as constructed'
condition as possible. It embraces activities such as pothole patching,
sealing of cracks, etc.
2. Perlodlc Maintenance (also termed'Preventive' Maintenance), which
ii the work carried out periodically every few years to prevent
deterioration of a pavement. It covers work such as applying a seal or a
thin resurfacing course.
3. Behabilitatiolarrd Strensthenine. which are substantiallv maior works
intended to restore or upgrade the pavement. The work covers thick
overlays (above, say, 25 mm).

,l
9.2 ASSESSI{GI[AtNTEl{At{CtNttDS
Pavement maintenance needs are assessed every year as part of planning for
maintenance. The assessment is made on the basis of condition surveys,
which can take various forms, such as:

Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge engineers I R"in"sr,"HManuatforHighwayandBridgeEngineers ------'. --*--ffi
ffi
Chapter I
PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE

. Visual Rating,
KILOMETRE.WISE ASSESSMENT OF MAINTENA]\ICE I\EEDS OF A
. RougrtnessMea.surements, BIXIUMINOUS PAVEMENT
o Benkehnan tsearn Deflcction Measurements, or prqferabtjt Fatltng
Wetgbt Deflectometer (FWD) Measurements, Table 0.L Format for Kilometre-wise Assessment of Maintenance Needs
c Skid Resista.nce Mea.surements. Action to be taken KM.1 KM.2 KM-3

Visual Rating is a simple method of inspecting the pavement surface for 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 o.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
detecting and assessing the type and severity of the damage. Manifestation of Carriageway
distress of damage occurs in the form of:
r Crack Sealing
1. Rutling" r Crack Filling
2. Corruga.tions, r Filling Potholes
3. Raaelling, o Patching

4. Flusblng, o Filling of Ruts

5. Potbolcs, r Renewal Needed

2. Shoulders & Side Slopes
6. Extension of repairs (patcbing) already canied out,
o Profile Correction
7, I?ansaerse cracking"
r Filling Potholes
8. longltrtdlnal cracklng o Filling Raincuts
9. Allf.gatorcracki.ng . Regravelling/Resurfacing
1O. Edgefailure. . Vegetation Control/
Cutiing Grass, etc.
In most instances, road inspections address all aspects of road condition,
including the condition of shoulders, rcad drainage road furnifure, as well as 3. Side Drains
the condition ol the pavement. The items listed above are only those 4. Cross Drainage Works
pertaining directly to the condition of the road pavement. 5. Roadside Furniture
Although there are various methods of visual rating adopted by different 6. Encroachments
agencies the world oveq an essential requirement is to assess the various
maintenance needs kilametre-wise all along the length of each road, as I
Proiier assessment of pavement distl€ss and correct cliagnosis of its causes are
suggested in Table 9.1.
important steps towards the adoption of appropriate correction measures.
Pavement distress very often leads to rapid progressive deterioration of the
pavement. The bouncing and sway of the vehicles due ro ruts, depressions,
etc., cause damage to vehicles, and lead to added fuel consumption. They
also increase fatigue of the drivers, which is a contributing factor for the
occurrence of accidents.

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Briage Engineers

ffi f, n"ir"'" ri"n Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers --.--ffi
Chapter I PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE

9.3 RIDIilG QUAIITY

Table 9.2 Recomrnended Roughness Values for Roads in mm/km
Surface Type Good Average Poor Very Poor
A newly constructed road gives a smooth ride. As the pavement is subjected
to traffic, darnage occurs which is reflectecl in the delormation of the Bituminous Concrete/
pavement and, consequentry, the riding qualiry of the road deteriorates. SDBC 2000-2500 2500-3500 3500-5400 Over 4000
Therefore, the quality of the ride, as measured by roacl roughness, Premix Bituminous
is a
measure of the road's deterioration with time. Riding quality-also CarpeVMSS 2500-4500 4500-5500 5500-6500 Over 6500
affects
vehicle-operating costs. The levels of roughness which are Surface Dressing 4000-5000 5000-6500 6500-7500
taken to indicate Over 7500
the need for maintenance^ interventio.tr u"ry a gteat dear ancl
are particularly I
influenced by the form of construction.
The riding qualiry may conveniently be measured by a towed ,,br-rmp
integratorll (Figure 9.1) A similar device can be attached io the rear
axle of a
suitable vehicle. In order to give reliabre. results, however, this NKrcE
rype of
equipment must be carefully calibrated and must be operated rl{t&uw
at uniftr,rl a
speecl as possibie. "s *e!EWlmWFq
For calibration, instruments such as Dipstick or MERLIN or simple
rocl and
level are generally employed. profilographs and laser'-based high-technology
eqrripment are also used internationally.
The Bump Integrafor meastires the roughness in tcrms of m'r of burrrp
depths/km travelled. Economic Analysis models, like HDM (Highway
Design
Model) of the World Bank, use another index known as the IRI (international
Roughness Index). standard equations are avairable for conver.ting
the bump
integrator values to IRI.
A good road may have a roughness of perhaps as little as 1,500 mm/km, Figure 9.1 Diagram Sketch of the Bump Integrator
whereas it can be as high as 10,000 mm,/km on a very bad road,
or even tnore;
although at roughness over about 10,000 mm,/km, it is usually impractical
maintain the uniform speed necessary for accurate measurement.
to
9.4 SKIDRTSISTANCTTiIIEASUREIIIINTS
Pavement Sewiceability Index (pst) is one of the well_known Bituminous pavements tend to become smooth as.traffic polishes the stone
rating methods,
which takes into consideration surface characteristics such as the aggregates. Very smooth surfaces are skid-prone when wet. Therefore, it is
lJngitudinal
profile, rur depth, area of cracking and patched area. important to periodically measure the skid resistance of roads to be
forewarned of the need to intervene and make the surfaces 'skid-resistant,.
The riding quality of a pavement, measured by a bump integrator,
quantifies
into physical terms the overall surface condition of a parrerient. it is thus Skid resistance is measured by the co-efficient of friction between the tyre and
a
very useful tool in the hancls of a maintenance engineer. The roughness the road interface. A number of standard t6st procedures are avaiiable. The
values (in mm/km) recommended for roads with different types
of ,r.fr.",
measurement of the sideways force co-efficient by equipment known as
are indicated in Table 9.2. Itis good practice to take roughness SCRIM (Sideway Force Co-efficient Routine Investigation Machine) consists of a
measurements
on the entire network of bituminised roads in the country, twice a year. standard four-wheeled vehicle carryinga fifth wheel set at an angle of 20 degrees
to the direction of travel and can be lifted clear of the road when not in use.
A water tank is car.ried by the chassis. Speeds in the range of 15 to
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and andge Enoineers ffi Rainas rieH Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
ffi
Chapter 9
100 km,/hour can be adopted. A common speed of measurement is 50 km,/hour.
The machine measures the sideways friction co-efficient (SFC), which is
expressed as:
SFC = Sideways Force (at right angles to the plane of inclined wheel)
Vertical Reaction belween ryre and road surface
About 50 to 70 kms of road section can be tested in a day.
The method most readily available to a highway engineer is the British
Portable Tester Method. The standard method adopted for testing the
polishing characteristics is to embed the aggregates in a curved mould in
cement-sand mortar and subiect the sample to accelerated polishing caused
by a rotating pneumatic wheel. The specimens are mounted on a circular
frame of 400 mm diameter. The size of each specimen is 45 mm wide x 90.5
mm long. The rubber wheel is 20 cm in diameter and 5 cm broad, loaded with
a 40 kg load at a fyre pressure of 3.L5 +/- 0.I5 kg/cm,. Sand and water are
fed to the machine when it is rotared ar an r.p.m. of 320 to 325 for 3 hours 15
minutes. The specimens are thereafter tested for their polishing value on a
British Portable Tester. This machine consisrs of a rubber sliding shoe, which
is mounted at the end of a pendulum. The slider, when released, br.ushes past
the specimen and comes to a halt. Thc spccimcn dircctly mcasurcs the
Polished Stone Value (PSV) on a graduated scale.
Requirements ol skid resistonce
The minimum desirable reqtrirements of skid resistance in terms of a Skid
Number (SN) given in ASTM 274 for thlee levels of maintenance are:
Table 9.3
kvel of Maintenance Ievel Mlnimum
Malntenance Deslrable Skid
Number (SN)
Level
L 'iThich provides for the highest level
of comfon, convenience and safety.
Level 2 To which the road deteriorates from
Level 1 after two to three years of use
before fresh maintenance is implemented.
Level 3 The minimum level necessary to protect
the investment and provide responsible
levels of safety.
Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway ana ariage Engineers
9.5 STRUCTURAT EVAI.UATION
Some indication of the structural condition of a pavement may conveniently
be gained by measuling the deflection of the road surface under transient
loading. The Benkehnctn Bearn (Figure 9.2) method is convenient ancl
simple, while the Lacroi.x Deflectograpb and Fa'lling Weigltt
Deflectometer @VfD) are more sophisticated pieces of equipment which,
- with careful interpretation of data, can give better information.
There are a number of means of assessing pavement deflection characteristics,
of which one of the best known is the Benkelman Beam. also known as the
Deflection Beam. Benkelman Beam deflection measurements may be
interpreted to give an evaluation of the strLrctural performance of a pavement.
of
The rebound deflection gives an indication of the elastic property a
pavement. In newly constnrcted pavements, deflections sl-rould be fully elastic
and recoverable. On the other hand, old and deteriorated pavements may
exhibit greater non-recoverable deflection.
BenLelman Bea.m measurements are not easy to interpret and tlJe
interlrretation ma! aary widell,,from road to road' and. euen u)lthin a
single lengtlt of road, uitlt sucbfactors as stiffness of paaement layers
utd thelr Lltickness, us well us tbeir slates of d.eterioratiott. Sonre
autboritles consider tha.t tbe best use of tbe Benkebnan kam is to
tneotsure tbe deflections of pa.aements repeatedljt, at interoals of time,
anQ by cornpa.Nng successlae tneasuretnents, to ldentw tbe state of
d.eterioration of tbe road
Benkelman Beam mea,surernents are aho used as a nlear$ of designing tbe
tbickness of ouerlays, altbougb tbe method is, at best, imprecise.
An alternative and more accurate method for assessing residual life of the
pavement, and also for overlay design, is by way of a Falling Weigltt
Deflectometer @VfD) This is a quick and relatively accurate test but
requiies some capital investment in small trailer-sized equipment. The trailer
.is attached to a 4wD vehicle, and results are tecorded directly on to a
50
computer disc for analysis later.
40
35
fi f Raina's rie H Manual tor Highway and Bridge Engineers
 Chaptet g
PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE

25{ m
9.7 SURFACE DEFECTS AND THEIR RTCilTrcATIOII
REFDRENCE BEAM
9.7.1 Generol
PROB! BSAM
,.
Pavements under continued traffic tend to iose their anti-skid properties as the
texture wears out and the stone aggregates get polished. The skid resistance
--._.{\__;l
-----JF+
of a surface may also be reduced by bleeding or ',fatting up,' of the road
CONTACT POINT
surface with oozed excess bitumen. Many countries carry out skid-resistance
PIVOT
measurements as part of their maintenance needs assessment. Those
2..1 1 m t22m pavement sections. which have lost.their anti-skid properties. may be treated
with a fresh surface treatment.

9.7.2. fotty Surface

1.66 n
o Sgmptoms
Figure 9.2 BenkelrnanBeam A fatry surface occurs when the biruminous binder moves upward in the
9.6 txlsllNc pAvtilff{T cRUsT Al,tD SUBGRADE cHARACIERtsItcs sr,rrfacing layer and collecb as a film on the surface. 'l'he binder so
collected becomes generally soft and slippery in hot weather and may be
For assessing rehabiritation requiremenb picked up and spread by the traffic. In cold or wet weather, the surface
in existing pavement, it is necessary
to cletefmine the existing pavement crust
thickner"
is likely to be slippery and this can cause accidents. 'Ihis surface brtumen
composition, will always be mixed with a proportion of mineral fines.
subgrade chara<leristics a.rd si'e,rgth. "rri 0.6 m x 1.0 m
Tcst pits arc dug, about
in surface area and taken right to-the depth
of subgra"de. il;;;"" pits are -or '"".r, This is not uncomrhon on 'surface dressed' roads and, apart from the skid
preferably located under the wheer path.
constituting the pavement crllst
m. t"ni"u.,"uu tny", resistance problem, may not be of any great consequence to the road
is
notecl, arrd ,ep.esent"ti.,r. ,"_pt., stlucture. However, if this should occur on an'asphalt surface', it.can
collected. A number olffiekt ttaboratory
are cinducted" depending have serious consequences. On an asphaltic concrete surface, flushing or
upon specific requirements o1 a roid -tests
project, tnofe .o**oo arnong bleeding indicates that the air voids have reduced to a poinf where plastic
tbem being: deformation in the surface might now be expected. Thus, rutting aod/or
(a) In-sttu denslty and moisture corrugations are likely to form, for which the only remedy is to rake up
content (I!:272O, part 2g),
and discard this surfacing, and replace it with a new surface.
(b) Ftetd CBR (IS:272e part
3I),
Causes
(c) so, cbaracteristics (grain srze
distr-rbution end Afterberg rimits) The causes for a fatty surface are:
(IS:272eparts4&J),
(d) Laboratory ,?notsture _ density, 1. Poor mix design; variations of the production mix from the design,
retattonsbtp (IS:272A part g),
(e) Iaboratory CBR (Is:272e part 2. Loss of cover aggteg tes in surface dressing,
16),
(D Bitumen content a.nd grading of 3. Non-uniform spreading of cover aggregates in surface dressing,
aggregates tn trre ,nlx (AASIITO
rr64). 4. Excessive application of binder in surface dressing andllgui4. seal coat,

5. Poor quality of aggregates in surface dressing, leading to their

. fracture, breakdown and eventual loss,

@*-- Raina's Field Manual for Highway and

Brtage Enoineers a"ir"'" ri"u
Q I Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chapter I PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE

251m 9.7 SURIAG DEFICTS AND THEIR RE(TIFIffTION

RBTERENCI 88AM
r q.7.1 Generol
PNOBE BEAM to lose their anti-skid properties as the
Pavements under continued traffic tend
texture weafs out and the stone aggregates get polished. The skid resistance
of a surface may also be reduced by bleeding or I'fatting up" of the road
surface with oozed excess bitumen. Many countries carry out skid-resistance
COMACTPOINT PIVOT measurements as part of their maintenance needs assessment. Those
pavement sections. which have lost their anti-skid properties. malz be treated
n 1.zzn
2.,14
with a fresh sul'face treatment.

9.7.2. totty Sur{ote

d
t.66
. Syrnptoms

Figare 9.2 Benkelman Beam A fatty surface occurs when the bituminous binder moves upward in the
surfacing layel and collects as a film on the surface. The binder so
coilected becomes generally soft and slippery in hot weather and may be
9.6 TXISTING PAVIIUITI{T (RUST AI{D SUBGRADT CHARACTER ISTICS
picked up and spread by the traffic. In cold or wet weather, the surface
For assessing rehabilitation requir€mentc in existing pavcmcnt, it is ncccssary is likcly to bc slippcry and this can cause accidents. Thic surface bitumen
to determine the existing pavement crust thickness and composition, will always be mixed with a proportion of mineral fines.
subgrade tharacteristics and stlength. Test pits are dug, about 0.6 m x 1.0 m
This is not uncomrhon on 'surface dressed' roads and, apart from the skid
in surface Nea and taken right to the depth of subgrade. These test pits are
resistance problem, may not be of any great consequence to the road
preferably located under the wheel path. The thickness of each layer
stftrcture. Howeveq if this should occur on an'asphalt surface', it,can
constifuting the pavement crust is noted, and representative samples
have serious conseqllences. On an asphaltic concrete surface, flushing or
collected. A number offield./laboratory tests are conducted" dependlng
bleeding indicates that the air voids have reduced to a point where plastic
upon spectfic requh'ements of a road. pro|ect, more cotnnon alnong
deformation in the surface might now be expected. Thus, rutting and/or
tbem being:
corrugations are likely to form, for which the only remedy is to rake up
(a) In-situ dcnsitjt and rnolsture content (IS:272Q Part 28), and discard this surfacing, and replace it with a new surface.
Q>) neU CBR (Is:272Q Part 31), a Causes
(c) Soit cbaracteristics (grain size dlstrlbution and Atterberg limits) The causes for a fattty surface are:
: '
QS:272QPdns4&J), 1. Poor mix design; variations of the production mix from the design,
(d) Iaboratory 'moisture - density' relationshl.p (IS:272O, Pa.rt 8), 2. Loss of cover aggregates in surface dressing,
(e) LaboraCory CBR (IS:272Q Part 16),
3, Non-uniform spreading of cover aggregales in surface dressing,
(D Bttumen content and grading of aggrega.tes in the mtx (AASHTO 4. Excessive application of binder in surface dreqs.r4g andliouid seal coat,
Tr64).
5. Poor quality of aggregates in surface dressing, fgading to their
fracture, breakdown and eventual loss,

Raina's Field Manuat fot Highway ana eaase Ensinears f, n"iru's ri"ld Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
I
 PAVEAIENT MAINTENANCE
Chapter I
angular aggregates, which have proven non-polishing characteristics. The
6. Graded cover aggregates with particles so small and/or flaky that
they are covered by the binder, carpet can be an open-graded mix where traffic is light. A slurry seal can
also be used to impart an anti-skidding texture with the use of special
7. Too heavy a prime or a tack coat, aggteSate.
B. More compaction in the road (e.g., by excessive axle loads) than
allowed for in the design (e.g., refusal densiry not used). 9.7.4 Streoking

c Treatment . Syn ptoms

Streaking is characterised by the appearance of alternate lean and fatty
- For 'Surface-Dressed' Areas lines of birumen usually in longitudinal form of streaks.
(a) If the bleeding is fairly uniform and the surface is free from
irregularities, application of cover aggregales or sand (sand-blotting o Causes
or sand-blinding) would be successful. Coarse sand or aggtegate Longitudinal streaking occurs when alternate longitudinal strips of surface
of 9 mm and lower can be used; these shouid be clean and angular contain different quantities of bitumen due to a non-uniform application
and may be heated if necessary. of bitumen across the surface when sttrface dressed. Some of the more
(b) Surfacing with a thin layer of open-graded premix sr,rrfacing with
' common causes of this type ol streaking are mechanical faults, improper'
appropriate bitumen content may absorb the excess bindel. or poor adjustment, and careless operation of bitumen distribtliors. These
streaks can also be formed as a result of applying the bituminous binder
(c) A liquid seal coat, with special cal'e taken to select the late of at too low a temperature - a temperature at which bitumen is too viscous
application of the binder and the quantity and size of cover to fan orit properly from the nozzles on ihe spray bars.
aggregates, can als9 be effective.
Although much less coffunon, transverse streaking may result from
- For 'Asphaltic Concrete or Premix' Surfaces mechanical faults or poor operation (stopping and starting) of the
If bleeding occurs on an asphaltic concrete or premix surface, and as a disributor.
consequence, it deforms, the oniy solution is removal and replacement. o Trea.tment
This might be achieved by milling, or otherwise by total excavation.
Streakiness is not easy to reciify by additional tfeatment, and it is
therefore mote usual to remove the streaked surface and apply a new
9.7.3 Smooth Surloce
surface treatment. Therefore, much emphasis should be placed on its
. SJ,rnptorqs prevention, and when mechanical equipment is used for spraying of
A smooth surface has a very low skid resistance value and becomes very bitumen, the manufacturerrs recommendations of the.working of bitumen
slippery when wet. Such a condition invites accidents, especially on distributor should be carefully adhered to.
d,
gradients, bends and intersections.
9.7.5 Hungry or Leon Surface
c Causes
. Symbtoms
A primary cause for a smooth surface is the polishingof under
^ggtegates A "hungry" surface is characterised by the absence of sufficient matrix
traffic. Also, a fatty surface is. a srnooth surface.
(bitumen and fine aggregates) between the coarse aggtegate particles or
o Treatment by the loss of aggregates from the surface. This surface is prone to
The rectification consists of resurfacing with a surface dressing course and "ravelling", where the stone particles are picked out by traffic, and is thus
seal coat or a premix carpet. Care should be taken to select hard and also prone to "potholing', an adt'anced florm of ravelling.

Field Manual for Highway and Ariage enOineers ! Ruin"s riu H Manuat for Highway and Eidge Engineers
Raina's ]
 t
Chapter I ffi- r ue
E
PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE
$
. Ca.uses .w
h
Hairline cracking can sometimes be observed on a newly taid asphalt
A hungry surface may result from the use of insufficient bitumen in the $ surface, under the breaking roller. This can sometimes be seen at the
surfacing or the use ofabsorptive aggregates. It does not usually occur on I
*, cornmencement of work, when the steel drums/wheels are cold. These
surface-dressed areas, normally being titit"a to premix surfacing. Loss of cracks will normally close up under the prR. If they are still visible after
bitumen from the top surface can result from the action of traffic on an Il rolling is complete, the mix design and workmanship techniques should
old surface where the bitumen is too oxidised. Normally, the other cause be closely scrutinised. It has been known for the cracks to close up under
lies in the mix design, or mixing procedure when the materiai was laid. fi
traffic within a few days, and the surface prove satisfactory, but it is
$
o Treatmantt fit
s,
necessary to esrablish the cause, and initiate remedial measures, as there
is something obviously amiss.
The normal remedial measure for a lean surface, after treating any
pothole, is a carefully designed surface dressing. Alrernatively, a "slurry $
*&
2. Alligolor cracks
seal may be used as a repair measure. It is applied in an averageihi.k.,ur.
of2-5mm. . Syrnptorns
F
l: These appear as interconnected cracks forming a series of irregular
As an emergency repair, a.fog seal may be used. t srnall blocks up to 100 mm (or more) across, which resemble the
rJ skin of an alligator. They usually appear in localised areas.
9.7.5 (rocks, theh Redification ond Prevention f
llt o Causes
A common defect in bituminous surfaces is the formation of cracks. Tl-re crack .
.l
pattern can, in many cascs, indicate tire cause uf tlre c.lefect. As soon as cracks Alligator cracks are due to onc or morc of thc followiog factor.s:
are obserued, it is necessary to sfudy the pattern in detail so as to arrive at. the ;l
cause. lmmediate remedial action should be taken thereafter because of the :
1. Excessive deflection of the surrface over unsiable subgrade, sub
.: base or base of the pavement, particularly in the wheel tracks.
danger of ingress of warer through the cracks, and the.formation of porholes
Tl-re unstable conditions in the subgrade or lower layers of the
and ravelling. cracks cartnot be properly observed from moving vehicles, and
pavement may often arise lrom ingress of water.
inspection while walking on foot is always desirable. rhe coimon ,t
epes of 2.
cracks are briefljt dlscttssed belorl: Excessive ovedoads by heavy vehicles or inadequate pavement
:n
thickness, or both.
l. Hoirline cro*s ia
3. Brittleness of the binder (either due to ageing of binder or initial
. Slmptoms over-heating) might cause fine cracks of the alligator patrern but
there will be no deflection of the strrface. These cracks are
Hairline cracks appear as short and fine cracks at close intervals on
sometimes called'crazlngi
the surface.
Iwtpn alligator cracking is accompanied by visibly detectable movement
. Causes of the.road surface under passing traf,fic, it is surely to be taken as a clear
These cracks are caused by: indication that the pavement will have ,to be compierely reconstructed.
I7here alligator cracking occurs in the most commonly trafficked wheel-
1. Insufficient bitumen content,
tracks, and where perceptible uplift of the surface of the road can be
2. Excessive'fines at the surface, observed on either side of the wheel-tracks, it is ududlly an indication that
the cause of the failure is relatively shallow. rVhere alligator cracking in
3. Improper compaction, over-compaction when the supporting the major wheeltracks is accompanigd by depression of the road surface
layer is unstable, or compaction of a mixfure when too hot. with no discernible corresponding ,rpiift, it is usually an indication of a
more deep-seated failure.
@-- Raina,s Fierd Manuat for Highway ana arioge engineers
] f Rainas r.,e ld Manualfor Highway and Bridga Engineers
 Ii
PAVEMENT MAINIENANCE
Chapter I
tr
f* 3. Inadequate surface drainage, especially during flooding
In a.ny eaent, cr.lligator cracking can be taken as a si'gn of base * conditions. The correct level and grading of the shoulder plays
lfaihre. Subsequent investigations should aim at establishing what level i an important part in this defect.
the failure has occurred, and why. This will determine what remedial sr
&
measures are necessary. {r 4. Shrinkage due to drying out of ihe surrounding and underlying
earth, caused by roots of trees or bushes close to the pavement
3. longitudinol trotks
I edge or seasonal moisture changes.

. Slmptoms f; 5. Highly expansive soils are particularly prone to shrinkage when

€r moisture dries out.
These cracks appeat, more or less, on a straight line, along the road'
These cracks may apper either at the ioint befween the pavement 6. Frost heave,

o
and a sealed shoulder, or at the ioint between rwo paving lanes'
Causes
f
6
:8
7. Inadequate pavement width, forcing traffic too close to the edge
of the pavement,
s B. Non-provision of extra width of pavement on curves.
1. The cracking at the pavement-shoulder joint may be due to alternate {
wetting and drying beneath the shoulder surface owing to poor *:
drainage or due to depressions in the pavement edge, which allow 5. Block cocking
. water to stand and seep tlrough the joint. Shoulder settlement or . SJlt'tptoms
'',
trucks passing over the joint may also cause these cracks.
These cracks Appeu ln the form of "blocks".
2. The lane joint crack is caused by a weak joint beween adioining
o
spreads in the layers of the pavement. Differential frost heave
i Causes
along the centre line may also be one of the causes. Longitudinal t" Longitudinal cracks when widely spaced and associated with
lane cracks have a tendency to occur whete the ioints in the transverse cracking constitute block cracking. These often occur'in
successive pavemenf layers have not been staggercd. old brittle surfaces, where the bituminous surfacing has lost its
elasticity, and then cracks due to the thermal movement, particularly
4. Edge cocks in cold weather conditions, whi:n the bitumen is at its most brittle.
. Symptoms
6. 'Reflection'ctotks
Edge cracks are formed parallel to the outer edge of the pavement
' . Symptoms
usually 0.3-0.5 m inside from the edge. At times, some transverse
cracks are seen to branch out from the edge crack towards the 'Reflection' cracks are the 'sympathetic' cracks that appear in the
. shoulder. In the advanced stages, the cracking leads to "crippled" ., bituminous surfacing. as 'reflections' over. ioins and cracks in the
edges, and spalling, where the repair can no longer be treated as a pavement underneath. The pattern may be longitudinal, transverse,
'' 'crack rePair, ,but requires excavation and' complete'replacement of diagonal or block. They occur most frequently in overlays on
the affected area. cement concrete pavements or on cement-soil bases. They may also
occur in overlays or surfacings on flexible pavements where cracks
Causes
in the old pavement have not been properly repaired. Another
These cracks are caused by: condition under which, reflectioh'trabksrban occur is when a
1. Lackof lateral support from the ,i-toy'1'{!5
'' ' pavement is wiclened and the ehiire pavement is surfaced. The
location of the crack will then be on the iunction bemveen the old
2. Settlement or yieiding of the underlying mdterial, pavement and the widened strip.

Raina's Field Manual for,Highway ana aridge Engin.er" fi R rus ri" M Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
fi
Chapter I PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE

In some cases, refiection cracks are merely unsightly, but they of binder. Binder should be poured into the cracks, taking care
deteriorate fi'equently and the riding quality of road is affected. to minimise spillage.
These cracks can allow water to enter the underlying pavement and
If spilldge onto the load surface does occur, dust should be
the subgrade, and cause further damage.
applied to the excess bitumen until it is blotted up,
Causes
For cracks between 5 and.15 mm. a premixed sand asphalt is a
to vertical or horizontal movements at
Reflection cracks are due good crack filldr. This can bel mixed by hand, on 'site, with
joints and cracks in the pavement layer underneath. These straight run, cutback or emulsified bitumen. Ttie cracks should
movements may be caused by deflection under load, expansion and be blown 6ut. sides painted with bitumen. and sand asphalt
contraction shrinkage and swelling below the old pavement. placed in the crack. and hand or mechanically compacted.
(iii) Crack Preaentlon Courses: Two of ihe measures'that can be
Ireolmenl of cccks: adopted to preitent the propaga.tton oif cra.cks are the
(i) Crack Seakng For areas having cracks with less than 3 mm prouision of Stress Absorbing Membrane (SAM) and Stress
width, treatment by fog spraying conforming to the applicable Ab sorbing Mernbra ne Inteda.yer (SAM I).
specifications shorrld be consiclered
The area to be treated with fog seal should be thoroughly Prevention of ao*s:
cleaned using compressed air, scrubbers, etc. The cracks should In order to inhibit the propagation of cracks, rvro of the preventive
be cleaned with a comprcsscd air jct to rcmovc all dirt, dust, ctc. measures which can be successfulll' adopted are the prorrision of:
The fog seal should be applied at the rate 0.5-1.0 litre,/sq. m of
(a) Stress Ahsorhlng Memhrane (iAnQ, a coat which is laid over
slow-setting emulsion. usins equipmeni such as a pressure tank,
the cmcked road surface, together with a covering of aggregate
flexible hose and spraying bar on lance. Traffic should be
chips. The provision of SAM is known to extend tl-re life of the
allowed on to the surface only after the seal has set to a non-
pavement before any.maior treatment is carried out. SAM can be
tacky and firm condition thar is not picked up by the tyres.
laid as a single coat or a double coat.
If cracking above 3 mm in width is widely present, surface (b) Stress Absorbi.ng Membrane Interlayer (SAMI), a layer
dressing, after sealing the wider (6 to f5 mm) cracks, will
which is applied to a cracked pavement surface but which is
provide to be a good seal for the 3 to 6 mm cracks which are
followed (within 12 months) by the application of an oveflay
too narrow and often too numerous to be sealed individually.
course. A SAMI may be a matetial similar to that used for a SAM;
(i)Crack Filting: Crzck filling should be carriedour using a binder alternatively it may.consist of a bitumen impregnated geotextile.
of a suitable viscosity, normally a slow-setting bitumen
: emulsion.For wider cracks, in excess of an aierage of 8 mm in
- The quantity of materials required for 10 sq. m of road surface
width, the application of emulsion may be preceded by an ' for stress absorbing membrane is given in Table 9.4.
' application of crusher dust or other fine material, passing the
4.75 mm sieve but with a maximum of 10 % passing the 0.075
mm sieve.
If crusher dust is to be used, it should be placed in the cracks
before the application of binder and filled ro a level
. approximately 5 mm below road surface level. The surface of
the road should be swept clear of dust prior to the application

Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana aaave Engineers

I ffi R"inrs r, H Manuat for Highway and Bddge Engineers ----**--@
 a
w
$'
Chapter I ,t,
PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE
*l:,
Table9.4 Quantity of Materials required for 10 sq. m of d.7
Road Surface for Stress Absorblng Memtrrane (SAM) coat )t
Methodology for loying 'single-toot, SAM

sI. Tlpe and lVidth ofCrack

f:
a) Preparation of Mod.ified Bttumen- The required quantity of the
Specificatlon Quantity Quantlty of 1l
appropriate penetration grade of paving bitumen should be heated in a
No. ofSAM to be of Binder Chipping ii

applied I tar boiler fitted with a paddle stirrer or pressllre distributor at 160"C to
kg/10m" T
u 170"c. Then, a calculated quanriry of polymer modified birumen
1. Hair cracks and map cracks Single-coat 8 -,19 0.10 m3 of 5.6 mm concentrare (sAM-c) in the form of cakes/paste/pellets'should be added
up to J mm width . SAM, or 24 chips ti to heated bitumen with vigorous agiiatioi or ciiculation of conrents till
coat of two. :l the two materihls are mixed uniformly. Either the modified biti-rmen can
coat SAM .;
be blended ar the site, as described above, or supplied hot in tankers or
,t
2. Map cracks or alligator cracks
t. if supplied in drums, shourd be agitated rn melieo condition for 10-15
of Single-coat JO-12 0.11 m3 of 5.6 mm 'F'
3 mm to 6 rnm width minutes, before use. Tests for penetration, softening point, separation and
SAM chips
elasric recovery should be conducted ar sire for a ioi or 5 to;ne polymer
3 Map cracks or alligator cracks of Two-coat 72-L4 0.12 mr of 5.6 mm modified birrrmen (IRC:-sp:53). where Larex or Dry Rubber powder is
6 mm to 9 mm width SAM 1" coai and 11..2 mm chips t, used as a modifier, the indicative dose is 2 o/o to 4 % by weight of bitumen,
in 1:1 ratio while with Sryrene Butadiehe Sryrene Block copolymer (sgs) or sryrene
Butadiene Rubber (SBR), the indicative dose is J % to 5 n/o.by weight of
2d coal" 8-10 0.10 mr of 5.6 mm bitumen. where reclaimed rubbers are used as modifiers, a higher dose
chips level of 10 9/o to lZ o/0,b1, x,eight of bitumcn is indicated. Iir case ul
proprietary products, which mdy contain a blend of different polymeric
4 Cracks above 9 mm wiclth and Two-coat 14-16 0 12 mr of 11.2 mm
cracked area above 50 o/o adclitlves, test reports and cost ettectiveness sluulcl be the basis for
SAM 1" coat chips
selection.
2d coat 8-i0 0.10 m3 of 5.6 mm b) Application o1f potymer Modified Bitumen as Membrane.. The
chips polymer modified biturnen conforming to the specified requiremenrs
(IRC:SP:53) should be heared ro 160"C to 1.70oC and,
5. A1l rypes of cracks with crack widrh Single-coat 8-10 0.10 m3 of 5.6 mm ,p."y"d on rhe
below 6 mm prepared, clean and dry surface uniformly, using a prlsru." sprayer
SAM as chips
interlayer lraving self-heating arrangement and spray nozzre bar capable of spraying
uniformly at the rates given in Table 9.4.
6. All types of cracks with crack width - t2 of
above 6 mm
Single-coat 1.0 0.10 mr 11.2 mm c) Apptication of Coaer Materia./.. Spreading of the cover aggregate
SAM as chips preferably by mechanical gritter should immediately follow rhe ipraying
interlayer
of.;p.olymer modified birumen. It must be ensured that the stone chips
are
7 Bitumen Impregnated Geotextile. applied within a couple of minutes of binder being sprayed at any one
locaiion along rhe spray line. Also, the capacity for rolling should be such
Note: t Binder quantities for bitumen impregnated geotextile shall be in the range of that the first pass of roller can be made within 5 to ro rninutes of the
0,9 to 1,.2 litres/mr. Binder quantities outside this range are permitted blended material sprayed. Thorough sweeping to rcmove ail excess.
according to the geotextile manufacrurer's instructions and subject to the chippings is necessary.
agreement of the Engineer. d) Rolltng: Rolling should be carfied out with a pneumatic,/steel tyred self-
propelled roller, having a minimum operating-weight of g to 16 tonnes.
Rolling should be conrinued till all covered aggregate particles are firmly

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

f ffi currt r," M Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
-.n4#ffihn:
I
PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE
I Chapter I
I

I
embedded in bituminous material, but carefully avoiding excessive rolling 9.8 SURFACE DTFORMATIONS AND THTIR RECTIFICATION
which can lead to crushing of aggregate.
9.8.t Generol:
- ilethoddry for loying'tryo.toot' SAff: Any change in the shape of the pavement from its original shape is a
The second coat of SAM should be applied immediately aftel the laying of first .: deformation. It may be associated with slippage, rutting,, or gther couses as
coat; however, under certain special conditions, if it has to be delayed, it must cliscussed below. The treatment measures aim at the removal of the cause,
be applied within 90 days of the first coat application. and bringing it to the original level by fill material or by removing the entire
:.

Prior to application of the second coat of polymer modified bitumen, the affected part and replacing it with new material. '
surface should be cleaned as described under 'Preparation of Surface' in item
8.2.4 in the previous chapter and any loose or foreign matter should be
9.8.2 Slippoge Delotmotion
removed. After getting the surface irregularities corrected and surface brought
to proper camber and gradient, a second coat of polymer modifiecl bitumen . Symptonts
heated to appropriate temperature should be uniformly sprayed preferably Slippage is the relative movement between the surface layer and the layer
with distributor at the rate given in TabIe 9.4. beneath. This distress usually occurs when there is a low-strength surface
Imrnediately after appiication of binder, cover material of 5.6 mm size mix ol poor bond berween the surface and the next layer of the pavement
aggregale at the rate of 0.09 to 0.11 mr per 10 m' should be splead uniformly structure. It is characterised by the formation of crescent-shaped cracks
preferably by a mechanical grit spreader so as to cover the surface completely, which ale produced when braking or turning wheels cause the pavement
if trre tu.to-coat SAM ls to be used. a.s ooerlay. If. however, a new overlay surface to slide or deform.
is u-r be pn-rvided arrcl {.lte twt-r-coaL SAIVI is tt-r be used as an interlayer (SA.NII).
the cover material' should be used at the rate of 0.08 to 0.10 cu. m per o Causes
10 sq. m leaving about 25 o/o of surface unchipped to allow bener binding Slippage is caused by:
between SAM and the oveday.
1. Unusual thrust of wheels in a particular direction,
After the is uniformly spread, rolling should be caried out with a
^ggregate
6 to B tonne roller, pneumatic tyred or vibratory rubber drum-type, till the
2. Omission or inadequacy of tack coat atd/or prime coat,
particles are firmly embedded in the bituminous layer. Vhen finished, the 3. Lack of bond between the surface and the lower course, caused by
surface should show no variations greater than 6 mm ovet a 3 m length. The a layer of fine duSt, moisture or both,
road may be opened to traffic two hours after rolling, but limiting the speed
4. Failure of bond between rwo layers due to excessive deflection of
to 20 km/hr till the following day.
the pavement.
- frlethodology for hfng SAill: o Treahnent
A Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayer (SAMI) may be provided with a Rectification consists of removing the surface layer around the area up to
material similar to that used for SAM and the methodology for laying SAMI .the point where good bond between the su'riaciiib"'ahb the layer
will be the same as for SAM, as outlined in the above paras. S7here SAMI r-rnderneath exists, and patching the area with premix maqgrial after a tack
consists of a birumen impregnated geotextile, suitable guidelines on coat, and compacting.
construction with geosynthetics may be followed.
It must be kept in mind that cutback birumens should not be used with 9.8.3 Rutting
oolvoropvlene seotextiles since the solvent reacts with the oolvmer at hish a Syrnptorns
temperatures. The quantity of bituminous emulsion (CRS-2 or CRS-1h) to be
sprayed over the prepared existing pavement should be in the range of 0.2 to Rutting is a longitudinal depressidn'or groove along the wheel lines. The
2.3 litres/mz deperiding upon the porosity of the existing pavement and the rut width is trsually'equal to the width of a wheel path. Suter-alngfrom
absorbency of the geotextile. a nttted urree, patb at biglt speed can be dangerou.s. Accumulation
nainas rie H Manual Highway and Bidge Engineers
W-- --- Raina's Field Manual fot Highway and Eridge Engineers
ffi ffi for
 i

Chapler g
PAVEMENT MAINTENANCF

it
of water in the clepressions can cause skidding. Rutting may or may not a Causes
r1
be accompaniecl by adjacent bulging of the road surface, which may give
some indication of the depth of the source of failure. Corrugations (waves/ripples) are due to the following causes:
'
.
o Causes 1. Lack of stability in the mix (excessive binder, high proportion of
fines, too round or too smooth textured coarse or fine aggregate,
The causes of rutting are the followingf:
too soft a binder);
7. Heavy channelled traffic,
Z Oscillattons set up by tbe aebicle sprtngs can cause
2. Inadequate compaction of the mix at the surface or in the , altertating aalleys and ridges;
underlying courses during construction,
3. Faulty laying of surface course.
3. Improper mix design, lacking in stability of the mix (excessive
binder, etc.) to support the traffic and leading to plastic movement a Trealmenl
laterally under traffic, If the surface is thin, it is scarified, including some porrions of the
4. \Weak pavement, underlying base and the scarified material is recompacted. A new
surfacing layer is then laid. The cutting of high spots with or without
5. Incidence of high-conract stress caused by heavy wheeled traffic, heating and addition of levelling course materials can also be resorted to.
6. Intrusion of subgrade clay into the sub-base course due to shear Spreading of sand bituminous prernix with a drag spreader with its blade
failure or pumping, adiusted to clear the high spots can also be an effective way ro make up
the corrugations. Thc arca is thcn thoroughly rollcd.
7. Aggregates of surface dressing being pressed into the lower
sllpporfing hitr rminous la)rer.
9.8.5 Shoving (Plostk lUlovement Bulge|
o Trea.tment
. Synptoms
Ruts are basically grooves or longitr-rdinal depressions
in the wheel tracks.
Their rectificarion consists of filling up with bituminous premix, open- Shoving is a form of plastic movement within the layer resulting in
gracled or dense-graded patching materials and cornpacting to fhe deiirecl localised bulging of the pavement surface. Shoving occurs
levels. The limits of the depression are first determined with a string line characteristically at points where traffic starts and stops (intersections,
and marked on rhe surface. After cleaning and applying a suitable tack busy bus stops), and on hills where vehicles accelerate or brake on grades
coat, the premix is spread and compacted. siruations indicative of shear and on sharp curves. The first indication of shoving is the formation of
failure or subgrade movement, however, generally require reconstruction. slippage cracks which are crescent shaped cracks with the apex of the
crack pointing in the direction of the shove.
9.8.4 Corrugotions (Wcves| o Causes

. Slmptoms Shoving can be caused by:

corrugation is the formation of fairly regular undularions (ripples) across 1. Lack of stability.in the mix (excessive binder, high proportion of
a bituminous surface. They are usually shallow (about 25 rrun) and are fines, too soft a binder) in the surface or base course,
different from the iarger depressions caused by weakness in the lower
layers of the pavement or the subgrade. The spacing of the waves is
2. Lack of bond befween a bituminous surface and the underlying layer,
around 3 m. The corrugations can be a source of discomfort to the j. Heavy traffic movement of a start and stop type or involving
motorists and can become a hazard if allowed to become severe. ' negotiation of curves and gradients,
4. Use of non-volatile oil on roller wheels.
&*---- Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana Bridge Engineers
Q I aaina's Fieu Manua! for Highway and Bidge Engineers
 Chapler I lii!ii,i',5,A}1{.Si:ii :* PAv E M E N T M A t N T E N A N c E

. Treatment 3. Ina<lequate pavement thickness,

The rectification consists of removing the material in the affected area 4. Frost heave conditions.
down to a firm base and laying a stable premix patch and compacting.
a Trea.tment
9.8.6 Shollowdepressions If settlements and upheavals indicate an inherent weakness in the
. Symplom subgrade, it may be necessary to excavate the.defective subgrade and
replace it with fresh material under properly controlled conditions.
Shallow depressions are localised l<Jw areas cjf limited size, dipping about Material having good diainage qualities is preferred. Under-drains may
25 mm or more below the desired profile, where warer will normally become necessary in locations where lack of drainage has been identified
I
collect. The. depressions may or may not be accompanied by cracking. if as the cause of failure. rJfhere the cause of deformation is inadequate
not rectified in time, they may lead to further detelioration of the suriace pavement thickness, then a properly designed pavement should be
and cause discomfort to traffic. :
provided. Frost-affected regions may need thorough investigations and a
o Causes complete reconstruction of the pavement.

shallow depressions are caused by the settlement of lower pavement 9.E.8. Disintegrotion (frogmentotion) ond its Recfificotion
layers due to a pocket of weak or inadequately compacted subgrade or
pavement layer. There are some defects which, if not recrified imrnediately, resr-rlt in the
disintegration of the pavement into small, loose fi.agments. Disintegration, if
s Treatmenl not arrestcd in thc barly stages, n'ray necessitate curr4)lete lebuilding 0f the
shallow depressions, which are essentially localised los-areas about pavement.
25 mnt or mor€ below the desired profile, are made up by fiiling with
premix materials, open-graded or dense-graded and compacting to the 0l Stripping (Peoling of Bitumen (ooting lrom Aggregares)
desired profile of the surrounding pavement. . Slrnpton s
This defect is characrerised by stripping, i.e., separation of biturnen
9.E.7 Settlement und Upheovol (Lorge Deformotionr)
adhering to the surfaces of the aggregaLe particles in the presence
: c Symptoms of moisrure. This may lead to loss of strength and materials from the
I surface-
Settlements and upheavals are characterised by large deformations of the
i!
I'
pavement. They are extremely dangerous to traffic and cause reduction in o Causes
speed. They are generalry accompanied by extensive cracks in the Stripping (pealing/separating of bitumen from the aggregates) may
pavement surface in the affected region.
.-', be caused by the following:
o Ca.uses
I Use of hydrophilic aggregares,.
The following are the causes for settlements and upheavals (deep shear
failure):
2. Inadequate mix composition,

1'. Inadequare compacribn of the fiil

. 3. Continuous contact of water with the coated aggteg te,
at rocations behind bridge
abutrnent$, over utility trenches, etc, 4. Initial over-heating of the binder or the aggregate or both,
,.

2. Excessive moishrre in subgrade and permeable layer of sub-base and 5. Presence of dust or moisture on aggregate when it comes in
base caused by infiltration or capillary action and poor drainage, contact with the bitumen,

Raina's Field Manual for Highway anA BidOe engineers

Q I Rainas rre ld Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
-"_-"**ffi
Chapter I PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE

6. In the case of surface dressing, poor bond with the surface 4. Insufficient binder for the size of the aggregate used or for the
existing below, delay in spreading the co.rer over the existing absorptive surface,
sprayed bitumen, or insufficient compaction, ^ggtegate
5. Aggregate having no affinity ro the binder,
7. Occurrence of rain or dust storm during and or immediately
6. Insufficient rolling before opening to traffic,
after the construction,
8. Opening the road to fast traffic before the binder has set,
7. Fast traffic over new work whipping off the aggregates,

9. Concentration of soil salt in rain water in contact with the coated

8. Cold-spraying of bitumen or delaying the spreading of
aggtegates over sprayed bitumen.
aggfegates,
10. Use of improper grade of bitumen, a Trearment
1 1. Ageing of the binrmen, leading to the brinleness of the binder film. If the loss of aggregates is due to ageing and hardening (oxidation)
of the binder, the condition may be rectified by applying a liquid
a Treatment
seal, fog seal or slurry seal.
In the case ofsuqface dressing, hot coarse sand heated to at least If the loss of aggregates has occurred over.iarge isolated areas, the
150 0C and spread over the affected ate s, may be used to replace best thing to do would be to provide another surface dressing layer,
the lost aggregates. After spreading, it should be rolled immediately after carefully cleaning the surface.
so that it will be seated into the birumen. If aggregates are only
partially tohtpped ofi a liquid seal may be rhe solution. If the loss of aggregates has taken place in small isolated patches, a
liquid seal u'ould be sufficient.
fn seaere cases, the existing bituminous mix shoulcl be removecl
and a fresh one laid. As a prccautionaly .ll1easurc, a suitable anrl_ (l Rovelling(SurloreDisinlegrotion)
stripping agent should be added to the bitumen at rhe time of
construction.
. Syrnptorns
Ravelling is generally associated with premixed bituminous layers.
bl loss of Aggregote It is chalacterised by the progressive disintegration of the surface
due to the failure of the binder to hold the materials together. The
. Syrnptoms
ravelling process generally starts from the surface downwards or
Loss of aggreg te occurs in surfaces which have been provided with from edge inward. It usually begins with the loss of fine aggregates,
surface dressing. The surface presents a rough appiarance, with leaving behind pock marks on the surface and exposed larger
some poftions having aggregates intact and others where aggregates aggregate. \X/hen larger particles break free, the surface appears
have been lost. eroded.
o Ca,uses q,:.. Causes
The loss of aggregates can occur due to the following causes: navelling is due to one or more of the folldwing reasons:
1. Ageing and hardening (oxidation) of the binder whereby its 1. Inadequate compaction during construction,
adhesive property is lost, 2. Construaion during cold weather, resulting in no-uniform binder fiLn,
2. .Stripping of binder from aggregates due to cold or wet weather
3. Use of inferior quality aggqeg te resulting in fracture, crushing
before, during or soon after surface dressing, and opening of new faces,
\tret or dusry aggregates to which the binder has not adhered,
4. Insufficient binder (asphalt) in the mix,

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Briage Engineers

ffi S n ,,itr" rle H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

\ :/- s J!1J,.._ti, ;i!r 1rr:.. .:t.

 Chapter I PAVFMFNT MAINTENANCE
5, Ageing of bir-rder leading to brittle fi'urcture ancl disintegration of
pavement,
6. Excessively open-graded rnlx,
7. Poor workability in the original rnix,
8. Over-heating of mix or the binder,
9. Imploper coating of aggregates by the binder.
a Treatment
A ravelled surface is correctecl by
aciclir-rg rnore binder, the rate of
application depending upon the condition of the existing surface
and the degree of hardening which has occulrecl in the binder. If
the ravelling has not developecl too far, thc conclition may be
corrected by a sirnple application of a cutback bitumen covered
with coarse sund, or even a sluny seal. \Whcre the ravelling has
reachecl an advanced stage, a clouble sulface dressing or an overlay
are the preferrecl options for extencling the life of the pavement.
dl Potholec
o Syrfl.ptorns
Potholes are b<>wl-shaped or pot-sh:Lpecl l'rolcs of valying sizes in a
surface layer, which mzry evcn cxtencl into the basc layer. These are
caused by the localised clisintegration ol'the usually thin bituminous
surfacing material. I{ardening of the bitumen and localised cracking
permit the ingress of water, and the action of tlaffic picks out the
surface aggregate in the localisecl areas affected.
a Causes
1, The most common cause of pothde fbrmation is the ingress of
water into the pavement through the surface course. This can
happen if the strrfacing is opcn-textured and lacks ploper
camber'. Water can also enter the pavement through cracks in
the bitun-rinous surface. Saturated pores and cracks in the
surfacing are sub.lected to high instantaneous pore water
pressures under the weight of the wheels of passing traffic.
These pressures lead to gradual disintegration of the surfacing
material, and the aggregate begins to pick out under traffic. If
not anendecl to promptly, the aggregates in the surface get
progressively. loosenecl, and the affected area increases rapidly
in size and may progress down into the base course. This
i aggravated by the use of plastic filler in gmnular layers.
I
:,'..:.';;ii11;;
1:
t,
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge engineers
2. Lack of proper Lroncl between the biruminous surfacing and an
unclerlyir-rg granr-rlar base course may also catlse potholes. The
bond is usually provide<1 by a prime or tack coat, and any
localiseci inadequacies in in the original
thcse applications
corlstfuction may cause the top surface to disintegrate,
commencing the fbrmation of a pothole.
3. L-rsufficient bitumen content in localised areas of the surfacing
layel can caLrse potholes where the bitumen is insufficient to
'hold tl-re stone under traffic'.
/t. To<t thin a bituminotts surface, which is unable to withstand
hcar,lt traffic, can also catrsc p()tholes, when associated with
implopel or inaclcquate camber.
5, Potholes in clense graded mixtures are usually the resr-rlt of
inadequate mix clesign, wherc there is insufficient binder to hold
the material t()gether. Voicls are insufficiently filled with bitumen.
t Treatmerrt
These bowl-shapcd holes of varying sizes are a comm()n type of
distress. 'fhe filling ol pothole.s and patch repairs can bc carrted out
:rs uncter:
Eacb potbole ancl patch repair area sbottkl be irrspecte.l eut.l
all loose material rernoued The area sboultl be cut/trimmed
eitber uitb jack bannners or utitlt band tools suitable for tbe
purpose, such thttt etrty loose material is remoued and the
erccat,atiort is of a reasonabljt regular sbape.
The ed.ges oif tbe excauation sbouful be cut oertical$,t ubere
ot
possibl.e, bttt care shoukl be taket trot to disturb any large
tigrrtly bekl stone in tbe ba'se ktj'ten The area sbould be
thorougltllt cleanecl utitb preferabljt a conpressed air hi'gb
pt'essure jet or other appropridte method to rentooe all dust
and laose particlcs layers belottt tbe leael of tbe bituminous
construction sboulcl be replaced' uslng material of the
equiualent specifrcation to tbe origittql cottsttttctiort Tbe area
for bitwnfutous cot.st'ttctiott sltoukl be prhned u)ltb pre-
beated penetratiort grade bitumen or cutback or enulslon
dcpencling upott tobetlter the louer arect is bitumbrcus or
is gra.milar i.n uature. Ihe sides, boweaer, are to be paitfied witb
hot prhrre coat materlal u'sing a brusb'
;I i Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers Wi:;:i
Chapter I PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE
The mixture to be used in bituminous patcbing can be either a
bot mix or a cold mix. Mixing should. be d.one in a ptant of
suitable ca.pacity. The bituminous mil:ture sbould be ptaced in
la.yers of tltickness not tnore tben IOO mm (laose) and sltould
be cort pacted in layers u.titlt rouer,/pla.te--compactor/band-
roller,/b and-ra.mtner, to t b e cle sire d comp action sta.ndards.
While placing tbe lfinal layer, tbe mtx must be spread skglttly
proud of tbe suryface so tbat after rolling" tbe surfaced
sbould be fluslt toitlt tbe adjolning surilface. IJ the crrea is
Iarge, tbe spreading and leaelling should be d.one using band
' sbooels and uooden straigbt edges. During tbe proiess of
cornpactlory tbe surface sbouW be checked using
straigbt edge.
A successful and uety simple tecbnique for patching of potboles,
' particularly on more ligbt traffic roads, is tbat of penetration
macadam. Tltis tecbnique inuolues cleaning tbe potbole as describecl
aboue, priftring tbe cleaned surface with pre-beated penetration
grade bitumen, and filling the bole uitb dry clean aggregate, wbicb
is tben sprayed witb the pre-beatecl bitt/.rnen, sttflicient to penetrate
the d.ry aggregate. 7he aggregate sboulcl be single sized, to enable
penetration. 1O mm size stolxe is used lor small shallot,u holes, anli,
larger stone say 25 mmfor larger boles, uhere it is blinded. with tbe
smaller stone before application of bitutnen. This tecbnique requires
simple tools, is usually canied out by band, and is uerry cost-effectiue.
el Edge Failure
. and rain, it may be necessary to have brick paving for at least some
Syrnptolns
A common defect in bituminous surfaced roads is edge cracking, and
spalling. The edge of the biruminous surface gets broken and
irregular, and if corrective measures are not taken promptly, tl-re
failure is progressive and resuls in a significant loss in carriageway
width.
o Causes
The following are the causes for e<lge breaking:
The single most common cause of edge failure is bad drainage at
the carriageway edge, where the shoulder has become raised by
' dust and dirt thrown up by traffic. The raised shoulder prevents
runoff into the side drain, and water stagnares at the junction of the
caff'r geway and shoulder. This penetrates the road base, which is
thereby weakened, and failure of rhe strucrure follows rapidly.
Reina's Fietd Manuat for Highway and 6rdge Englneers
_ ...Jil.:!:::*-tq:,i1!,
Other reasons for failure are:-
1. Inliltration of water which soltens the foundation layers causing
the pavement edges to break.
2. Worn out shoulders resulting in insufficient side suppott to the
pavement.
3. Inadequate strength at the edge of the pavement due to
inadequate compaction.
4. Lower layer of pavement not being wider than the upper layer.
. Treat nent
a3 m The shoulder, pavement material and any affected subgrade material
in the affected area should be entirely removed to a regular section
with vertical sides. The pavement and the shoulders should be
rebuilt simultaneously with thorough cornpaction. A bituminous
surface similar to that used before should be laid. The shoulder
should have adequate slope to drain away rainwater. A slope at
least 2 o/o steeper than the camber of the bituminous surface is
generally necessary for earthen shoulders.
. Ptcaerttiort
The old adage rrprevenfion is heffer fhan crrre" can ne.ver be morc
true than for this type of failure. In order to prevent the edges from
getting broken again, the maintenance operations should include
periodic inspection of the shoulder condition, which should be
.graded off to the correct level and profile with adequate compaction.
In sandy areas, where the shoulder is likely to be eroded by wind
width to protect the edges. Surface and subsurface drainage,
wherever deficient, should be improved. Where the longitudinal
gradient is greater than 5 0/o, it may be necessary to surface the
shoulder in some way to prevent erosion. Single or double surface
dressing is often the most economic treatment in this instance.
g,g SPECIAI.IST RTPAIRS
Specialist repairs include repairs of localised areas of damage to materials for
which repairs using normal hot mix patching materials are inappro-priate. Such
specialist repairs will include repairs to mastic asphalt and stone mastic asphalt.
In such cases, pothole and patch repairs should be carried out as already
described, except that the construction to the mastic asphalt, stone mastic
asphalt or other specialist material layer should be carried out in accordance
with the provisions appropriate to these materials.
f, nainat Fle ld Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
ffiffil
.-,']'
Chapter'9

Mix laid in too thick a clurse X

Traffic allowed on before cool X
Paver dperating too fast x x
F Rollers too heavy X x x X x X
o
uJ
L
Rollers standlng on hot x
uj pavemenl
o Rolling when mix too cold x X X x X
L
Vt o Rolling when mix too hot .x X x X x x
F ul Overrolling x
o x X
t=fl l lnadequate rollino X X X X
o Poor spreader op€ratlon x x X x X x
=
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J
co
Mix too cold x x X x X X X
Mix too hot or burned X X X
4; u)
U)
x x
III o
I
Exc€ss moisture in mix x.
Excess bitumen x X X X
6 r/r Excsss tines in mix x x
XU
tat tlt Mixturo too coarso
X
x x
s- El lnsufficienl bitumen X x x
6Gr q
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I O.O BRIDGE STRUCTURE'-

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Raina's Field Manuat for:Highway anA Bddge engineers n"ir"'" ri"H Manual for Highway and Brtdge Engineeis
I
J f
-
 Chapter 10 BRIDGE STRUCTURE ,.,.. SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS

I O.O BRIDGE STRUCTURE - SOME IMPORTANT b) Slab bridges may be divided into three classes:

ASPECTS o slabs cast in situ, (Figure 1O.1),

r slabs built-up of precast elements, (Figure 10.2) and
IO.I GINTRAI. COMPARISON OF RTINFORCTD COI{CRITT AI{D
PRESTRESSTD (ONft ETT SUPERSTRUCTURES
r composite slabs; in which precast elements are used in combination
with in situ concrrete filling (Figure 1O.2).
In recent ye,'s, a great majoriry of bridges have been constructed in
prestressed concrete. However, RC bridges have not been eliminated, and in
certain circumstances still, are more economical.
(a) Reinforced concrete
Prestressed concrete bridges ofler a high degree offreedom from cr'acks, have solid slabs
low maintenance and long life; they are particularly suitable for dynamic loads
and vibrations, and offer great resistance to fatigue arising from repetitions of
live loading.
In RC construction, live load normally approximately doubles the stress in
(b) Voided Slab
steel; while in prestressed concrete, this increase is very little. position of
- Reinforced concrete
neutral axis in
RC (about which moments of areas from tension and - Prestresed concrete
compression side balance) remains fixcd, but of that in prestressed culclct-e
shifts with variation in applied load.
The greatest advantage of prestressed concrete for bridges is recluction in , Figure 10.1
weight, slender appearance, possibiliry of precasting in factory conditions
either in segments or even in whole spans, possibility of larger spans and c) Cast in situ slab bridges may be adopted from 6 to 30 m spans. For spans
freedom from tension and cracking. For long spans, prestressed concrete up to about B m, solid reinforced concrete slabs, with depths up to 60 cm,
decks can be nearly comparable in weight with steel decks. may be adoptecl. Voided RC slabs, with depths up to B0 cm, may be
adopted for spans of about 8 to 15 m. However, for spans of 15 to 30 m,
It'is not possible to quote a minimum prestressed concrete span which can voided prestressed concrete slabs, of depths up to about 1.20 m, can be
be the most economical; it depends on local conditions.
cheaper.
For short bridges, the advantage of using a smaller amount of concrete
because of prestressing may be unimportant since there is always a certain
d) Solid composite slab decks shown in Figure 10.2 may be adopted for B to
15 m spans. These consist of precast units of various shapes. The units
basic costwhich cannot be changed by the use of prestressing. In such cases,
are either of inverted T or symmetrical I section, placed side by side, and
the usual reinforced concrete constnrction may be used with equal advantage.
" stressed together transversely after the in iitit filling or topping. Shear
. connectors are used to achieve composite action beNveen the precast
t0.2 DtcK stcftoil TYPI .elements and in filling concrete or top slab, ut rl","ut:l-^t O"

I 0.2.t 'Slob lype,.Supershutture (Solid or Voidedl, Stqticully Determinote or

lndeterrninole
d) Shb ,bridges are frequently used for small spans. They require more
. concrete and steel than girder bridges of the same spans, but construction
cost is usually loweq and their formwork is simpler and less expensive.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana AriaOe Engineers
fi f nu,,i,rt rr" M Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers
 BRIDGE STRUCTIIRF .,.. SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS

10.2.2 Beom'ond-slob ond Box Type superstru(ture, stotkolly Determinote or

lndeterminale
a) Tl-re type of c.oss-section of a b.idge often governs the weight, maximum
span and cost of the b'idge. No definite rules can be laid regarding rhe
type of cross-section to be selected. only a comparison of a few designs
may supply the answer in a given case.

(a) b) In recent years, the beam spacing has increasecl, and the number of
beams in a cross-section has reduced. This is due to the availability of
higher quality materials, better experience, and more exact mcthods of
analysis. It is also clue to more effective forms of bearns cleveloped.

c) However, this reduction of the r-rumber of beams .ancl deacl weight in

relation to the live load has it.s limitations dr-re to tl-re following reasons:
r T'he cleflections ancl vibrations of a light deck shr-rcture uncler live
loacl rnay becomc unacceptable.

r I)emancl on inctease iu permissible strcsses may. becomc too high,

particularly compression and shear in concrete.
(b)
o The total amount of prestressing tericlons fbr a given loacl, span a.cl
Figure 10.2 q'iclth of a briclge, seem to depend rittle on the nurnber
of beams
e) slab system is usually acloptecl wrren trre erection of formwork presents usecl, ancl roorn has to be found to accorrmoclate them.
no great clifficr-rlty, cables or reinforcements are then placecl in position,
r The ninimum practical thickness of a web is basecl on the
and after concrete is set, cables are stressed ancl anchored. sorne
cabres practicability of placing concrete through it in the presence of
aIe usually bent up, to redlrce shear-stresses ancl also for a convenient
congested reinforcement and tendons in it.
distrib'ti.n of end anchorages. The ;rdvantage of this form is that the
strlrctufe is monolithic and the stress clistribution can be better calculated. o 'fransport and capacity of cranes sometimes can
set Lmits to the size
Disadvar-rtages, however, are that the prestressing of a of the be;rms.
srab is generally
uneconomical' the forrn of construction is often l-reavy, and ii-r.
,pr,, o The cost of shuftering and transverse stressing can have
lengths are limited. an
influence on the rype of cross-section.
0 The use of precasr eremenrs is of advantage when there is difficulty
in
t:,
supporting the formwork. A quick erection can be possible a.rd d) Multi-beam cross-section of the type shown in Figur.e 10.3(a) is typical for
,r"ry ,9.
economical if a large number of units is required. i& many RC decks of moderate spans. Vide webs of these beams may not
t;i
be suitable for prestrdssing as they will clilute rhe prestressing force.
g) Precast prestressed units (forming a pafi- of the total deck)
can be ii.
temporarily used as form work for in situ concrete. Additional
cables arc e) upstanding beams shown in Figure 10.3(b) are used when headroom is
then often used and subsequently stressed on the composite section. iffi restricted and spans are small; for larger spans, buckling of compression
Transverse prestressing is then orten used to achieve transverse tE,
rigidity is flange sets the limit on the span,
unison of the whole section. l:c{
i*E
.and ii't-

&
Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway ana Aflage engineers p.}:ti,i i[ij $ii1r:.r nama's Fie ld Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers :.229
 ,l.i

Chapter lO il- ---|-E"-A i BRIDGE STRUCTURE ..... SOME IMPORIANTASPECTS

f) Multi-beam prestrcssed concrete cross-sections of the types shown in

Figures. 10.3(c) and 10.3(d) are economical for spans up to approximately
40 to 50 m in the very limir.
o
g) Box type cross-secrion [Figur-es 10.3(e), 10.3(D and 10.3e)l is
uneconomical for simply supported spans unless the span has necessarily
to be large (35 m or more) and,/or the construction depth is very limited.
Its mai' advantage is that it facilitates placement of cables with maximum
eccentricity, offers resolute section property for. sagging as well as
hogging moments, and is rigid for efficient transverse load distribution
(, and torsion. For continuous decks, however, box section is regarded as
good, both from the design as well as the safety points of view. If cables
are not bo'ded (i.e., external cables), the ease ofplacing the cables, their
-9, bending up and stressing, are all in favour.of box section.
Vertical prestressing of webs is sometimes resorted to on long spans in
order to reduce shear stresses in webs.

t 0.3 I"ONGITUDINAT ARRANGHNTNT

ta
t 0.3.r Bolonred Conillever Superstruttures

!, bl a) Balanced cantilever type decks offer some advantages when compared

b with simply supported decks, and compare well with fully continuous
Et decks.

c b) Hinges are usually positioned in such a way that the cantilevered span
alternates with a simply supported span as illustrared in Figures 10.4(a)
and 10.4(b). Occasionally, a simply supported span is sirpported by
cantilevers from counterweighted abutments (either in mass concrete or
in RC box filled with sand or gravel [Figure 10.4(c)].
lt c) Hinges are positioned in the vicinity of low bending moment (point of
G
c6htraflexure) under dead load (usually at a disbnce of 0.1g to 0.20 units
of the span).
d) By convenienr location of hinges, the distribution of dead load bending
' moments can be made almost identical to that in continuous decks of the
same shape and similar loading. However, the variatign of live load
bending moments in cantilever decks is nof as favourable as in
continuous decks in which even spans away from the live load contribute
to carrying this load.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana aidge Engineers
fl ] aainu'" rieu Manua! for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chaptei l0
BR/DGE SIRUCTURE ...,. SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS

(d
10.3.2 Semi-(ontinuous Superstructures
' Semi-coniinuous spans identify stn lctural configurations that consist of precast
single-span beams laid consecutively over a number of spans over individual
temporary or permanent bearings, but where obiectionable expansion ioints
0) are obviated by the introduction of continuiry. This permits the development
of support moments due to subsequent dead load and.live load, sl.rrinkage
and creep. Partial continuiry can be achieved as follows:
(a) casting of transverse beams which fill the spaces between consecutive
I and adiacent beam ends and are integral with the deck slab. Reinforcing
(c) should be provided within the longirudinat beams for development of the
- positive moments generated by shrinkage and creep. Reinforcing, which
extends across the joints and is capable of resisting the tension induced
by the developed negative momenrs, shoutd be placed in the slab in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge. Temporary Bearings are lefr in place
Figure 10.4 positlon ofhlnges in balanced and designed as Permanent Bearings.
cantllever bridges
. (b) The sanie as (a) except tl-rat the concrete slab is longitudinally pr.estressed
e) In the case of longer spans, however, it is not the variation, over supports.
maximum varue ,f n'loments which matters. but the
For-10ng balanced c.a'tilever (c) Continuity is confined to the top slab only. Transverse beams
spans, the generar arfangement is almost ar.e
thr: same as for f.lry continrous pruvided at the ends ofglrders, but the space between consecutive girder
decks' and hence so arso the quantities
of materiars. (Tl-ris is so because ends is not filled. Adjacent girder ends are provided with
in long spans, the dead load efiect is _o." separate
,h"n ttre liie 1"";;;;;J bearings. Careful detailing is required ro prevenr slab crushing due ro end
o such cantilevered superstructures are unaffected
try differential settrement rotation of girders.
of supports. They develop prr"riri.: p..r,r"r, reactions; they
""
' conveniently a'ow segmental construction in cefiain zones (which can 10.3.3 (onlinuous Type Superstrudures
require less formwork and,sc.affofding),
and thug can fr" a) Continuous girder decks have tl-re lollowing advantages over simply
economical as continuous bridges,,eien "f"-ri'.qu"ffy
though they may .ro, fro]r" u, supported decks:
good a riding quality because oi
-o." expanslon joints.
d disadvanrages courd be: variation o Longer spans are possible because of lesser span moments.
ltrr
favourable than in continuous rp"nr,
of bencring moments is less
,"luir" more bearings, anchorages a Require smaller ratio of the deck depth at the centre of span to the
and expansion joinrs; shear r,r"rr",
;;" #;;.y high at hinges: hinses are !l
span length..
very congesred with steel and anchorages,
and'thelo,;r; ;;;;;;i;;., a Require fewer number of piers, bearings and expansion joints.
.pleasing to the eye.
h) cantilever decks are somedmes buirt
determinate fbr dead load, and then
a Have smaller deflections and vibrations.
subseguenrl)' made continuous by r
*"r"r oi.i..ssing cap cables or splice Have a better riding quality because of lesser joints.
Disadvantages of continuous bridges are:
r Sensitivity to the secondary stresses (settlement of suppor.ts,
differential temperarure, redistribution effects);
Raina's Field Manual for Highway anA eriOOe
enOineers
fi f a"in"'" ri"!d Manuat for Highway and Bddge Engineers --@
Chapter 10
BRIDGE STRUCTURE .,,., SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS

. Prestressed concrete beams must either be designecl with

concordanr cables (seldom the case) or else the r The superstructure is cast in place, and is post-tensioned by the
effeciof lack of use of coupled tendons. This scheme may be considered as
concordance must be carefully taken into
account. (The latter, in supplementary to the one outlined above.
fact, has advantages in quantities.)
o Continuous bridges require much greater o The superstrLlciure is built up from consecutively constructed
(To facilitate construction, these
skill in construction. segments, prestressed together. Segments of the superstructure
type of decks are sometimes
bu't
as statically determinate, and, partial continuity are post-tensioned together by means of
tendons threaded
subsequenrly.)
i, ."rto."a through preformed ducts. It is of paramount importance to
b) Continuiry affords advantages for spans
' consider all deformation and resulting stresses which are
of over about 30 m, particularly introduced during construction (particularly due to shrinkage
if a long and flexible span ioilows a srrort
anJ stiff one. This rario of shorr and creep). Special effects due to construction and continuity
span to long span should ideally be about
0.3, which can giu" should be considered in the analysis of continuous spans
90 - 95 percenr fixity effect !!! "bort
(settlement of supports, parasitic prestress effects, effect of
c) continuous spans identify structurar configurations, unequal top and bottom fibre temperatures, etc.).
which are supportecr
at intermediate points between the encrs
oJ main girders. co^ti.,uii-,''ny
be achieved as follows: d) The nlrmber of spans between rwo consecutive expansion joints may be
up to about 4 for a total length of about 150 m if all the cables have to
i) Not prestressed stlucture: The entire stfljcture
is cast in place on be stressed (from both ends) in a single operation. Otberwise if
stationary formwork- Full continuity is achievecl
superimposcd dead luad, and live load.
f., ,.fi *"ign,, couplcrs ot'continuitJ) cables are used and tbe maximum lengtlt of
cable stressed at any one time is limited to a.bout 35 to 45 m, tbe
ii) Preslresseclstructure: nu,mbor of spa.ns botwoon tu)o consocutiuo cxpa.nsi.on joints wtll be
o The superstructure llmlted on$t by tbe capaclty and cost of tbe expansionJoint.
cast in place as in above, and full length
_is
post-tensioned tendons are used to prestress the deck.
is done from both ends of the superstructure. "yacking 10.3.4 Arch Spons

o The superstructure is cast in place, and is prestressed a) SpandrelArches

r-rse by the
of full length tendons and tendons *im i,_,t"._.ai"i. The spandrel arch may be either the open spandrel column type or the
anchorages. This arrangement may be advantageous When
the filled spandrel type. The arch should be designed for the combination of
soffits of girders are curved.
Jacking may take place from both the dead load, live load, impact, the effect of temperature and rib
ends and intermediate locadons of ihe
superstructure. shortenirig, and the effect of traciive, wind and centrifugal forces. In lieu
o The superstructure is cast in place, and is post_tensioned of a complete analysis of the entire structure, an open spandrel arch may
by the
use oflapped tendons. Such an approach be designed for concentrated loads applied at the points of spandrel
mayberd""";;;;;;
when a large number- of spans'is prestressed support. The amount of live load concentration at each point should be
by tl_re use of
individual tendons of limiied lenjths. Lapping
is used at determined from the live load on the roadway deck, placed to produce
supports, in the vicinity of which staggered intermediate maximum stress at the section under consideration. In filled spandrel
anchorages are Supplementury-rhort
.provided. r".rao.rr rrluf construction, the equivalent uniform live load or distributed axle load may
also be provided ,rrppoit, if needed. (Span_by_span
"t be used for the arch design.
construction.)
(i) Arch r:ibs should have a minimum thickness as governed by
architectural appearance as well as faciliry of construction and be
Raina's Field Manual tor Highway and Bndge Engineers
ffi ff n rrs ri" H Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 f-"1r, . . l
r..r. t:,.
Chaqter 10
reinforced longitudinally with two main layers of reinfolcement.
These fwo layers of reinforcement should have an area preferably
not less thao 0.20/o of the rib section at the crown, and be tiecl
together by a series of stirnrps spaced not fufther apart than the
thickness of the rib. Arch ribs and spandrel columns should conform
to the column provisions. Transverse walls should be treated as
columns witl-r lateral ties'
Bearing seats for columns and transverse walls over arch rings or
ribs should be horizontal with suitable dowels to anchor to the
. sPandrel constmction'
(ii) Fitted spandrel: Tl.re spandrel walls may be of gravity, cantilever or
counterfort design or tied back with transverse walls. Counterfort or
cantilever construction should be proportioned and reinforced to
minimise transmission of torsional stresses to the outer section of
dre arch barrel. The face of the spandrel walls has to be reinforced
in rwo directions fbr temperature and shrinkage. The arch ring
requirements listecl in (i) above apply for this rype also. The
spandrel wall reitrlurcetttettl irt .lillecl iype arches slull preferably
extend into the barrel with adequate anchorage to develop the
strength of the bars in bond'
b) Three-Hinged Arches
The three-hinged arch is statically determinate and is recommended for
shofi spans. Hinges may be formed by one of the following methods:
(a) Structural Steel Pinned Shoe,
(b) Crossing the intradosal and extradosal reinforcement at the hinge
centreline and reducing the depth of the ring or rib towards the
hinge
c) T\ro-HlngedArches
For arch spans founded on soft rock, piled foundations, or any foundation
n^terial other than sound rock, the two-hinged design is recommended.
'The hinge types (a) and (b) listed above are also applicable for rwo-
hinged construction'
' d) FlxedArches
Full fixiry ar the foundations may be assumed if these are sufficiently rigid
ldManual farHighwayandBridge.Engin""o
:f;.F--
BRIDGE STRUCTURE .,.,. SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS
' and the dead load reaction produces a soil pressure as uniform as
possible at the base of the foundations.
r 0.3.5 Frome Bridges
In recent years, there has been some revival of interest in this form of
construction when applied to large span bridges, mainly because of the
introduction of prestressing.
A portal frame is essentially an arch but of a shape very much different from
the line of pressure, which is an ideal characteristic of an arch. Prestressing
offers some advantages for these types of structures.
The ma.in aclaanta.ges offrame bridges in comparison uti.tlt continuous
beams can be summarised aslfollotos:
(a) By prestressing the frames, tl-re line of pressure can be kept within the
middle third of the section.
(b) Frarne briclges do not require expensive bearings at the supports.
(c) The stability t-r[ the supports is rnuch greater than ln rhe case of
independent piers.
(d) Very large spans are possible (up to 100 m or more).
(e) The depth to span ratio can be as low as 1:50 at the crown.
(f) Frame bridges lend thenrselves to the use of jacks for correction of thrust
and fTat jacks for prestressing.
(g) Quantities of steel and concrete fol long spans are relatively low in
comparison with continuous beams.
(h) can be even more economical than arches.
(i) have pleasing appearat-rce fi'om the aesthetic angle.
(j) Piestressed frames have greatly reduced horizontal thrust.
The d.isadoanta.ges offrame bridges a.re:
(a) Their sensitivify to secondary stresses, particularly horizontal and angular
settlement of supports.
(b) Require gteater skill in construction and a high quality of materials.
(c) Stress distribution at comers is complex and may lead to serious
redistribution of moments.
I Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineerc
 Chapter lO
BRIDGE STRUCTURE ..... SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS

The rate at which quantities increase with the span ir-r the long spans is less
for portal frames than for continuous bridges. In fact, .o.r.i"r. .1
and steei
quantities for portal frames theoretically need not necessarily
increase with
the span; and this may be achieved by an increase in
horizontal thrust, which
however is usually expensive [o provide for.
Arch bridges are usually economical because their equilibrium Ri'lingSbb
can be Ovcr Bncke8
maintained mainly by direct forces rather than ny
bendrng. But when (or'llinge' or'Continuous')
comparing minimum construction depth, maximum
headroom throughout the
span, or general economy in the combined cost of substructure and Figure 10.5 Segmental Construction
superstructure, the frames may show advantages
over arches.

10.3.6 lruss Spons in prestressed (oncrete a) Where conditions at tl-re bridge site prohibit the erection of scaffolding
and centering on riverbed and long spans are to be constructed to
To reduce congestion of reinforcement at joints, vierendeel compensate for the high cost of tall piers and deep foundations, cantilever
trusses may be
used instead of tfiangulated trusses. Vierendeel trusses may be simply construction is convenient and competitive.
supported, cantilevered, or continuous. They may have
inclined upper chords (if through type), or inclined
paralrer chords, b) Cantilever construction is a method of progressive construction of a
lower chords (if deck
type) The deflecrion of vierendeel rrusscs is usualry s,raller
cantilever in and stitching them to the segments abeady
segnr.ents
than girder colrpletcd, by prestrcssirrg. Tlre carrtileverirrg segluents are
bridges of simirar span rength. In a Vierendeel truss, constructed/erected from the piel outwards, one on either side, and
inclined end posts with
smaller bendrng strcsses are berter than upright stitchecl back simultaneously. The segments, normally 2.5 to 3 m long,
end posts. panels having
length greater than trre truss height are generzlly can be either c st in situ on travelling gantries, or can be precast in yard
more economical than
square or upright arrangement. In the analysis of vierendeel and erected by launching truss or floating cranes. In situ construction is
trusses, the entire
stfucture shourd be treated as a rigid ffame to determine economical only in the case of a bridge having fewer spans. Usually it
the axiar, flexural,
and shear loads in each member. (Design is rarely governecl takes about 3 to 4 months to complete a 120 m'butterfly' by cast in situ
by shear.)
Vierendeel rrusses with upper (if through method. Hence, for bridges where many long spans are involved,
Vpe) or io*.. (if deck rype) lateral
systems should be analysed as rigid space frames. precasting can speed up the progress of work.

Members of vierendeer trusses may be precast in the

plant and field-jointed.
c) Though precasting involves additional investment on plant, machinery
The availabirity of high strength concrete, high and organisation, for a long bridge, this investment ultimately proves to
strengih ,"into..irg bars and
pfestressing stfands makes this type of bridge be more economical with the cost of time saved. Usually in such bridges,
adaptable to modeiately long .where the foundations are deep, the superstnrcture is made monolithic
sPans.
'with piers. And at midspans, either a short riding span or a hinge
(connecting the two cantilevers) or continuify is provided. In bridges
10.4 CAI{TII.TVER CONSTRUCTIOI{ IIIETHOD where the foundations rest on rock, the butterfly decks could instead be
seated on bearings over piers and the cantilevers made continuous at
t0.4.t Segmental Deck (onstruction midspans for superimposed dead loads and live loads. I-Iowever, this can
Bridge deck construction by free cantilever method, be done even if foundations are sitting on soil, as long as differential
i.e., a butterfly deck built
up segmenr by segment from both sides of rhe pier (nigure settlement is acceptable in design. Many a time, two temporary supports
10.5). are required, one on eithel side of a pier, to stabilise the deck during free
cantilevering.

Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana Briage engineers

ffi f, a"in"'" ri"b Manuat for Highway and Bridge Enginees
Chapter 10 BRIDGE STRUCTURE ..... SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS

10.4.2 ln-silu Segmentol (onstruction However, the above construction cycle can be compressed to about 5 to
a) 'fhe in-situ construction is accomprished 6 days as has been proved at various higtrly mechanised sites.
by using a pair of traveling
gantries, each weighing about 40 tonnes (for
casting 2.5 to 3 m segments
of a twoJane deck, i20 m spans). After constructing the pierhead 10.4.3 Prerosl Segmental (onstruction
(i.e., rhe porrion of deck immediately unit
above rhe pie"D, a pan of l^nt y a) The use of precast concrete segments offers the following advantages:
syitems is erected on rop, one on either side of
ihe pler. The gantries o Control of high quality concrete;
project beyond the pierhead to support the hanging
shuttering *qr-,i*a
for casting the next segmenr on eirher side. The .lt"i,rrt
,nrrr"iirrglf ,h. r Manufacture of segments at z plant site instead of at an open site
box section deck is supportecl directly from the gantry where the quality controls may not be as good;
systeil. The
internal shuttering is supported on a gantry-girder
run"ning'i,-,ria" tn" uo,
along the length of bridge, which in iurn ir'r.,pporred r Lend themselves to new techniques and speed of erection;
ar irs forward encr
by the previously completed decking. Each travellin g g^ntry r Great accuracy of section and profile can be obtained, and the
sysrem is
counterweighted for supporting the shuttering system problem of deflection'during construction can be better overcome
when ii is moving
from completed section to forward section. In addition
reaction required to take up the weight and constructional
to this, the o Shrinkage can be practically eliminated and creep reduced by high
loads of the quality of concrete.
unit to be cast by the cantileveruh,.rtt"ring is realised by
means of
suspenders passed through the decking ancl
the bon.r* slab and b) The efficient constrLtction of long-span prestressed concrete decks
anchored at the base of the previous unit.'Trre ganrry depends upon:
systems proceed in
a systematic manner fiom section to section on either
side oi pier after r Basic design scheme
the prestressing of the segnrenfs rasr cast. 'rhe gantry
systc'r arso suF,prrrs
a suspended scaffolding for constructional
convenience and labour safety. r Erection method
b) Construction Cycle for In-situ Working o Suitable technique of iointing, stressing, etc.
Usually, the construction cycle for in-situ construction
is a 10-cray cycle, c) Careful consideration must be given to ensure monolithic behaviour of
as summarised below: the completed structure as well as flexibility of the structure during
(i) Shifting of travelling ganrry system
7 day
erection.

(ii) Completion of entire shuttering and d) The weight of segments may vary from 5 to 100 T or more, and the length
3 days from 2.5 to 3 m, or more. Segments may be reinforcepl with steel, but are
placing of reinforcement bars and
prestressing cables for the segment designed to be connected by post-tensioning after erection. Segments can
also be prestressed in themselves, either by temporary cables to aid
(iii) Casting of the segment 1 day r.erection, or cables can be so arranged that the prestressing. is efficient in
'the final condition as well. Transverse prestressing can also be applied to
(iv) 6rtittt ' 4 days the segments, even at the manufacture stage itself.
(v) Stressing and miscellaneous 1 day e) Short segments can be cast in end-on vertical position. Usually segments
Total are match-cast. Steam curing is often used to attain high strength earlier
10 days
and to reduce shrinkage. Concrete crushing strengths of 450 to
This means.casting concrele on Day 5, prestressing 550 kg/cm' can be. obtained.
on Day 10, so that
concrete in the segment is 5 days old when stressed by th.
at i'' end' This periodicity is very important to know
cables anchored D Deep'indentation shear keys are employed when high shear stresses must
f;or.design calculation. be transmitted. They must.be provided even otherwise.
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway ana Bridge Engineers
f, nainat rie b Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers
W
 chapter lo _ BRIDGE STRUCTURE ..... SOME IMPORIANTASPECTS

g) Normally, the ends of the segments are constructed as vertical planes

with
roughened surfaces. Shear keys, i.e., indentations, should preferably impossible to calculate these deflections correctly, but it is plactically
formed in them. Tests show that reinforcing bars across
be good enough to calculate these deflections taking -&'c as half the
the joints are of instantaneous value in most weather conditions. (Software today is
little benefit to the ultimate strength, and shailow shear
keys are also of available that takes account of step-by-step variations in Ec and climatic
no value.
variations.) \7l-rile all this is a design mamer, the Field Engineer has to be
h) Epoxy coatedJoints have proved successfur, an^ are extensively used cognizant of it in order to apply camber corrections in the field!
as the jointing agents as an aid to bond the concrete joint.
c) The cambers may be Iaid out over the decking with theodolite located
The segments butt directly against each other with over the piers always at the same time immediately after the daybreak, if
shear ke/s and epoxy
painring in befween. This requires special techniques only to somewhat offset the effect of temperature difference through the
and great care both
in manufacture by match-casting of the consecutiv" ,"g-"-nr, decking.
and epoxy
jointing with precisery time-controlled epoxying
and-prestressing. This
makes possibre speedy and economical assembiy
on the site and assures t0.5 STRUCTURE TYP[, 0PTliltUM SPAN T0 DTPTH RATI0 A]'lD VARIOUS
a near perfect joint. The proven method, till now,
is to yard-cast each unit
against the preceding segment. This generally requires OTHER (ONSIDERATIONS
a second handling
of each segment in the casting yard. and, match-marking Indicated here are general characteristics of the common types of concrete
for erection.
i) All ioints must assure conrinuity of cable ducts bridge structures together with other relevant considerations (designer's
across the ioint (except domai.n).
when exrernal cables are used). To form the duct
in the joint, inflatable
ftrrrners and prastic or metal sleeves have been
used. wtrile grouting the
post-tensioned tendons, groltf may escape at the joint
and block the
0l Reinlorced (oncrete Slob Bridge
adjoining ducts. Grouting then is best ptstponed until Strarctura.l: Span to depth ratio should be about 15 for simple spans and
all tenclons are
stressed but this can be dangerous since gr.outing
shourd not be 19 to 24 for continuous spans; solid slabs are used for spans from approx.
derayed.
5 to 1.4 m; cored or voided slabs are generally economical for spans from
10.4.4 Deflection ond pre-camber I1t to 25 m.
a) Generally, the order of deflection of a well_designed long span ,lppearattee! Neat and simple; desirable for low shoft spans.
prestressed concrete cantilever is about 1 in
600, which is very low. Constructiot: Details and formwork simplest.
b) To counter tr.re rong-term creep 'ciipping, effect of deflection
under all
dead loads and final prestress, it is necessary to calculate
TraJffic: May be impeded by falsework if cast in place, due to reducecl
the deflection at clearances. Guide-rail should protect falsework openingsfor traffic lanes.
various sections under this roading (based on the
reduced modurus of
elasticity of concrete due to creep) and give equal Shortest of any cast-in-place construction.
and opposite (reverse) .9*Wg4@
cambers at the soffit at these sections at the very
,i,,'"'or construction. Matn!@ance;- Very little except at hinges. Future widening may be
vithrhis, ir is hoped, that the stfucture wi', within abour
3 years (by difficult.
when majoriry of losses due to creep wourd have
occurred),
finally take
the intended profile, rhus counrering the dipptng effect.'These
pre_
cambers ro be given <iuring consrruction should
be ipecified at the soffit
level at each section. (Theoreticaly, the variability
of the atmospheric
history during the entire periocl of construction will
render it armost

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fi I R"in""r.tdManuat forHighwayand}ridgeEngineers - ffi

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Chapter 10
BRIDGE STRUCTURE ,..,. SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS

(h) bl Reinlorced Concrete T-Beom Bridge

Strarcturak Span-depth ratio is generally 1,4 x for simple spans; 16 + for
ttr (b)
continuous spans; higher ratios are possible, but riding qualities are
(s) affected by creep characteristics of concrete; span range: 10 to 25 m.
(a)T-beainBridge
AQpearanee; Cluttered in view from bottom; elevation is neat and
simple.
Construction: Requires good finish on all surfaces; lormwork is
L*J r(bw) somewhat complicated.
Tra.iffic: May be impeded by falsework if cast in place, due ro reduced
(b) Bor Gtrder Bridge clearances. Guide-rail should protect falsework openings for traffic lanes.
Constructlon time: More than for slabs .due to forming, but not
excessively longer.
Ma.i.ntenance: Low, except that bearing and hinge details may require
(lt (s) attention.

(c) Precast r - Cirabr Bridde (l Reinforced (onrrete Box Girder Bridge

StructuraL Span-deptl-r ratio is, generally i8 t for continuous spans;
higher ratios are possible, but riding qualities ar-e affected by creep
ci(x) (v) characteristics of conciete; high torsional resistance makes it suitable on
(s) curved alignment; span range: 25 to 7O m.
(d) Precast .Spread;6ox Btiim BriFgd ,Appearntpg; Neat and clean lines from all views; utilities, pipes and
(h) conduits can be concealed.

trIln tf
(e) Precast 'Adjacent'Box Beam Brfdge- -
Constntctiorr: Rough fonn finish is sarisfactdry on inside
formwork is complicated
Trafflc: May be impeded by falsework due to reduced clearances. Guide-
surfaces;

rail should pl'otect falsework openings for traffic,lanes.,;

Constructlon thne: More than for slabs or T-bearTls due to staging of
conQrete placement, but still not excessively,longr,
Ma.intenance: Low, except that bearing and hinge detail may give some
trouble. Future widening may',be difficult.

dl Preslressed (oncete Slob Eridges

Volded Slatr
o Cast-ln-place Post-Tensloned'Siab Decks:
Figure 10.6 Concrete Brtdge Deck Con_figuratlons Structurak Voided slabs up to about 40 m, where a high span-
depth ratio is required; either simple or continuous spans; span-
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Q ffi Rainas rie M Manuat fot Highway and Bridge Engineers

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I

-__
Chapter 10
depth ratios as high as 40 x have been used (generally 30); high
torsional resistance, making it very suitable for curved alignment,
especially on single columns.
Afupgara!rcg; Neat and simple; desirable for low short spans.
Constructiora- More complicated than conventional reinforced
concrete. Sequence of stressing and grouting should be supervised
by specialists.
Tra.fflc: May be impeded by falsework due to reduced clearances.
Guide-rail should protect falsework openings for traffic lanes.
Construction tlme: About same as conventional reinforced slabs.
Mal@gnanCe; Very little except at hinges.
a Precast Pretensioned. or Post-Tensioned SLab Dechs:
Structural: Voided slabs for spans 10 to 25 m; span-depth ratict:25
to 30.
{ppgAruUCC! I\eat and simple; desirable for low short spans.
Cortstruclion: Detailsancl fourrwork very siruplc; plarrt labricatiorr
methods are favourable and applicable; field erection may be fast.
Traffic: No falsework required; units placed by cranes; no
prolonged impediment to traffic.
Constrttction time: Time for erection of precast elements at site a
minimum.
Mglglgnanee;- Very little except at hinges.
el Prestressed (oncrete Ghder Bridges
c Cast-ln-place Post-Tensioncd.Girdcr Decks:
Sttttctura.l: Generally applicable to spans 25 to 200 m, either T or
box girder form; either simple, cantilever or continuolls; span-depth
ratio is usually 20 t ior simple spans and 25 + for continuous spans;
as high as 33 + have been used; haunched box girders, up to 200
m, with span-depth ratio at mid-span 50 t and at supdorrs 33 t,
both cast-in-place and precast combinations. . ,
$Ppparaneg: Beams may be cluttered in view from bottom;
elevation neat and simple.
-^'- Ralna's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge enOin"uo
BRIDGE STRUCTURE ..,.. SOME IMPORIANIASPECIS
Construction- More complicated than conventional reinforced
girders.
Traffic: May be impeded by falsework unless using cantilever
construction which is practical for major structures only.
Construction time: Slightly longer than for conventionally
reinforced T-girder or box girders..
Malntena.nce: Low except that bearing and hinge details may
require attention.
a Precast T. I. Il and Box shatted Beams. wltb In-situ Sktb
Stracturak Applicabte to spans 10 to 50 m; the span-depth ratio
for l-beam is 1B t for simple spans and 20 t for cCTtinuous spans;
for spread box beams is 18 to 22; and for adiacent box beams is
25 Lo 30.
Appgaranee; I-beam is similar to T-beam, except for bulbous
bottom of prestressed girder sections; spread box beam is similar to
T-beam; adjacent box beam is similar to cast-in-place box girder.
Construction: tabncatron rs more complicated than in
conventional reinforced concrete girders; longer span girders
require very careful handling after fabrication in plant and at lob
site; standard girders are preferred; special sections are more
expensive; standard forms are stocked by fabricators; can be used
as simple spans, but prefelably used as continuous spans under
finishings and live load... precast girders with deck slab and cross
girders cast-in-situ.
Trafftc: No falsework is required except for long spans with precast
segments to be post-tensioned unless stage stressed by a cantilever
method.
Constructian tlffie: Time for erection of precast element at site is
minimum, but may require slab falsework.
Maintenance: Low, except that bearing and hinge details may
require attention.
fl Rigid frome Bridges
Structural: Integral rigid negative-moment knees greatly reduce the
positive span moment and (overturning) moment at foundation level;
I Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Brldge Engineers
 Chaptet 1A BRIDGE STRUCTURE ,.... SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS

single..Span rigid portal frames will adapt to narrow warer channels, 10.6 EC0NO|UI|CS AtlD OPTlltlllsATl0l{ (Designer's Domoin}
railways, subways, and divided or undivided highways underneath;
double-span rigid frames suitable for divided multi-lane highways g
(,)
underneath- lu
Y o
L
Rigid frames (with or without side spans) can cross multi,lane divided .. E9'
o
highways with a wide central median; 8, ,P9 ,.-/ r.r€
'Y ,,-) ul
u
The horizontal member (transom) may be
forms dedcribed eadier.
of any of the construction uJ
F
tu
t
-ttl
_.s Y p9
'/
e 6,\ n5.
z
I
i
.'
ft:."-d,:.i:"9:of variable momenr of inertia can be easily incorporated;
(,
z
o
o
I Y-/ -4
I a-

zb
t prelimihafy pioportioning can colnmence With a thickness at the knee [.
OA
--4
'-a
G
uJ

equal to approximately tvrice that at.the crown. al o-

t ahl
ut
zl
./t-
-.--
/ J
ul
u

I
Atipearaice: Graceful and ilean; well
'l )i ",'
adjusted to stone facing.
Constractl,on: Usually requires curved formwork for variable depth.
YI
(Jr
F
=
uJ
6 5$* F
g,
o
2
v,
o U'

:
ff6ffp.t \\ly.,beimpeded by falsework due !o r.qduced clearances. Guide- 0t
UI
t
F
ul th
{ rail ghould,protect falsework openings from traffic lanes. ul
I, ? tI
I Cohitntctton ttnie: Similar to that of other types.
t
Malrftehancs Low, excepr for porential back-fill serrlemenr, limited 33rn 70m 105m '140m
t
i
i flexibility for future widening. SPAN
>.
Ftgure 10.7 Relative quaotltles of concrete and steel in
various tyPes of bridge decks
a) Where the deck is less than about 8 m above ground and foundation is
shallow, shorier spans of 18 m to 20 m are more economical.
b) i to 4-spao continLlous modules,
Still shorter span, about 10 m, in RC solid
slab deck is more convenient and competitive.
c) In 18 m to 25 ,n span raflge, unfut flormttl cltcumstances, tnost
(econorntcal deckJor a mukt-span c11,( he: .
?fl!g"
- p/c psc ss girders which nray be lnade continuous for finishings and
'arid cross girders
iirre load by in-situ reinforced conciete tbp slib
. (assuming that the effect of differential settlement of foundations is
acceptable).
p/c rc ss girders for self-weight but temporarily propped at one-third
points till cast in place top slab and cross girders become composite
with beams. (May be made continuous for finishings and live load.)
This can be carefully done even for p/c psc girders.

Raina's Fleld Manual for Highway ana eriave engineers

f f a"ir"'" fiuld Manuat for Highway and Bddge Engineers
 jl
Chapter lO tr*f!ffi BRIDGE STRUCTURE . ... soME lMPoRrANrAsPEcrs
t
- voided psc slab, continuous if differential settlement of foundations i
l:
{, F Voided Slab
is not a problem.
zlu
d) continuous beams of 'equal spans' do not seem to bring significant Si
a1 F
savings up to about 45 m span lengths, but become more economical
above that 3pan length, particularly if cost of foundations is not, in
gl
H
z
general, different from what it would be in case of simply supported st
8+ Box
beams. $t
fi lllI
e) continuous beams with runequal spans'offer noticeable economy. e{ FI
lUl
D Range of applicability of such solutions depends upon ratio of short span * tr'
to long span. Vith this ratio approaching 0.3, the bridge dect< may pive o
to be nearly 95o/o ftxed and the longer span may even be increasld to
4
& z
about 90 m.
Y
o
'iii o
g) For very high degrees of fixity obtained by alternating short spans,
foundations may become expensive because of the extreme piers needing
to resist the uplift.
I
:
800 1000 1290 1400 1600
Counterweights or anchorage$ may then hecome necessarJr u,hich can
.1
.!
DECK DEPTH (mm)' -4
add considerably to the cost. '.
Fig. 10.8
h) 'Portal frames' lead to quantities somewhat similar to those in continuous
bearns with unequal spans.
Generally, portals would be slightly more expensive than continuous
beams with unequal spans for spans less than about 90 m. The cost of
foundations. however. may tilt the balance.
Voided Slab
It appears that for portals, quantiries of steel increase slowly with the
span. a
@
This is because of the thrust, akhough this thrust must be paid for in the IU
foundations. depending on the nature of the ground.
t, Box
F
(t
i) Some tlseful Inferences t!
These are cleaily seen in Figures 1O.B to 1O.19.
to-

-+
DECK DEPTH FOR A'GIVEN'SPAN

Fig.10.9

Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Bndge Engmeers

ffi ffi nurrt Fietd Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers
.-.*&*rffi€^-

i
I
i
I

I
 ,;
t'
li Chaptet 10
E.ffffi*i.ffi BRTDGE srRUcruRE ..... soME tMPoRrANrAsPEcrs
li
l.
': R.C. Voided
t Slab P.S.C. Voided
!'
l
_l
z Voided Slab
A
Slab

UJ I

'' =t
u IIJ
E Box
o Box
i
tr F
:
o
TL z
z t
IU
tr a
o
o
800 1000 1l2a} 1400 1-600 Y
o
tu
DECK DEPTH (mm) :--> o
sPAN --->
Fig. 10.10 Fig.10.12

Voided Slab
A
lU I
d, G'
o
FA (u
zl Box E
=l
tl
uJl
o-
o
v, o
o o
c)
.9
o.
800 1000" 1200'I 1 0 1600
DECK DEPTH (mm) :_-_> Span 't
Fig. 10.11 Fig. 10.13
@*- Raina,s Fierd Manuar fqr Highway and.nridge Engineers
lffi Rainas rred Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers
e
 Chapter 10
B R ID G E ST RU CT U R E ...., SOM E I M POR1'ANT ASPEC rS

I
(t,
to
o z
UJ t
t
F
ul
F
U' F
lu f
u o
o-
I

i,
l
ij
DECK DEPTH
DECKDEPTH-.>
;,
IJ
Fig. 10.14 Fig. 10.16
lr
ij
A
Moss
i
Cantilever
zJ
1j

,i
IJJ zF
i.
I' \\\___ UJ
F
=
UJ R. C. deck z
Ir
tl o o
tr PSC deck
o fi+
tr. FI
z rul
tr1,
UJ
E, o'
z
o
o
DECK DEPTH :=> . i ' '.'.
ABUTMENT I{EIGTIT +
Fig. 10.15 Fig.10.17"
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Briage Engineers Rainat riaM Manuat for Highway and Bidga Engineers
f I
 :
lj
Chapter 10 BRIDGE STRUCTURE ",., SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS
!

A :l
t0.7 TENDTR PRICE ..... RtALlsTl( 0R ll0T?
Gantilever
I a) some of the most commonlv quoted factors relating to economy can yield
F disappointing results. It is often stated that contractors prefer methods of
zlu constructioil q/hich are speedy to erect.
b) once committed to a proiect, the contractor's preferences are likely to be
E very much oriented in that direction, but tltls is not to say tbat he
u
o would gloe tbe best tender price for tbe sohttion whtclt offers tbe
t Gounterfort most taPid' construction
o
IL c) vithin a highway contmct there may be individual structures which are
z critical in terms of allowing access through a site, but differences in the
overall cost of rhe proiect which might result from the delaved or eafly
tr
t completion of such a structure are Llnlikely to be reflected in the costs
attributed to it in the overall bills of quantities.
ABUTMENT HEIGHT d) There are no pefmanent rules about the comparative costs of differing
solutions for construction, because ...
Fig. 10.18
cbanges take place in the relatiue cost and. auailability oJ labour and
materials fram ane tim.e to a.n,other, as also in tbe deuelopments in
constructional tecbni4ues and a contractor's market strategy!

t e) There are inevitable difficulties in forecasting the cost of civil engineering

works, and these are
raoid inflation.
^ggfavated
during times of economic uncertainty or

uJ
t Caunterfort f) Quite apart from the general financial climate of the country, the rates
adopted by contractors are obviously influenced by their curfent
workload, so that low pricing cannot Qe expected during a period when
Y Cantilever
t, the construction industry is heavily committed.
o g) Costs in tenders submitted by several contractors frequently show malked
3 Mass Sirpu.iti"r itr th" uu-r of *orl"t urri*n"d to individrrrl Oo.tiotlt of th"
work. even where the total tender prices may be sir.nilat'
=
E
o
lr
h) Bridge engineers have always been sensitive to this problem because,
unfortunately, the cost of the bridges is commonly qnly a part of the total
WALL HEIGHT .....> cost of the whole highwalr proiect.

t) There rnay, tberefore, be ulde discfepaneles between tbe prices

Fig. 10.19 placed agalnst brldgeutorks by dl.fferent competi.tofs, Loitbln tbe
ooerall tender prkes uthi.clt may be close'
@--- Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana ariaoe ervireeis ] f nu,'nrs ro ld Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
Chapter lo BRIDGE STRUCTURE ..... SOME IMPORIANTASPECIS

j) There can also be widely differing rates against indentical items in 1,3. Wetber a low first-cost' is tbe ouertiding constraint, ubicb may
comparable works within separate contracts. result in a bigber uhimate cost (partly because of possible
k) Beware of distorted rates. A tenderer's poliry may involve putting large underestimation in design and costing at bid time, and partly
sums of money against certain items of the work because those particular because of higber subsequent nxaintenance cost, or a more sedate
items would be completed eadier in the game, and the money will thus costing (including prouisionfor aestbetics) would be encountered.
be recouped by him at an early stage in the contract !l!
All such facto.s can distort the data collected from tender bid. as a basis
for building uo cost and quantit,v information data bank.
l) Additional Factors: some of the additional factors that have a marked
effect on the overall cost and hence on the relative economy of the bridge
structure are:
l. Current material costs in tbe market or as supplied;
2. Cunent cost of transportailon of materials to site, includ.ing all
bandling and storage;
3. Economic climate in tbe country at tbe tinxe of costing the bid;
4. wbetber tbere is abundance or scarcity of ciuil engineering zaorks in
tbe current market iu tlLe reglon;

5. Current labour utages and labour auailabitity;

6. in nxaterial costs and labour wages during tbe
Possibility of increase
cuffency of contract, i.e., pnee_-eses!@triorLincident to inflation:
7 . rocation of tbe site of work uitlr respect to tbe nearest rail ancl road
bead (effect on bauling and mouement costs);
8. Iengtb of working sea.son per year;

9. QuantitJ) of uork inuolued;

10. Dfficulties in construction (e.g. extent of detours required,
including their maintenance; wbetber construction is on a
new alignment wbicb may be undisturbed fut traffic or wbetber tbe
. construction is in an urban area and tberefore bandicapped by
beatry traffic uolumes, etc.);

11. Wetber any major equiplnent and appa.ratus are required to be

bougbt afresb;

1,2. Contractorts oierbead expenses, profit margin and promotional

expenses (wbetber any special proui.sions to be built in!); and
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
] J R"inut r," u Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 l: i.):l!rrlr" i../ i r'-i'i\

I I.O CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE s

I t.l G$ttRAL ll.9r sPt(lftcATl0N OT SIRANDS TOR
(ABIEJSIAYS
I t.2 $BI.E SIAY REIIABITIIY . .,t

I I.IO SPKIIICAIIOII OF AIICHORAGIS FOR

I r.3 GIIIERAI. CABTT STAY ANRAilGITIEIII
CABI.E STAYS
aa
r t.4 DII]TRTIIT IYPTS OT $BI.T STAYS
I I.I;t SPECIFICAIIOII OI PROITCTIVE
I t.5 IHE FREYSSINTI (ABI.[ SIAY .IIIAIIRIAI.S
lOR (ABI,E STAYS

r t.6 BBR SIAY AIID AilffONAG[' ' '' '" J I I

I t.t2
:t ..,t1
suPP[Y 0]'SIAY' STtt[
I t.7 TREYSSII{ET SIAY ANCHORAGE
r.r 3ii[{slAttNTloill0f ,AK{8ttisTAY
$ r
I 1.8 SIRENGTH OT IHI SIAYS

ii.J.- J Raina:" ried Manual for Highway and Btidge Engineers

 i ...
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Chapter - t7

The stiffening system and the cable supporting system share (to various
I I.O CABIE.STAYED BRIDGES degrees, depending on relarive stiffnesses) the live load superimposed on the
bridge.
I I.I GTNERAI.
Under dead load and median temperature, the system may be assumed to be
Stayed and suspension strllctures are best suitecl for spans exceeding 150 m. supported by the bearings and cable supports.
The stayed span is characterised by straight inclined cables, which support the
For self-anchored stayed systems, the added longitudinal thrust in the
deck system at one or several locations (Figure 11.1). The suspension span,
stiffening element should be considered and can be utilised for the
on the other hand, is characterised by vertical suspenderc and near p?rabolic
prestressing.
suspension cables.
The cable sag $) to span (/) ratio should normally be between 0.09 and 0.14
for suspension spans.

Towers
The towers supporting the main cables may be one of the following types:
(i) Vertical legs with one oI several cross girders to provide lateral stability.
& (ii) Inclined legs with one or several cross girders for lateral stability. In this
instance, the centre line of a leg at the top coincides with the cable stay
Ftg. ff.f Staved span centre line. The base wiclh is deperrdcrrt upon the deck width and thc
lateral stability requirements.
(iii) Inclined legs meeting at a common apex. This type is used only for single
t cable systems.
In any of the above types, the towers may be hinged or fixed at the base'
Fixed bases are more corrunon as temporary support cables are not needed.
On the other hand, a fixed base results in substantial longitudinal bending
moment$ in the tower legs.
The tower legs may be rectangular or cruciform in shape, their cross-section
Flg. 11.2 Suspension span may be uniform or varied from top to bottom, and they may be prestressed
of non-presffessed. Preitressed concrete tower legs are frequently constructed
Deck ond Stiflening System by tKe segmental method..The legs should permit easy access to the top of
The deck and the stiffening system ma1' perform either separate or combined the tower for mairttenance, inspection of the cable saddle and connection,
functions. In the first case, the deck serves to transfer load to the stiffening and navigation lights.
and carrying systems. Examples are the conventional steel stiffening girder
suspension bridges and some European concrete suspension bridges. In the (oble Suspension System
second case, the deck is merged with the stiffening elements to serve a dual The main suspension system on bridges may be one of the following types:
purpose. Box girders and solid or voided prestressed concrete slabi are
Q) Parattet wire constntction; ln this type, a series of parallel wires make up
typical examples.
the circular sectioned cable.

aainat Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway ana aaaae Engineers fi f
Ahapter - 11 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES

(ii) Parallel strand, closed construction: Io this type a series of helically

wound strands, either singly or more commonly in parallel, make up the
circular section of the cable.
(iii) Parallel strand, open construction: In this type, a series of helically
wound strands are separated into an open'box-like shape by means of
spacers.

Types (i) and (ii) are nearly always wrapped tightly for protection against
water and other coffosive agents. The wrapping usually consists of a skin of
red lead paste and a tightly wound galvanized wire encircling the cable. A
more recent innovation, which may become the standard method of
protecting the cables, is a plastic covering. This utilises plastic filler pieces,
zytel nylon film, glass-reinforced acrylic covering and a coating of lucite
syrup.
Iu staved soans. where the susoension svstem is virtuallv straisht. concrete
encasement of the cable is easier and advantageous. This encasernent serves
to protect the cable frgm corrosion. and also to reduce live load deflections.
hence ,providing added saf'ety against fatigue stresses at end connections.
However. to fully realise these benefits. the cable must be tensioned, prior to
the concrete encasement, to such a level that tensile stress will not develop in
the concrete under the full dead plus live load.
The design of the suspension system takes into account not only the axial
dead load, live load and temperature stresses, but also the flexural stresses
which could initiate fatigue failure. These flexural stresses normally originate
at points of curvature - change and movement.
The ends of all strands are normally embeddecl in a poured zinc socket
designed to develop the full strength of the strand in direct tension.
Suspenders, use.d in suspension bridges, are normally wire ropes or bridge
strands socketed at both ends. The suspenders are fastened to the main cables
by.means of friction clamps,. This design should be carefully checked to
.prevent slipping of .the cable band and crushing of the cable wires by the
clamping force.

A cable-stayed bridge deck

Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana aaove enoineers j rieu

I aatna's Manuat fot Highway and Bddge Engineers
Chaplet - 11

N:ff:tlil:.-f r::':'::: : : il ;'1.1,:i.1,, I I.2 CABTT STAY RIIIABII.ITY

must present a
Cable stays, the principal elements of cable stayed bl'idges'
through their <lesign and rype' It is.for this reason
total operztional luarantee
tlrattheprotectionagainstcorrosionmustbeparticularlywelldesignedand
carefully executed.
Furthermore, to be in a position to easily and rapidly
rep^i a.la.ble '1aV'
is
ar,""tlJ fty a tr^fftc u..id".rt that' is never absolutely unavoidable'
without
.it
impairing
;;dy ad*,ised to have cable stays that can be replaced
'L'
the st-ructure of either the pylon or the deck'
de Luna Bridge
Nlshiklgaoka Bddge Oapan)
I t.3 GTNERAT CABTE SIAY ARRANGEMENT
of prestressing cables'
The technique of modern cable stays, derived from that
from prestressed coucrete and
also used construction p.ot"du'"' inheritecl
indicated earlier'
p""rJ^tfy the cantilever constftlction method' as
Intlrismethodofconstrttction,thedistributionofthecablestaysisconsistent
with the progression, connected with the length of segments' .and ,this
of deck
strength required of the cable stay tendons' The length
cletermines the
t"pp."ea by a cablJstay system is irr the older of 5 to 10 metres for
conr-'rete

Il Ihof Footbridge (France) decksandl0to20-"rr*rfolsteeldecks'Theloadcapacityofeacl.rcable

,ruy."r-t be between 200 tonnes and 1,000 tonnes' or even more'
dr-trittg^dre

;;r;;;;.ri plrase. A cable stav generallv belween 50 m' and 250 m2

lLrppgrls
oi.on.r"r" cleck and 100 m'? to 500 m'? of steel deck'
of both the pylon
The ,arrangement, of the cable stays determines the design
ancl the deck.
by a
In the transvefse section of the bddge, the staying may be formedlayout
upon the carriageway
ri"gf"-""r"f layer or trvo lateral layers, clepending
t1.," width of the briclge (Figures 11'3 and 11'4, respectively)'
"r',i
Meylan Footbrldge (France)

axial layer of stays

Flgure 1.1.3 Transverse arrangement of pylons"' one
Coatzacoalcos Bridge (Uexico) Brotonne Bridge (France) " lffii
i;ffi nrrrt ri" ld Manual for Highway and Bridge Englnee's
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Briaoe Engineers ffi
- j',r,.lji+!i$f.ti5lt*-:ai-.s't?-3f*:r.,:
Chapter - 11
CABLE.STAYED BRIDGES

. Two lateral layers result in alayout with two longitudinal bearing systems
at right angles to the layers in the form of lattice or plate girders for steel
bridges or ribs in the case of a concrete deck, the two bearing systems
being connected together (Figure 11.6).
The pylon in this case has:
- Either wo independent masts, that may or may not be braced at or
near the top, depending upon transverse stresses;
- Or the form of an inverted-Y or A, the cable-stays in this case being
anchored in the vertical portion of the Y or along the inclined
Figure L1.4 Transverse affang€ment of pylons... Tko lateral rayers of stays portions of the ,4.
r Two layers (or two planes) of stays are recommended: Longitudinally, three rypical stay layouts are encountered (Figure 11.7):
- W'hen the deck has oniy two lanes, so as not to separate them by r Fan type,
. the otherwise singre axial set of stays, hence avoiding traffic jams in o Harp type,
the event of an accident.
o Mixed type.
- When the deck carries an odd number of lanes.
The choice of the system is derived from a compromise between a purely
- when the bridge is widc (so that two-pla'e pick-up is better). cconomical pursuit and an acsthctic pursuit.
'ery
o In the other cases, and parficr.rlarly for carriageways with two lancs in
each direction, the sorution consisting of an axial layer is possible.
a t
- A cenrrai, i.e., single (axial) iayer implies a box_girder deck
(Figure 11.5) in order to withstand twisring effects due to
asymmetrical load variations. In this case, the pylon may be either
a single mast (Brotonne Bridge) or an inverted-y (coatzacoalcos
Bridge).with the cable_stays anchored at the top, the.splayed legs
I I
abso.bing transverse forces when imposed by local-conditions
(wind, earthquake, etc.).

I t

Figure 11.J Cross-section ofthe deck for one axlal layer ofstays Flgure 1-1.6 Cross-section of the declii. Tbo lateral layers.
Raina's Field Manual tor Highway ana ariaoe Engineers
f R"rrt r," H Manuat for Htghway Bidge
! and Engineers
Chapter - 11 CABLE.STAYED BRIDGES

tan

- harp

. mixed

Figure 11.8 Saddle

Figure 11.7 Longttudinal arangements
(a) The merits of the saddle are continuity and the elimination of upper
The fan-type solution is more aesthetic and is, as a rule, the most economical anchorage, br.rt the delicate sequencing of the strands at installation
for a pylon slendelness ntio Al < 0.30, beeause lor an equal pylon hetghr, results in preference being given in certain cases to systems with
the average inclination of the cable stays is obviously gte ter in the fan llpper and lower anchorage that ensure improved control to fatigue
system, and the avenge stress in the cable stays is, therefore, lower. They are,
endurance uniformity. The eventual 'replacement' of cable stays is
however, longer but with a more favoulable anchorage cost repercussion.
more difficult with the saddle arrangement than in the other
But, as the cable stays converge towards a single point at the pylon top, the
solutions. A longitudinal retaining system must be incorporated with
affangement becomes very complex and any subsequent stay replacement is
the saddle because of the asymmetry of forces (Figure 11.8).
difficult.
It is for this reason that a 'mixed, solution is often adopted, by spreading the
anchorages along the mast according to their dimensions, closer to the top.
The structural responseof the pylon varies, depending upon the chosen
solution: the fan-type solution increasing buckling problems obviously
(greater effective strut length), and rhe harp solution increases the bending
moments. This has to be understood very clearly.

Arrongemenl ot the Pylon

The transfer of forces from the cable stays to the pylon may be achieved by
three different arrangements :
(a) A'saddle', permitting the continuiry of the cable stay (Figure 11.8).
(b) The crossing of rectilinear cable stays 'inside, rhe pylon (Figure 11.9).
(c) 'Relay' devices incorporated into the pylon, a relay connecting the upper
anchorages of associated cable stays (Figsure 11.10 and 11.11). Figure 11.9 Crossing of stay cables
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Briage engineers
ft f, n rus rotd Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chapter - tt
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES

(c) There are many types of 'relays' that can be incorporated into the
pylon. Some examples are:

. o The concrete of the pylon itself compressed by cables or short

prestressed bars lFigure 11.11(a)].
e A coupling (connecting,the two anchorages) consisting of steel
sections or prestressed concrete [Figure 11.11(b)]. A multiple
connecling box.
r A special saddle connected to the upper ends of the cable stays
by'couplers'.

Arrongement ol Stoys ot Detk level

Figure 1' L' I 0 rncorp*?i:i":*I*;'e. Grouped anchorages
(b) The crossing of rectilinear cable stays inside the pylon is a simple
solution for the installbtion and eventual replacement of a catle
stay. It does not permit a symmetrical arrangement of the cable stays
on either side of the pylon (a simple layer on one side ancl a dividcd
layer on the other), and it also causes twisting moments in the pylon
by couple alternation (tvuo opposite cable stays cannot cross over in
the same plane), if an asymmetric solution is adopted (Figure 11.9).
The first cable stayed bridges consisted relatively of ,few and rather widely
spaced-apart stays'. The cantilever construction method, the desire to limit
cable stay tendon cap city, and also the possibility of ,rapidly,being able to
replace a cable stay without causing excessive stresses in the deck, resulted
in bridge designers adopting a 'closely spaced, cable stay arrangement.
Depending upon the fype of cable stay chosen (a central plane layer of stays
or two lateral planes or layers of stays), access to rhe anchorage will be either
from inside the box-girder or externally by means of mobile platforms.
Furthermore, certain special arrangements must be made depending upon the

r Special protection of the cable stay over a certain height from the
carriageway
o Incorporation of special vibration-damping system.

I t.4 DIfFEREI{I TYPES 0t OBIE STAYS (Figure I l.l2)

The first cable-stays used the same cables as in suspension bridges,
particularly locked-coil cables. The latter consists of stranded cables with an
outer layer of Z-shaped wires that are interlaced to form a locked unit. These
cables were factory made, including the anchorages which are formed by
pouring metal into a socket between the flared ends of wires. The yield point
fluctuates between 1100 MPa and 1500 MPa, depending upon the elements
employed. The modulus of elasticity is in the neighbourhood of 150,000 Mpa
(a) (b) Steol (1.5 x 106 kg/cm).
Figure 1.1.11 Incorporated relay device. Distributed anchorages
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and endge Englneers
ffi ffi Rainas rie H Manual for Highway and Bridge'Engineers
. .,-.r.ar:r :.:rrjr rdte-.-R: -i.
 CABLE.STAYED BRIDGES
Chaptar - 11

r t.5 THT FRTYSSINTT $BtE STAY

aa oa
aolooa Freyssinet stays con;ist of a bundle of parallel strands of 15 mm (0.6")
a.a a a
OO rojo aa
diameter of the same rype as currently used for prestressed concrete. For this
application, however, the strand must be properly selected for its fatigue

'.'.:i..dil. strength. Generzlly, good quality steel will have a fatigue performance which
makes it suitable for this purpose.
aooaaa
IO oo
Over the 'free length', the strands are enclosed in a tube, generally of
polyethylene, which allows the threading and grouting of the stay. A spiral of
steel wire inside the polyethylene sheath ensures that proper grout cover is
Twisted cable provided around the bundle of strands (Figure 11.13).
Parallelwires
7-wlre 6trand

Parallel strands Locked coilcable tube filler

Figure 11.12 Different types of catrle stays

I Figure 11.13 ofa parallel-strands Freyssinet cable stay
Section
The first cable-stayed bridges were mainly of steel, the stress rvariations' as is
the case witl"r these decks were high, and the locked-coil cables were not The cable ends are locked into anchorage devices, which are specially
entifely satisfactory. designed for this purpose, incorporating technological features which have
proven their security and economy within the limits of prestressed concrete
Parallel wire cables, evolved from prestressing techniques,. were then techhiques.
proposed and used after having successfully undergone fatigue tests.
Tbe strands are ind.ioidually antcbored ln tbe blocks by means ofjauts
During the end of the sixties and throughout the seventies seven-wire or'sutaged sleeaes, dependi.ng upon stresslng a.nd, installation
strands were widely developed for prestressin g,, and for this reason the procedures.
research work undertaken on cable stays resulted in the use of strancls with a
very high yield point (1860 Mpa), excellenr endurance qualities and
Other components of the anchorage devices.are: ,

a
modulus of elasticity similar to that of the wires. . A trumpet, which guides the strands to the anchor block with the
Brotonne Bridge was one of the first large cable stay bridges to Lrse strands.
r appropriate angle and spacing.
It was followed by Rande Bridge in Spain, and Caatzacoalcos Bridge in . A trumpet extension (heavy steel pipe), the length and gauge of which
Mexico- are selected in order to reduce the range of stresses transmitted to the
anchorage.

ffi$ Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bndge Engmeers f a"ina'" ri"b Manual for Highway and Bridge Eng,neers --- *@
Eilffi -'--
Chapter - 11 CABLE.STAYED 8R/DGES

. tipe used to exrend the stay anchorage device for
:j:l:.
r A neoprene damper is generally inserted berween the light steel pipe and
the structure in order to restrict wind-induced oscillation in the itays.
The stay anchor exists in two versions:f.r ed and, adjustabte. The adjustable
rype is provided with an outer thread, which allows fine adiustment of the
stay tension by turning a collar. Both versions can be used at the upper or
lower end of the cable stay.
srmctural (b) Tbe transltlon zone comprises essentially of:
r An 'anchorage-tube' connected to the anchorage, of equal or greater
length than the formwork tube, permitting sliding (and hence the
complete stay-structure independence) to allow for re-stressing,
adjusting or destressing if necessary, both during construction and
during the service life of the bridge.
o A 'guide' placed at the end of the anchorage tube. Its functions are:

The Cable Stay comprises 3 rypes of Zones (Figure 11.14): - To reduce bending stresses in the cable at the anchorage outlet
and at the guide outlet.
(a) Thefree lengtb zone;
(b) The translti.on zones (between
- To reduce the dimension of the cable as it issues from the
the anchorages and the free length zone, stfuctllre.
particularly concerned by the problems of flexural fatigue);
(c) The atrcborages - Finally, to act as a barrier beNveen the transition zone and the
themselves.
free length zone in the case where the fypes of protection are
different in the two zones (for example, flexible in the transition
zong zone, rigid in the free length zone).
The type and the dimensions of the 'guide' are such that bending stress
transition zone aa.tiations are rendered negligible compared to the axial tensile stresses
in a cable stay with flexible protection, and within controlled limits (by
means of appropriate dimensioning of the anchorage tube) in the case of
free zone
rigid protection (as explained eadier in some detail).
transition zone (c) Tbe ancborage itself is the essential element, being naturally the most
sensitive part with regard to fdtigue endurance in the absence of special
pylon anchorage tube anchorage pfecautions.
lonnrrvorl tube
The design of ancborages for cafie stays- is based on the following icleas:
o The use of prestressing techniques by anchoring the strands with
deck iaws specially designed for their fatigue endurance,
a Arranging the anchorage and the transition zone so as to obtain the
perfect diitrlbution of stiands, eliminating rcontactr between the
Figure 11.L4 General layout ofthe Freyssinet cable stay strands. (Thesercontacts' br€ responsible for the group effect that
(a) Tbefree lengtb zone consisrs of a bundle of 15 mm (nominal) reduces the fatigue strength of a bundle compared to that of its
diameter parallel strands, with the number of strands in the bundle components.) This is made possible:
depending on capaciry. required. (See abead for tprotection of Stay'
purpose of protecting tbe stay.)
for - By the use of strands, each having high yield point and fatigue
endurance qualities, hence a lesser number of strands to obtain
a given force and the possibility to sequence these strands,
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Briago EnOineers
fi f n"rus rtM Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 1
I
' -. . , t
:: '.' ', . ; 'i. .;:; ,:. 1,..',.",:',,,. . .' -' CABLE STAyED ERIDGES

- By the miniarurisari()n of iaws (made possible by r-rsing high-

perforrnance materials to manufzrcture the anchorage), allowing
Rigid . nomal or galvanized
a reclllction of the centre-to-centl.e distance of strands, and, i
i prolection it.and
. curent gro(t
therefbre, of the 'cleviati()11,. . steel tub€

Protection ol Stoy
This is an essential operation to guarantee a dependable service life. In most
nomal or galvanized
of the existing modern cable stay bliclges, the protection consists of injecting "
strand
cement grout, a technique derived clirectly from prestressing. . cement grout
- polyethylene hrbe

Through experiences on numerolls *rclear contaimnent vessels and cable

stay bridge sites, spccial equipment compiying with the requirements of
international speciiications relateci to grollting have been developed. This has . nomal or galvanized
not preventeci thc continr.rzrtion of research work to reduce gr-or-rting Flexible gtrand
protection - pitch-epoxy or grease
opet'ations on site to a strict minimum. This is, inlfact, tbe casefor cable of wax
stays with flextble'protection, utbere tbefree tengtb zone consists of . polyethylene tube
- reflective cladding
self-protected sheatbed strancls and uhere grouti.ng is reduced. to tbe {optional)
trarrsition and ancborage zones.
- normal or qalvaniled
A 'flexil-rlc' pruduc[ ol'tlre ept>ry plrch, grcase, or wax, etc., of special type rs skand individually PE
then used. shealhed, with or without
intcrmcdisto loy?r of pitch-

iror the llrotectioe elemerrts, a choice bctween tl're different protecti()n

epoxy or heatshrinkable
band or hose-clamps
systems (Figure 11.15) nray be clurssifiecl as follows:
o Rigid type protection, for example: . nomal or galvanized
strand individually PE

- barc stt':rncls in a steel sheatli injccted witl-r cement grout.

sheathed, with orwithout
intermediate layer of pitctts
epoxy or grease or wax
- sarne an'angement, but in a high-density polyethylene sheath . hosslamps
. polyethylene tube
(HDPE).

o flexible type protection, f<>r example: Figure 11,15 Various types ofprotection
strands in a LIDpE shearl.r gror-rred with epoxy pirch, grease or Depencling upon the environment, a 'reflective coating' may also be applied
}1;: to the protecting surface to avoid racliation problems.
- Individually sheathed srrancls (in HDpE) grouped togerher either by Durability of the cables is a major concern for the stay cables exposed to
ho.se clamps and placed in an eventual outer sheath, or by a spirally ambient atmosplrere. Extenstae use of lttgbljt streised steel tendons all
wouncl band. oaer tbe uorlcl in bridges, eaen at marirre lacations, discounts
inbibitioq but leaaes little roomfor cotnplacence. Bare ropes, protected
by mcre painting or by mere galvanizirrg may be vulnerable to corrosion. Iz
tbe Koltlbrandt cable-stayed bridge in Gertnarr!, aA stay ca.bles of
lacked coil ropes batl to be replnced. in 1979 afier aboutfiue years of
set'uice chte to corrosion cla.mages.
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Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers .-Eto:,j
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'.i.
 fl
t.
Chapter. tt #; CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES

'4,
A more effective protective system for parallel stland cables comprises two t.
successive barriers - the first one is the PE tube sheathing and the second is :'ir head anchorage cap (optional) iI
;F-i
cement grout injected into the annular space around the strand bundle. $ii
Grout continuity and no damage to the duci are ensured by rigid controls, on ti
'nJ
BI
grouting pressure and gror.rting sequence. An epoxy-enriched cement is used. !i anchorage block'cap' cable (bundle of strands)

In some cases like Brotonne, France, or Mainbruck, Hochst, W'est Germany, $

steel tubes have been used for sheathing. Rigid steel tubes have some iE
#. block
advantages in contributing to stiffness. PE tubes, howeveq ofler comparative
ease in handling and are generally preferred. The typical thickness of a 160
*''
mm PE tube is 8.5 mm and the duct is not sensitive to handling, flexing and *r (a) : Constitutive parts of anchorages
91
xr
lateral pressures. The corrosion protection effectiveness of the cement grout ti
>i
is reported.to have been tested by BBR for the Schiller-Strasse bridge, after 12 i:!
'it
years of service. A high pH value of pore water in dense grout, rust-free cable-
1l
surface, and no degradation in mechanical properties of the pE tubes were il
confirmed. ,i
,rl
Going by the above evidence, the durability life of the stay cables can be 'l'!
predicted as 'high'. However, a modern system of deck and tower anchoring HG typ€ 0aws on thrs lovels) H0 typo (ias on ore levels)
does plovide fur easy replaeerrrenl of stays ro carer for accidental damages.
(b) : Types of anchorages for Freyssinet stay cables
I1.6 BBR STAY AND ANCHORAGT
l4'lsftks( l
BBR-IIiAw (high amplitude) parallel with their own anchorage
wir.e cables,
system, have been developed to perfection by the combined efforts of the
famous Swiss firm BBR (well known lor its prestressing system) and the
German consulting firm Leonhardt and Andra. The individual wires forming a
parallel wire stay bundle, are no different from the familiar 7 mm wires used
for prestressing. The wires are bundled into a hexagonal section shape and
enclosed by a PE (polyethylene) duct. A strand, 10 mm in diameter, is wound
around the wires as a spacer. The wires are provided with a variant of BBR
buttonhead anchorage. The buttonheads can provide adequate static strength.
But, in order to satisfy high fatigue strength demands, the anchorage system
has some special features. The wires in the bundle are flared out inside a steel
casing before being held at a steel plate by usual BBR butonheads. ??be
(c) : Fixed and adjustable anchorages
contca.l spoce lnside the caslng is filled u,itlt a ,nixture of small steel
pellcts of 1.5 to 2 mm dla.meter and epox! reshl Figure 11.16 Constitutive parts ofthe Freysslnet anchorage
Ihe cold. cured ma.ss ln epoxy matrix, torrlcb car'r'les tbe tendon load
by tbe arcbing action deaelaped tn the pellets, ls clalmed to ensure
a.ncbora.ge efJncien+y wltlt superior fatlgue. In the molten zinc-filled
sockets of ropes, used earlieq the steel was damaged due to high temperarure.
A degradation of elastic modulus and a stress range as low as 100 MPa
@_--- Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway ana aridge engineers
ffi f, a"ir"'" riao Manual tor Highway and Bridge Engineers ---'--*'----
4Jf

Chaptar - 11 ,- ...,. : , , ,, t, . ,. . ... -:",.;,,;i"i1,,,' -: :..ri: , .-i:..
resulted. The Freyssinet &r,d. tbe I:IiAnt BBR ancborages, in sharp
corttrctst, do rtot recluce eitrrer tbe static or jfatigue strengtb of tbe
uires. Conclusiue eaidertce bas been deriaeclfrom static ancl clynannic
tests in u;bicb faihtre bas lnoariabljt occutwed infree lengtlt of wires.
Tbe static and dltnamic properties of the sta! cables are, tberelfore,
determined by tbe mechanical pr.oper.tles of tbe constituent utires.
ll.7 IREYSSINET STAY ANCHORAGE
TWo ranges of anchorages are proposed by the Freyssinet System:
HC anchorage and the HD anchorage (Figure 11.16).
r The HC anchorage features a staggered ari'angement of the jaws in three
levels, resulting in the virtually complete suppression of deviations. 'I'he
tesistance of the anchorage to fatigue is practically that obtainecl with a
rnono-strand anchored in the same conditions. (The FIC anchorage was
usecl for the Coatzacoalcos Briclge in Mexico.)
o 'l'he [iD ar-rcholagc, which is trased on the same principles, comprises a
sirrgle levcl of jaws. It h;rs a slighrly larger diameter than the iJC
anchorage, but is more rapidly installed.
For both types of anchorage, a cap covers the l.ear end to
in-rpeln'rcability when glouting. A second cap fillecl with grease may be adclccl
to protcct the erncrgent extremity of the anchorage.
Irinally, to allow for re-stressing operations, two adjustable load
systems are proposccl:
. By means of screwing zr threacled collar on a tl-rreadecl adjustment tube,
placecl in front of the anchorage.
. By means of inserting shims, in a sirnplified vcrsion.
In both slstems, the anchorage block at tbe extretnity of tbe cable sta.y,
ubere re-stressittg is cart-ied ottt is itself tbreaclecl, enabling tbe utltole
ancborage assettbllt to be pulled, i.e., stressed, without direct re-stressing
of the previously stressed and eventually grouted strands.
The threadable, i.e., the E version (slip-on) allows tl.re fiont of the anchorage
withor-rt its tlueadecl collar io pass through the bearing plate for
installation of prefabricated cable stays.
i?9? Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers ::
CABLE-STAYED BRIOGFS
I I.8 STRTHGTH OT THT STAYS
In typicat cable stayeel stf.,tctures, tuhich a.re basicallit flexible' - rtot
,rigitt, strttctares (unlike clecks constlucted by the free cantilever methocl
with
-here th. cables buried in concrete suffer very little stress variation
traffic coming and going), tbe stays are su.bjected to la.tge stress
r)ariatiot s so tbat tbeir static strengtb a.s uell as tbei't'fatigue strertgtb
becorne critical Stays may be assernbled from strands conforming to cufrent
standards for prestressed concrete strands, but additional fatigue requirements
tl-re have to be considered.
Stotic Strength
Tbe stays antd tbeir anclaorctge cleaices baue been so concehted tbat
tbeir ulthnate static strengtb cant be cottsidered equal to tbe sum of tbe
guaranteeel ultimate load.s of tbe stra.nds of ttthicb tbe! are corrtposecl.
lihc ultirnate strength for instance of Freyssinet cable stays is obtained through
the boncl and wedgc action.
Table 11.1 gives some phVsical crharacteristics and ultimate loads for the
IJreyssinct rztnge of stays. It has been plepafed for ttse with strands
crxrlr.rrrrrirrg t(J variol"ls standat'cls ancl cort'csponcls to cables containing thefull
cnsure
number oJf strfurrds, which the anchor can hold. It is obvious that a stay may
contain a lesser number of strands than its anchot's alkrw for.
transfer. 0peroling Stress in the Cuble Stoy
Tbe toPeratitg stresses' of cable stays fure tradition.tlbl l;imitecl to a
fractiott. of tbeir cbaracteristic tr.ltintate tensile stress,' tlte nonnalljt
irnposecl ualues uary behaeen 4O-45% of tbe characteristic ttlthnate
tensile stress. (Reason: for fear of fatigue owing to large stress variation in
the .stays becairse of being a flexible structLlre, not a rigid strllctlrre).
This percentage is lower than that considered in prestressing cables in rigid
psc structures and in standard structural steel work because of the enhanced
iatigue p1oblems here, mentioned above. Also, higher stresses would give rise
to ductile cable stays (increasecl deflection), .t tcl it is ttecess&ry to hfuoe 4
sttffici.eflt ntargin .for tbe tra'nsfer of cable stay reactions to the
tl-re ,reigbourirtg cable stays itt tbe eaent of cbanging a stc.!.
A closer analysis of deforrnability and fatigue would enable in many cases,
particularly for roacl lrridges with concrete decks, to increase the maximltm
stress.It is not correct to go ltyoncl 50o/o of the chafacteristic r'rltimate tensile
. Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers ' i:!Qs ,
 Chapter - 11
CABLE.STAYEO BR'DGF.S

stress' as long as this value has not been ratified by fatigue

experience. (For Table lL.2
strands, the characteristic ultimate tensile stress is sometimes
converted to
their 'breaking load' - this stress times the actual steel section ASTM A EURONORN BS 5896
area of the Standard
strand, and is referred to as such.) 416-80 138-79 1980

Table t 1..L Some characteristics and ultimate load Strand Fe. BS 5896/3
for '600 7S.'1770- Superstrand-
the Freyssinet stay size" Strand designation strand 15.7Relax 2 1774 15.7-
Grade 270
EU 138/6 relax 2
Type of Strand Single
Strand Nominal diameter (mm) 15.24 15.70 15.70
15.24 mm (0.6') A 140 2660 3780 5180 6720 8540 10500 12740 Nominal tensile Strength (MPa) 1862 1770 1770
grade 270to
ASTM4416 Afpu 260.7 4953 7039 9646 12514 15902 19552 23724 Nominal Steel'Area (mnf ) 140 150 150
I 1.102 20.94 29.75 40.77 52.90 67.22 82.65 '100.28
15. 7mm super
A 150
Nominal weight (kglm) 1.102 1.180 1.180
Strand to 2050 4050 5550 7200 9150 11250 13650
Euronorm 69 139 Afpu 265 5035 7 155 9805 12720 16165
Specified Characteristic breaking load (kN) 2607 265.0 265.0
19875 241'15
I 1.19 22.42 31.86 43.66 56.64 71.98 88.50 107.38 Specified Characteristic 0.1%proof load (kN) 225.0 225.0
15.2 mm. Class tn
td French Cirdlar A 139 2641 3753 5143 6672 8/'79 10425 12649 Load at 17o elongation (kN) 2215 233.0 233.0
No.:73-'175 Afpu 252.1 4750 6807 9328 12100 15378 18907 22941
Minimum elongation at max load (%) 3.5 3.5 3.5
s 20.73 40.37 52.37 81.92
,o, g. = 1mm) 610 500 500
in mrn'Afpu-ultirnate force of the element in kN; g-nominal
*-ififfitlitu;t?i:-section
* Recornmended sjandatd slzes are indicated-in bold ?:i!&ffr"r1f'#!"[i!""*"
o1f sttands used'Jot'I]'evssi"et stav cabtes (r] '
stzes can be envisaged *- characters. The other
"rt."-q;"rii6F;itfy.
I1.9 SPtClFlCATl0l{ 0t SIRAI,|DS FOR CAB|t STAYS
I I.I() SPECITICATION OF ANCHORAGES TOR CABTT STAYS
' All the component elements of Freyssinet anchorages, for instance are
The srand used for stay cabres mlrst cornply with the
requirements of one of designed tol ultimate strength requirements.
the following srandards:
High strength alloy steels are used and are treated in order to give the
o ASTM A4t6_80,
following mechanical characteristics:
r EURONORM 138_79,
- Nut and. adjrcting tube steelcomplying with French standard NF A 35-552
r B.S. 5896:1980,
e Breaking strength : 600 MPa min.
. Any other equivalent standard. ' . 0.2%o Proof stress : 40A MPa
They must, in a'
events, comply with crause relative to fatigue in r Elongation at rupture : l7o/o min.
B.S..5896:
1980, or in EURONORIvI 138-7g, thar is ro say
abiliry to withiand 2.106 cycles r Charpy U Notch (KCU) : 50 J,/sq. cm. min.
wirh
- Ancborage blocks - steel complying with French standard NF A 35-552
o,p*. = 0.80 of actual breaking stress and % = t95 Upa. o Breaking strength : 800 MPa min.
o Proof stress
0.2o/o
' 600 MPa min.
o Charpy U Notch (KCU) 60 J,/sq. cm. min.
'
@------- Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway ana eiage engineers
Q f a"in"'" ri"H Manuat for Highway and Eridge Engineers -'-'.-'
 is-{t'l!i cAEtE-srAvED 8R/DGES
Qhapter - 11

Bearing plate - steel complying with French standard NF A 35-501 I t.t 2 SUPPTY 0t 'STAY' STttL

The stay cables may be supplied to site fully fabricated from

e the factory'
Breaking strength , 490 MPa min.
. 0.20lo Proof.stress : 305 Mpa Tbe sequence of operati'ons'for instancefor a BBR
stel' comprises the
o Charpy U Notch (KCU) at 0"C : 35Jlsq. cm. min. following-
I I.I I SPTCIFICATION OF PROTTCTIVE MATERIAI.S FOR CABTI.STAYS
Individualwiresarecuttoexactlengthrequired,onaspecialctlttingbench.
The wires afe coated with oil, pulied rhrough a die to form tl-re bundle,
:, Stay cables are protected .by means of either rigid or flexible materials wrappedbythespacerStrands,n,-,dth"'.'theanclrorheadisfittedatoneend
depending upon the design. Uynrrtto.rheadlng.ThePEductisdrawnoverthebundleandtheductioints
are welded. The iecond anchor head is fitted. Epory resin
and steel pellets
I Tbe rigid materials are: with pfogrammed
are filled in the end cone held verticaily and cured
- Steel tube complying, for example, wirh French standard NF A 49-112 or tempering.Thecablesarethenreeledonbobbins,for.shippingtosite,Even
an equivalent. The steel employed has the following characteristics: nauts from factory to site are not uncommon' For the
Novi Sad bridge'
toni
(Stahtton AG) to the Yugoslavian
r Breaking strength : 54e Mpa min. the cables were delivered from Switzerland
site, by rail, on 48 steel drums, the largest one weighing 18 tonnes'
: 0.2o/o stress
Proof : 300 MPa
steel grade of
r Elongation at rupture : 22o/o mm. The wires used for stay cables are of the familiar prestressing
S 1500-1600 for instanie. An equivalent elastic modr-rlus of 1.9 x 106 kglcm'
Ccmcnt grout for injcction of thc stays, of the same type as that used fur normally ensures adequate stiffiress and good dynamic behaviour'
prestressing tendons.
The grout must, therefore, comply with the specifications and grouting I I.I3 INSTATTATION OF A CABTE STAY
procedures of the latter. Thesemaybeinstaltedintheirfinalposition'byindividualthreadingof
The flexible materiak are: strandsorbythreadingthewholebundleofstrands,raisingthe'cable'which
may be prepared on the deck or fabricated/assembled in the
factory'
- High Densify polyethylene tube or coating of the same nature on
individually protected strands. However,inthecaseoffactoryprefabrication,theuseofaflexiblesheathis
absolutelynecessalybecauseoftransportation,andspecialprecautionsmust
The polyethylene (HDPE) complies, for instance, with French standar.d NF betakentolimittheconsequencesofwindingstressesonalargediameter
T 54-072 class 5.3, or with the equivalent ISO specifications 16I/7 sheath.
3607, which require: ^nd
'Tl-reeasewithwhichcertainrypesofstays(e.g.,Freyssinetcablestays)are
.. Yieldstress : 19 MPa min. installed, renders their factory prefabrication unprofitable, as
transportation is
o Elongation atrupture : 35Oo/o mm nloi" due to the special transport and handling equipment
"*p".rrive
o Carbon black content : 2.30/o t 0.30/o required.

The intemal parts of, for instance, the Freyssinet anchorage are protected by Thestaycablesmaybeinslalledinnl'anyd'ifferentwayswhile,'ineachcase,
injecting flexible epoxy resin having the following characteristics: providing the same performance guarantees'
o ViscoSity at 20C : 1800 mPas (cPs) They may be installed in their final position equally well:
r Pot life (for 500 g) : 5r/zhr, at 2A"C rEitherbythreadingthestrandsonebyoneorinacornpletebundle;
: 7L/z hq at 50oC
n"in"t ri" M Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Raina's Field Manual tor Highway and Eridge Engineers I
ffi
- *,*.{ffiBtt*:3..

Chapter - 11
. Or by raising the cable complete with anchorages, prefabricated on site
or in the factory.
In fact, the ease with which the Freyssinet stay cables are installed renders it
unnecessary, in most cases, to have recourse to prefabrication in the factory -
a costly operation due to the special handling and transport equipment, which
it requires, particularly for the larger range of stays.
The choice between complete in-situ assembly or on-site prefabrication
depends upon the method and the speed at which the deck is constructed.
The different construction sites in which Freyssinet International
participated provides evidence of the flexibility of the techniques proposed.
'On-sile' Fobricotion qnd lnslcllofion (Figure I l.l7l
This method has proved to be the most economical due to the limited amount
of special equipment required. For exa.mple, ln tbe ca.se of a sta.y uitlx a
po$tetbylcne sheath, tbe genera.l scbeme oJ operattons is as follouts:
1. Installing of the anchorages and anchorage tubes in their final position.
2. Welding together 12 m lengths of polyethylene tube on the deck or in
prefahlication a rea,
3. Moving into position and lifting the upper end of the pre-as.sembled
sheath by means of a lifting system placed on the pylon.
4. Bringing the lower end as near as possible to the lower anchorage.
5. Threading the first strands through the upper anchorage block, the sheath
and the lower anchorage using a single-strand pushing machine.
5. Stressing the first stmnd to a predetelmined value using a mono-strand
jack. This operation can be carried out either at the adjustable or the fixed
anchorage position.
7. Successive threading and stressing of all the strands, as for the first, while
checking forces and displacements
8. Control and adiustment stressing of the complete stay.
9. Protecting ttre anchorage zones (grouting).
10. Corrosion protecting the free length (grouting, for e:<ample),
This method applies to straight stay cables, without.deviations, having upper
and lower anchorages. In the case of a stay with a deviation saddie, the
procedure is a li(le different although based on the same principles of
threading with a pushing machine as in the Coatzacoalcos bridge.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Briale Engineers
CABLE.STAYED BRIDGES
'Prefobricolion' ond lnstollolion of o (uble Sluy
Prefabficatioz theoretically offers the advantages of a more easily
controlled production and a reduction of work time on site.
On tbe other ba.nd" factory prefabricatlon ls oirtualllt lfunlted to PE
sbea.thed. lano-ca.paclty cables utitb a small-diameterflexible sbeatb so
as to llmit trre transport equiptient to reasonablc dimensions and
ueigltt to cornply toi.tb dram diameters (l^tter preferabtJ, not &reater
tban 2O-25 tlmes tbe dl.a'meter of the cablz stcty sbeatb of PE),
hab For pre-assembled catile stays. all the components of the stay, excluding the
permanent corrosion protection of the free length, are assembled and
controlled in the plant. The ma'ln operations ore:
Stoy rssembly
The prestressing steel is cut to length, with temperature corrections as
required, within very close tolerances. The polyethylene sheath is pulled
through the bundle and welded, and the anchors and other accessories
assembled at each end. The anchorage resin compound is poured into the
a anchorages. The cornplete stays are tinally coiled in reels, reusable or
disposahle.
Shipment
Loaded reels containing one or more cabies may be shipped by truck, rail or
ocean freight. Dependent upon tire cable sizes and lengths, individual reels
may weigh up to about 20 T.
Erection
At the jobsite, the reels are installed in 'dispensers' with automatic breaks. An
erection module installed on the top of the pylon, which includes a winch and
a 'nressenger cable' provided with hangers, are used to bring the cable stay in
place. Specially designed tensioning equipment is used to place the
anchbrages in position and also to adjust to the desired tension.
Ranas Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
f f
I -5 -
CABLE.STAYED BRIDGES

Typo of
nrotectlon
lnstallatlon

-4-
a
!6'
do
;o o
c EE
c
o g EE
OE
Type of operatlon and equiPment 9
o !i
3!
>9
6 o
E
o. !b
G
! I s *5 €E s9
oa
u
I
o t3 'co
I c
!:ec
6.9
6 oE

o Stressing strand bY strand

-5- rx
x X X X
-6-
-7-
' Stressing of all the
strands X X X X
X

' Adjusting the tension using a

special jack
X X X X X
-9 -
-10 -
' Adjusting the tension
using a standard jack X x X X X
with special accessions

' Detensioning strand bY

strand adequate X
jicking lengths to be X X X X
left

o Detensioning of all the Strand adequate jacking

Ftgure 11.17 On-slte furstallation (typtcd scheme of operations) lengths to be left
X X X X x

Tablell.3Stresslng,adiustlnganddetensioningofaFreysslnetstaycable
Rainals Field Manual.for Highway ana eridge enoineers
f nainas Eietd Manual for Highway and Btidge Engineers
f,
Chapter - 11 CABLE.STAYED BRIDGES

Table 11.4 Principal characteristics of Freyssinet TensioningJacks Corrosion Protection of the lree length

lnternal . Max This opelation is carried out, as in the case of assembled in-situ stays, by
Number diameter lenSlOnlng tenslonino injecting cement grout in the sheath.
of
strands .,.':i, ,# 5'ililqi:l
iagi" (centre
hole jack)
(mm)
area (cmf pressure-
(ram)
Reference:
1q K 15n Knt 444 aan 'ts6 4qn ^fr:$,
6?5
to37 600 718 MINA, Y.K.: "CONCRETE BRIDGE PRACTICE: Ana$tsi,s, Deslgn and
31 K 515 780 203 7AA 625
Economics" Jrd Edltion, Shroff publishers & Distributors p\.,t. Ltd., Mumbai.
55to61 K 700 727 640 1160 250 980 625
73to91 K 1000 783 77A 1450 310 '1431 625
* Dlmensions without accessories.

Stressing Adiusting Detensioning of Stoys

The design of Freyssinet stay cable anchorages offers the same advantages for
stressing as those used for prestressed concrete. The cable passes through a
centre hole jack and the slack is taken up without the necessity of cutting to
a precise length (Table 11.3)
Moreover, in parallel stland cablc stays, due to the scquerreirrg of the parailel
strands, stressing may be performed advantageously on site, sirancl by strand,
with a Lghtweight easily handled iack. For a semi-prefabricated cable stay
(i.e., the one with a simple pre-blocked anchorage), again the srressing may
be carried out strand by strand, whereas for a completely prefabricatedlable
stay (in which both anchorages are pre-blocked), stressing is performecl with
a jack drawing all the strands simultaneously. Tabte 11.4 indicates the jacks to
be used according to the tendon to be stressed.
Furthermore, an adjusting or a control iack may be used. This jack may remain
available to the client for the supervision of cable stays. It is screwed to the
anchorage block and enables restressing. considering its function
(adjustment), the stroke may be lirnited to reduce the weight.
The stressing procedure is confined to the compliance with the regulations in
force in the country concerned.
The cable stay may be completely destressed, either strand by strand (in the
case of a flexible protection), providing that the necessary extra length has
been provided for, or, the 'whole stayr (by the clamping ola special
'fiiction-
piece' taken up by the stressing jack, adapted for destressing, whatever the
fype of protection).

@__- -' Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge enO,ne"rs
f[ f Rainat rre H Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers **-@
 I2.O STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION,
cRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR.

I 2.t IORMWORK 12.6.4 neiirider

12.2 REIIITORGIITENI ili&s' 'hiidteiqidr

t 2.3 AGGRIGAIIS

12.4 IN.SITU (O}ICRETT t2.f

1,2.1,.1 Mixingconcrele t2.8
12.4.2 Ploting of (onaele

12.4.3 fiirins
12.6,1,, ,.P[4,r. : :,ii{ .i ,, ,

12.4.4 (onslruclion Joints (ond (old Joints) 17,8.2, lf{ inlQgo.ufins

t 2.5 PRICAST CONCRffi

12.9 XESIltlgOF.C0llCRtIt I f.i l

, 12.9.1 loking,u $mple ll0m;0; Con(rsle

12.5 ADIIIIXTURES TO COIIffi ETE
Mixet (eifier iile'dr lruck)
12.6.1 Seledion'of on Admixture
12.9.2 lhe'Slump Tesl
12.6.2 Ah-entroinmeilAdmixlures
12.9.3 tltiliing'cubes
12.6.3 Woler-ReducingAdditive(Plostkiser)

a"in"'" neld Manual for Hlghway and Bidge Engineers

J
 STRUCTURE CONSIRUCT/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - t2

12.26.3 l4inimum (oncrele Slrengft 12.29 CAISSoI{S 0R 'W[[[' F0UI{DAI|oNS

I 2.9.3.1 Procedure for moking I 50 I2.I8 DTPOSITING COH(RETE UNDTR WAITR
mm (ubes 12.19 tNsPtcfloN AND IISTI{G toR
12.26.4 tddors offecfing fie 'stondord I 2.29.1 Suilobility
Deviolion' in (onaete Slrengft
12.9.3.2 (omporting Cubes by (ONCRETE 12.29.2 Hisloricul Nob
I2.27 OPTN TOUNDATIONS
Vibrotion 12.20 (URING At{D pRoTt(ItoN 0t (0ilfttTt I 2.29.3 (oisson (onslruclion ond Sinking

12.9.4 (ompocting toctor Test I 2.28 PttE FoUt{DATt0r{S

I2.2I (ON(RIIING IN ADVTRST WTATHTR Methods
12.28.1 Pile foundotions ore suited for
I 2.t0 PRTSTRESSED (OltCRHt c0NDtTt0l{s I 2.29.4 Problems in (onslruclion of Well
12.28.2 Type of R( Piles
l2.l0.l (ontrele t2.22 CoilfitTt txposED I0 stA wAItR Foundqfions
12.28.2.1R( piles ond fteir types
12.10.2 Sy$ems of Preslresing I2.23 APPIICATIOI{ Of SPRAYID COI{CRIII I 2.29.5 (onstrunion of Temporory hlonds for

{SHOTCREIq AND SPRAYID IIIORTAR 12.28.2.2 Prero$ Driven Piles Costing Well (urbs
12.10.3 tos of Prestress
(GUNlTtl 12.28.2.3 (osing Driven (osl in situ 12.29.6 OayeyStrato
I 2.1 0.4 Descriplion of fte (onstruction Phoses
Piles
12.24 GUtDtUt{tS toR RTPAIR 0F I2.29.7 Sond Blowing
12.10.5 Anrhor Blocks (tnd Blocks)
DATI'AGED/SPAII.TD COI{CRIIT OT 12.28.2,4 Bored (osl in situ Piles
I 2.29.8 Artesiun (onditions
12.10.6 Pre-Tensioned (omponenls TXISIING CONCRTTI BRIDGES BY 12.28.3 Spocing of Piles
SHOTCRTIII{G OR GUIIITII.IG I 2.29.9 lrleftods to counterod lilh ond Shifts
12.10.7 Posl-Tensioned (omponenh 12.28.4 Sire of (onaele Piles
12.10.8 Prestressing Reinforcemenl
I2.25 CART TOR STRUCTURAI COII(RTTE t t2.28.5 Rake in Piles
in Wells

I 2.29.1 0 locklinq 0bstodes durinq t4tell Sinking

0.9 Protection of Preskessing Sleel
12.25.1 $/ell-mode concrele
I 2.1 I 2.28.6 Toleronce in Pile Alignment
I2.29,11 (rscks in Wells
I 2.25.2 Corrosion of Reinforernurrl
12.10.10 Plqccment of fleinlorcement, lnserts 12.28.7 Pile (op
12.25.3 Reoclion hetueen Aggregote cnd
I 2.29.1 2 Pneumotkolly Sunk (oissons
ond Bearings prior lo cosling
12.28.8 Mix of (oncrele in Piles
Preslressed (oncrele
(emenl 12.29.13 Lood lesling of o tttell Foundofion
12.28.9 Reinforcemenl
((sisson)
l2.l0.l I Preslresing fie Structure 12.25.4 Reqdion o{ ftemkok in Aggregotes
12.28.9.1 Driven Prero$ (oncrele
t2.30 BtARtl{Gs
I2.I I PRTCAST SEGIIIEIIT IVIA}IUFACIURE A}ID I 2.25.5 Resislon(e to Vorious
Piles
TRECTION ftemicolsAubstonces 12.3t txPANSloN J0|NTS
12.28.9.2 Driven Cosl in silu (oncrete
I 2.I2 TPOXY EONDING AGTI{TS TOR PRT$ST I 2.25.6 Resislsnce to Sulphoh Attock
Piles
I2.32 PARAPTTS

STGIYIENTAI. BOX GIRDTRS 12.25.7 (onaele in Seo Wster

I 2.28.9.3 Bored Cosl in situ Piles 12.33 SUGGISTID cutDtilt{ts toR
r2.t3 tl{sPECfW 0F PRECASI S[cm[iltAt I 2.25.8 Resislonce to Soft lrloorlond ond Peoty
12.28.10 Precoulions for Pile (onaeling under
III5PTCIION OT BRIDGTS AI\lD CUtvtRTS
BOX GIRDER JOI}ITIIIG PRO(IDURTS Wqlers 'Slu' AT TIIIIT OT TAKING OVTR IHT
STRUCTURTS
I2.I4 TPOXY BONDII{G AGIIII IESTS I 2.25.9 Resislonce lo [rosion ond Abrosion I 2.28.1 I Driving ond Boring
12.t5 GRoUII{G 0F GBtt DUOS tt{ poST- 12.25.10 Resislonre lo Fire
12.34 CRAq( RtPAtR Ttfflflouts
12.28.12 lnvesligotion for Soil ftoruderislic
TENSIO}IED PRISTRESS[D (OIICRTTI I 2.26 A(CTPTAEII.ITY OT TIST RESUTIS FOR
r2.35 DrTAil.S 0f SofrlE REpAtR Tt(Ht{tou[s
12.28.13 Piling
I2.I6 (OIITROI OF SURFACE IVAPORATIOI{, COIIfiITI STRIIIGTH
12.28.14 Loqd Tesling o'Pile'
Problem No. l: Proteclion of I'lew or txisling
AND ITS IflIPORTAI{C 12.26.1 Reinforced (oncrele Slrudures
The oaephbility of test resulr
12.28.14.1 Generol
I2.t7 ColtsTRUCItoN J0mTt txpANst0N ogoinsl (orbonotion or ftloride-
12.26.2 Soving in (ementfirough Quolily
12.28.14.2 Pile lood Testing induced (onosion
JolltTs Al{D cotD Joll{Is (onilol

Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway ana Briaoe Engineers

S f, Rarna's rre ld Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineere
-@
.*i€t#6/U*:$9YS{
 Chapter-t2 ffiiFffS';nri-:i:i':il - r' r":"' STRUCTURE CONSIRUCION, CRACK DAMAGE ANO REPAIR

No.2: (orbonolion in Reinforced

STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION, CR,ACK DAITAAGE
Problem 7: Treolmenl of Non-q(live (rurks
(onaete-Reinforcing Steel
Problem No.

wilhin (oncrele flements coused

I2.O
within the (orbonoted Zone by Shrinkoge or Other AND REPAIR
Problem No.3: ftloride-indured (orrosion in Slruclurol Movemenl. i.e.

Reinforced (oncrete (ft loride TREATMT}lT OF DORMANI

CRA(KS
t2.l toRffiwoRK
Penelrolion from Exlernol Ingeneral'formworkshoutdbeconstructedofsteelplate,orsoundwell-
seaioned timber (lined by GI sheet) and/or plywood. The formwork
should
Invironmenl only] Problem No. 8: Treotmenl of Nonow (rucks

Problem No. 4: (hloride-induced (orrosion in wilhin [oncrele [lemenls where be sufficiently rigid to prevent'undue deflection during the placing and
Similarly, strutting and ties to form.should be strong
Reinforced Concrele o Degree of Fulure Movemenl is
vibrating of the concrete.
((ontqminotion by ft lorides onlicipoted i.e. TREAIMENI 0F enoughandwellsecured'TheA.R.E.shouldlravecheckedtheContractor.s
Ltvr (RA(l(s
detailed formwork proposals before construction'
inherent wilhin fte (oncrelel
Problem No.5: Honeycombed (oncrele or Problem No. 9: Surfoce Prolerlion of [oncrele in Formworkwillnormallybeofthefollowingfiveclasses,FltoF5:-
(onaete domoged by Physicol (onlqct wilh Sewoge, Asocioled
a) F3 for all exposed surfaces of kerbs, parapets' edge bearns and soffit of
Forres such os lmpocl or Erosion ftemkol ond lndu$riol Woste, deckslab,p.estres,"dconcretegirder,beams'columns'crossheads'
(No ftlorides or (qrbonotion Seo Woter qnd Sebkho Soik wingwallsandabutmentsofbridgesandintefnalfacesofboxculverts.
presenl) Problem l'lo. I 0: (onosion in Reinforced (oncrete b) F1 fbr most olher surfaces
Problem No. 6: ftloride or (orbonotion-induted inducod by Gcmicol Anock
c) F2, F4 and l> finishes wlll only I're rrecessary in^ cxccptional
[onosion of Reinforred (onrrete circumst:rnces.andtheA'R.E.willadvisetheSupervisorofthis.
where [orge Volumes ore and
The formwork shall be set to line and level within the specified tolerance
the top
include any camber which may be required' Inspection by eye along
involved or where Trowel-
can
of a form will reveal very clearly if it iS otlt of line, and the measurements
opplied Morton ore ronsidered
les suitoble
from a string line set between the col'ners'
be made
The joints shoulcl be sufficiently tight to Prevent loss of .mortar from
the
concrete. A useful ir"rciication of this is to look for dayligl'rt through ioints
which are not tight enough'
Topreventdamagetotheconcfete,thesurfaceoftheformmustbecoated
with a release agJnt prior ro erecrion. A hardwood fillet shali be fixed to
the
all corners of the
formwork to form chamfem 25 mm x 25 mm on external
concrete.
Immediatelybeforeconcreting,allshavings,loosewiresandotherdebrisshall
be removed from within the l0rmwork. If one cannot see the bottom
of the
proposecl pour, one should use a torcVflashlight to clo so'

All formwork shall be removed without damage to the conclete in

appearance, stfength ordurability.where it is intended to reuse
formwork' it

'n"ttu"cleaneclancistrengthenedtothesatisfactionoftheEngineer.
j:2g6
Raina's Field Manual fot Highway and Bridge Engineers i . . 'ij . Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Aridge Engineers i?.9f
Chapter - 12 SIRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

12.2 REINFORCII{IE}IT I2.3 AGGRISATIS

Reinforcement may consist of round steel bars, welded mesh fabrics or
deformed bars. Upon receipt of the steel at the job site, you should make sure
that it is of the specified rype and grade as shown by identiffing the markings
rolled into the bars.
The bars should have mill tags identi$ring the batch number. The mill test
results and compliance with the specifications with respect to qualiry can be
determined from these numbers.
If the bars are precut and bent prior to receipt at the job-site, they should have
identifying tags in accordance with the bar bending lists.
These are the most varlable part of the concrete mix. Cleanliness of the
aggregates is very important. Coarse aggregates can be checkedtsr tliiu Uy, il
visual inspection. Lumps of clay and even dust or silt will #eaken the
concrete. Vegetaple matter (grass, leaves, etc.), cigarette ends and similar
foreign matter can slow the setting of concrete and also harm it.
Fine aggregates can be checked for cleanliness by rubbing them between the
hands. If the palms of the hands stay clean, the sand is likely to be clean
enough for concreting. If the hands are stained, then the silt.test should be
carried out, and the sand may have to be washed and drained.

Steel reinforcement shall be stored in clean conditions. It shall be clean and

free from rust and mill scale at the time of fixing in position and subsequent
12.4 m-stTu coilfirTr
concfeting. There are three tasks which should be effectively supervised and controlled
during the work:
It is important that reinforcing steel in storage is kept off the ground by timber
blocks, which are thick enough to allow for sagging of the steel. Steel, which a) Mixing of concrete;
is not clean or is rusty, must be wire brushed, and if this is not done, the
Supervisor must reject it for use. Sometimes reinforcing steel may be proposed
b) Placing o[ concrete vis-)-vis its vibration;
for use which is clearly rusted with a possible reduction in its cross-seciional c) Curing ol concrete.
area; this steel must be rejected.
The steel shoulcl be installed arrd used in accordance witlr the specilications 12.4.1 tixing (onsete
and drawings. You should also check:- a) The Supervisor supervising the concrete pour should know the basic
a) That the bars are oi the reqr-rired size and shape and have been placed proportions of concrete mix design and the concrete class to be used for
within allowable tolerances; each stnrcture
, t'
b) That the splices have the required laps and preferably are not located at b) On the day when conclete will be batched, the Supervisor assigned to
points of maximum tensile stress; the concrete mixer should examine the plant and the condition of the
aggregates in the stockpiles and bins. Any impurities such as vegetable
c) That welded splices, if permitted, are made in accordance with
matter, excess fines or other foreign matter are reasons to reiect such
recommended procedures;
aggregates.
d) That the reinforcement is adequately tied and supported to remain in
position when concrete is placed; c) The Supervisor assigned to the concrete batching plant shotrld be ale*
and observant during concrete Broductiotr, partiqularly for any changing
e) That the specified cover of concrete for the steel bars is being obtained;
conditions, which would affect the concrete quality control.
D That tying wire is not allowed to protrude towards the face of the
d) He should also check that the weighing and water-dispensing
concrete.
mechanisms are in good working order, and that
Any foreseeable problems should be openly discussed with the Contractor
when they are first noticed. The errors can be more easily corrected then e) Mixers, which have been out of use for more than l0 minutes, are
instead of after the final inspection. thoroughly cleaned before any fresh concrete is mixed.

ffi ' ' Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge erOir""r" ] I nrr"'" r,"H Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers re
chapter - 12 *s*ffirF&4.fip&;l:{ir*iffii;;sJF"li:j.itl;{s:i sIRUcruRE coNsTRUcTtoN, oRACK DAMAGE ANO REPATR

12.4.2 Plocing of Concrele b) A.R.E. should check

If a curing compor,rnd is to be used for curing, the
that the compound is known to be compatible and it is applied strictly
Vhile supervising the concrete pour, check that:- as per the manufacturer's specifications.
a) Concrete is handled without segregation.
12.4.4 Consltuclion Joints (ond (old Jointsl
b) Inadequate or inefficient concrete handling equipment is replaced
immediately. It is importanf in construction ioints to optimise the quality of the bond
between the previously placed hardened concrete and the fresh concrete. To
c) Concrete is placed in the forms in successive sloping layers, each do this, check that the Contractor has:-
not exceeding about 450 mm deeP.
a) Removed all cement laitance from the hardening concrete. This is most
d) vibration of the concrete should systematically follow its placement, easily done by wire brushing the joint face within a few hours of
so that all afeas afe uniformly compacted. vibration should continue completion of the pour and exposing the coarse aggtegate so that its
until the concrete is adequately compacted' colour can be seen. If the removal is left until the concrete is hard, the
e) The concfete is placed as close as possible to its final position. It Contractor may use a chisel to break off the laitance and loose
should not be moved by vibrating it as this may result in aggregates.
segregation. b) Removed any crevices, honeycombing, and all loose and loosened
f) Spare vibrators are a must. The Contracior is to replace any, whicl-r material.
fail to oPerate ProPerlY , c) If a Cold Joint is accepted, then ensure that the concrete Joint surface
g) No concrete io placcd in floq,ing vrilter Ilndenvzfef conclete is t() has heen hacked and hror.rght nearly perpendicular to the principal line
be placed in position bY tremie. of Tension.

h)Concreteshallnotbedroppedintoplacefromaheiglrtexceeding
2 metres, otherwise chutes or flippers shall be used to soften the
drop to avoid segregation.
i) Keep a complete record of the date, time, concrete class and
.onditio.t, of placing the conclete in each portion of the work' The
times of I'start', and r,finish" are useful iniormation in order to know
how long the casting took. This is to be recorded in the daily report'
12.4.3 Curing
curing is required to delay the drying up of intrinsic moisture within the
matrix of setting-concrete in order to optimise hydration of the cement so that
the concrere will develop its strength and durabiliry fully. check thatt
a) curing commences as soon after the initial setting of concrete. The
exposed surface of the concrete member has to be kept constantly wet,
,I"v and night for at least 7 to 10 days. continuously moistened gunny
. or Hessian sacks are acceptable
for this, p|ovided the contractor keeps
them wet.
d) Before new concrete is poured, ioint surfaces are "primed" with a 1:1
cement water slurry or an appropriate epoxy formulation.
12.5 PRECAST COI{CRETT
Precast concrete is defined as any concrete cast separately in moulds and
assembled together to form the structure or parts of a structure, e.g., block
drains, drainage pipes, prestressed beams, etc.
Check with the A.R.E. whether the method of manufacture has been approved
befor.e work commences.
No precast members shall be allowed to be used or despatched to the work
site until test results are found to be satisfactory and the members accepted
by the Engineer.
All memberS shall be indelibly markecl to show the date on which the
concrete was cast, the class and rype of structure, etc.
Check accuracy in formwork; any defects in it will be reproduced in the
finished concrete rnembers. If surfaces have to be bonded to in-situ concrete,

E-- ' ' Raina's Fietd Manuat tor Highway and Etidgeengineers I ffi Rainat Freld Manuat tor Highway and Bddge Engineers - -g
 t
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCI'ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - t2

$
these surfaces shall have all laitance removed and the coarse aggregates the cement, and to provide the required amount of plasticiry of the mix to
exposed for roughness to bond. enable it to be placed and fully compacted (i.e., workabilifl.

Care is to be taken to avoid shock, impact, vibration or dynamic loading on fl The amount of water required for the hydration of ordinary Portland cement
the precast units during lifting, handling, storing or transporting. fl is about 12 kg per' 50 kg of cement.
No precast units shall be removed from the casting yard to the work site The 'total' water (i.e., added water plus water in aggregates, if any) in a mix
$
without the Engineer's approval. varies berween 20 and 30 kgs per 50 kg cement. This means that bewveen
fi 8 and 18 kgs of water are added to the mix for every 50 kg of cement used,
If any member turns out substandard, it shall be reiected and replaced at the ilfi to make the mix workable. If this water could be reduced, properties of
Contractor's expense.
concrete could improve!
fr' Less ucrter means:-
12,6 ADMXTURES TO (ONCRITT *E
1. The dried concrete will be stronger (in flexure, bond, compression and
t 2.6.t Selecfion of un Admixture E tension);
.tT
The selectlon of an admlxturc shottld always be with a particular purpose I
F
2. The tendency to bleed (form laitance) is reduced, leading to an increase
in mind. The justification for using an admixture is: of sulface hardness;
(a) It 3. The mix will be less liable to segregation; "
to improve the properties of the concrete; and/or
il
(b) 1u effeet uverall eeulurrries irr thc eust of the cuucrete. 4. Durability will be increased, since the voids catrsed by evaporation of
water will be fewer;
Admixtures arc uscd primarily for thc folloulng purposos:
5. Shrinkage and cracking are less liable to occur;
1. Vater reducing; 6. Increased denseness, resulting from the reduction in unit water content,
2. Retarding (i.e. extending) the setting time; T,
produces a less permeabie concrete.
3. Accelerating (i.e. reducing) the setting time;
4. Air entraining (improving durability where concrete is exposed to
i 12.6.2 Air-enfroinmenl Admixlures
Air entrainment is important for all concrete members exposed to wetting and
alternate wetting and drying conditions and improving wor*ability);
drying, freezing and thawing, or to the destructive action of chemicals. It is
5. Waterproofing. i
a
also a standard requirement for concrete rbads, runways and, to some extent,
:[
paved areas.
Water reducr'ag is achieved by using an admixture which enables the l.*

workability of the mix to be held constant with a significantly lower water
content. This reduction in the amount of water in the mix also increases the
strength of the concrete produced. A secondary effect can be to reduce the
amount of cement in the mix - the additive maintaining the workability and
strcngth of the plain mix but using less cement. By reducing the amount of
water used, there is also a reduced tendency for 'laitance' or 'bleeding' - the
tendency for water to rise to fhe surface of the mix on compaction; this
improves the surface hardness and durability.
It should be remembered that the function of water in the mix is to
':{
! Frogr the road worker's point of view, air-entrainment additives are more
useful and important.
The main reason for the air entrainment is the significant improvement in
durability obtained by the incorporation of the correct amount of entrained air
in the mix.
Entra.tned air should not be confused with entrapped air (the latter is in the
voids in the concrete, generally due to insufficient compaction, and is
dangerous). Entrained air in conciete is ideally in the form of microscopic air
hydrate
cells properly distributed throughout the concrete.

-'- Ralna's Fie td Manual for Highway and Bidge Enefneers I ffi Rainas rreH Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 I DAMAGE AND REPAIR
ll ffi srRUcruRE coNsrRuclFloN, oRACK
Chaptf,t - t2

12.6.3 Woter-Reducing Additive (Plqsliciserl

Between mixing and final compacting, concrete is usually roughly handled, il
transported, dumped, spread, vibrated and surface finished. At each of This may also be referred to as.a plasticiser and may be supplied in liquid or
these operations, the air content is likely to.be reduced. The larger the size i1
'r. I
powder form. The liquid is often.a solution of vinsol resin salt and appears as
of the 'bubbles' of air, the more likely they are to be 'knocked out' of the
.I
a dark brown watery liquid. It is either fed into the mixel directly or into the
gauging water tank. Dosage is about 250 - 300 ml per 50 kg of cement'
$.1

concrete in the handling processes. Hence, the entraining agent, which 3

produces the more microscopic air cells, is needed if the necessary amount n
The powder form of plasticiser is added either to the water supply tank or
of air is to remain in the concrete for gaining on workability and against {' directly into the mixer with a dosage of '15 - 30 g per 50 kg of cement. The
freeze-thaw effects. ,ri
addition of this material enables a reduction of water in the mix, whilst still
rVith certain types of air-entraining ageflts, the entrained air is produced by !r achieving the same slumP value.
friction during the mixing process - a physical interaction belween the solids
in the additive liquid and the sand in the mix. (Even without the cement, the ;
"it,
t2.6.4 Relorder
?j

effect can be demonstrated by adding a few drops of the additive to a sample i

This additive is often similar in colour to the plasticiseq i.e., it is brown, but
of damp sand. Vigorous stirring will transform the harsh unworkable sand into i rather more viscous than water; hence, it is a 'thicker' liquid than the
a smooth/laolng mater'al). i
'a
plasticiser.
Tbef,oUouthtg cbanges ucur Jn corrcrete due to the addltlon of an alr- ?: It is besr to add this ar the mixer-inixing stage, at the same time as the water'
entralnlng agerrt: is added to the mix. Tbe und.iluted mlxture ,nust not come lnto direct
(a) 'Rich' mixes may lose some strength;
i
contact u)ttb d.r! cement.
(b) 'Average' mixes tend not to change in strength; Rates of feed depend upon the telnperature; the higher the air temperature,
the more additlve ls requlred. Rates vary lrolr 0.15 I peL 50 kg ccmcnt at about
(c) 'rVeak' or'lean' mixes should gain in strength. 700 - ?50 c to 0.30 I per 50 kg cement ct 3?oc or o\.ef.
(A ricb rnix can be defined. as bauing a, lea$ 36A kg cementrm3;
an auerage mix can be defined as bauing 240 - 360 kg cement/n3; and 12.6.5 Actelerolor
a lean mix can be defined as bauing less tban 24O kg cement/nf).
This additive is often used when the air temperature is low and falling, in
Faclors qlfecttng the ornount of Entratned Alr:- order to make the setting time shorter. The composition includes calcium
chloride in a water-reducing agent, with a catalyst to pfomote the chemical
The volume of air-produced from a given dosage of air-entraining agent varies
reaction. Dosage of this watery iiquid is frqm 850 ml per 50 kg of cement, up
according to a number of circumstances, the main ones being the:
to double this quantiry.
l Particular air entraining agent being used;
cements utltlcb alread.y contaln calcium
It ,nust not be used tqitb
2. Type of mix and proportion of materials; cbld'tde or wtth btgb alumtna elements.
3. Type of mixer;
12.6.6 Wolerprooling Additive
4. Length of mlxing time;
An emulsion of an organic ester combined with a lignin-based water-reducing
5. Consistency of the mix; agent is often used. In this fon4, it is a light brown liquid slightly thicker than
6. Use of other additives to the mix. water. A dosage of about 550 ml per 50 kg of cement is normal.
It is completely insoluble in water and becomes a pemanent constiruent of the
hardened concfete. It also reduces the amount of water required for the mix.

f nurr'" rle H Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers

 fi
Chapter - 72 sraucruRgcoNsrRucrroN' cRAcK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
f,
ii mosr design mix requirements, that PFA shoulcl be chosen which has about
12.7 WORKABII.ITY OF A CONCRETE TNIX lr
J the same water requirements for standard consistency as an equivalent weight
Each batch mix on a particular job should be kept to the same consistency or .i
t of cement. This class includes most PFAs produced'
workabiliry. To check this, the slump test and compacting factor test can be 'i:
el In the rationalised mix design method developed for use with PFA concretes'
used (Sce abead). t the aim has been to achieve workabitity and strengths equivalent to those of
i
(a) Tlre slump test is often the only available site-testing facility, though the the ordinary Portland cement concretes of the same age. Thus, if the PFA and
compacting factor test is a more reliable test and should be undertaken t porttand cement concretes have equivalent early strengths, then the additional
in preference to the slump testi whenever possible.
€
:i; Lime-PFA interaction which continues after the concrete has hardened,
,ti produces an eventual superiority of strength in the PFA concretes!
(b) The use of the compacting factor test is usually confined to large jobs
t?

where there is a site laboratory. It is more accurate than the slump test T
r 12.8.2 PfA in Grouting
and is better for concrete of low workabiliry (i.e., where the slump is less i.
on both technical and economic grounds, PFA has been shown to be of value
than 25 mm).
in all forms of grouting. It can be used neat, in a slurried form for void filling
(c) The compacting factor test must be used with machine laid concrete
d
: and as aggregate with cement in high and low pressufe work for
slabs. j ^n
foundation and structural grouting.
.;

t2.8 UGHTWETGHT (oNCRtTt USlt{G PUwIRIZED FUEL ASH (PrAl
12.8.1 Pulverised Fuel Ash (PFA)
PFA has been incorporated in concrete in Nvo ways - as a p fti^l replacement
(br cerrrerrt (comtnouly 200,6 - 3}a,'t'by wcight of ccmcnt by an equivalent
weight of PFA), or as a partial replacement for both sand and cement (on a
weight 6r volume basis). Although satisfactory results have been obtained by
these methods, research has now shown that a rational mix design method,
taking into account the source and type of PFAs and their differing water
requirements, can achieve specified strengths from three days onwards.
Such a mix will not on-ly satisfy strength specifications and meet workabiliry
and economy requirements, but it will also contribute to reduction of bieeding
and of temperature rise. Other benefits are increased resistance to chemical
attack, because of reduced permeability, and reduction in the
cement/^ggtegate reaction. The use of PFA can, fherefore,.undoubtedly
produce concrete which .is cheaper .and perhaps even superior in many
irnportant characteristics to ordinary Portland cement concrete, but it is
emphasised that it is the correct use of the most suitable PFAs, that results in
the most significant advantages.
PFA is usually of a similar size spectrum to cement, and should achieve the
same degree ol void filling. Its surface area permits Sre t$ reaction with other
ingredients, and its particle shape contributes to workabiliry. It has been
found, howevel that the most significant property determining the suitability
of PFA for use in concrete is its water-absorbing capacity. In order to meet
'-' Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Enginu"t"
The cltemlcal properties of PFA are qul.te sign(fvcant in grouting The
I alkalirie nature of the material is such that it presents little danger of chemical
atiack on pipes or pumping plant. The sulphate resistance of cement - is
increased by ihe addition of pFA which reacts with the free lime liberated by
the cemenr on hyrlrat,lott' Tlte uuull particle sizc improvcs pumpinS;
conditions by keeping the grout in suspension, thus reducing sedimentation
and alleJvs penetration into small interstices which could not be plugged by
a cement/sand grout. The shape of the pafticles also gives a lubricating action,
ensuring better flow qualiry.
pFA is used in barrier grouting behind dams and around. foundations,
stabilisation of emba.nkments and. raihoay tracks, bridge abutments,
and void filling in abandoned tunnels where ground subsidence has been a
problem. PFA grout is also being used in the rePaif of older masonry structures
such as bridge piers, church towers, and masonry-lined railway tunnels'
N.q TESTING OT COI{CRTTE
'Material Testi.ng', per se, does not form part of this MANUAI'
However, given below are a few of the common procedures that should be
lollowed at site.
12.9.1 loking o Somple from o (oncrele lllixer (either sile or truck)
A proper sample consists of scoopfuls taken from four different parts of the
load. To get a true sample, use a sampling plan as follows:
I I R"ir"t ro ld Manual fot Htghway and Bridge Engineers
ChaPte7.. STRUCIURF CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

1 Imagine the load divided into six parts.

As the load is discharged;
Let part 1 go;
Take 2 scoopfuls trom part 2;
Take 2 scoopfuls from part 3;
Take 2 scoopfuls from part 4;
and 2 scoopfuls from part 5;

Let part 6 go.

N,B. Scoopfuk musi be takenfrom tbe rnoalng stream of concrete.

12.9,2 lhe Slump Test

1. Mix the sample you have afueady taken, on the mixing plate, and put it ,t Figure 12.2 Frllingth€ Slump Test Cone
, ..
1 to-abk ih the bucket.
4. Smooth off when the cone is full, using the float, and'wipe away waste.
') Place the slump cone on the levelled mixing plate and stand with feet Then slowly lift the cone straight up and off.
onthe foot pieces (Figure 12.1).
5. Lay the slump rocl across.the;upturned slugtp cone.

6. Measure the distance between the underside of the rod and the highest
point of the concrete. Record this distance (in millirnetres) (Fi$ure;19,$);
this is the 'slump'.

slump rule
'lri;
value

I
l'' ' 'rr,' j'if i
'r.'Gone

'trigdnb r2.1j sftiinp Test Cone and Base Plate

3. Fill the slump cone in four equal layers. Rod each layer with exactly 25
strokes, making sure the rod penetrates.to the layer below (Figure 12.2).
i:' ,'. ': -: "'' i;:i, -'' '.'a. sample

i. Figure 12.3 Measudng the SlumP

Raina's Ftetd..Manuat for Highway and erlaOe enOineers f f a"in"'" Fi"ld Manual for Highway and Bridge Enginoers
 ri
:l
:l
Chapter - l2 ffi STRIJ?TIIRE CONSIRUC,?T/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
:l
7 If you do not get a 'nofmal, slump the frst time, repeat the test. If tl-re second I tamping bar N. B. Allthe
slump also is irot 'normal', report the matter to the Engineer or Foreman' trapped air
There are three kinds of slump (see FiSure 12.4): ,must be got
.out
1. Normal,
2. Collapse,

3. Shear.
tu,o halves
normal collapsee shear
1 _l_ 2r-, 3 I

i
base
together

Figure 12.5 Concrete test cube mould

7. Remove surplus concrete. Smooth over with a float.

proper t t
slump too wet too dry
B. Mark the cubes whilst stitl wet for identification later on.

value 9. Cuver the urould witir a darnp cloth and a polythene shect, and storc
insirie at normal room temperature: 20o C.
Figurc 12.4 TYPes of SlumP
,^f.B If making the (smaller) 100 mm cubes, fill the mould in two layers.

12.9.3 llloking Cubes If the concrete is of low slump (high grade) and, therefore, rather stiff,
it may be necessary to vibrate the mix in the test cube. A pneumatic
After carrying out the slump test, use the rest of the concrete sample to make
hammer with a steel plate is required, the procedure being similar to that
test cubes (or cylinders, as required).
for hand tamping. Alternatively, use a standard vibratory table
arfangement.
12.9.3.1 Procedure for moking 150 mm (ubes
rvrplur
1. Mix the sample concrete thoroughly on the mixing plate' cqcrc le
raoowd
Z. Check thar the mould is fixed firmly to its base plate and that all the nuts
are tight.
3. Fill to about one-third full'
4. Tamp all over, especially in the cornefs; ta.mp at least tbirty-fiue times.
5. Fill to about two-thirds full, tamp, as before.
6. Fill till overflowing and tamp again.
wi th
6l@t

Figure 12.6 Concrete test cube mould

Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and eidge Engineers f I R ir"'" r,eH Manual for Highway and Btidge Engineers
Chapter - 72 rc srRUcruRE coNsrRucfloN, cRAcK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

The cubes shoulcl be taken out from the mould the day after making them,
then numbered, and put into a curing tank - for this they may have to be
taken to the depot or laboratory. number cubes
To remooe the cubefrom tbe mould;
a) Remove surplus concrete by wire bnrshing (Figure 12.7) ' r..1

by wlro

Figure L2.9 Numbering the test cube

(e) Check that the thermostat is set at 2OoC and fhat the cubes are
completely covered by ifie *nter (Figure 12.10).
rcody fc
rcmwql
frm mould

Figure 12.7 Removing cube from mould

b) Slacken off all nuts with a spanner. /)
lhc66tot
// '/'
c) Part the sides of the mould, tapping gently with the hammer, and tift off
(Figure 12.8).

ofter Figure 12.10 Cudng the test cube

hove been
lopncd Hg..ndle cubes uitb care.
Keep tbem utarm and uet (immersed).
New cubes arefaiily soft and could easily be darnaged by rougb handlitzg

12.9.3.2 (ompocting (ubes by Vibrution

Figure 12.8 Removing cube from mould t
An electric or a pneumatic hammer must be used. Never try to compact cubes
(d) Do not forget to number the cubes before putting them in the curing by using a poker vibrator. Under vibration, the moulds will tend to move
tank (Figure 12.9). about a good deal on the base plates and so it is preferable to use moulds
which are firmly bolted to the base plates.
--- ' Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge En9t""." ! f R.in"'" Fi"td Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 AND REPAIR
SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE
Chapter - 12

Using a hand scoop, gently and loosely fitl the top

hopper with concrete
Fill the moulds with the same number of layers as for hand tamping. 4.
\When using an electric hammer, 5. Open the trap door at the base of the top hopper' thus allowing the
it is best to stand the mould on a piece of
level hard wood rather than a hard surface and ro vibrate it by holding the concrete to fall into the second hopper'
open the trapdoor
foot of the hammer against another piece of timber placed over the top of the 6. Remove the cover from the cylinder and imme<liately
mould. in the base of the second hopper so that the concrete falls into the
Continue vibration until it is impossible to place any more concrete into the cylinder.
mould and the concrete is fully compacted. Full compaction has been sticks to eittter of tbe ttuo it by g3ntly
N.B If tbe concrete
achieved when the air bubbles no longer appear frequently on the surface. 'roppers'free
pushing tbe tarnping rod aerticalljt into tlte conctete from abotse'
Finally, trowel the surface level to the top of the mould. the cylinder by holding
7. Remove surplus concrete from above the top of
An identilying mark or number is required on the wet concrete: lightly scratch in each hand and moving them towards each other, cutting
one trowel
the surface with a matchstick to make the identification mark. off level with the top of the cylinder'

12.9.4 (ompccling Foctor lest

8. Vipe the outside of the cylinder clean and weigh it'
cylinder from its weight
The apparatus for this test is shown in Figure 12.11 9. By subtracting the weight of the clean empry compacted concreter can
when full of conctete, ihe weight of 'partially
be found.
Top
Empry the cylinder and leflll it irr 50 urur laycrs'
hand ramming each
10.
layer'(or using vibration) to obtain full compaction
make sure that the
Tmp dor
11. Smooth the top of the concrete with a trowel to
Frome cYlinder is exactlY full'
it to find the weight of 'fully
Second 12. \flipe the outside clean ancl weigh
hopp".
comPacted concreter'

13. The compacting factor can now be calculated by dividing the partially
Trop
compacdd concrete weight by that of the fully compacted concrete'
weight of Partiatly compacted concrete
Compacting Factor =
weight ol fully compacted concrete
more workable is the mix'
The higher the value (up to a maximum of 1)' the
Figure 1.2.11 Compacting Factor Apparatus ItiSrecommendedthatthecompactingfactortestbecarriedoutaboutl0
(thus, allowing for the normal time berween mixing and
The procedure for this test is as follows: -i.rrrr", after mixing
placing on site).
1. Check that the apparatus is clean and free froin any hardened concrete t
sticking to ir. :

2. lZeigh the empty cylinder (this must be to an accuracy of +,2- 16r;.

3. Cover the cylinder (normally by means of two steel floats).
n"in"'" ri"td Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
-- -'
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and eridge Engineers
ffi f
..+rr?4*ffi@' -:1s.-'
 STRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - 12

I2.I() PRESTRTSSED (ONCRTTT
This section deals with the techniques which distinguish prestressecl concrete
practice from reinforced concrete practice.
l2.l0.l Concrele
0l The requirements for concrete are applicable to the materials
methods, proportioning, mixing, placing, curing and removal of forrns
for concrete used in prestressed structures also, but with the following
additions.
bl Presence of ftlorides
Because of the risks of electromechanical corrosion, chlorides, such as
may occur in sea or brackish water or in chemical additions or
admixtures (mainly accelerators containing calcium chloride), shoulcl not
be incorporated in concrete which is in contact with the tendons. Zbe
danger is especialbt great uthere stearn curing is used
the concrete in these areas. rJi/indows in tl-re formwork for inspection and
to permit the insertion of vibrators shouid be used in deep sections.
External vibrators rnay often be used to advantage and are preferred. It
is important that vibrators do not draw material from the constricted area
faster than the material will flow in. Reduction in the nominal maximum
size of aggregate may be hetpful against congestion.
ancl
12.10.2 Syslems of Preslressing
o) lineor or Grcirlw Preslressing
Circular prestressing is a term applied to prestressed circular structures,
such as round tanks, silos and pipes, where the prestressing tendons are
wound around in circles. As distinguished from circular prestressing, the
term 'linear prcstressing' is often employed to include all other structures
such as beams and slabs. The prestressing tendons in linearly prestressed
structures are not necessarily straight; they can be bent or curued too,
but they do not go round and round in circles as in circular prestressing.

() High Strength (oncete

b)
The economics of prestressed precast concrete are significantly affectecl
by the strength and quality of the concrete used. To a greater degr.ee
than in ordinary reinforced concrete work, high crr-rshing strengths, often
coupled with high early strengths for the efficient production of precasr
units, are required.
Special attention is necessary in the selection of materials and tl-re
design of concrete mixtures where the specified str.ength at 28 days is
350 kg/cm' or above. Since materials vary locally, no overall
recommendation can be made as a guide. Trial mixtures should first be
evaluated both in the laboratory and the fleld. (Reference may be made
to a separate book by the author, Concrete for Construction - Facts ancl
Ptactice, for guidance on design of concrete mix.)
lWhere steam curing is used, high early strengths do not necessarily
imply a conesponding continued rate of strength gain to later ages. It is
economical to specify no more than what is required for both temporary
cl
and final stages of prestressing.
dl (onsolidulion ((ompcction| ol Prestressed (oncrete
Congested layouts of tendons, particularly in anchorage and web areas,
require that special attention be given to placing and consolidation of
R"r.'" ri, M Manualfot
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Brldge Engmeers
m flffi
Pre-Tensioningond Posl-Tensioning
The term pre+ensioning is used to describe any method of prestressing
in which the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed. It is
evident that the tendons must be temporarily anchored against some
abutments or stressing beds when tensioned and the prestress
transferred to the concrete after it .has set. This procedure is employed
in precasting plants when permanent beds are provided for such
tensioning; it is aiso applied in the field where pretensioning abutments
can be economically constructed. In contrast to pre-tensioning, post-
tensioning is a method of prestressing in which the tendon is tensioned
after the concrete has been placed and has hardened. Thus, the
prestressing is almost always performed,against the hardened concrete,
'and the tendons are anchored against it immediately after prestressing.
This method can be applied to members either precast or cast in place.
End-Anthored or Non-[nd-Anchored Tendons
'When post-tensioned, the tendons are anchored at their ends
by means
of mechanical devices to transmit.thg prestress,,to,phe concrete. Such a
member is termed as end-anchored. Occasionally, though rarely, a posr
tensioned member may have its tendons held by grout with no
mechanical end anchorage. In pre-tensioning, the tendons have their
,l iil
Highway and Bridge Engineers

Chapter - 12
prestress transmitted to the concrete simply by their bond action near the
ends. The effectiveness of such stress transmission is limited to wires and
sffands of a small size. Anchorages have been developed for pre-
tensioning so as to permit the use of tendons of a larger diameter.
dl Bonded or Unbonded Tendons
Bonded tendons denote those that are bonded throughout their length
to the suffounding concrete. Non-end-anchored tendons are necessarily
bonded ones; end-anchored tendons may be either bonded or
unbonded to the concrete. [n general, the bonding of post-tensioned
tendons is accomplished by subsequent grouting; if unbonded,
protection of the tendons from corrosion must be provided by
galvanizing, greasing, 01'some other means. Sometimes, bonded tendons
may be purposely unbonded along certain portions of their length
(generally in pre-tensioning).
e) Precosl, (ost-in-Ploce, (onposile Construction
Precasiing involves the placing of concrete away from its final position,
the members being cast either in a permanent plant or somewhere near
[Le site uf the strr.rcture, alrcl uvcrrtually crccted at the firral location.
PrecastinS permits better control in mass production and is often
economical. Cast-in-place concrete requires more form and falsework
per unit of product but saves the cost of transportation and erection, and
it is a necessity for large and heavy members. In between these two
methods of construction, there are tilt-up wall panels and lift slabs,
l
which are constructed at places near or within the strucRlre and then
erected to their final position; ho transportation is involved for these.
l
Oftentimes, it is economical to precast part of a member, erect it, and
then cast the remaining portion in place. This procedure is called
composite construction. The precast elements in a structure of composite
construction can be more easily joined together than those in a totally
precast structure. By composite construction, it is possible to save much
of the form and falsework required for total cast-in-place constmction.
However, the suitability of each type must be studied with respect to the
particular conditions of a given structllre.
fl Portiol or tull Prestressing
A further distinction between the types of prestressing is sometimes
made depending upon the degree of prestressing, which a concrete
Raina's Field Manuat tor Highway and aidge Engineers
,:;dFn'
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCIION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
member is subject to. Vhen a member is designed so that under the
working load there are no tensile stresses in it, then the concrcte is said
to be fully prestressed. If some tensile stresses will be produced ir-r the
member under working load, then it is termed as partially prestresed.
For partial prestressing, additional rebars are flequently provided to
reinforce the portion under tension. In practice, it is often difficult to
classi$ a structure as being partially or fully prestressed since much will
depend upon the magnitude of the working load used in design. For
example, highway bridges may be designed for full prestressing, though
actually they may be subject to tensile stresses during the passage of
heavier vehicles. On the other hand, roof beams designed for partial
prestressing may never be subjected to tensile stresses since the assumed
live loads may never fully materialise.
gl Ptoleclion of Tendons
A fundamental requirement for prestressing tendons is that they must be
protected against corrosive attack in order to maintain the integrity of the
strucfure. Where the cables are contained within ducts insicie a concrete
section, protection is provided by pumprng cement grout rnto the duct
after prestressing has taken place. \where the tendons are external to the
section, other options become available, including providing an acided
casing of concrete directly around the tenclons, or using
polywinylchloride coating to enclose the cable which l-ras been^
prepacked with grease.
hl Tendon Profiling
Because of the changes in stress induced by the application of loading
at different sections along a beam,. the optimum use of prestressing
requires that the position of the tendon should change within the section
from one point to another along the length. ln post-tensioning, this is
achieved without difficulty by fixing the cable ducts to the required
profile before concreting. Where pre-tensioning is used, this obviously
cannot be done, since the tcndon is stressed prior to concreting.
However, the tendon can be pulled or deflected out of a straight line to
be approximate to the ideal profile but this harping adds complexity to
the stressing procedure and is only reckoned as appropriate for large
units. An alternative technique for simulating the elfect of a profile is to
break the bond between selected tendons and the surrounding concrete
near the ends of the unit. Tbts 'debonding'ls acbieaed by placing
I ffi R"in"s rle H Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers -ff
Chapter - 12 !. :,"ji5i;4{-i:1..1a:i.*ii1i*1;1iv3i:F,€ffi-ffi sTRt)cTURE CONSIRUCIION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPATR

slceaes oaer the selzcted. tendons, and tbus rendering tbem C Creep ofconcrete over an extended period of time'
ineffectiae in those zorres. A plastic hose-pipe- is commonlj,t used
D. Etnstic sltortentng o.f concrete each time a tendon is stressed'
Jor tltis PurPose.
E. Relaxatton of tbe tendon steel ovet a period of time
12.10.3 loss of Preslress a In pre-tensloned prestressed cortctete: Ioss 'A' is obuiously absent;
tbat baue
a) Atthougl-r the force transmitted to a structure at the anchorage points may loi'B' is relatiuety more (since eaen tbe sbrinkage cracks
of tbe already applieq prestre:s
be well definecl at the time stressing of the tendons takes place, these occurred prior to iran'sfer, absorb some
untike ri post-tensioning wbere sucb cracks get closed during tbe
sriesses will be modified by the subsequent behaviour of the structure.
The prestressing tendons and the concrete are sustaining each other in an tensioning process and only tben the pressure gauge registerc tbe
post-
equilibrium state of stress, arising from the strains locked in by the dormant"prestress). Loss'D'k alnxost double of tbat in tbe case of
stressing opemtions. Steel subjected to locked-in strain experiences some tensioniig (since sbortening caused by the trarufer of eacb tendon 11 feh
loss of stress with time; this phenomenon is known as relaxation. by ail tu;dons as all tendons are transfered simultaneously, unlike .in
iostrcnsioning ubere sbortening caused by prestress in any particular
Concrete is subject to shrinkage and to minor cl-ranges in ihe stress/strain 'tendon tbe last
is felt inly by tbose of the tendons already stressed, so tbat
relationship with time; these effects are known as creep. due
stressecl tind.on iuljers notbing wbile tbe first stressed tendon suffen
b) In the p|ocess of stressing, the loads imposed by successive tendons as to all tbe subsequint tend.o,s and uariation in between is almost linear),
they are stressed cause the structure to deform elastically, thereby and losses 'C' and 'E' are almost id'entical to tbat in post-tensioninS'
' modilying the locked-in strain in those tendons that have previously (PS-I)
been tensioned. A,ll of these effects reduce the locked-in forces, thus a suggested oa.lues of loss of prestfessing force in stage-I tendons
(PS-II) stressed at
resulting in a loss of prestress. An additional loss of prestress in post- strJsed at concrete ageT daysand in sfage-Il tendons
age 28 days, expressed as percentage of the (average) initial
tcnsioncd tcndons ariccs from thc friction befiveen the cable and the concrete
duct, which leads to a progressive reduction in the actual force in the fi"rri.rr,"! force in rhe cables (pust-teqsic,'ed concrctc) arc given in
cables as the distance from the jacking point increases. Table 12.1.

c) The total loss of prestress is usually substantially greater with pre- Table 12.1
tensioning than with post-tensioning because the whole prestressing Due to Due to Due to Due to Total loss
Prestress I-oss
force is applied to the member simultaneously in pre-tensioning, and the shrtnkage creep of elastic rclaxatlon (o/o of av. Pt)
demand for rapid fabrication usually leads to the stress being transferred Pr - lnltlal
of concrete concrete shortening of steel
into the member while the concrete is still relatively 'green' and thus (o/o of av. (o/o of av. of concrete (o/o of av.
prestresslng
more susceptible to losses due to creep. Also, pre-tensioning is affected Pt) (o/o of av.
Pt) force after
Pt) - Pt)
by the entiie shrinkage of the concrete; whereas in the case of posr frlctlon and
tensioning, some of this shrinkage takes place prior to the sllp
.)
commencement of prestressing, and this part does not, therefore, affect Stage I 7-28 days 3 3.5 6 14.5
the subsequently locked prestressing force. (applied
d^ys) After 28 days 3 8 i1.0
d) The prestress imparted to 'post-tensioned' prestressed concrete structure ^t7
suffers a reduction owing to various causes. These causes are: Total 6 10 3.5 6 25.5

A, Fr'lctional resistance felt by the extending tendon at the time the Stage Il Aher 28 3 8 3.5 6 20.5
tendon is tensioned, and the 'slip' of the tensioned tendon at the (applied days
anchorages at the instant it is locked in the anchorages to release at 28 days)
the stressing jacks.
B" Sbrl.nkage of concrete over an extended period of time.
- -** Ra,nab Fie ld Manual for Highway and Bidge Engir""." ffi Rainas rte b Manual for Highway and Eridge Engineers
ffi
.n4ffie
Chaptei - t2 srRUcruRE coNSrRUcnoN, cRAcK DAMAGE AND REPATR

Note: Loss of prestressing force on account of 'curvature-friction and wobble- construction. Particular attention shall be given to the necessary concrete
friction' and 'slip at anchorages at the time of releasing the tensioning- strength with respect to the more highly stressed sections of the
jacks' is accounted for through the friction-effect calculations, and only structure, and the anchorage areas.
the 'after friction and slip' prestressing force values used as pr values. .When the structure is simple, the tensioning sequence will figure on the
AASIITO aUou)s the following estimates of total iosses for prestressed cable layout. In of large stnrctures comprising several cable
the case
members or struchlres of usual design. These loss values are based on the use layouts, or rof structures to be built in several phases, the tensioning
of normal weight concrete, normal prestress levels, and aver^ge exposure sequence will be included in the specification ior the construction
conditions. For exceptionally long spans or for unusual designs, more detailed stages.
calculations are made in design.
q
Estlmate of Prestress Losses 12.10.5 Anthor Blocks (End Blo*s)

Total loss
_.1

a) At the point where a prestressing cable is anchored, the full prestressing

force in that cable is transmitted to ihe structure. This represents a
../" * 4,ooo psi ,/. = 5,ooo psi substantial force concentrated on a very small area; and early prestressed
concfete design and constmction produced examples of failure in the
Pre-tensioning (Strand) 45,000 psi region anchorages, due to the splitting of the concrete. similar
of
Post-Tensioning* : problems can still overtake the unwary designer. The effect of these
'Wire or Strand 't'
32,000 psi 33,000 psi lutg" anchorage forces is not unlike that of driving a wedge into the
Bars 22,UU0 psi 23,000 psi strllcture, and the shape of many prestressing anchorages encoulages
* Ftictiurr lusscs uuL irrcluded. the analogY.
b) several theories were developed as a basis for the design of anchorage
l. = ZAA^y standard cylinder crushing strength of concrete
l: zones (e.g. Freysinnet, Guyon, Magnel, Borsch, Bleich, Siever'
by
12.10.4 Derciplion ol the (onstruction Phoser
i! Morsch, etc.), giving significant differences in the results. The ersrsrhile
Cement ancl Concrete Association (London) undertook a substantial
!l \Zhere construction is not entirely cast in situ on a single support system,
? series of tests, pfesenting its findings in Nvo research feports, the first
the Designer must specify to the Contractor, in a detailed manner, the dealingwithsingleanchoragesandthesecondwithgroupeffects.
different construction phases in order that there is no ambiguity at the
job site. This specification .shall necessarily include those phases which c) The prime requirement resulting from the calculations derived from
may influence the stabiliry of the structure, either during construction or these research reports is the need for heavy reinforcement perpendicular
in service. It is not always essential to define those which are part of the to the axis of prestfessing cable and immediately behind the anchorage,
concreting sequences, form stripping and tensioning... which, t, to withstand the bursting and splitting forces arising from the heavy
considered in relation to any one phase, have little or no effect on the compression and wedge-like action of the anchorage'
calculations. d) An additional requirement in the region of prestressing anchorages is the
Particular attention must be paid to the clamping and unclamping of need to examine the way in which the forces disperse into the full
temporary bearings and blocking pieces. section of the deck ovef the force lead-in zone. For example, in a box-
section deck, groups of anchorages are usually concentrated in concrete
bl Order ol Tenrioning (requence of prertrersingl
'anchor blocks, formed by an enlargement of the web. The
dispersal of
The order in which cables are tensioned forms an integral part of the these large concentrated forces into the full cross-section gives rise to
design. It wili be drawn up after verification of the provisional phases of shearing and tensile stresses around the blocks. Each case requires

Raina's Field Manuat for Highway ana Bnage Englneers ffi ] a"in"'t ri"td Manual for Highway and Bridg€ Engineeo

Chaptcr - 12 : .':,:1.'. 1,1-lr: r. . ,: , .' .
individual assessment, assumptions being made as to the flow of the
forces, and reinforcement being provided to cater for the shearing and
tensile stresses that result. \x/ithin the anchor blocks themselves, the
design approach can be based on 'deep beam' theory bLlt it is
complicated because of a three-dimensional state of stress.
e) The substantial amounts of rehtforcement ofien necessary ln tbe
regiott of a ncborages callfor particular care ln detailirtg. It ls all
too easy to adopt an alyangement af relnlforcement uthiclt fits
uell on a drantlng but proaes almost hnpossibte to assetnble on
site, If tltere ls a coniflict bettaeen tbe need to proaide the
tbeoretical arnount of rehtforcement requirecl and the resulting
production of at affangernet,t so congested as to pfeuent good
concrethtg ln tbat regio4 it is obaiously eaen more intportant tbat
uell-compacted concrete sbould suppot t an ancborage then that
tbe calculated ar.ea of relnforcemett sltould be preserrt.
f) The fixing of closely spaced reinforcement can usually be facilitated by
cletailing tlc steel overall in such a way rhat the reinforcement requrred
in the bottom of tl-re deck to deal with slab or cliaphragm action can be
fixed first. Anchorage-block reinforcement is then assernbled above this
mat, followed by the top surface reinforcement for the diphragm or slab,
which is assembled above the bursting steel. The system of .stirrups
adopted must permit this sequence.
s) For bursting steel itself, many designers favour the use of a spiral
immediately arotrnd the anchorage. This fbllows irom the development
of an early form of anchorage for srnall prestressing systems (Fr.eyssinet
l2/7 mn wire cable female-cone), which was construcied with fine
ag{4regate concrete inside a contiguously wound helix. The attraction of
the spiral is its unquestionable effectiveness in all directions within the
planes of the splirting force, and the fact that ir unites a significant lurnp
of concrete with the anchorage. Only in smaller stressing systems is this
spiral adequate on its own; however, a system of links, U-bars and
straight bars will often be needed to supplement the spiral where
conventional links are used. Care should be taken to detail
reinforcement to a shape which avoids a double thickness of steel at the
overlap closing the link. A close spacing of smaller
reinforcement is preferable in an anchorage zone.
i:9.?9 Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
SIRUCIURE CONSIRUCT/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
I 2.10.6 Pre'lensioned (omponenls
dl [quiPment ond Methods
(i) casring bccls be installed on a surface that is well stabilised'
sl'ror-rlcl
well di.ainecl and not subject to seasonal variations in elcvation.
They must be constructed to safely resist all forces applied to them
during the casting cycle. These inch'rde prestress, hold downs' form
pressufe, pfestress transfer, and handling forces'
(iD Eithel multiple or single tendon tensioning is acceptable' However'
(sucl'l
in the case of multipl- tensioning, some means must be usecl
aslightlytensioningeaclrtendonindividually)toensllt.ethatthe
taurness in the tendons is equalised before the maitl tensionitrg is
started.
(iii)Calibratedpressr:regauge,clynamometers'orloadcellsshouldbe
ttsed to confirm the accuracy of the stressing operation' so that the
colt.ectforceintlretendonsiSassured.Elongationzrn(lslipsof
tetrclonsshor.rldbemeasureclverycareftrllyanclaccurately.
All lorce-measgring equipment shoulcl be rc',alilrratetl tegtrl,tlly,
sinccthcrcarcfervsuchpiecesofeclr-ripmenttlrefwillfitayacctlrate
f rrr long pel'iocls of time.
(iv)Holci.downarrdhold.upclevicesslror-rldbesuchthattlrcycltlnot
kink the tenclons, and have a small and predictable friction efTect
JointsirrfbrrnsshoulclbetighttoPlevefltleakage()fcementp..lste'
FormsshotrldbestiffenedorbracedtopreventcXCcssive
deflectionsandshouldbestrongenougirtomaintaillthe
geometrical accuracy of the prodtrct, but must not clamage the
procluct at the time of transfer of the prestress. If the shape of tl-re
proclltctincorporatesanytfansvefseridges,wl.richcouldlle
damagedbytonginrdinalmovement,andiftheformscannotbe
.em.r,red before steam curing and/or prestress transfer' then a
sr-ritable elastic restraint mechanism must be incorporated in the
form.Thislestfaintshouldbeflexibleenoughtoallowrequired
movement to take Place'
bl Meosuremenl ol Preslress
<Iiamerer Prestressing force shor-rld be cletermined: (i) by measuring tendon
elongation, ancl (ii) either by checking jack plessure on a recently
calibrated gauge of by the use of a lecently calibrated dynamometer.
Engineers 327
:::; : i', Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Eridge '
'.'

Chapter - 12
The cause of any discrepancy in force which exceeds 5% should be
ascertained and corrected. Elongation requirements should be based on
avenge load-elongation curves for the steel used. When the elongation
is measured, a small measured initial force should be applied to the
tendons to ensure that there is no slack in the tendon before the
elongation measurement is started.
\?hen hold-up and hold-down devices are installed prior to stressing,
the friction effect of the devices should be known and allowed for.
Vhen the tendons are deflected after stressing, the additional stress
caused by the deflection should be allowed for.
If several wires oi strands
are stretched simultaneously, provision should
be made to induce equal stress in each.
Transfer of force from the abutments of the pre-tensioning bed to the
concrete should be carefully accomplished. Release of pre-tensioning
may be effected by gradual mechanical means or by burning of tendons.
Where the latter method is used, cuning points and sequences should
be chosen Carefully. Long enough lengths of exposed strands should be
allowed in cuttiug at transfer in older to minimise shock to the conclete.
'lhe total loss of prestress due to unreplaced broken tendons should not
exceed 2o/o of ttrc total prestress.
\flhere there is a considerable temperature differential berween the
concrete and the tendons, the effect of that differential should either be
taken into account, or minimised.
cl lrunsler of Preslress
The best method of releasing tendons from a casting bed is controlled
release by hydraulic jacks.
The usual method of releasing the tendons is by cutting them
individually. The sequence of cutting should be studied to avoid the
following:
(D Members being dragged down the bed as the strands are cut;
(ii) Heavily eccentric groups of cut strands;
(iii) Insufficient top flange for compression at the time of release of
hold-downs;
(iv) Sudden fracture of uncut tendons.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Br'd9a Engneers
@ srRucruREaoNsrRucrroN, cRAcK DAMAGE AND REPATR
In order to maintain as uniform a cambet as possible, transfer should
preferably be made at a similar concrete strength for each element.
'$(ihen precise camber control is required, a combination of pre-
tensioning and post-tensioning should be considered'
dl Hnndling ond [teclion
It is essential that prestressed members be supported only within the
limits specified by the designer. In the case of ordinary simply supported
members, this will presumably be near the ends'
\fhen members are stored for any length of time, auxiliary intermediate
barely touching supports may need to be placed (to minimise
iust
deflections and to reduce the effect of creep) ln consultatlon uitb
Deslgner.
The method of fastening members to vehicles used for shipping must
allow the suspension of the vehicle to oPerate over its full range.
Excessive forces, particularly torque, applied to the member.s should be
avoided. Dynamic effects during transPorting and erecting should be
' considered and investigated against.
'when members are to be handled in the plant and irr thc field by
differenr rypes of lifiirrg equipmeot, the lifting hooks or devicee must
accommodate all directions of lift possible, and dynamic impact, without
developing permanent set or fatigue'
I 2.1 0.7 Post'Iensioned (omponents
o) lquipment ond lheftods
Mostequipmentforpost-tensioning.isassociatedwithaPtopiet^ry
system. Ttre method of operation should be that which is recommended
,
bY the suPPlier.
The engineer responsible for the work must familiarise himself with the
merits and limitarions of the system to be used. In particulaq he should
assure himself that the work to be done by someone othef than the
supplier complies with the system. The engineer should assure that
foims do not leak where anchorages are fastened, that ducts afe not
broken or displaced or climbed on by workers, and that gfout tubes are
not placed where they weaken the concrete. Semirigid or rigid metallic
ducts are Preferred.
ffi ]' a"ir"'" ri"M Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineors
 4'R
-t 2 :;:i'€"'t*f;**jii*bi'iiffi
ch a pte r

bl Meosuremenl ol Pteslrers
The method for measuring prestress depencls upon
the needs of the
should be followed'
ry",";.
The supplier's reco-mmendations

C} Applicotion of Prestress
should be as per the
The sequence of stressing the tendons in a member
engineer so that
designei's instructions arid should be controlled by the
at any stage is within safe limits'
,h" !..".r,ri.iry of the stressed tendons
in the anchorage zorrc is a function of the system and
the
The stress
cross-section is a
force in each tendon, while the stress on a general
convenient to
function of ttle total prestress applied' It is sometimes 12.10.8
p;ni;llt stress a -"*t", in order to permit moving it' or before some
A partial stress may be obtained by stressing
iurtn..'touO is applierl.
In this event' the end
some of the tendons, leaving others tlnstressed'
than when all the
zone stresses will probaLly b! as high, or even higher'
itrength at any stage must be at least
t"ndons ,r" ,t The concrete
"rr"d.
equal to that sPecified.
Altcrnotir.ely, some sysrPms permil a paftial stress
by partly stressing.all
J tn" ,"rrio.,r. aithough this doubles the number uf stlessing
it has the that temporary eccentricity is avoided
op"r"tionr, ^dint^gt a fraction of their final value' and
and the end zone stresses will-only be
be carried out when the concrete is at an
that stressing may, therefore,
early zge.
In either case, a partial stress will put only a fraction
of the final stress
pioportionally lower conct'ete strength
into a general cross-section' and
at thatiection may become perrnissible'

dl Hondling ond [rection

'when post-tensioned continuous members are used' it is particularly
i.^p.ni", that the bridge engineer and the zupplier of the prestressing
member and
,G"* have agreed urr? ,p"l"ifi"a the way in which the in statically
h"niled lt is no less important even
pr"ri."rri.rg ar! to be ].:

determinate structures.

el Tensioning in Ploce
In addition, it should be noted that:

Raiia'e Field Manual tot Highway and andfte

enetineers' ffi
 Chapter - 72 STRUCTURECONSIRUCI/OM ARACK DAMAGE AND REPATR

cl Sompling 12.10.10 Placernent of Reinforcemenl, lncerlr ond Beorings prior to (osting

The venclor should furnish for testing the following samples selected Preslressed (onctete
from each lot. If ordered by the Engineer, the selection of samples shall
b,e made at the maoufacturerrs plant by the Inspector. 0l Placernent of Bor ond Mesh Reinforcement

. Pre-tensionhry metbod: For pretensioned strands, one sample at least
2.5 m long shall be furnished in accordance with the requirements of
paragraph 9.1 AASHTO M 203.
s Post-tenslontng metbod: The following lengths should be furnished:
(i) For wires requiring bution headin g - 1.5 m
(ii) For wires not requiring such heading, sufficient length to. make up
one parallel-lay cable, 1.5 m long, consisting of the same number
of wires as the cabie to be furnished.
(iii) For strand to be furnished with fitting - 1.5 m berween near-ends
of fittings.
(iv) For bars to be furnished with threaded ends and nuts
- All inserts rnusl be firmly poslttoned so thar they wlll nor
between threads at ends.
o AttchorageAssemblies
Two anchorage assemblies should be furnished, complete with
distribution plates of each size or type to. be r.rsed, if anchorage
assemblies are not anached to reinforcement samples.
I 2.t 0.9 Protection of Preslressing Steel
All prestressing steel must be free of deleterious materials such as grease, oil,
wax, dirl, paint, lciose rust, or other similar contaminants, which would
reduce the bond befween steel and concrete (or grout). Care nust be taken
to assure that pre.stressing steel.is not Contaminated by release agents used on
forms and beds.
High strength steel is much more susceptible to corrosion than steel of lower
strengths. Storage under' cover is preferred as a means of minimising
comosion. Corrosion, which deeply etches or pits the surfaces, should not be
tolerated on prestressing steel. However, a light coating of tight surface rust
is acceptable in some selected instances.
Bar and mesh reinforcement must be fabricated as shown in the plans
and placed in position in the member within specified tolerances.
Reinforcement must be adequately seCured to beds and forms by chairs
or blocking, or by ties to tendons, so that it will maintain its position
during casting and vibrating the concrere.
Care shall be observed in placing bars which extend (dowel) out of the
member and are intended to provide structural connection for cast in
place connections. Connections should be checked to see that they are
within tolerances as shown in the plans. Paste adhering to extended steel
should be removed.
1.5 m
bl Plocement of lnserts
become
displaced during placement of concrete. Special care must be exercised
in the accurate positioning of all anchor bolts and bearing plates.
'Wooden inserts shall not be used because they tend to swell and crack
the concrete. Aluminium inserts shall not be permitted because of the
possibiliry of galvanizing action and the undesirable reaction between
cement paste and aluminium.
Care must be taken to see that the lifting devices are placed as shown
in the approved drawings.
cl Plocemenl of Beorings
Regardless of tolerances that may be specified, bearing shoes to be
inchored in, the concrete, must be placed with the greatest accuracy.
They must,be:set.to the required level, aligned properly, anchored in the
exact location as shown in the plans, and checked for proper position
after placement of the qoncrete.
Bearing areas forimembers supported on,nofr-metallic..pads must be
finished to.,true planes. Unless specific tolerances are listed, bearing
areas must be constructed to give,uniform bearing on the entire area.
rJ7hen the.rnembers are cast, these bearing areas should be formed on
smooth unyielding supports.

W*-- - Raina's Fietd Manua! for Highway and Bridge Engineers

f fi n"ir"'" ri"H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

s+,Jff.Hryis":
Chapter - t2
For installation of steel bearings where deck is cast in situ, some of the
important points are as follows:
(i) Prepare wooden casing fo| the pedestal on the pierlabutment cap,
with inner dimensions as per the size of pedestai. Place the
reinforcement and wooden template along with foundation bolts
inside the wooden casing.
(ii) Pour concrete inside the wooden casing as per specifications and
allow it to set for a day.
(iii) Next day, take the levels of all the pedestals.
(iv) Put thick mortar paste, as required to make up the heights of
pedestals and allow it to set.
(v) Pour cernent slurry over the bearing atea on the pedestal; place the
bearing and tighten foundation nuts. This removes unevenness in
pedestal top and gives unifbrrn support for bearing.
(vi) Cross-check levels for the bearing top surfaces after placing all the
bearings.
(vii) Fix anchor bolts to the top plates of bearings.
(viii) Place the reinforcement for superstructure on to and over the
bearings, and cover the bearings with cotton waste from the sides
to protect from ingress of dust.
(ix) Pour concrete for superctructure and allow it to cure.
x) Remove temporary fixtures provicle<l for bealings. The bearings are
then ready for use.
Adequate procedure shall be followed in th case of other types of bearings.
l2.l0.l I Prestresring lhe Slructure
. The.'detailed specifications for prestressed concrete construction should
conform to the provisions contained under the mandatory specifications
applicable to the project. However, some of the points needing attention are
highlighted below:
(D In any design, the construction agency is normally free to choose the
prestressing system, but such that no changes in the specified
'prestressing forces and their eccentricities over the length of the member
and in the magnitude of the final effective prestressing force as
prescribed in the approved designs and drawings, occur.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway
ffi SIRUCTURE CONSTRUCI/OM CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
(ii) Before concreting, the constmction agency should submit full details of
the method, materials and equipment, intended to be used in the
prestressing operations. Such details shall include the construction and
operation procedure, full specifications of the preshessing $ystem,
'i anchorages, type of sheathing and other accessories. All materials should
:
it conform to the prescribed specifications.
'a (iii) At the time of installation of tendons, the sheathing materials should be
t examined for any possible punctures and the same should be sealed
with waterproof tape. The number of joints should be kept to the
minimum, and each ioint adequately sealed against the ingress of any
L
material and mofiar. JoinLs in adjacent ducts should be staggered by at
.:
:
least 300 mm. Adequate concri:te shield should exist between the
adjacent ducts to prevent the flow of grout from one duct to the other,
:
as br-rncl-ring of cables is not preferable. In case the distance between the
crossing ducts is sn-rall, a metal stlip or similar material should be placed
between them.
(iv) All sheatl.ring ducts and tendons should be maintained in their correct
aligrurrcrrt arrd pt-rsitiorr during the placlng of concrete.
(v) Bcforc commcnccmcnt of.prcstrcssing, it'ehould be ensured that atl the
tendons are free of any clog and that the members are free to
accommodate the l-rorizontal and vertical movements due to application
of prestress, and that there is enough space for the movement of the jack
piston.
(vi) The tendons should be stressed ar a gradual and steady rate, and the
extensions recorded at each suitable increment of iack pressule.
(vii) The approved execution drawing- should 'clearly show: (a) the
prestressing system proposed, (b) the particulars of the cables
(wiresy'strands,/bars), i.e., values of minimum ultimate tensile
,force/braking load per cable, its assumed modulus of elasticity. (E),
iil
:t wobble and curvature friction co-efficients K and p adopted in design,
particulars of the duct sheathing (e.g.,.rigid, flexible, galvanized, etc.)
together with its size (internal/external diameter, comrgations, etc.),
(c) the design jacking-end forces and elongations (extensions) required
at each stressing end of each cable (wire, strand, bar) prior to
instantarieous'slip', the expected/required ihstantaneous tslipr at
anchorages, (d) the sequence ofstressing the cables, (e) which cables to
be stressed at what age and what strength of which concrete in the deck
under what ioad condition (i.e., what dead load, etc., to be present at
Highway and Bridge Engineers

Chapter - 12
the time a 'particular cable' is stressed), (f) the exact cable profiles,
(g) anchorage details, (h) covers to anchorages and to cables,
(i) 'reinforcement detailingr around and in front of each anchorage,
(i) construction sequence of deck vis-a-vis prestressing stages and required
strength of concrete of various elements at each stage of prestressing, etc.,
and whether cables arc stressed from each end or only one end.
(viii) If 'jack pressures' required to attain the required design' forces in cables
at their stressing ends are specified, then the model and other details
including the 'stressing-ram-area' of the particulat iack assumed, shall
also be given, so that if for any reason the iack actually used at site is
any different (but of known stressing-ram-area), then the
'jackpressures' can be duly corrected to stlit the 'actual-ram-area'.
(ix) The required specified elongations in each cable should be modified at
site in case the actual E value of the cable steel used at site (as available
from the test cefiificate attached with it) is (slightly) different than' that
assumed in design calculation of the specified elongation. (This is done
by multiplying the rspecified elongation' by the ratio of E assumed in
design to E actual at site).
(x) a) Normally, the requlrecl enensionq slroulcl be acllieved a[
specifled jacking pressures (or specified furccs at sucssitg ellds). Il1
case the required extensions are not achieved at these specific
jacking pressures (stressing-end forces), the stressing should be
continued (where possible) till the required extensions
obtained, subject to the jacking pressure not exceeding that which
corresponds to B0% of its ultimate tensile force value. Should the
required extensions be obtained at iack pressures lower than the
specified iack pressures (i.e., at stressing-end forces lower than their
'specified values) then the stressing should be continued till the
specified lack pressures (i.e., till the specified stressing-end forces)
ate reached, provided the additional extensions are not more than
'.about 5o/o of the specified extensions. Cables satisfying these
provisions should be locked (i.e., anchored). However, if the jack
pressures (i.e., the stressing-end forces in cables) are still lower than
the specified values despite the 5o/o increase in the specified
extensions, then the particuiars of such cables should be reported
to the designer for further instructions ('locking' but not rgrouting'
these.cables until receipt of instructions,' iust in case).
b) Iffor any cable, the required extension a[ any one end is not achieved
despite the jack pressure (i.e., the stressing-end force in the cable)
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
*
{
.?
j srRUcruRE coNsrRucfloN, cRAcK DAMAGE AND REpAtR
i reaching the value corresponding to B0%o of the ultimate tensile force
of the cable, the ,total balance extension' should be obtained at the
other end. The jack prcssures UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES SI{ALL
EXCEED the value coresponding to 800/0 of the ultimate tensile force
I of the cable. Also, for any cable, the extension at any one end shall
,' not exceed the sum total efiension for the cable at that end by more
than about Jo/0.
c) Extensions should also be checked 24 hours after anchoring the
t . cables to guard against the possibility of any ,slow slipping' if any.
1
!
. 'If the average observed 'slow slip' at anchorages of a cable exceeds
said \.
'1 3 mm, the matter should be reported ro the designer for any further
instructions.
:
. d) All cables which satis$r the provisions of irems (a), O) and (c)
above should be grouted immediately, taking care that the cables
not yet stressed are not accidentally blocked due to grout leak.
(xD The prestressing jacks and their gauges should be regularly calibrated
, for coffectness and removal of zero erLor.
(xii) Prestressing tendons shorrld never he heated or exposed to flame, and
ihe
certainly never to electric welding, Flarne <ritting may he resorred ro,
taking care sparks do not land on the steel for fear of pitting. Vet cloth
shield shoulcl be used.
are (xiii) Prestressing tendon and its duct sheathing should be protected against
any Llnacceptable rusting (as described earlier) and consequent rpittingr,
as also against any greasing. The tendons may be cleaned with petrol
where stressing jacks and wedges have to grip them.
(xiv)
Prestress should be applied gradually and at a uniform rate.
(xv) Prestresslng of a cable (tendon) should be carried out as indicated by
.,the designer; i.e., from one end or from both-ends. It is preferabie to
stress each cable from both ends (simultaneously and equally) uniess
the designer has a special reason for stressing from one end'only.
(xvi) Prestressing and grouring should be done by experienced people who
know these pro'cesses and are conversant #ith the implications.
Grouting Goth the rmixr as well as 'pressrtre,) should be followecl
stiictly as per'specifications.
(xvii) After completion of stressing and anchor.ing, the iack pressure should
be released in such a way so as to avoid shock to the anchorage or the
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers --*-@

chapter - 1?
tendons. Any surplus length of tendons should be cut off by shears or
othelapprovedmethods,whiclrwillnotaffectthestrengthoftlre
stressed tendon.
(xviii) The grouting operations should be carried out at the earliest
opportunityandshouldfullycomplywiththespecifications'Incase'
however, some delays are unavoidable due to sequence of construction
planned,temporaryprotectionagainstcorrosionshallbeprovidedby
. the use of emulsiflatle oils or by ventilating with dry air, as humid
conditions contribute considerably to acceleration of corrosion. The
groutmixershouldbecapableofproducingacolloidalmix.Thegrout
injectionpumpshouldhavecapacityforcontinuousoperationatleast
atberween5andl0kg/cm,withsuitablebypassafrangementfor
circulating the grout mix when actual grouting is interrupted The
gfouting't"'utt'.u.tfiomlowerendandcontinuetillitcomesoutatthe
higher end. (See details under'Groutingt')
(xix) In case the adopted layout of the tendons permits a distinct possibility
of interflow of grout fiom one tendon to another due to a variety of
reasons (including inaccessibility of the concrete lnto tlle itrterstices in
between, damage to sheathing ducts during curtcretiug' etc')' it is
preferable to take up grouting of all the tendons in a group
iimultaneously or immediately one after the other on the same day.
(xx) A complete record for the entire prestressing operations, including
grouting, should be maintained at the site'
l2.l I Precost Segment Mqnufocture ond [retlion
Monufocture ol Segments
Each segment should be. match-cast with its adiacent segments to ensufe
pfopef fit during erection. As the segments are match-cast, they must be
pt".rc"ty aligned to achieve tne nttat structure geometry' During the
uiigrr-"nt, adluslments to compenEate for deflections (pre-camber) should be
made.
All tendon ducts should be placed during production. The conduit (i.e., the
duct) to enclose post-tensio;ing tendons should be mortar tight, made of
galvanized ferrous metal, and may be either rigid with a smooth inner wall
Iapable of being curved to the proper configuration, or a flexible, intedocking
a moft^r tight connection.
rype. couplers for either type should also provide
iigla conduit may be fabricated with either welded or interlocking seams.
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
.! STRUCTURE CONSIRUCIION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Galvanizing of welded seams for rigid conduit or of conduit couplers is not
required. During placing and finishing of concrete in a segment, inflatable
( hoses capable of exerting sufficient pressure on the inside walls may be
placed,internally in ail conduits, and these should extend a minimum of
60 cm into the conduit in the previously cast segment. Either rype of conduit
1
shall be capable of withstanding all forces due to construction operations
I
without damage. Other types of conduit an<J/or internal protection systems
I ,
are permitted, subject to the approval of the Engineer.
.!
t
',
I Erection ol Segments
i,
Segments are usually erected by the cantilever method from each pier without
1' falsework, although temporary supports may be used. Depending upon the
design, other systems of erection may be involved. Match-cast segments
should be erected using epoxied joints. Pressure should be exerted on the
joint by means of post-tensioning. The pressure should be as uniform as
possible with a minimum of 2.5 kg/cmz at any point.
Deflections of cantilevers should be rneasuled as erection progresses and
. compared with computed deflections. Any devratron from the required
alignment should be corrected by either modilying the segment geometry
during the casting operation or by inserting stainless steel screen wire shims
in the epoxy joints during erection. The maxirnum thickness of shims at any
point shall be 1.5 mm. Provision should be rr'ade to permit alignment
adiustments of a completed cantilevered poftion of the box girder before the
midspan Qplice connecting adjacent cantilevers is constructed. Pre-camber, as
calculated and advised by the designer, sl.rould be provided for while profiling
for the segment soffit for each segment. (Pre-camber is the reverse of the
deflection due to all permanent loads and final prestress, .considering
reduction in concrete modulus of elasticity due to long term creep and
variations in humidity and temperafure as built in). Thickness of epoxy joint
is normally about 1 to 1.5 mm.
I2.I2 EPOXY BONDIIIG AGEI{TS FOR PRTCAST SEGTIITIITAT BOX GIRDERS
Epory bonding agents lor match cast ioints should be thermosetting looo/o
solid compositions that do not contain solvent or any non-reactive organic
ingredient, except for pigments required for colouring. Epoxy bonding agents
comprisb two components, a resin and a hardener. The two components
should be distinctly pigmented, so that mixing produces a third colour similar
to that of the concrete in the segments to be ioined, and should be packaged
by manufacturers in preponioned, labelled, ready-to-use containers.
fi f, nu,tnutr,"HManuatforHighwayand}ddgeEngineers " -*-*ffi

Chapter-12 l ' ..:':':
Epoxy bonding agents must be formulated so as to provide application
temperature ranges that will permit efection of match-cast segments 2l
tempefatures from 5oc to 45"c. If two surfaces to be bondecl have diflerent
substrate temperatures, the adhesive applicable at the lower temperatures
shoulcl be used.
If a project would require o| benefit from erection at concrete strbstrate
t"rnp".ntur", lower than 5"C, the temperattlre of the concrete to a depth of
approximately 7.5 cm should be elevated to at least 5oC to ensure eflective
wetting of the surface by the epoxy compound and adequate curing of the
epoxy compound in a reasonable length of time. An anificial environment
will have to be providecl to accomplish this elevation in temperature and
shoulcl be createcl by an enclobure heatecl by circulating warm air or lly
radiant heatcrs. In any event, localised heating should be avoidccl and the
l-reat shoulcl be provided in a manner that prevents surface temPelatLlres
greater than 1t5oC cluring the epoxy harclening peliod i)irect flame hcnting of
concrete surfaces should be yrrohibited.
Iipoxy bonding agents should be insensitive to damp conclitions during
applicatior-r ancl, after curing, shoulcl cxhibit high boncling strength to clrlecl
('(.)n('r('fe, goorl u.arer l'esislivify, low cleep charactcristics, zrncl tensile strenUth
greater than th:rt of the ccxtcrete. In aclclitkrn, the epoxy boncling agcnts
shor-rld function zrs a lubricant c|,rring the ioililg of tfie rnatcli-cast scgllents'
as a filler. to accurately match the surfaces of the segments being iginecl, ancl
as a cluralrle, watertighl bond at the ioint.
Surfaces to which the epc>xy material is to be appliecl shouicl be lree frorn oil,
laitance, Ibrm-release agent, or any 6ther material that wotrlcl prevcllt th(l
material from bonding to the concrete surfzrce. All laitar-rce and othet'
cont.rminanrs should be removed by light sand blasting or by higl-r-prcssr-r|c
water blasting. \Wet surfaces should be dlied before applying epoxy l>oncling
agents. The surface should be at least the equivalent of satufatecl surface-dry
condition (no visible water).
Instrllctions furnished by the supplier for the safe storage, mixinS, ancl
handling of the epoxy bonding agent shoulcl be followed. The epoxy
components should be tho|oughly rnixed until the mixture is of uniforn'r
colour. Use of a proper sized mechanical rnixer operating at no more than 600
rpm will be required. Contents of damaged or pleviously openecl containers
slroul.l not be uscd.
'Mixingr should not staft until the segmcnt is prepared fol
installation
Application ol the mixecl epoxy bonclinll agent should be according to tl'rc
l :.
i aao Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
. STRUCTURE CONSIRUCIION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
manufacturer's instructior-rs, using trowel, rubber glove, or brush on one or
both surfaces to be joined. T'he coating should be smooth ancl uniform, and
should cover the entire surface with a minimum thickness of 1.5 mm, applied
on both surf:rces, or 3 mm if applied on one surface. Epoxy should not be
placed within 10 n-rm of prestressing ducts in order to rninimise flow into the
ducts. A discernible beaclline must be observed on all exposed contact area
lines after the required post-tensionhrg. Erection operations should be
co-ordinated and conducted so as to complete the operations of applying the
epoxy bonding agent to the segment within 70o/o of the open{ime petiod of
the bonding agent, (See ahead under tTestst.for explana.tion qf topen titnet, 'gel
time', etc.)
The epoxy shoulcl be appliecl to all surfaces to be joined within the first half
of the gel time as shown on the containers. The segrnents sl-rould be joined
within 45 minutes after application of the first epoxy material placed, and a
minimum average temporary prestress r>f 3.5 kg/cm' over the cross-section
should be applied within 70%ir of the open time of the epoxy material. At no
point of the cross-section shall the temporaly prestress be less tl-ran
2.5 kg,/cm'.
The joint sl'rould be checked imrnediately aftet'erection to velify unifbrrt or
as recluired ioint width and proper fit. Excess epoxy fiom the joint shoulcl bc
removecl where accessible. All tenclon ducts shoulcl bc swabbed irnrnediately
after required stressing (u,hile the epoxy is still in the non-gelled condition)
so as to rcrnove or smooth out any epoxy in the conduit and to seal any
pockcts or air bubble holes that have formed at the .ioint.
If tlre joining is not completed within 7A0/o of the opcn time, the operation
should be telminated and the epoxy bonding agent completely removecl fi'om
thc sulf'aces. The surfaces must be prepared again and lresh epoxy appliecl to
tl-re surlices before resuming jointing operations.
As general instructions cannot cover all sitr.rations, specific recommendatiot-ts
and instructions should be obtained in eacl-r case from the Engineer-in-charge
in consonance with the mandatory special specifications and epoxy
rnanufacturer's instructions.
Epoxy bonding agents should be tested to determine their workability, gel
time, open time, bond and compression strength, shear strengtl-r, and working
temperature range. The frequency of the tests must be as stated in the special
provisions of the contract.
The Contractor should furnish the Engineer with sarnples of tl're material for
testing, and a certification from a reputable independent laboratory inclicating
that the material has passed the required tests.
Rr,i,ra's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
",ut"
Chapter-12 r-,- ::l-- ..,: , .SIRL/CTI/RE CONSIRI-/CIION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

minimurn allowable period of elapsed time fiom the application of the mixed
I2.I3 INSPECTIOH OF PRTCAST STGMTI{TAT BOX GIRDTR JOINTING cpoxy boncling agent to the precast segments until the two segments have
PROCEDURES been essembled together and (temporarily) post-tensioned.

In a<ldition to the matefial acceptance tests, which should be initially Testing Method: Open time is determineci using test specimens as detailed
per.fbrmed by an independent testing laboratory and then checked by the in thc Tensilc Bending l-est (Test 1r). The epoxy bonding agent, at the highesr
L*r]..,, organisation, the owner's inspector shor,rld make regular checks of specified application temperature, is mixed together and applied as instructed
the epoxy jointing procedures. Data such as weather, ambient tempefature, in Test 4 to the concrete prisms which shall also be at the highest specified
concfete surface condition and temperature, adhesive batch number, and the application temperature. The adhesive coated prisms shall be maintained for
fointing
'a.nd.
time, should be noted. T'be inspector sbortldfrequentljt sannple 60 nrinutes at the highest specified application remperarure with the adhesive
ricorul clata suclt cts tbe obseraed gel time of the epox! bonding coatecl surface or surfaces exposed ancl uncovered before joining together.
. agent, tbe suqface conclitiorts of tbe seg,ne"ts being iohrcd, tlte The assernbled prisms are then cr.rled and tested as instructed in Test 4.
ohnqra.y oif coaerage of the adbesiue, tbe an'outtt of material being Specificcttiott' The epoxy bor-rding agent is acceptable for the specific
squiezecl from tbe ioints, and tbe approxl,nate ope" tinte oflrom
tbe
application temperatul'e only when essentially total fi'actr-rring of concrete
npo*!, An approxim:tte cletermination of the open time can be noted pastc ancl aggrcgate occurs with no eviclence of adhesive failure.
liehavior,rr of lap joint samples spreacl on small cemetlt-asbestos boarcls.
Constluction situations may sometirnes recluire application of thc epoxy
I2.I4 TPOXY BO}'IDING AGTNT TTSTS boncling agent t() the precast section prior to erectil-rg, positioning, zrncl
assernbling. 'l'his opcration m:ry leqr-rire epoxy bondir-rg agents having
Iesl I 'Sug Flow ol Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent prolonged open time. In geneml, where the erectlon conclrtron.s are .such that
Tltis tesl nre2iiures the application workability of tl-re boncling agent. the scctions to be bonclccl are prepositioned plicx- to epoxy application, the
epoxy bor-rcling agent shall lravc a minimum open time of 60 minutes within
Testirtg Metltocl: AS'I'M D 2J3O k>r the clesignated temperature fange. thc tcrnpcrattrre range specified lirr its application.
Specificatiott' Mixecl cpoxy bor-rcling agent must not sag flow at 3 mm
urinimum and maximum application
-it-ri*.,t-t-t thickness at thc clesillnated Tesl 4 - Three Point Tensile Bonding Test
temperatllre range ftrr the class of bonding agents Llsed'
This test, perlormed on a pair of concrete prisrns bonded together with epoxy
bonding agent detenniltes the bonding strength between the bonding agent
Iest 2 - 'Gel fime' of lUlixed [poxy Bonding Agent ancl c()ncrete. 'l'he bondecl concrete plisms are compaled to a reference test
Gel time is determined on samples mixed as specifiecl in the testing tnethocl. bcirmof concrete 6x6x 18ir-rches.
it provides a guicle for the period of tirne the rnixing bonding agent remeins
workable in the mixing containef during which it mLlst be applied to the Testing Methocl: 6 x 6 x 9 inch concrete prisms of 6,000 psi compressive
nratch-cast ioint surfaces.
strength at 28 days shall be sand blasted on one 6 x 6 inch side ro rcmove
rnould release agent, laitance, etc., and submerged in clean watel.at the lower
Testhtg Method.: ASTM D 2/t71 (except that one quart and one gallon temperature of the .specified application temperarure range for 72 hours.
quantities should be testecl). Lnmediately on removing the concrete plisms from the water, the sand
Specificatiot Thirty minutes minimum on 1 quart and 1 gallon quantities at blasted surfaces shall be air driecl for t hour at the same tefltperature and 50o/o
dre maximum temperatu{e of the designated application tempefatufe range. relative hr.rmidity, and each shall be coated with approximately a 7/76 incl-r
(Note that gel tirne is not to be confused with open time as specified in Test 3.) layer of the mixed boncling agent. The adhesive coated faces of two prisms
shall then be placed together and held with a clamping fbrce normal ro the
Tesl 3 ' 'Open lime' of Bonding Agenl bonded interface of 50 psi. The assernbly shall then be wrapped in a damp
clcxh, which is kept wet during tl.re curing period of 24 hours at rhe lower
This test measlfes workability of the epoxy bonding agent for erection ancl
temperztture of the spccificcl application temperature mnge.
post-tensioning operations. As tested here, open time is defineci as tl-re
:
R aina's Field Manua! for Highway and Bridge Engineers Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
\1!?:; "

Chapter - 12
li
lj
Nter 24 hours curing at the lower temperature of the application
of
temperature range specified for the epoxy bonding agent, the bonded
,p".i-"., shall be unwrapped, removed from the clamping assembly and
immediately tested. The test shall be conducted using the standard ASTM C
78 test for ilexural srrength with third point loading. At the same time, while
the two prisms are preparecl and cured, a companion (reference) test beam
(6 x 6 x i8 inches) shall be prepared of the same concrete, cured for the same
period and tested, following ASTM C 78.
spectficatton- The epoxy bonding agent is acceptable if the load on the
ptir-r ut failure is greatef thang}o/o of the load on the reference test beam at
failure.
Iest 5 ' Compression Slrengft ol (ured [poxy Bonding Agent'
This test measures the compressive strength of the epoxy bonding agent'
Testlng Metbo* ASTM D 695.
speclficatiora- compressive strength il 77oF shall be 2,000 psi minimum after'
i Z4-hours cure ar the minimum temperatufe of the designated applical"iurr
temfleratllre range and 6,000 psi at 48 hours.
Test 6 'Iempetolure Defletlion ol lpoxy Bonding Agenl
This test determines the temperature at which an arbittary deflection occurs
under arbitrary testing conditions in the cured epoxy bonding agent. It is a
screening test to establish performance of the bonding agent throughout the
efection temperature fange.
Testing Metbod: ASTM D 648.
Speclflcatloru- A minimum deflection temperatufe of 722"F at fibre stress
loading of 254 psi is required on test specimens cured for 7 days at77"F
Tesl 7 - (ompression md Shear Strength of Cured lpoxy Bonding Agent
This test is a measure of the compressive strength and shear stfength of the
epoxy bondin g agent compared ro that of the concrete to which it bonds. The
siant cylinder specimen witl-r rhe epoxy bonding agent is compared to
reference test cylinder of concrete only.
Testing Method: A test specimen of concrete is prepared in a standard 6 x
12 inch cylinder mould to have a height at midpoint of 6 inches and an upper
surface with a 3o-degree slope from the vertical. The upper and lower
B'idge engineers
Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and
STRUCTURE CoNSIRUCI,ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
portions of tire specimen with the slant surfaces may be formed through the
use of an elliptical insert or by sawing a full-sized 6 x 12 inch cylinder. If
desired, 3 x 6 inch or 4 x 8 incl.r specimens may be used. After the specimens
have been moist cured for 14 days, the slant surfaces shall be prepared by
light sand blasting, stoning, or acid etching, then by washing and drying the
surfaces, and finally by coating one of the surfaces with a 10 mil. thickness of
the epoxy bonding agent under test. The specimens shall then be pressed
together and held in position for 24 hours. The assembly shall then be
wrapped in a damp cloth which shall be kept wet cluring an additional curing
period of 24 hours at the minimum temperature of the designated application
temperature range. The specimen shall then be tested at77oF following ASTM
C 39 procedures. At the same time as the slant cylinder specimens are made
and cured, a companion standard test cylincler of the same concrete shall be
made, cured for the same period, and tested following ASTM C 39.
Specification: The epoxy boncling agent is acceptable for the designated
application temperature range if the failu|e load on the slant cylinder
specimen is greater thang0o/o of the failure load on the companion cylinder'
r2.t5 GROUTIilG OT (ABLT DUCTS IN POST-TENSIONTD PRESTRTSSED
CONCRTTT
Grouting is an important operation. It protects the tendons, relieves the
anchotage of stress fluctuation, and incrcascs the efficiency of the tendon in
resisting ultimate moments owing to full strain transfer because of bond
between cable and concrete.
In order to provide maximum protection to the tendons, grouting should
preferably be performed within 5 days of completion of the tensioning
operation, unless otherwise specified.
All prestressing steel to be bonded to the concrete shall be free of dirt, loose
rust, grease, and other deleterious substances. All ducts shall be kept free of
any lhaterials that would impair the bond.
Immediately after completion of the concrete pour, the ducts shall be blown
out with compressed oil-free air to the extent necessary to break up and
I
remove any mortar in the duct before it hardens. Stand by flushing equipment,
a
t, capable of developing a pumping pressure of lwenty kilograms per square
centimetre (2 MPa) and a sufficient capaciy to flush out any partially grouted
ducts, shall 'be provided. Approximately 24 hours after the concrete pouE the
dlrcts shall be flushed and blown out with compressed'oil-free air.
I R"t"s r," ld Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
ffi

Chapter - 12
prestressing sreel shall be bonded io the concrete by filling the void space
between the duct and the tendon with grout.
Grout should consist of Porttand cement, water. ancl an expansive admixture
approved by the Engineer. All grout shall pass through a screen with 2 mm
maximum clear openings prior to being introduced into the grout pump No
admixtures containing chlorides or nitrates shall be used.
\fater should be potable and free of any salls and sugars, and should be first
added to the mixeq followed by cement and admixture.
The grout should be mixed in mechanical mixing equipment of a type that
will produce, uniform and thoroughly mixed grout. The water content shall
not be more than 24litres per sack of cement. Retempering of grout should
not be permitted. Grout shalt be continuously agitated until it is pumped'
Grouting equipment should be furnished with a pressure gauge having a full-
,.ale reading of about 20 kilograms per square centimetre (2 MPa), and it
shall be capable o[ grouting at a pressure of at least 10 kilograms per square
centimetfe (1 MPa).
Grout injection pipes should be litted witli positive mechanical shut-off
valves. Venrs and ejection pipes shall be fitted with valves, caps, or other
devices capable of withstanding the pumping pressures. valves and caps shall
not be removed or opened until the grout has set.
Prior to placing the shuttefing, the Contractor should demonstrate to the
satisfaction of the Engineef that all ducts are unobstructed and, if the
prestressing reinforcement has been placed, that the steel is free and not
bonded in the duct.
After the tendons have been stressed to the required tension, each duct
encasing the prestressing steel shall be blown out with compressed oil-free
air. The duct shall then be completely filled, from the low end, with grout,
under not more than 7 kg/cm'pressure. Grout shall be pumped through the
duct and continuously wasted at the outlet until no visible slugs of water or
air are seen. All vents and openings shall then be closed, and the gfouting
pressure at the injection end raised to a minimum of 10 kg,/cm'and held for
a minimum of 10 seconds.
If aluminium powder is permittecl to expand the grout, it shatl be added
follows:
T$o to four grams of the unpolished variety shall be added for each sack ol
cement used in the grout. The exact amount of aluminium powder will be
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana Bldgu Engineers ffi
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCT/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
designated by the Engineer in consultation with the manufacturer. The dosage
per batch of grout shall be carefully weighed.
A number of weighings may be made in the laboratory, and the doses placed
in glass vials for ionvenient use in tl-re mix. The aluminium powder may also
bellended with pumicite or othei inert powder in tl.re proportion of.one.part
-[he blend
powder to fifry parts pumicire (or other inert powder) by weight.
The amount of the blend
shoutd then be ihoroughly mixed with the cement.
used should vary from 125 grams per 50 kg. sack of cement for concrete
t. having a t"-p"rrt)r" of 200C,to 200 grams for a temperature of 5oC' After all
ingredients are added, the batch shall be mixed for three minutes'
t2.t6 COI{TROL OT SURFACE TVAPORATION AND ITS II'IIPORTA}I(E
commenis in the preceding sections regarding consistency of the concrete
and placing too much concrete ahead of the finishing operation are equally
applicable-to rhe manual method of finishing bridge decks. The manual
method of screeding and floating concfete is exhaustive labour. The Engineer
should not permit concrete to be placed too far ahead of the screeding and
floating operations since the concrete may stiffen and make the screeding
"r.rd
*ork finishing even more difficult. In hot weather, it is ffequently
necessary to have extfa skilled labour available to propedy finish a deck and
to avoid extensive and costly cor|ective work. The quality of lite currctete is
adversely at'tected by delayed finishing operation's'
The requlrements of good practice inaolae taking one or more of the
foltnu.,ing
-one
actlons to red.uce tbe suryface eua.Poration rate to less tban
Hta?r@m of u,ater Per squarc
(D The construction of windbreaks or enclosures to effectively reduce the
wind velocity throughout the area of.placement. The constnlction of
windbreaks or enclosures should Qot proceed without approval of the
Engineer with respect to their structural design relative to.safety, adverse
loads, and vibrations in the existing falsework.
(ii)' The instillation of stationary fog sprayers upwind of the operation to
effectively increase the relative humidity throughout the area of
placement.
(iii) Effectively reducing the temperature of the concfete by cooling one of
as more of its. components as well as spraying wet the shutters and
reinforcements. tce, if added to the mix-wateq shall be completely
melted priof to using that water. Figufe t2.72 may be used to estimate
the surface evaPoration rate.
naina's Fr'eld Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
ff
Chapter - 12 ST RIJ CT U RE CONS IRUC fl ON, C RACK D AM AG E AN D RE PAI R

Relallvc hmHlly -* Concrele temperature - oC ca.uses of rouglt rid.tng bridge decks include failure to properly adjust
screed rails or screed guides; improperly set ioint headers or expansion joints;
100
non-uniform consistency of the concrete; erratic rates of delivery; allowing the
concrete to stiffen before finishing; inexperienced workmen; and poorly
'1

adjusted screeds and floats. The first straightedge checks should be made
while the concrete is still workabie, but after some settlement and shrinkage
of the concrete. The aluminium framed taut-wire type of straightedge is the
most suitable for straightedge testing of fresh concrete.
Y:-

The Client's Engineef should observe the stfaightedging pefformed by the

40 rc
i contractor, or he may himself perform such testing. Any irregularities
disclosed by the straightedging should be corrected immediately. Attention
I

35
should be given to finishing the guttef lines on bridges to Preserve good
30 longitudinal drainage, particulariy on flat grades'
25

20 t2.t7 CONSTRUCTIOI{ JolNTt EXPANSIoN JoINTS AND CotD Jolt{Ts

t0 (onslruction Joints
As far as possible the location of construction joints should be as shown on
10 15 20 25 30 35
ARI TEIIPERATIIRE .
OC I Wnd rpred , frnft the plans, but if not shown, they shor.rld he planned in advance and the
I placing of concrete carried continuously from joint to joint. The joints should
METHOD OF USE I
35 be nearly perpendicular to the principal lines of stress and, in general, be
tse€ exarnple on chad) 3
0
4 I locaied at points of minimum shear, where possible'
I Froniaklomp€raluremove L
I
to reiatlve lxnnidlty
30 'where dowels, reinforcing bars, or other adequate ties are not required by the
liFl & I
? Move lEfrflb concrote I plans, keys should be made by embedding water-soaked bevelled timbers in
d 25
tcmp€ralura, I 3 I ioft concrete. The keys should be sized as shown io the details, or as directed
3 Move faml to wlnd ipsed. z
o
I
by the Engineer, and they should be removed when the concrete has set. In
l 20
4 liovomro r€ad rcsultant tr I resuming work, the surface of ihe concrete previously placed should be
epproxknate rata ol e
o I thoroughly cleaned of dirt, scum, laitance,loosely projecting stone, and other
evrporrtiofi. c 2 I soft matefial, with stiff wire brushes, and if deemed necessary by the Engineer,
lu by sand blasting. The surface should then be thoroughly soaked with clean
cut water for about tlvo to three hours (iust before further concreting), free water,
F
4 5 etc. air blown, and the concfete surface painted with a thin layer of cement
3 L
IL slurry, and only then should further concrete be poured'

z
o
l|.l 0
F Construction joints are generalty either vertical or horizontal. $?ire mesh, wire
fr lath, and other similaf items do not provide a ploper constmction joint, and
they should not be used. Construction ioints in roadway slabs shall be formed
Fig.'1,2.12 Surface Evaporation from Plastlc Concrete vertically and in true alignment. An edger shall not be used on the ioint, but

- :-'---- '---- Manual for Highway and Bridge engineers ft *------ffi

@---- '- - Raina's Field
ffi RrinatriebManuatfotHighwayandBridgeEngineers

--
Chapter - 12
lips and edgings shall be removed before making the adjacent pour. If tl-re
joint is properly formed, a good straight edge will be obtained with a
minimum amount of removable lips and edgings.
Shear keys in constluction joints should be constructed as shown in the plans.
For box girder webs, these shear keys are normally shown in the plans to be
full width. Joints should be roughened and prepared fbr the next pour in
accordance with specifications or a.s described above.
lxponsion Joints {Movement Jointsl
Expansion joints should be constructed at the marked locations, and of the
materials and to the dimensions, all as shown on the plans.
Expansion ioints, or expansion joint blockouts, should be placed carefully
before concreting the roadway decks. They should be aligned carefully for
line and grade.
Cut-outs for expansion joint seals should be formed carefully to
the
dimensions shown in the plans for proper placement and operation. After
curing, the ioint seal should be placed using an approved lubricant adhcsivc
or as detailed in the plans.
The Engineer should forbid any method of placing surounding concr.ere that
causes segregation. Some conveyof belt systems tend to cause segregation
after several exchanges from one belt to another. The engineer shall restrict
tlre length of conveyor belts so that segregation does not occul.. Aluminium
ptpe for concrete punping or tremie operations sball not be
pertnitted, Aluminium ca.n cause reactions witbin the coflcrete causing
ktss of strengtlt.
Anchor bolts, inserts, metal expansion devices, drain pipes, pipe sleeves,
scuppers, and all other inserts shall be fixed firmly in position in accordance
with the plans before the sunounding concrete is placed. Embedded fixtures
shall not be positioned during or after concreting. Such fixtures should be
adjusted so as not to affect the position of important reinforcing steel. \N/ood
inserts, if used, should be thoroughly soaked in water .in advance of
concreting; otherwise, they tend to swell and cause the concrete to split.
'Where conditions
require openings not shown in the plans, such proposed
openings should first be approved by the Engineer.
NOTE: For more details on expansion ioints, refer to the author,s book,
Concrete Bridge Practice - Analysis, Design and Economics.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and endge Engineem
ffi
- -*rry6,wtE+*wr:\rt
SIRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
(old Joints
$/hen the continuous placement o[ concrete in any structural member is
interrupted or delayed, for any r€zson; for a period long enough for the
preViously p rtially placed concrete to take its initial set, the Engineer may
declare such a joint as a,cold joint and the Contractor shor-rld immediately
remove the previously partially placed concrete. from the.forms. .However,
where possible, the prbviou.siy'fartially placed concreie'may'instead be
1 suitably and carefully hacked, and its hacked end brought into the low shear
:
low moment zone as best as possible, given shear key depressions aftel
I
bringing it nearly perpendicular to the principal lines of stress (for example,
.
vertical or nearly vertical in a beam with principal bending reinforcernent
horizontal), and thereafter same treatment should be given to it as to a
construction joint and only then the concreting is to be resumed (making sure
all reinforcements are as per the approved plans). No extra payment is
normally to be made for the concrete initially placed but removed owing to
cold joint formation, unless it was not owing to the Contractor,s or his
equipment's fault.
I2.I8 DTPOSITITIG CONCRITT UNDER WATER
Conclete should not be deposited under water except with the approval of
the Engineer and under his immediate supervision. And in this case, the
method ol placing should be as detailed below unclei 'Tiemie Concrere'.
Trenie (oncete
Tremie concrete is concrete placed under water tltrough a tube called a
tremie. The lower or discharge end of the tremie should be kept.embedded
in fresh concrete during concrete placement so that washing out: of cement
and,segregation of aggregates .are substantially prevented.
Tremie concrete may be used for the following purposes:
(a)" Cofferdam and caisson seals (plugs),
(b) Mass underwater concrete,
(c) Underwaterstructures,
(d) Repairs to underwater concrete,
(e) Joining tunnel sections. ,
Tremie concrete for structural purposes may be of the reinforced type. It may
be used in conjunction with precast,concrete elements and with structural
fi aaina's rieu Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers
-
Chapter - 12
steel. It may be placed through any liquid lighter than fluid concrete, such as
water or a bentonite-clay suspension.
Tremie concrete especially requires careful control. Placing trenxie concrete is
a?x an and indiuidu.al workmen baue a great influence on its success. Tbqt
must be trained, rebearsed and propedy superuised.
Tbe foltotuing are general recommendations on tbe mixlng and
pla.cement of trernie concrete,
d lremie tir
The proper mix is essential.
(i) Coa.rse Aggregate: Gnvel is preferable in lieu of crushed stone to
insure a smooth flow. Maximum size aggregate should preferably
be 20 mm for all types of construction.
(ii) Fine Aggregalfe,' To ensure appropriate workability,
the total weight of aggregate should be sand.
(tri) Cetneul:
400 kgs t-rf ceurerrt per cubic metie of mix shc,uld be used
for sn-rall or complex placement and not less than 320 kgs of cement
per cubic metre of mix should be used on large masses.
(iv) Sfu.mp: The recommended slump is 175 mrn with a 150 mm
minimurn and a 300 mm nraximum.
(v) Admixtures: Retarding andlor plasticising admixtures should be
used to reduce the water-cement ratio.
b) Equipmenl
Tremie pipe sizes should be large enough to accommodate the size of
the coarse aggregarc used, but the minimum size should not be less than
a 150 mm diameter pipe. Alumintum ptpe sbould not be used (stnce
abraded alu.mlnlum particles react utitlt cement and red.uce
cortcrete strengtlt),
The tremie pipe must be strong enough to withstand handling dynamic
forces and lateral current forces.
A hopper should be attached to the top of the tremie, and a means
should be provided to raise and lower the entire assembly during
placement. On deep placements, the tremie should be made up of
removable sections with watertight gaskets at the joints,
-' - -'- Ralnab Field Manual for Highway and Eridge
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
I
I
(l Construclion Method
I
1. Spacing of PiPes
)
The number and spacing ol tremies fi:uy vary due to the depth and
configuration of the lift, access, and other reasons' As a general rule'
o.t" pip. shoulcl serve to place about 30 sq'm of concrete surface
' and the spacing of pipes should be about 5 m'
2. Placement of Tremie Concrete
The obiective in placing tremie concrete is to introduce fresh
concrete under the surface of plastic concrete just previously placed
uncler water. As long as the flow is smooth and the surface is not
physically agitated, good quality concrete will result' Zbe
recommend'ed procedut'e for tremle placeffient is as follottts:
400/o to 50o/o of (D Plug the lower end of the tremie pipe with a temporary plug'
(iD Lower the end of the tremie to the.bottom, and fill the tremie
wiltt concrete.
(iii) Raise rhe rremie slowly from the bottom allowing the weight of
the concrete ln it l.u forcc out the temporary plug, lctting the
concrcte flow around the end of the tremie'
(iv) Dr-rmp concrete gradually into the hopper to provide a smooth,
conti;uous flow. Stops of over five minutes are undesirable'
(v) Keep the lower end of the tremie buried preferdbly about
50 ims in the placed concrete, depending upon the rate of
flow and the head of concrete in the tremie'
(vi) Keep the clepth of concrete in the tremie just high enough to
balance ihe water head and rnaintain the flow'
(vii) The maximum placement rate should be determined by
' assuming that one-half of the fluid pressure caused by 3rlz hours
of tremie placement is equal to the allowable form pressure' If
retarding admixtures are used or tlle water temperature is low,
the maximum placement rate should be based on tests or on
previous experience under these cohditions'
(viii) At the conciusion of placement of the tremie concrete, the
laitance on the top surface of the tremie concrete should be
removed by.overflowing the containing forms, if possible, by
a diver iening the surface after the concrete has initially set, or
by jack hammering the hardened surface after dewatering'
Engtr"rr" Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineets
f!
-
@

Chapter - 12
3. loilonce
This is formed when cement is washed out of the concrete by water.
Under normal conditions, a thin film of laitance will form on the outer
..:. surface of the trernie concrete, but the formation of excessive quantities
of laitance should be avoided.
(i) Ctosely spaced reinforcing bars will screen the tremie concrete
resulting in its build-up and a drop. This drop causes the water and
concrete to mix, resulting in tl-re formation of laitance. Thus, the
spacing and size of reinforcing bars should be designed and
detailed to minimise this screening effect.
It is recommended that the reinforcement be placed in bundles of
3 or 4bars, andlor use larger bars to keep the clear space beNueen
and around bars to a rninimum of 8 times the coarse aggregate size,
i.e., with 20 mm coarse aggregate, 150 mm clearance.
(ii) Placing should be timed for n-rinimum stream or tidal flow. Tremie
concrete shor.rld not be placed in water flowing at speed. When
such conditions do not exisl-, l"rettlie coltcrete slrould be sealed ufl
from thc lcoching action of $'ater flow b1. grout-tight cofferdams or
caissons.
(iii) Divers should not walk on the fresh trentie concrete surfaces.
(iv) Tremie pipes should be sealed even against small leaks. These
watertight seals are of great importance, since with any gap, the
down-flowing concrete will suck in outside water and turn the
tremie pipe into a mixing chamber, with excessive segregation and
laitance.
4. Plugs, loss ol SeoL und Resecling
(i) Plugs are blockages in the tremie pipe, and are usually caused by
arching, delays of over 10 minutes, unworkable or dry
segregation, poor aggregate gradation, or a leak in the joint of the
tremie pipe. A plug can perhaps best be freed by quickly raising the
tremie 10 to 15 cms at a time.
(ii) A seal, placed initially at the lower end of the pipe, is lost when the
concrete runs out and water nrshes back into the tremie. Loss of
seal shouid be avoided because the tesealing process always forms
laitance.
'- - - Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Bddge Er7ir.tr" ]
@ srRUcruRE coNsrRucr/oN, cRAcK DAMAG E AND REPAIR
(iii) 19 a seal is lost, the preferable method of re-establishing the seal is
toraisethetremiepipeclear.ofthewaterandaffixatempofaryplug
andgasket,Resetthepipeinfreshconcreteandcontinuethe
Placement.
5. toms
The forms should be designed for the pressurre caused by the anticipated
rate of tremie placement plus any other force otl the forms during the
tremie operations. The minimum pressure the forms should be designed
for is 2'5 t/sq.m.
2,
6. (onslruction Joinls
(D Vertical construction ioints may be formed with steel forms,
corrugated sheets, or sheet piles, which are later to be removed' A
precast concrete divider wall or a well-anchored steel form may be
left in Place.
(ii) Horizontal construction ioints should be constructed as follows' The
lower lift of concrete shor.rld he as level as possible' The surface
should be clean ancl the laitance removed several hours after
placement. Bxcessive silt and sand slrould bc reuroved beforc thc
.rext plac.m.nt. And the next tretrtie placernent should be staftcd
with a rich grout.
rJ/here there is a curiainof reinforcing steel around the perimetef, the
first placement will generally bave a step down of about 0.3 m outside
the bars. Particular care shoulcl be taken to iet and clean the laitance
from these pockets (there may be similar problem pockets behind
H-piles). At the start of the next placement, tremie grout should be
placed to fill these pockets up above the level of the remaining concrete.
To prevent excessive ,screening' by reinforcement near a constfuction
that the ends
loini, lap splices in rhe verrical bars should be located such
mix, of tl're upper bars are 0.3 to 0.6 m above the construction ioint'
I a"in"'" ri"u Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chaptar - 12
I2.I9 INSPTCTION AND TESTING TOR CONCRETT
o) Inspection
Botching
Before and during batching operations, you should:
(D Inspect the stockpiles of aggregates as required by the
specifications to assllre that they are not contaminated with dust,
dirt, wood chips, grease, or other foreign matter. See that the
various sizes are drained for a specified length of time before being
used in batching.
(ii) Cbech the accuracy of the batch scales arid see that each sized
material is weighed accurately. The scales need to be tested for
acciutacy and serviced by the scale company's representative each
time the scales are set up, and at least every one month thereafter.
A significant change in the weight or appearance of the concrete or
apparent yield is reason enough to question the accuracy of the
scales.
(iii) Assure that the various sizes of aggrcgate are not intenlingled in
the compartments of overhead bins.
(iv) Ensure that the materiais are taken from the stockpiles in a manner
as will in grading and moisture content.
maintain uniformiry
Frequently the bottom one metre of sand that was stockpiled when
wet, contains excess moisture. This layer must not be mixed
randomly with the drier sand but should be picked up and placed
with sand to be used another day. Moisture content of stockpiled
aggreg te should be checked daily and adjustment made in water
content of the mix.
(v) Ensure that batch trucks are positioned accurately under the
batching plant so that a part of a batch does not empty into an
adjoining compartment.
(vi) Watclt utth particular ca.re for inaccuracies, accidental or
otherwise, in weighing bulk cement. See that the scale registers zero
when the cement weighbox is emptied completely for each batch,
and that the cement is discharged into the intended compartmenr
on the batch truck, or into the mixer, without loss or overflow to an
adjacent compartment.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Briage Engineers
..ir,6:;:ssasgrl#1:.i.
SIRUCTURF CONSIRU67ON, CRA9K DAMAGE AND REP TR
(vii) Cbeck the accuracy of the proportioning to assllre that it meets the
requirements of the approved mix design.
lllixing Delivery ond Plorement
Mixer drums should be inspected frequently, kept clean, and
blades or paddles renewed when necessary. The quantity of
concrete necessary to be mixed per hour (which sometimes is taken
as the greater of twenty cubic metres per hour or Nvo cubic metres
per hour per metre of slab width perpendicular to the direction of
placement) should be determined, and a mixel large enough to
supply the required output be providecl. The size and capacity of
handiing equipment should be adeqr.rate so that materials
^ggtegate
can be delivered to the mixer in sufficient quantities to meet the
. determined placement rate.
The mixer should be operated at the recommended speed and for
the required time of mixing. The concrete shall be thoroughly
mixed, with no segregation when discharged from the mixer.
If ready-mixed concrete is to be used, the plant and equipment must
be checked and approved. The Engineer should inspect the plant to
determine that the plant and delivery eqr-ripment meet specification
requirements and are capable of producing and delivering to the
proiect site concrete conforming to the specifications and at the
required placement rate.
bl Sompling cnd lesling
Tests for concrete arrd component materials should be in accordance
with the relevant standard procedures. Testing frequencies shall be as
specified or directed by the Engineer, but not less than those required
by the minimum sampling and testing schedule.
,
" Process control testingin addition to that required by the contract or the
Engineer shall be the responsibiliry of the Contractor. All personnel and
equipment neiessary to assure the qualiry of the final product shoulcl be
furnished accordingly.
. Compliance witb uctriaus requirements sbou.ld be d.eterrnined in
or
accordance,witb tbe Jbllowing standard fttetbods of AASHTO / ASTM,
equhtalent:
. Sampling Fresb Concrete: T 741 (ASTM C 172).
ffi f, nrr"t r," ld Manual for Highway and Brtdge Engineers - - - --ffi
Qhapter - 12
a Welght per Cubic Metre, Yield and. Air Content (Graolmetric)
ofConcrete: T 121 (ASTM C 138).
c Sieoe Analjtsis ofFtne and Coarse Aggregate: T 27
o Shtmp of Portland Cemcnt Concrete: T 119 (ASTM C143).
. Air Content of Fresbllt Mixed. Concrete by tbe Pressure
Metbod: T 152 (ASTM C 231).
o Specific Grat)itJl a.nd Absorption of Fine Aggregate: T 84
(ASTM C 128).
o Spectfic Graoitlt andAbsorption ofCoarse Aggregate: T 85.
o unit Wetgltt oJf Structural Lightweigltt Concrete: ASTM C 567.
c Maktng and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in tbe
Laboratory: T 126 (ASTM C 192).
o lesfs for strengtb shqll be made ln accordance xaitb tt)e
follouttng.
- Making and curlng
concrete cornpressiae and Jlexural
test tpeclnens in tholftolcl:.MSIITO T 23 (ASTITI C 31).
- curing or water curing):
Cornpressiae strertgtb of moulded concrete cyllnders:
AASHTO T 22 (ASTM C 39).
Samples for strength tests of each class of concrete stroulcl be taken not less
than once a day nor less than once for each 50 cubic metres of concrete or
once for each major pour. Strength tests of specimens cured under field
conditions for the concrete used for bridge decks should be carried out to
.check the adequacy of curing and protection of the concrete. Strength tess
of field-cured specimens may be required fbr concrete used in other parts of
the structure. Each strength test result should be the average of at least three
cylinders from the same sample tested at 28 days or the specified earlier age.
At least six strength teqts (3 each at 7 days and 28 days) should be made for
each class.of concretq on any proiect unless relaxed by the Engineer. The
cylinders should normally be cured under conditions that are not more
favourable than the most unfavourable conditions for the portions of the
concrete which they repfesent, keeping in view the unfavourably high surface
area to volume ratio in the test specimen vis-a vis that in the actual structure.
(For this reason, it is normal to cure specimens in water-bath.) For the
strength leael .of tbe concrete to be considered satlsifactary, tbe
aoerage of strengtb test resuks sball equal or exceed tbe required
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana eriage Engineers
ffi
-.' *l*Je*{iw;si-
STRUCTURE CONSIRUC'ION, CRACK OAMAGE AND REPAIR
fixinirnum utorks compressiue strength; tbe strengtrJ of no indiuidual
specimen sba.ll be l/'ss tltan 85% oJf tbe ,ninimurn uorks co/npresstae
strengtrr required and tbe difference betueen tbe maximum ancl the
rninlmum test results sball not exceed 2O% of tbe a.uerage of tbe test
results (Ako see 12.26.1 abead.).
However, where doubtful, 100 mm diameter by 200 mm long cores may be
extracted (preferably vertically) from the area of concrete in question,
generally three cores to an area. ACI criteria for accepting this concrete are
that their average brushing strength should not be less than 850/o and no
individual one should be less than 75o/o of the 28-day srandard cylinder
strength requirement, adjustrnent for age, etc., can also be made.
I2.20 CURING AND PROTECTION OF CONCRTTT
All concrete should be cured for a period of time required so as to obtain the
specified strength, but for not less than seven to ten consecutive days (and
nights) beginning almost immediately after the initial seiting of concrere as the
water sheen begins. to disappear, unless othenrrise specified in the special
spccificatiurrs.
Culing should bc donc as cxplaincd in thc subsections below (memblane
ul Membrone Curing
Except for construction ioints and surfaces sealed'by forms, liquid
membrane curing compound can be used as described here. On bridge
deck top surface and other exposed surfaces, liquid curing membrane
should be applied as soon as the water sheen has begun to disappear
and the concrete is still darnp, not wet.
On shuttered, (i.e., formed) vertical surfaces, forms should be stripped
, as soon as practical (generally after 24 hours of casting) and liquid curing
-'membrane applied immediately. except in the areas
that require rubbing
or finishing during the curing period. These shall be kept wet unril rheir
,
finishing is completed, whereafrer the liquid curing membrane shall be
uniformly applied on rhem also. S7hite pigmented liquid curing
membrane should be used for all surfaces where the structure
temperature during curing period is likely to reach about 35oC or more.
For bridge decks, which are to receive a bituminous overlay, residual
curing membrane should be removed prior to the overlay. Removal
methodi and results should be approved by rhe Engineer.
j a"ir"'" ri"u Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
Chapter - 12
The curing membrane used should be of longer-lasting duration and in
accordance with the requirements specified for curing membrane
material, AASHTO M 148, The curing membrane should be applied in
rwo applications, one immediately following the other. The rate of each
application of curing compound will be as prescribed by the
manufacturers, with a spreading rate per application of at least one litre
of liquid per five square metres, of concrete surface. If the concrete is
dry or becomes dry, it should be thoroughty wetted with water and the
curing compound applied just as the surface film of water disappears.
During curing operations, any unsprayed surfaces should be kept wet
with water. Any curing membrane material on construction joints and/or
reinforcing steel should be completely removed before the following
concrete pour.
Hand-operated spraying equipment should be capable of
constant and uniform pressure to provide uniform and adequate
distribution of the curing membrane at the rates required. The curing
compound should be thoroughly mixed at all times during usage.
No traffic of anir ftlnd should be permitied on the cLrring membrane until
the curing period is completed, design permitting.
b) Woler Curing
All concrete surfaces, unless sealed by unreleased forms (kept from
heating up under ambient temperature) or submerged, shall be water
cured unless liquid membrane cured. W'ater curing should begin as soon
as the water sheen has begun to disappear and initiai setting has taken
place.
Surfaces to be water cured should be covered with wet sand, cotton
mats, double thickness burlap, or other equivalent absorbent materral,
The absorbent material should be placed around and behind any
projecting reinforcing steel in order to completely cover the concrete
surface. The material should be completely saturated with water and
kept continuously saturated throughout the curing period. After the
initial saturation, unless water is kept running, all surfaces should be
covered with thick polyethylene sheeting or other approved impervious
material. The sheeting shall be weighted or secured to prevent moisture
loss; however, the surfaces of the concrete slrall be readify available for
inspection of the Engineer. The sheeting should be in good repair.
Sheeting that contains hoies or is otherwise damaged shoulcl be repaired
or replaced. The Contractor shall be responsible fbr thoroughly
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
'-'-*{ffiaffi
&irisidd{ztiffi STRUCTURE coNsIRUcIloN, cRAcK DAMAGE AND REPATR
inspecting and monitoring the Concrete surfaces throughout the curing
period. Additional water should be added to any areas where saturation
is reduced. Inspections by the contractor shali be conducted at least six
times per day for the duration of the curing period, and more often if
ordered by the Engineer. The Engineer should be advised of the
inspection schedule and may accompany the workmen to velity the
acceptability of curing.
(l (old Weother (uring
' 'When concrete is placed and the air temperature is expected to dlop
below 5oC during the curing period, the contractor should provide
suitable measures such as straw, additional burlap, or other suitable
blanketing materials andlor housing and artificial heat curing to maintain
supplying the concrete temperatLlre between 10oC and J2oC as measured on the
surface of the concrete. The surface of the concrete should be kept moist
by the use of an approved moisture barrier such as wet burlap as
detailed eariier. The moisture barrier should be maintained in intimate
surface contact with the concrete as best as possible, during the entire
curing pcliod. Aftcr thc complction of thc rcquircd curing pcliod, thc
Contractor should stop the curing and remove the protection in such a
manner that rapid cooling of the concrete will be prevented.
lwhen concrete is placed in cofferdams and subsequently fiooded with
ground water, the above curing conditions may be waived, provided the
surface of the water is not permitted to fteeze.
d) Stecm (uring
In lieu of fhe minimum,$even to ten day water cure, the Contractor may
,elect to stearn cure (pafticulariy the precast elements), subject to the
following provisions:
(i) After placement of the concrete, members shotrld be held in the
' p."rt"r-ing bath for a minimum four-hour presteaming period. If
the ambient air temperature is below l.0oC, steam should be applied
during the presteaming period to hold the air surrounding the
member at a temperature befween 10oC and 32oC.
(ii) To prevent moisture loss from exposed surhces during the
presteaming period, members in the presteaming bath should be
covered as soon as the surface streen begins to disappear after
casting, either with wet blankets or kept damp by fog spray,
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Chapter - 12
I
(iii) Enclosures for steam curing should allow free circulation of steam
around the member, and should be so constructed as to contain the
live steam with a minimum moisture loss. The use of tarpaulins or
:
similar flexible covers can be permitted, provided they are kept in
good repair and secured in such a manner as to prevent the loss of
I
steam and moisrure.
(iv) Steam at the jets should be under low pressure arld in a saturated
condition. Steam jets should not impinge directly on the concrete,
test cylinders, or forms. During tnttial application of the stea.rn,
trJe temperature rise uitbin tbe enclasure sbould. t ot exceed.
2OoC per hour. Tbe curing ternpera.ture tbrougbout the
enclosure sbould not exceed. 65"C and sbottld. be maintained.
at a constant leaelfor a suffrcient tifie necessary (but not less
tban 24 hours) to deaelap tbe required. strengtb at usltich the
member can be transferred outfor regular atring. A minimum
space of 15cms shall be maintained around the entire element to
enable the circulation of steam. The maximum differential
temperature between any rvvo points within the enclosure shall be
100c.
At thc conclusion of stcam curing, thc cnclosurc should bc vcntcd
in srrch a way fhat the drop in amhient temperan.tre within is not
sharper than 20oC per hour. Control cylinders should be covered to
prevent moisture loss and should be placed in a location where the
temperature is representative of the avenlge temperature of the
enclosure.
(v) Accessible temperature recording devices that will provide an
accurate and continuous record of the curing temperature should be
provided. A minimum of one temperafure recording device per sixty
metres of continuous bed length wili be required for checking
temperature,
(vi) Prestress to members in pre-tension beds should be transfered
immediately after the temination of steam.curing while the concrete
and forms are still warm; otherwise the temperature within the
enclosure shall be maintained at over 15oC until the prestress is
transferred to the concrete.
(vii) Steam curing will be considered complete when all of the following
criteria have been met:
Raina's Field Manual fot Highway ana ariaoe Engineers
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*-{=ff-***- l'I
I
d STRUCTURE coNsrRuczoll, cRAcK DAMA}E AND REPAIR
oAminimumof24hoursofcuringhaselapsed,exclusiveofheat-
up and cool-down Periods.
oTheconcretehasreachedtheminimum'stresstransfer'or
the element.
'handling' strength, based on cylinders cured with
' $F?;i'j,:# :;,.,,* i#ffi:'";'i"lK ?:Jff,;'.T:';
All newly placed concrete for precast concrete piles, both conventionally
reinforced and prestressed, should preferably be cured by steam as explained
above, except ihat piles designated as"corrosion-resistant' should be kept
continuously wet foi their entire length for a period of not less than seven
days, including the holding and steam curing periods'
el Curing llloleriols
Curingmaterialsshouldconformtotlrefollowingrequirements,of
equivalent:
..ShcctMaterialeforCuringConcrete:AASI-ITOM171(ASTMC171).
rBurlapclothmarlefromJuteorKenaf(Hessian)AASHTOM182.
r Liquid Membranc-forming Compounds for curing concrete:
AASHTO M l4B (ASTM C 309).
I2.2I CONCRTTI}IG IN ADVERSE WTAIHER CONDITIONS
rl Concreting in (old Weofter
(i)Concrete,thatfreezessoonafterplacing,gainsratherlowstrength'
and some permanent damage is certain to occur' Therefore' such
. concrete should be removed and replaced'
.(ii)Toprotectfreshconcreteduringplacenrent,anduntilithasattained
theminimumpropeftiesrequiredfortheenvironmentandthe
loading .to wnictr ii will be exposed, plans shor.rld be- made well in
adrranJe. Appropriate equipment shoutd be available for heating the
aoncrete maierials, fof constfucting enclosures, and for maintaining
favourable temPeratures even after the concrete is placed'
(iii)Concreteshouldneverbeplacedon.coldforms,steel,or
appurtenances..Whenthetemperatureoftheseitemsisbelow5"C,
tlie Contractor should use means to raise their temperatures to at
least 5oC.
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Chapter - 12
(iv) When faced with cold temperatures, all aggregates or mixing wateq
or both, should be heated to a temperature of not more than 32oC.
At temperatures above fteezing, it is seldom necessary to heat
aggregates, At temperatures below freezing, often only the fine
aggregate is heated to produce concrete of the required
temperature, provided the coarse aggregate is free of frozen lumps.
If aggregate temperatures are above freezing, the desired concrete
temperature usually can be obtained by heating only the mixing
water. Appreciable mixing water temperature fluctuations from
batch to batch should be avoided.
bl (oncreling in Hot Weother
(D No concrete should be placed when the ambient air temperature at
job site in shade is expected to exceed about 35oC during placement
operations.
(ii) Vhen the temperature of the 'concrete mixture' is expected to
exceed about 25"C, a retarding admixture should be included in the
approved mix design since setting time tends to reduce at higher
temperatures. The temperature of the concrete mixture irnrnediately
hefole placement sholtld nor exceed ahour J2oC. liflhen the ambrent
temperature is above 32"C, all forms, reinforcing steel ancl other
contact surfaces, should be cooled to below 32oC until concrete is
placed. \7hen such temperature conditions exist, the most
appropriate solution is to resofi to night time concreting. However,
if the above precautions are taken to help lower the temperature of
coniact surfaces and the concrete mix ingredients are also cooled
(explained ahead), concreting cah be done even during day hours.
(iii) Mixers, chutes, belts, hoppers, pump lines, and other prodr,rction
and placement equipment can be shaded, painted white, covered
with wet burlap, or otherwise cooled to reduce the effect of the
. sun's heat.
(iv) Forms and reinfcircing steel can be sprinkled with cool water and
covered with wet burlap before the concrete is placed. Sprinkting
the area cools the contact surfaces and surrounding air- and
increases its relative humidity. This not only reduces the
teinperature rise of the concrete but also minimises evaporation of
water from the concrete during placement. For slabs on ground, it
. is a good practice to dampen the subgrade the evening before
concreting. 'I'here should be no standing water or puddles on the
subgrade or inside the forms when the concrete is placed.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway an6 Bridg" Engir""r"
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ffi srRUCruREcoNSrRUcr/oN, cRAcK DAMAGE AND REPATR
(v) The mix water may be cooled by using shaved or crushed ice but
only as much ice should be used as will be melted entirely before
this water is measured and added to the mix.
(vi) All water used for ice and for cooling or sprinkling must meet the
same quality requfuements as'mixing water. Of particular concern
are sr-rlphates and chlorides in the mix, which may adversely affect
the cement and corrode the reinforcing steel, respectively.
(vii) Aggregates should be cooled by shading and sprinkling (fog spray).
(viii) Transporting and placing concrete should be done as quickly as is
practical during hot weather. Delays contribute to loss of slump and
an increase in concrete ternperature. Enough workmen and
equipment should be available to handle and piace concrete
immecliately upon delivery.
(ix) Prolonged mixing, even at agitating speed, should be avoided. If
delays occur, the heat generated by mixing can be minimised by
stopping the mixer and then agitating intermittently.
(x) Silrce currcreLe hatderrs more rapidly in hot wcathcr, cxtra care in
placing techniques is required to avoid coid ioints. For placement of
walls, shallower layers may be required to assure consoiidation with
each previous lift and effective dissipation of heat of hydration.
Temporary sunshades and windbreaks help to minimise adverse
effects of hot weather and surface evaporation.
12.22 CONCRETE EXPOSTD TO STA WATTR
Unless otherwise specifically provided, concrete for structures exposed to sea
water should be of at least 300 kg/cm'cylinder crushing strength at 28 days'
The clear distance from the face of the concrete to fhe nearest face of
reinforcement steel should be increased by the designer. The concrete should
be mixed for a period of not less than 2 minutes, and the water content of the
mixture should be carefully controlled and regulated so as to produce
concrete of maximum impermeability and denseness. The concrete should be
thoroughly compacted and honey combs should be avoided. No construction
loints shali be formed between levels of extremb low water and extreme high
water as determined by the Engineer. Between these levels, sea water should
not come in direct contact with the concrete for a period of at least 74 to 20
days after casting. The original surface, as the concrete comes from the forms,
should preferably be heavily painted with hot asphalt. Reinforcement may be
coated with epoxy as a precaution against corrosion (though it is not a
Rainat rre u Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
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Chapter - t2 ffi SIRUCTURECONSIRIiCIION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

fool proof protection). Minimum cement content should be raised to at least passes of the nozzle over the working area. The sprayed conclete or mortar
350 kg per cubic metr€ of mix. Sulphate-resisting cement should be used; sltould emergefrom the nozzle ln a steady uninterauptedflottt. Sbould
better still, blast furnace slag cement (containing in its weight about 650/o blast tbe flotl become intermittent for any reasoq the nozzlcman sbould
furnace slag) should be usgd, as this gives a very dense paste which inhibits direct it anoay fxnn tbe utork until it becomes steady again.
ingress of moisture, and thereby the movement of chloride-ions, sulphate-ions
and even the alkali-aggregate reaction, to.some extent. The distance of the nozzle from the work should be between 600 and 1,500
mm. It shall, as a general rule, be aimed perpendicular to the application
surface.
I2.23 APPI.ICATION OF SPRAYED CONCRTTE (SHOTCRETEI AND SPRAYTD
MORTAR (GUNITE} Proporlions of Mortor
Sprayed concrete (sometimes referred io as shotcrete) is a mixture of 'fhe proportion of cement (OPC) to sand should be based on dry and loose
. watet cement, sand and aggregate, impelleci pneumatically through a nozzle volumes and normally should not be less than one to four for encasement of
without intemrption by means of a purpose-made machine on the area of steel members, one to three for concrete repair, and one to four ancl a half for
placernent. special linings.
Sprajted ,nortar (sometimes referred to as gunlte) is a mixture of water,
cement and sand of maximum particle size 7 mm, impelled pneumatically Woter Conlent
thlough a nozzle without interruption by means of a purpose-made machine The water content should be maintained at a practicable minimum and not in
on the area of placement. excess of 0,3 water-cement ratio hy weighr for gr-rnire ancl 0.35 to 0,50 for
An admixure is usually added to accelerate the initial set of the concrete or shotcrete.
mortar and to achreve a hrgh strength at an early stage. Only adrnixtures that
are approved by the Engineer should be used. No admixtures are tlixing
pennitted tn tbefinal layer of sprayed. concrete. 'Ihe cement and sand should be thoroughly mixed together, dry, before being
Spraying should only be performed by skilled operators. Each operaror chargecl into the machine. The sand shoulcl contain not less than 3 or more
should be tested as follows: 'He shall construct four rest panels, each 600 x than 60/0 moisture by weight.
800 x 100 mm thick, one of which shall contain a layer of mesh reinforcement.
Two panels will be shot vertically and fwo overhead, one of each will be cut llozzle Velocity
out to examine the compaction and rebound factors, the remaining panels will
The velocity of the material as it leaves .the nozzle must be maintained
be tested. Only when the operator has proved his expertise will he be uniform at a tate determined for the given job conditions to produce
perinitted to carry out permanent work.'
minimum rebound.
Immediately prior to the application of sprayed mortar or concrete, all 'i'.
surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned and wetted with a strong blast of air and Nozzle Position
water.
The nozzle should be held in such a position and at such a distance rhat the
The thickness and the alignment of the sprayed material should be controlled stream.of flowlng material will impinge at approximately right angles to the
by either guide wires or mortar-spotting plastic studs, to indicate depth, or surface being cove,lgd without excessive impact.
other means agreed with the Engineer.
The Contractor may also be required to drill through the concrete lining to Rebound Sond
establish the thickness of the lining at points selecred.by the Engineer. Each Rebound or accumulated loose sand should be removed from the surface to
layer of sprayed concrete or rnortar should be built up by making several be covered prior to placing the original or succeeding layers of mortar.
Raina's Field Manualfor Highway and Bridge Engineers j ffi R r"tri"HManuatforHighwayandBridgeEngrneers -...--'*- *--,-*ffi
Chapter - 12
Forns
The forms should be structurally sufficient and of such design that rebound
or accumulated loose sand can freely escape or be readily removed Shooting
to
strips shpuld be used at corners, edges, and on surfaces where necessary'
obtain true lines and proper thickness.
Joinlc
The pneumatically applied mortar at the end of any day's work or
similar
,toppi.,g periods, should be sloped off to a thin edge' Before placing an
aa;ai."i section, this sloped pottiott should be thoroughly cleaned and
wetted.
(uring
protected'
PneumatiCally applied mortar or concrete should be so applied,
and cured as to prevent its temperature falling below 10oC and prevent loss
of moisture from the surface for the periods indicated below:
(a) \where normal Portland cement is used: / days, and
(b) Vhere high-early strength Portlarrd ccrucrlt is used 3 days'
The reinforcement in case of gunite, when required, should be adequate
and shall consist of mesh or round
the standpoint of structural requirements
way, and
bars, spaced not less than 50 mm, of more than 100 mm apart either
wire' The
havins a diameter not less than that of No' 12 areas
.einfoicement shall be at least 0.2o/o of the cross-sectional area of the mortar.
The reinforcement shall be at least 6 mm from the unexposed surface of
mortar and at least 20 mm from the exposed surface'
The finished shorcrere should be tested with a hammer to determine whether
there are any porous or incomplete pockets' Rebound pockets, sags or other
defects should be cut out and made good to the Engineer's satisfaction.
For vertical or near vertical surfaces, application should commence at the
bottom. The first layer shall at least completely embed the reinforcement.
Layer thickness should be governed mainly by the requirement that the
concrete or mortar should not sag.
rvhere thick layers are applied it is
important that the top surface be maintained at approximately a 45o slope'
'Where necessary, alayer of sprayed concrete or mortar may be covered by
succeeding tayers, Uui it should first be allowed to take its initial set.
All
must first be removed. Any
i"ltrr.., l6ose material and rebound material
Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway and endge Engmeers
'r-rRjlsi*:!--{n:t:;:iN
ffi srRucruRE coNsrRucrtoM 0RACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
laitance which has been allowed to take final set should be removed by grit
blasting. The surface should then be cleaned and wetted, using a strong blast
of air and water.
The time beftveen appiication of successive layers should not exceed 24
hours. A longer break may be accepted if it, can be .shown by tests that
sufficient bond can still be achieved.
Under no circumstances should rebound material be worked back into the
construction. The work should be continually kept free of rehound material,
by the continuous use of a high-pressure air iet and any other means
necessary.
Sprayed concrete or mortar should be damp cured for at least seven days after
placing or, by the application of an approved proprietary curing compound,
used entirely in accordance with the manufacturerrs approved instructions.
Suitable screening of the nozzle and the application surface should be
provided during windy conditions.
The spraying equipment should be kept in good condition by cleaning it
frequently. This should be.done at least once Per shift. The spraying nozzle
should be in such condition that an even and contlnuous flow of ttraterial is
obtained. As soon as excessive wear is found in the nozzle covet', it must be
changed. The arrangement for the addition of water at the nozzle (if such
flom system is used) must give uniform wetting of the material. Liquid admixtures,
if approved, shall be added with the mixing water at tbe nozzle if the dry mix
process is used. Dry admixture should be added into the dry mix at the latest
of the possible time. In either case, accurately calibrated and adjustable mechanical
means should be employed to dispense the admixture in the correct approved
proportions.
the
Tbe ca.pacitjt of tbe cornpressor pla'nt and Laater supply sltould be
targe eTough to ensure a constant and sufficiently ltigb preisure. Tbe
u)a.ter pressure sbould be sonieutbat ltigber iltan tbe al'r pressure.
Manometers sbould be proaided'to mea.sure tbe alr and water
pfessures. .
Good lighting and rigid and sufficiently wide working ptatforms must be
plovided in areas wherb shotcreting oi'gunitihg is taking place.
I tl
t2.24 GUtDEul{tS toR REPAIR'0F DAIIIAGED/SPALLID CoNCREfi 0r
EXISTING C0]{CR[TE BRIDGIS BY SHOT(REI|il9 qn.9qilfflilG
(i) In general, dty--i" shotcrete, which is pneumatically applied concrete
under high pressure, shall be applied for repair of concrete in bridge
works.
ffi ffi nuirrt ro td Manua! for Highway and Bridge Engineers
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Chaptcr - 12
(iD ordinary pofiland cement conforming to standard specifications shall
be used in shotcreting.
Sand for shotcreting shall comply with the requirements stipulated
in
tllr)
the standard specification and graded evenly from fine to coarse' In
general, sand should neither be too coarse to increase the rebound nor
too fine to increase the slumP.
(iv) \Vater cement ratio for shotcrete should fall within the range of 0'30 to
0.50 by weight and shouid be wet enough to reduce the rebound'
(v) Test panels simulating actual field conditions should be fabricated,
conducting pre-construction testing.
(vi) Cement mortar mix for pure guniting should generally be within the
range of one Part of cement to three parts of sand' For shotcrete, coarse
is includecl in the mix and its percentage is normally kept as
^ggrl'.gut
ZOilo lo 4Oo/o of the total aggreg te. The mix must be suitzbly
designed.
(vii) It should be ensured frorn tests on the gunite mortar of the shotcrete
rhaf 2 sfrength of about 20vo more than that of the parent concfete is
achieved.
(viii) The defective concfete should be cut out to the full depth till sound
concrete surface is reached. under no cifcumstances should the
thickness of concrete to be removed be less than the clear covef to the
main reinforcement. No square shoulders should be left at the perimeter
of the cut-ou!. portion and all edges should be tapered. Thereafter, all
loose and foreign materials should be removed and the surface sand
blasted to make it rough to receive shotcrete'
(ix) The exposed reinforcement should be thoroughly cleaned free of rust,
scales, Ltc., by wire brushing, preferably by sand blasring. vherever the
reinforcements have been corroded, they should be removed and
replaced by fresh reinforcement. Before application of shotcrete and
after thorough satufation of exposed concrete by water, a coat of neat
cement slurry should be applie<l on the surface of the reinforcement.
(x) The additional reinforcement should be pleferably suitably welded or
anchored to the existing reinforcement. ' In caSe the existing
reinforcement is not weldable and the prpvision of lags ' becomes
necessary, the lapped reinfoicing bars should not be iied together' They
should be separated by at least twice the diameter of the bar, wherever
possible. This will ensure a dense concrete mask around the steel'
re--* Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway ena aaaoe enaineers
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCflON, CRACK DAMAGEAND REPAIR
(xi) Sufficient clearance should be provided around the reinforcement to
permit encasement with sound shotcrete. Care has to tie taken to avoid
sand pockets behind the reinforcement.
(xiD A thickness of 25 to 40 mm of shotcrete can normally be deposited in
one operation. If, for some reason, the total thickness is to be built up
in succesdive operations, the previous layer should be allowed to nearly
initially set without becoming hard, before the application of the
subsequent layer. It is necessary to apply shotcreting on a damp
concrete surface.
(xiii) It would be desirable to provide welded wire fabrics in the first layer of
shotcreting. In case the darnage to the concrete member is too deep,
the specifications for shotcreting as well as requirement of placement of
wiremesh may have to be decided as per actual field conditions to suit
the shape and profile.
.(xiv) The stipulations given in the standard specifications regarding
application of shotcrete shor-rld be scrupulously followed so as to keep
the rebound to a minimum
(xv) Adequate care has to be taken regarding curing of the shotcrete (or
gunite, as the case may be). It would be desirable that green shotcrete
(or grrnite, as the case may he) is moisf crtred fnr af leasf ten days.
(xvi) Sl1>tcreting work should not be done during windy/rainy/ hot weather
coirditions; hot weather meaning the ambient atmospheric temperature
at site in shade exceeding about 32"C to 35"C.
12.25 CARE TOR STRUOURAI. COI{CRETI
12.25.1 Well'mode confiele often survives better than what might be otherwise
. expected simply because of its impermeability and its ability to withstand the
ingress of corrosive pollutants. The less the surplus voids the greater is the
resistance to deterioration. The surplus voids, are dlle . to incomplete
compaction or the use of too much mixing water in contrast to the minute air
bubbles, resulting from controlled air entrainment. Air entrainment increases
the resistance to deterioration, but the, bubbles produced are very different
from ttle voids due to incomplete compaction.
The first essential, therefore, for concrete to resist corrosion is that it should
be well made and thoroughly compacted. It should have low permeability
and water absorption and (apart from air-enraincd concreie) it phould be
highty dense. The -o." .o*pl.te the compactiqn and the lower tii" *ut",
c€ment ratio, the gredter will be the resistance to attack owing to denseness.
I ried Manual for Highway and Bddge Engineers
ffi Raina's
 Chapter - 12
Concrete made with sulphate-resisting, blastfurnace or high alumina cements
has a higher resistance to attack by sulphates in sea water than concrete made
with ordinary Portland cement.
Concrete is also attacked by sea water, sulphate-bearing ground waters, and
frost. In addition, road slabs, pavings 2nd waterways may suffer from abrasion
or erosion.
12.25.2 (orrosion ol Reinlorcement
(AIso see separate Cbapter 15 abead)
The protection of the steel depends upon the quality of the concrete and the
amount of concrete cover. ReinfOrced concrete in Sea water should have a
minimum cover of 5 cm, but 7 cm is bener.
Steel embedded in freshly made concrete is surrounded by an alkaline layer
with a pH of abor,rt B to 10. The corrosion of steel at ordinary temperatufes is
an electrochemical process and depends upon differences in electro-potential.
At a pH of B to 10, the electro-potential and the rate of corrosion are very
small and to all intents and purposes tlte steel does ttut cutrutle,
'Wi[L tlc passage of timc, thc concrctc is pcrmcatcd by moisture carrying
carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide converts the free lime in the presence of
moisture to calcium carbonate, and this leads to a gradual decrease in the pH
to values as low as 5. The electro-potential increases and corrosion takes
place. In a moist environment, the penetration of sodium and magnesium
chlorides and other soluble salts into concrete also reduces the protection of
the steel from the alkalinity of the concrete. Sea or shltladen water acts as an
electrolyte and facilitates the establishment of anodic and cathodic areas in the
steel at distances which may be some metfes. apart; coriosidn stafts at the
anodic areas. Sulphates in sea water react with the free lime and thii helps to
lower the pH.
The cort'osion product, formed by the expansion of the iron to iron oxide,
cracks the concl'ete. The cracks so formed assist in the corrosio4 process since
they allow water to penetrate the concrete more easily,' promote the
carbonation of any remaining frbe lime, and supply oxygen to assist the
rusting of the steel. Eventually lumps of concrete spall off; the electro-
. potential between the exposed and the embedded steel is ,increased, and
corrosion spreads along the bars.
Concrete ls tbus subJect to dlsintegratton b.1t tlto coi"roslon of
embedd.ed. steel utltereuer conditions faaour tbe carbonation of tbe
re- * -' Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana ariase enoin"ers
,'4ry1,..
SIRUGIURE CONSTRUCI/ON, CRACK T,AMAGE AND RF PAI R
free lime, tbe formation of cracks in concrete and tbe penetration o1f
uater-carrying soluble salts. Tlte u)orst sltuetlons are ercposed
suryfaces in beaoy industrialplants utltlt a bigh ca'tbon dtoxtd'e content
ln the attnosprJerq surfaces exposed 'to salt and sea' sprcry or
embedd.ed i.n sea uater and subject to tida.l a.nd r'rsttoe actidtt" and
fi.nally exposed surfaces subject tofreezing and tbawlng,
There is some evidence thaa a high percentage of soluble salm in concrete,
leading to efflorescence (formation of calcium carbonate), facilitates corrosion
whenever such concrete is subiect to damp conditions. As the mpisture
penetrates the concrete, the salts dissolve, yielding a low pH at a high salt
concentration. This state of affairs may result from using sea water for mixing
the concrete or using contaminated seashorc sand as fine aggregate. The
richness and denseness of concrete, which result in low absorption and
permeability, retafd the effect. For reinforced concrete in marine structures, it
is essential to avoid materials which result in a high content of soluble salts
in the concrete.
Cracking of reinforced concrete induced by shrinkage usually occurs at abrupt
changes of section or of reinforcement. It is at such sections that fitture
' corrosion of the steel can be expected. Corrosion is more rapid wher-r the
cover ls small and, therefore, relatively thin stnrctural members suffer rhe
most. In addition, the rate of corrosion incrcases with an increase in the
permeability of the concrete. Wetter mixes, incomplete compaction, poorly
made construction joints and insufficient curing, all lead to the concrete being
more permeable to the penetration of moisture, air and soluble saltS, and
hence more liable to damage by corrosion of the reinforcement.
12.25.3 Reoclion beMeen Aggregote ond (ement
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction:
Concrete can get split by extensive bursting expansion from within and
randon cracking due to the growth of a. silicate gel which results from a
reactiiin between certain aggregates and the cemdnt with an alkali content
. .(NazO).greater.than 0'.60/0, in the presence of moisture. The aggregates, which
cause the interaction,, conbain.certain reactive silicates and carbonates that
react,with the alkali in the cement. Opal is high in such reactive components
and should be avoided.
The cause of this expansion and disruption of concrete by the reaction of
aikali of the cement with reactive aggregates ln presence n oisture lies in
the formation of an alkali silicate gel which swells lnd so creates expansive
pressure. Expansion and disruption occur ohly when there is a sufficient
f f Ruin"'" Fi"td Manua! for Highway and Btidge Engineers

Chapter - 12
concentfation of reactive aggtegate to give an amount of alkali silicate gel
whose swelling more than fills any void in the concrete, so that the reaction
is dependent On the presence in the aggregate of silica in reactive form. The
silicamust either be in a very finely divided state,'of which opaline silica gel
is an extreme example, or in an unstable form such as a supefcooled glass,
as in volcanic types of .rock.,The expansion will be greater if a,larger arca of
aggregate is exposed to the alkali. For a given percentage. of reactive
uggt.gut , the extent of the reaction increases with a decrqase in the
size. For' expansion to occur, there must be sirfficient alkali
^ggr.gut
uiiUArc to.react with the and generate enough gel to exert
^ggtegate more than the equivalent of
pressufe; this happens with a cement containing
b.6% NarO alkali. It is possible, however, that even a cement with less than
0.6o/o of equivalent NarO may in time cause trouble. 7b escheu tbese
troublcs, it is necessat-y to either aaoid certain aggfegates or to use a
cement wltb a lout alkali content
The most likely sources of sr-rch feactive aggregates are flints and certain rypes
of volcanic rock. For.tunately, tl-re rypes of volcanic rock which contain
reacfiv; minerals are nef much worked owing generally to the inaccessibility
of the cleposits, but with the aclvent of nuclear powef stations sited in what
lray utheiwise be inaccessiblc placcs, thc possibility of using local rocks as
concrete aggregates may involve the use of reactive materials. This may be a
source of trouble where there is no background of site experience to indicate
that thb proposed available aggregates are not 'feactive'. Of the various
groups of rocks, only some basalts and porphry groups contain reactive
iocks. In the basalt group, rhe only rock likely to react is andesite and any
deposit including this material should be tested. The porphry group contains
a number of rocks known to be reactive, and attention should be paid to
rhyolites, felsites and trachytes. Other rock groups such as granite, gabbro,
limestone and quartzite do not contain any rocks known to be associated with
the said reactivity.
12.25.4 Reuction ol Chemicals in Aggregcles
Apart from the reaction of opaline sitica with the alkalis in the cement in the
pi"r"n"e of ,moisture, cefiain aggregates may contain iron pyrites, which
oxidize and react with the free lime in Portland cement, but they are not a
cause of serious trouble. Marcasite, which like pyfites may occur in certain
flint graveis, can give rise to unsigltt\t tron stalhihg on the exposed surface
of the concrete.
12.25,5 Resislonce lo Vorious ftemkqls/Subslonces
Raina's Fi6ld Manuat for Highway and eridge En1ineers
ffi srRtJcrIJRE coNSTRUcTloN, oRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
1. Carbon Dloxide: The attack of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide
gases depends upon the humidity. They are present in flue gases and in
the atmosphere in many industrial undertakings such as gasworks and
iron foundries. Under dry conditions, the effect o11 concrete more ^than
tlvo or three weeks old is negligible; but in humid conditions, a fairly
rapicl attack of Portland cemenl takes place. fhe concrete is weakened
by the removal of the cementing constituents. Carbon dioxide is one of
the main causes of acidity in moisture. It reacts with calcium hydroxide
in concrete and forms calcium carbonaie. The iarbonation reduces the
pH value in concrete, and causes acidity and rLlsting of reinforcement
under moisture conditions.
2. Chtorid.e: Many chloride salts have a tendency to combine with the free
lime in Portland cement to form calcium chloride which is soluble and
may be leached out, causing porosity of the concrete. High
concentmtions of calcium chloricle have a destructive effect on concfete
surfaces in addition to rusting of steel (caused by setting up of mili-volt
currents between higher and loqter concentrations of chlorides that
reach steel, which form anodes and cathodes). These high
concentrations occur when the de-icing of roads is carried out by using
a mixture of sodium and calcirrm chlorides, or hy deposition of chloride
ions.
3. Cltlot'lne: In the presence of moisture, it will combine with the lime in
Portland cement br-rt it also attacks alumina in all celnents.
'Where the
products of disintegration are not removed by erosion or abrasion,
however, t[-le reaction does not penetrate the concrete more than a
centimetre or so.
' 4. Cbromium Salts: Chromium salts may be added to concrete to prevent
corrosion of the reinforcement, but they are. poisonous and thus
dangerous to use. Benzoate salts should be used instead.
5. D4Iqlgntt! Many detergents are based on one of the sodium poly-
phosphate group of chemicals. Slow attack of concrete is likely by. these
due to the formation of phosphoric acid which will attack Portland
cement, High alumina'cement is attacked by alkali detergents, which are
used in cleaning down to remove organic acids. in dairies and canning
factories.
6. Oik: Animal ancl vegetable fat oils, which contain fatty acids or
Fa.ftJt
esters of faffy acids, will attack concrete. Fatfy acids react with the
calcium salls and free lime in Portlarid cement to form calcium silicates
f f Rainat ned Manual for Highway and Bildge Engineerc
Chapter - 12
in the concrete so that it becomes soft. The action is usually slow, but is
increased rapidly if the oil or fat is warmed or if the oil is able to
penetrate the concrete.
7. Formaldehyde: Formaldehyde is used in fhe manufacture of synthetic
resins; aqueous solutions attack Poftland cement by the oxidation of
formaldehyde to formic acid, which combines with the free lime to form
calcium formate which is soluble in water.
8. Fruit Juices and Sugars: The sugar and acid in fruits siowly attack
concfete.
of
9. Gypsum: Atthough used in the manufacture cement, gypsum
(calcium sulphate), like all sulphates, attacks set moist concrete.
10. Hydrogen Sulphide: Hydrogen sulphide is formed by the
decomposition of sewage and is responsible for much of the attack of
concrete in sewage systems. Hydrogen sulphide combines with free lime
to form calcium sulphide which can be oxidized to from calcium
sulphate. Hydrogen sulphide is also oxidized directly to sulphuric acid
which will attack the free lime, agqain forming calcium sulphate.
11. Inorganic Acids: All inorganic acids attack Portland cement concrete,
some more severely than others.
They react with the free lime to form chlorides and sulphates. The
severity of the attack depends upon conditions such as the solubility of
the compound in water and the concentration and mass of the acid. The
reaction is speeded up if the acid is hot.
12. Lactic Acid: Lactic acid is produced during the fermentation of milk,
beer, silage and similar organic materials. It attacks Portland cement
concrete by reacting with the free lime and forming calcium lacta:te,
which is soluble in water. As with other materials soluble in watef,
damagb to concrete in lactic acid occurs above the water or liquid line
due to the growth of crystals in the concrete.pore space. High alumina
cement is attacked even more severely than Portland cement in
concenuations of lactic acid greater than lo/0.
13. l-eadt In the presence of moisture, the free lime in Portland cement reacts
with lead. Some damage is caused to the concrete but usually the greatest
damage is that which is caused to the lead. Ifhere,'as is often the case,
lead pipes are buried in . concrete, comosion will result in complete
destruction of the lead by ihe formation (in the piesence of moisture) of
lead oxides. Lead pipes in concrete should be protected by wrapping.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
l
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I
ffi .SIR(/OTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
14. Otls: Refined mineral oils, although able to penetrate concrete, have
little effect upon it. Crude oils, particularly sulphur crude, may have a
very corrosive effect on Portland cement concrete due to the high acid
.content. Organic oils generally attack Portland cement concrete; their
attack is dependent upon the ease with which they can penetrate the
concrete, i.e., upon the viscosity of the oil and the permeability of the
concrete. Those oils, which turn ,rancid when exposed to air and
develop acid producs, atlack both Portlaed and high alumina cement.
Many oils can be stored successfully in concrete tanks when not exposed
to air and moisture. Some drying oils, for example - tung and linseed oil,
cause a slight attack, but when painted on the surface of concrete and
' allowed to dry, they oxidize and.harden and may be used to protect the
concrete surface.
15. Organic Acids: Organic acids, like inorganic acids, cornbine with the
free lime of Portland cement to form calcium salts. These organic
calcium salts are not always as soluble as the inorganic salts and the
atack may thus be less. But the .organic acids .attack the alumina
compounds.
1.6. Salt for De-Iclng: Sodium, calcium and magnesium chloride aie all used
either separately or in mixtures to remove or reduce icing on roads.
Although it is usually assumed that sodium chloride, for example, is not
harmful to concrete, some damage may be expected on the concrete
surface. The concrete may scale and form small potholes. This is
probably due to crystallisation on the surface of the concrete. There is
little relation between durabiliry and the type of cement used. Air
entrainment reduces the amount of surface scaling, but this may be
entirely due to the higher resistance of ihe concrete to the effect of frost.
1"7. Water: The attack of water on conbrete depends ,upon its acidiry (pH
value) and the salts it coqtains. A pH less than 9 is l.rarmful to
reinforceinent (lciading to a corrosion problem).
i,
12.25.6 Resislonce to Sulphote Attock
Sulphates present in soil, ground water and sea wat€r are known to be the
cause of attack on concrete. The principal sulphates are calcium sulphate
(gltpsum), magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) and sodium sulphate
(Gla.uber's sa&s). These react with the tri-calcium aluminate and the free
lime in Portland cement in the presence of moisture.
\(ihen such concrete is in contact with sulphate solutions, calcium sulphate is
formed. This reacts with the aluminates to form sulpho-aluminates, and
f fi a"ira's.ried Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
 i,
AND REPAIR
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCTIO/V, CRACK DAMAGE
E
f
-
Chapler 12
f
I
(oncele in Sulphate-beoring Soils
sulpho-aluminate compounds in the Presence of lime take up alarger volume !
and it is necessary to
and so cause expansion and disruption of the concrete' t Many soils contain considerable quantities of sulphate
or to Ltse concrete which
take precautions to Protect the concrete from attack
sodium sulphate reacts to produce hydroxide, and if there is a continuing
4
lr
has a high resistance to sulphates'
suppiy of ,.rlph"t.t, this reaction continues as long as the sodium hydroxide I
is continuously removed, for example, by flowing ground water' Magnesium a
It is first necessary to investigate the gror'rncl condition to determine the
T
more severe will.be
produced when magnesium sulphate reacts with the free lime,
hydroxide is ^b" I .o.r""ntrurio.t of sulphates. ThJ greater th" utnouttt, the
t A soil which,has a high
und thir -"y deposited as harcl granules in the pores of the concrete and the attack, but local conditions -ill uff"tt the result'
so hinder iurther penetrarion. The deposition of magnesium hydroxide, .orl."nrruiion of sulphates may not cause much damage if the. sulphates are

however, allows the calcium sulphate formed to teact to form I present as gypsum crystals and the concentration in the ground water ls low'
sulpho-aJuminates and sochuses expansiae disruption. As a consequence' concrete On the other
I L".urrr" it L in" sulphates in 'solution' which afiack from
the attack by magnesium sulphates can be more extensive than an attack by & n^ra, tf.on.."r. in soil containing sulphates has an exposed surface
sodium ,ttd sulphates which, although produce solt (mushy)
I
t then if water permeates the
i which water c evaporate'
'ulph't"-b""ing
"ul.iurn
concrete, do not cause such extensive damage. t': concrete,severedamagemaybecausedduetotheconcentrationofsulphates
caused by evaporation, eventhough the sulphate content ofthe ground water
Reports on the durabiliry of concrete have laid stfess on the necessity for
?

i, io*. si*if^.iy, the flow of the gror'rnd water through or around

ti a concrete
dense, rich concrete based on the assumption that if the concrete was the products of the
sufficiently dense and rich, then the sulphate-bearing waters could not structllre will increase the amount of damage, since
exposed to
permeate it and so wouid not cause disintegration. This is very largely true, :
.nerrri..t reactions will be removed ancl fresh concrete continually
tut although thc ratc of attack by sr-rlphate-bearing uraters proceeding inwards sr.rrface cerrosion.
from the iurface is dependent on the ease with which such watef can i
The attack by sulphates in soil and grouncl water is not
usually associated with
penetrate the concrete, u *"t" low permeability ls not etroug[. T[e clrellical :
acid attack. ihe gro.rrld watef from the various clays rn which. sulphatcs ate
composition of the concrete must be resistant to sulphate attack. The neutral or even slightly alkaline' Acidic conditions may be
fr"r"r,, is r-rsually
specifiCation Of a rich dense mix is only part of the requirements for sulphate- iouna in sulphaie-bearing grorrncl witer in marshland and peary areas' and
resisting concrete, for it has been shown that the rate of disintegration is the corrosion is then more severe'
controlLd by the CaA (trlcalcium aluminate) content. Cements containing less
thar 5o1o C,A exhibit strong resistance, but when the crA content exceeds 12%, Concretecanbeprotectedfromsulplrateattackinsoilsbyalayetofasphalt,
the concrete is liable to suffer from attack by sulphates no matter what the br'ru*"n,pitchorrubbertar-emulsion;suchmaterials'infact'areusuallyused
but while
densify of the concrete. In fact, Miller and Manson found from an extensive ;; i;;- waterproofing membrane' Epoxy resins may also be used;
a
expensive lt is essential
laboraiory investigation that when the C:A content exceeded 9o/o, total they are highly resistant to acids anct alkalis, they are
tn"t tn" coating adheres strongiy to the concrete surface'
disintegration occurred within five years. to ensure
The rate of disintegration vaties somewhat with the richness of the concrete, Tohaveahighresistancetosulphateattack,concretemustbedenseandwell
a mofe rapid attack occurring with lean moftaf than with a rich moftar. on i"-tr.t"a, i,nit" in addition the cement musr be resisranr to sulphate attack
the other hand, lean concfete with a cement with low C:,A content has better ii...,^t-,u\r" a low tri-calcium aluminate content)' w'hen the sulphate content of
resistance than rich concrete with a high ci,a content but, of coufse, porous
{
t tLr" gror.tO water is low, then dense concrete made
with ordinary Portland
concretes made with a cement with a low CiA content will still suffer damage
.:
be sufficiently
may durable; for moderately severe conditions
by sulphate attack because the water percolates through the .concrete, ""-Zrr,
however, the cement -u'i b" sulphate-resisting'
i'e'' either a sulphate
leaves sulphate salts behind and thus increases the salt ,esisting' Portland cement or a blast-furnace slag cement' For severe
"u"po."t"t,
concen6ation until crysials are formed. This attack by physical, as well as condiri6ns, either super-sulphate or high alumina
cement must be used'
chemical forces, increa3es the damage. The damage is likely to be greater with it is necessary to consider the
The conditions of severitY are difficult to clefine;
the mofe soluble sodium and magnesium sulphates present in sea water than the potential sulphate content of the ground water'
worst conditions including
with calcium sulphate present as gypsum in various clays'
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Briage Engineers fl lff nr*"t f*td Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers

- -*;-9,64ffi!{

,
 STRUCTURE CONSIRUCIJON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chaptcr-12 ,.... - .... , :.

retarcl any swelling of the concrete wl-rich would result frorn a reaction
with
'Where the soil has a high content but d-re ground water only a low
sulphates only. In acldition, free lime is more soluble in sea water than
in plain
concentration of sulphates, then there is the possibility of the strlpl-rates in the water leads to more
waier. The combined chemical and physical attack of sea
ground water increasing. ht ctddition, it shttuld be retnentbered tbat in ground waters containing a
aggressive leaching than would take place
,rtagrtesiurn sulphate cant produce t Tore seaere corrosion tban ntost
similar concentration of sulphates
otber sulPbales.
However, it is the combined effects of erosion, physical pounding and
The size and type of structure must also be considered; a large concl€te greatest damagc' $7here the concrete is
chemical corrosion whicl-r cause the
foundation may not undergo sufficient deterioration to af'fect its stability or it should be highly dense with a. minimum
subject to all these causes of attack,
require any remedial measures; whereas a concrete pipe which has strffered
cement content of about 350 kg per cubic meter of concrete and be
made
the same amount of deterioration of its surfaces, may have to bc replaced. is below about sulphate resistittg
with a cement whose c:A content 670.
Portland, Portlan<l blast-furnace, super-sulpl-ratccl slag ol high alumina
12.25.7 (oncrele in Seo Wuter cements shoulcl be usecl in preference to ordinaly pol'tland cement. Sr'rlphate
Concrete is one of the main materials uscd in sea clef-ence works ancl in thc resisting or Por.tland blastfurnace cements are also suitable f<rr tnass work,
construction of docks and harboi-rrs. It is subiect to clestt'uctive activity both with
because of theif low heat of hydration. IJigh alumir]a cemcnt can bc usccl
from physical pounding by the sea ancl from chemical attack by the salts aclvantage in tempefate climates for thin reinlorccd concfcte sections, but the
containecl in it (sulpbates and chlafides). mix shoirld not bc richer than 5 : 1 (aggregate: cement) and should not be

The action of sea waves in causing extensive clestruction of sca clefence works usccl in mass work (otherwise much higher heat of hycLation)'
during stonns is well known. It is not always rcalisecl, lrowcvet', that chcrnical Tite concrete must bc well compacted by efficient vibratkrn. Rcinfbrced
attack may hclp physical destrtlction ancl the physlcal clcstructtot] lney asslst 'l'he aggrcgates usecl slrorrlcl
concrete should l-rave increasecl covef to the steel.
the late of chemical attack. Cracking leacls to the penetration ol'scll water it-tt<> be clural.le with low moisture absofption ar-rd shl'inkage. In reinforcecl
the concrete; with reinf<;rceci concrcte, corrosion of ihe rcinlorccme nt ft)llows, concrete worlr, 20 to 25 mm aggregates are sr-litable, and in mass work'
and with plain concrete, the clepth of chernical attack is increasecl. 63 mm aggregate with the wirter content is recltrccd s() as t() ensure iust
by sea water consists essetltially of two parts attack of the
Tl-re chemical attack sufficient *tr[abllity for thc concreie to be compactccl with x 6ea'y vibrator.
Adequate curing of all concrete pafiicularly that cxposed to sea watel'
is
concrete which is submetgecl, ancl attack o[ cotrcrcte which is jr-rst atrove the
water level. In concrete which is iust abr>ve high water level, the .sea water esscntial to recluce cracking and shrinkage'
I
rises by capillary action. No collcrete has zero absorptiol't s() that by 'Where concrete in sea water is not subject to hcar'1r pounding and erosion'
absorption and evaporation a strong cotlcentrJti()n <tf salts is firrrnecl. \X/itll leaner mixes can be used; aggregate-cen)ent ratios of 10:1 have been used
for
eventual crystallization the salts react with the cement, and the growth of mass work where the very rour]ded natufe of the gravel permitted a relatively
crystals physically clisrupts (cracks) the concrete. In acldition, alterua te wetting
low water-cement ratio for sr,rch works but with adeqr-rate workabiliry.
and drying cause small movements of the concrete, ancl in colcl weather,
possible to effectiaely protect co,,crete frott sea ulater
.

aitelnate freezing and thawing have a clisri-rptive effect. It is the concrete lying It is sewottl
I between high and low water which is subject to the poLrnding effect of waves, attack by a u,aterproof nembrante. These nembra nes are fonned afier
drying iy pr'"""urn grouting (7 kg/cm') ulitb hot bi'nt'men at 125o C in
{
{
to the leaching out of any reactive chemicals fortnecl b)' th" o.,tott of the sea
t
l
water on the cement, ancl to the eLosive action of beach sand anci gravel. mucb tbe sarne ntaflner as utood is creosoteel'
t
t
Below low water level, concrete is subiect only to the chcmical attack with
i
l
perhaps some abrasion due to sand and gravel, depending upon the coastal I 12.25.8 Resislonte to Solt lllloorlond ond Pealy Wolers
I
situation. A few metres below the sea surface, the impact force of waves is I
I soft moorland waters are acidic with a pH as low as 3.5, and are soft with a
much redr.rced, so that physical erosion and pour-rcling is not :rs great. I
total hardness of less than 20 ppm. They attack concfete by leaching out the
pH
The chemical attack by sea water is more complex thar-r that of sirnple free lime anct attacking the tri-calcium aluminate of cement. Besicles tl-re
I
i
I i

sulphate solutions, due to the presence of other chcmicals. Cl-rloricles tend to I

t,

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I

I t;::.'l nurrt FieldManualforHighwayandBidgeEngineers i38f

i 380
t
! <h,

Chapter - 12
and hardness, the free carbon dioxide is important. \(/hen the temporary
hardness is between 10 and 20 ppm, attack takes place only when the free
carbon dioxide is above 10 ppm but with a hardness below 10 ppm, such
water will attack concrete in any case even if it has a relatively high pH of 6.5
to 7. Ordinary Portland cements suffer most in such waters. High alumina
cement is not attacked in this way, but cannot be used in many structures
which suffer attack; such structures are usually latge concrete dams and other
hydraulic structures where the hydraulic pressure induces a flow of water
througtr the structure, and the feaching action of the acid water is thus
accentuated.
Concrete pipes and culverts may also suffer corrosion by moorland waters but
the attack is often less than might otherwise be expected, fbr the surface
becomes coated with a thin deposit of peat slime. This may reduce the
carryrng capacity but it helps to protect the concrete. \7hen concrete pipps are
first put into service for carrying soft waters, there is an initial alkali pick-up
by the water in the first few months when fiee iime is leached from the
surface. Concrete for pipes and aqueducts should be a rich dense mix with a
low water-cement ratio. Mortar as rich as 1:1 to 2:1 (fine aggregaielcement
ratio by weight) with a water-cement ratio of 0.35 has been used in situ to
provide a new llnlng tc.l corroded irort attd sleel pipcs. TLe prupcr curirrg trf
such linings and of all concrete pipes is essential to prcvent shrinkage cracks.
Adequate curing can be achieved by painting the exposed concrete surface
when it is 6 to B hours old with a bituminous.paint. This has the advantage
of eliminating the initial alkali pick-up and protecting the concrete surface
from attack (until it is quite old - 5 to 10 years at least) even with acid waters.
'Where the leaching attack
of soft water is severe, the aggregate may be
exposed and then removed by erosion. This exposes fresh unattacked
surfaces to corrosion, which then continues. In an aqueduct, this roughening
of the surface reduces the flow capaciry.
Resislqnce lo Sewuge
Concrete is not normally affected by domestic sewage, which is alkaline and
is usually in i fresh condition. Industrial wastes may be highly acidic and can
cause severe attack. Sewage may decompose and become septic, and with the
help of sulphide-reducing bacteria, minera! sulphates are reduced to
hydrogen sulphide. Such sewage will attack concretd. Fresh sewage does not
produce sulphides in appreciable amounts until it has been stored for two or
three days, but once sulphide'formingbacteria are present, they can rapidly
decompose fresh sewage and produce sulphides in a few hours. Furthermore,
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
.q
coNsrRucr/oN' DAMAGE AND REPATR
@ 'TRUCTURE 'RACK
increases in temperature, produced eithel by hot
weather or by the addition
of hot industrial'wastes, can promote the production
of hydrogen sulphide'
sulphide' which
Hydrogen sulphide combines with free lime to form calcium
' can then be oxidized to calcium sulphate' In addition' it is oxidized directly
tosulphuricacidwhichwillattackthefreelimetofor.mcalciumsulphate.
white
portland cement concrete which has been attacked, exl-ribits a yellowish
flakycoatingontheconcrete.Theconcfetesurfaceisattackedbyintermittent
crumbling,andoftenbecomessoftandputtylike.Thisdeteriorationismost
immersed or
marked at or near the sewage-water line. Concrete entirely
completely exposed to the air is usually free from attack'
HighaluminacementhasahigherresistancethanPortlandcements,butisnot
Moreover, high
the complete answef in thai it can be partially corroded.
alumina cement in sewers may, during hot weather' be subiect to
tempefatufesaboveJO.C;whencombinedwithtlrehighhumiditythiscauses
reduction of'concrete stlength' and 'resistance to corrosion''
To prevent tlre corrosion of concrete, by sewage, tl-re best precaution appears
tobetoavoidtheformationofsepticsewage.Ifsulphate'rcducingbacteria
are pfesenl', [lieir activitics shouicl be minimised b)t ensrrring
adequate
ventilation and, if necessary, by chemical treatment of sewage'
12.25.9 Resislance to [rosion ond Abrosion
IntheUnitedStatestheproblemoferosionwasinvestigatedinconnection
withthedeteriorationofspillwaysoftheBoul<ierandGrandCouleedams.
From the investigations, i *", concluded that well-made
and properly
is essential for maximum resistance to erosion. Poody
compacted
"orr.rJr" rapidly'
compacted concrete or concrete with a rough surface deteriorated
Providedconcreteiswellmadeanclproperlyplaced,itsfesistancetoerosion
dependsmoreuponthedesignofthe-structurethantheconcrete;inother
abrupt
*ords, if the hydr"ulic characlristics of the stfucture afe poor, so that
ctpngesofvelocityordirectionofflowoccur'producingcavitation'thenhigh
erosion will be.induced'
Si&"r", as somedmes occurs in spillways' water at high velocity
carries
or silt, the; erosion of the concrete surface can be
suspended gravel, sand
expected.Theresistanceofconcfetetosucherosionislinkedtoitsresistance
to,abrasion,inthat,imperfectworkorpoormaterialspfoducealayerof
to erosion or
friable material on the surface which is particuiarly susceptible
'J,fris friable material consists mainly of cement laitance and fine
"Ur"rtr.
sand,whichisrapidlyabraded;afterwards,therateofabrasionisusually
''tl'r'.
fl n r"t Fl"td Manua! for Highway and Bidga Engineers
&
-:i#r*aPtda#'sfi .'-, r-"jw
Chapter - 12 : SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
constant. Where the coarse aggregate is a hard material such as flint gravel or'
granite, the rate of abrasion is related directly to the qllality of the matrix
surrounding the coarse aggregate. As the quality of this rnatrix is improved,
the resistance is increasect, where the coarse aggregate is a weak material,
such as weakly cemented sandstone, then this material, and not the mortar,
will contlol tlre late of eblesion.
12.25.10 Resistonce to Fire
The resistance of concrete to fire depends upon the rnaterials of which it is
mzrde, its condition, and tl-re shape and size of the structural elemcnt sub.jected
to the fire. The most important of these factors is the shape and size of tl-re
concrete member. The fire resistance of a beam increases rapiclly with
ittcrease in size and mass, bui is less il it is a section with a thin bottom flange
and/or a thin stem.
No concrete stn-lctrrre can withstand inde{'initeiy the ef'fects of fire; br.rt thc
larger and rnore massive the structule, the greater is the resistancc. |ire
resistance, however, is chiefly of concern to the Strllctru'al Iinginecl clcaling
with lelativcly thin reinlorced or prestressecl concrete rnembcrs. In such
construction, besicles the shape and size of the structural element, the arnotrnt
r,rf r--r-r\zer r-rtrs1 1ls steel or plestrcssing u'ires ancl the protcction affbrclecl lry a
plaster coatir-rg are of more impoftance than the materials, age and conclition
of the concrete.
Certain aggregate.s, howcver, have a bctter resisuurce to firc than othcrs,
trtbile resistance ta biglt terrrperatures cant be acbieued by using biglt
alunina centerrt and refractory flggregates.
Aggregates with a high lesistance to fire are dolerites, basalts, limcstone zutcl
nearly all the manufactured and lightweight aggregates, such as blast furnacc
slag, foamed slag, sintered clay and shale aggregates, vermiculite, and broken
brick if free from quartz. Manufactured aggregates such zrs slag and sinterecl
clays are unaffected by temperatures up to 1000oC, which is lcss than what
they were heated to during manufacture. Limestone calcines at about 700"C
and is liable to disintegrate upon subsequent exposure to air.. Flints and
coarsely crystalline rocks such as granites and gabbros are less resistant to fire
because the quartz they contain causes spalling. Even with these materials,
howeveq modelate fire tests have shown that explosive spalling of concrete
' made with flint giavel is unlikely to occur even when the stmctural member
is thin. If, however, the iemperature is high enough, cracking ar.rd spalling will
occur, even on massive strltcJures, depending r-rpon tl-re timc over which the
high lirc is effective.
| Engineers
i..384 Raina's Field Manual for Highwa:/ and Bridge Engineers
It is most important to be able to as.sess the strcngth remaining in a concrete
slructure after a fire. If the fit€ has been extensive, lasting for more than an
hour or two, then the concrete will have ceased to be a strr:ctural material for
its temperature wiil have reached 1000oC; this q'ill be indicated by extensive
spalling with the main reinforcing steel left bare and sho'iling signs of scaling.
The remaining concfete will show varying amounts of crumbling, scaling an(l
cracking. Usually, the only satisfactory solution in sucil a case is dernolition
and reconstlttction.
In a less extensive fire, brought under control witl"rin an hour or so, much of
the strLlctrire may remain sound. Tl-re fesidual stfenSth depends upon the
tempcratufe reached in the concrete and the form of construction. Tests have
shown that with a surface temperatufe of 700'C, the fbllowing temperatures
were reached at various dcPths:
Temperature after
Distance from Temperature after
face (mrn) 1"5 minutes exposure (oC) 30 minutes exposure eC)
72 380 510
27 180 320
.l
50 70 10
santtlstone ctnd cortcretes shortt clifferert colours
flirrt aggfegflte
clepending uport tbe tentper4'tut'e.If tbe ter,,perc.ture reaches 5OOoC to
6OO"C in. corrcrete ntade utitlt tbese agg;regates, tbe" the residual
str.engtrr oJf tbAt concrete is less tlta.n balf of the initial stfenstb.
Altltough grarrl.te ancl otber igneous rochs do ttot sltottt colour
changes, tbe kttter still occur in concretes containing sucb rocks but
made uitlt a normal qu&rtz sand" wben the temperature reaches
5730C,quaftz cbanges its chenticttl struc.tu.re utitb a ra'pid htcrease itt
uohnne, artd this lcads to spalkng. Tlttr's, spalling o1f tbe concrete
couering tbe rehtforcernent, fuccompanietl bY a plnkislt colour, is ant
indicatiott that the concfete probabllt has ortllt balf tts strengtb;
ahbougb in beann. anel slttb cortstructiotr, tlte cornpression concrete, if
remotefrotn thefi're, ntt! not be nurcb affected.
Fire, of course, affects steel reinforcernertt, btr't tbe effect ts nucb less
for nittl steel altlrouglr ., ternperature of 8OO"C to IOOO"C t"a! lower
tbe field potnt by ttbout 25%. The effect ot p''estressed concrete is
more setiotts. At 2AOoC a pfestressed. rnember toill sltotr) some l,.ss o1f
presttess, although the ultimate strength may still be a bigh
pfoportiofl of i'ts originetl oalue. Tentperatures of 2OO"C in tbe utires
i 385
Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway and Bridge
 i
:
STRUCTURECONSTRUCflON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REpAtR
I
Chapter - 12

must gradually be employed; 1nd',sin5e

,nay be reached by conduction of heatfrorlt adiacent co?tcrete subiect 30 kglcrn', more:expensive methods
the possible saving in wil be-more doubtful' a limit will finally be
to tlte fire. Tbere is a ,narked reduction ln tbe bond' between concrete "t"'t"l becomes uneconomical!
and steel a.t 3OO'Q trtlttlst at 4OO,C, lt can be assumed' tbat tbe [""t"J'l"v"nd Jhich stricter control
prestresslng Lolres ,raue lost neady all their prestress. Tbelt trtill haoe
been annealed so tbat theJ/ are the equfutalent of mild steel bars. At tltis ;
.

tt2.26.3 Minimum
(ontrele Strength i
tempera.ture, botleoer, trte concrete tnay sltow aery littlc colaur cba'nge )
An important fact emerges.from a stucly
of the ncrrmal curve' It can be seen
: it is
a.nd not tnucb crackl.ng. Ilence prestressed concrete subiected to fire that all such curves u,ylnptotit to ti'" srrength axis' This means that
!
"r" glrength below which no cubes will
is a. more serTous case tba.n reinforced. concrete. not possible to guaranteJ'a-i'-it'i*ttrn'
strength of test cubes shall be
fail. \(/here engineeis ,p"Cify that the minimum since'
Hect*esistont Concrele tp".ifi."rion theoretically is impossible of fulfilment'
":t*i" "^t*,9rit" are bound to fall below the
;iril;la;; number or t"'ituu"t, some results
Concrete resistant to heat of up to 1000oC is used in the construction of boiler
minimum.
and oven foundations, and is produced by using high alumina cement with
various aggregates. Crushed brick aggregate or crushed fire brick is often The a'rtitude of typifiedby tbefoltouinginstance' Fot
most engineers is
first set of
used. The mix proportion by volume is 1:2:2 to l:2:4, depending upon the a cert^in*o.t , th" ft''ginier specifiJ i Z5O Ug/cm'concrete
kg/cm"'ld^il'The concerned
size of the coarse aggre.gate, which is usually limited to 20 mm. three test ..tU", ,flo*3a strengths averaging i7t
u.r.rug"d only 219 kglcm'. As
were very pleased. The next sJt of three ..rb"r and
Ordinary Portland cement and normal aggregates can be used for deliberate ;;^;";ineer admonished the contractor severely'
temperaturcs of up to 150oC, where precautions are taken to dry out and heat
a consequen..,
on the part of an 'Engineer'
required that he .rl" tiif-t"t mix! Such action
up the concrete gladually and where thc changcs in tcmpcraturc occur " of the pracricaI irrrplications of the.complession
slowly. Such concrete has been used with success for longitudinal pits
i,]ii.r,", .on]pt.t.lgnorance (5
test resr.rlts,"a tt" i""o fo, conridering
them in totaliry. sometimes cores
underneath brick tunnel kilns.
cmcliameter,10cmlong)aredrilledoutofactualconcreteandsubsequently
tested for cores exhrbit lesser strerrgtl than laboraLorl'
12.26 A(CEPTABIIIil OT TTST RISUITS FOR COI{CRTTT STRTNGTH "o-p..rti"".-i-lsually ACl specifications' if at least'3
cure<l sl:rutJard cylindcrs and, as per
cores are

t,ken out ;;;;;;";^iiu" p"n of concrete and none of themcylinder shows

12.26.1 fhe occeplabllity al test rcsults should be that not more rhan 5o/o of works "f
compfessive
" be less than7.5o/o of the required standard
cylinders or cubes fall belovr the specified minimum works strength. For this und rheir average is not less than 85o/o of
"*"g'it-i" the latter, the
strength ut tt-rx $,
to be fulfilled, the mean strength of works cylinders or cubes tested less 1.64 is assumed to have specified minimum strength
concerned.orr.r"L
times the standard deviation should not be less than the required minimum The
^tlzLinedthe
engineet is to kindllt note tbis !
and is taken as acceptable'
strength. Alternatively, the cylinder or cube strerlgth should be accepted as
complyiog with the sh'ength requirement either. if none of the specimens in (oncrele slrength
12.26.4 foctors ulfecting the'stondord Deviution'
tested falls below the minimum specified or if the avetage strength of the
specimens tested is not less than-the specified minimum, no individual test Ithasbeenshownthateconomyisrelatedtothereductioninthestandard
'. result falls below 850/o of the;rninimum works strength 'required and the deviationofconcretestrength.Thestandarddeviationonanyiob,however,
tests on specimens
difference between,the maximum and the minimum strengths of the test is calculated from the results of compression strength strength must
made at the site. Any site factor affecting the compressive
specimens is not greater than 200h of that average.
influence the standard deviation' and variation's in test
compressive t"""gint will have the effect
"..orAi.rgly of increasing the standard
12.26.2 Soving in (emenl lhrough Ogoliry (introl
deviation.
Considerable savings are possible when the .aontrol is tightened up on ln tbe factors do
' comparatively uncontrolled work than when ir{provernents are made on well- It ,nust be stressed, in tltls context, tbAt 'oafiatlons'
controlled sites! If the standard deviation is reduced to below about notl'nclude,mlstakes,ontl'epartoftbeoperatofd'uetonegligenceor
Rainas Feld Manuat for Highway and Bridge
Engineers
.ilrii Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Brldge Engineers S
]
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Table 12,2 Surnmary of Compression Strengtlt Test
Yariables'
Effect
a mcutrence
Probabte
='
No. Bssic issuc Rca6on
\ r*'ith ciffercnt bmds Corsidcrtble variaion
.
(t-"
t Cartrnl. rngrcrial Typc 8rd comPosition
2 CGGnq matcrial Manufrturing control Any oerc brand Csn bc considerable
s Always Possible Considcrable variation
.3 Carcot. mlteriat Agc md condition Nor gcrrcrallY great
Ptcscncc of salts Inficqecnt
E 4 Wdcr Depcrdcnt on conrol Maix cffcct
5 Waler Wstcr'€lmcnt raiio
Common :ninor faul( Can bc considerable
(d' 6 Smd. matcrial Charrically Eactive
lnft,cq:ent Not gencral
{o 7 6ad" matcrial Unsood Pqnicles
lnfrcqoent Not gerrcral
material propertics
o
E Stnd" Non-uniform
Coanon niinor fault Nor gencrallY grtat
9 S.nd, tnaEri.l Mixed with clry
a CntstEr end natural Not anithin one qry. 6
b fO Sa<|. mc|ltid P{riclc shspc
Thrugh rtortabilitY I
ll Sand. masial GildinS AhraF prescfl
l{otappreeiablc
^a 12 Stmc- rnrsial Cfrcnricdty rc*tivc UncourrPn c)
--{
h Not gdrrally grcat c
a t3 Sntrc, mrgiet Unsord Pdticlcs Dcpcdcrrt on soul€e
lAfhh porws material Not garcrallY expcrico€ed rm
S.
o 14 Stdt - macrial Non-udfcrn propcrtics Can b. cdbidcrablc o
o
15 Stori. rntcrisl Dirq Alwayr poosiblc o
Cnrshct ard natural Noa urlttin onc rYPc
15 Slohc. Prrdclc shaPe
fkooglt worktbitity =
ct
'||Edat
i7 snooc, I'actriat Cndkui Alaays fcscnt j
f,tltfrnrtrn sirc WitrrdifFecnt mixes Tbroqgh workabilitY co
lE Stirc, ttltl€l'id Hot emcnr Nol apgcciablc I
lg T&hPcrtlutc Octoettt
Flrtrgncs of climrte Nol tPtrrally cxPcrienccd
m ftinPctirrc \llai6 _z
Ertrjcarcs of climac tlot Swlcratty exPcricnced o
2l TcmFrarre AStregarcs
Dclitirae variations TluottSn workabruty b
22 Mb( Pi$r€-aggrcgatc changc
Inconsidcrablc o
23 &rncnt bohing EFors in vcighing Infrcqueat x
Frcqrcnt Errors *' 20 Per ccnt
24 CcnEnt t4ching Vtilumcric rncasorcfircnt Whcrc rcly on judgcnent Not if mersurcd
!
25 Watctr mcssurcment DfuGcrly added war* Mosr common Considerable o
'26 Watcr nrcosuremcnt Conraincd sand Can bc considerable rn
27 rlfat { mcrsurem.nt Sand bulking Vohneuic rncasurrtnent
Over pcriod Can bc considcrablc z
?3 $/alEr rncsurctn€nt With coarsc a&gre8ate rmurcmsnt Erors *,2O Per cenl
29 Sand rncasurcmnt Matcrial chanScs' bulking Volunctric Not gcnerallY grcar
T
n
30 Ston€ mcssurcm€nt Mattrid changcs' oPerarion WlEr control limibd
Depcnda[ on op€rator CcncrallY unimPonant s
3l Mixing Order of chrging n
 o
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Tablc 12.2 (Contd)
N
No. Boldc ilsoc Rcason h$ablc Fcurrcnca Effecr
32 Mixing hining rni4 Occaskinal anly Can bc coniriderable
33 Mirtng Mixe( rpoed Witb diffqcna planB Not gcrcrat
34 liiiring O$erchargrng Lftaqucnt Not gLo.iat
35 Miring Tirnc of mixing Frequcnt Vrriadori can cxcccd 3O pcr ccnt
36 fhrdlfrr8, srmpling Scgrgsaiql ChuEs. lrarl{ponstion Planes of-*,cakresi
37 flrodirig, senrpling Coostitucnt changcs WhcrcrE: Et3mpcr Imposeibtc to c$imate
38 I{roding, sanrpling Sampfing Difrcrrnt leetions Can bc dpprecirblc
39 tLnding, sarnpling Blccding Mircs wrrh vat r loss Not gcncrally greu
!
40 Cbmprfim llrnd nmping Dricr mi:es Considcrablc, cxcccd 5O pcr cent
4l Conpscdon Vihration Over vib..atiqr ScgXcgcion in spccim€ns
o 42 Cornpacddt Shoct Handling aftcr scning Daoa8c crratcr seakaess
o 43 Compactiqr Panlclc oricntation Plancs of scrkncss Fla! Frticlcs pcr ccnr
n 4 Sizc and shapc Wet screcning lvlass corcrst: -4O
Incrcasc with scrcening
6 45 Sizc and shapc. Sizc of specimcn Nqr-stanJard moulds Dccrcasc *rcngrh with sizc
q
45 Sizc and ehepc Hcightdirmctcr rario Non-stan'lard moulds Dcgcasc as ratio incrcescs
47 Sire rd sh8p. Shapc Cube or cylirdcr Cubc 8tr€ngth grcarcr
48 Sizclnd shrpc Mould irregularities Non-su.ndard moulds Non-q:ial load
d. 49 Curing Drying out Firsr 24 hours Nol grcat
{
tE'
50 Cuddg Moist curing Nol job crring 75 pcr cart incrcasc in 1O days
5t Curing Inirial tcmperarurc Hot or fuczing conditions Infrcqucnt
{ s2 Curing Tcrnperatuc Job curing
_a 6O pcr cent variation possible
s 53 Ctring Age Cornpare at samc agc C-ontinuqrs incrcasc
54 Cudng hdoistuF contcnt When spccinrns dry 4O pcr ccnt diffcrcncc
b 55 Capping P[ur cnds
q Mos! corrfircn fault ConcEviry 3O pcr ccnr
ao
Convcxity 5O pcr ccnt
ln 56 Clppiog Capping rnatcrial Ccrncnr Fa$c difticulry Plasrcr of paris-I2 per ccnt
51 Capping Axis of specimcn Tcchniqua pmblern Not gencralty grcat
s'
o
o J8 Teting mrchinc Bc.ring block Dcpendalr on labontory Can bc cansidemble
a -<9 Tcsring machire Ccntcring Dcpeodent m labomtory Can be apprcciable
Fg 6.) Tcsting machinc Speed ol loading Dcpcndcr-t on laboralory did Nor gerrcrally grear
crpcrien€
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Chapter - 12
(ix) Excavation for open foundations should be done taking the necessary
precautiolls.
(x) $(ihere blasting is required to be done for carrying out excavation in rock
and there is likelihood of danger to the adjoining foundations or other
structures, necessary precautions should be taken to prevent any such
damage.
(xi) For iaying the foundation concrete after de watering, either of
following procedures should be adopted:
(a) A pit, moat, or trench, deeper than the foundation level as
necessary, may be dug around the foundation pit so that the water
is kept below the for.rndation level until after the concrete
suitably set.
(b) The water table is depressed by welt-point or other methods, until
after the concrete has suitably set.
(xii) For laying the foundation concrete under water, if the percolation of
water is heavlr, it is advisahle to lay rhe forrndafion concrel.e by skip
boxes or tremie pipe. In the case of flowing water or artesian conditions,
the flow should be stopped or reduced as lar as possible clurirrg ;rlacirrg
of concrete until after it has set. No pumping out of water should be
permitted from the time of placing of concrete up to at least 24 hours
' after placement, for it may blow up due to the removal of balancing
pressure against upward water pressllre.
(xiii) All spaces excavated and not occupied by abutments, piers, or other
permanent works, should be refilled with earth up to the sulface of the
surrounding ground with sufficient allowance for settlement. All backfill
should be thoroughly compacted and, in general, its top surface should
be neatly graded.
(xiv) In case of excavation in rock, the annular space around the footing
should be filled up to the rock surface with lean concrete of 1:3:6 mix.
I2.28 PILE FOUI{DATIONS
l2.28.l,Pile foundotions ore suited lor cdopfion in lhe following situolions:
(D Availabiliry of good founding strata below a large depth of soft soil.
(ii) Need to have very deep fotrndations beyond the limit of pneumatic
operations (usually a depth beyond 35 m or so).
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway ana Aridge enOineers
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCTON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
(iii) Founding, strata underlying cleep 'standing' water, the strata being very
hard, not permitting easy sinking of wells.
(iv) Economic factors deciding the use of piles as compared to wells'
It may become necessary to employ piled foundations lort bridge works where
the ground neafef the surface is too soft to sustain spread (acceptabie sized)
footi.rgs and is hence susceptible to substantiai settlement. in addition to
the ploviding a means of supporting the foundation loads, the use of piling can
make it possible for other groundworks (such as the constructions of pile caps
in place of spread footings) to be carried out at levels higher than might
otherwise be possible. This can be beneficial where the foundation is to be
built adiacent to a waterway or in waterlogged ground'
has
The choice of rype of pile to be used is influenced by the ground conditions.
\Vhere rock or some other hard bearing stratum occurs at an accessible depth,
preformed piles driven to provide an end bearing is an attractive proposition'
iteel H-piles are mofe easily driven, cut, and extended, than reinforced
concrete precast piles. Howeveq it is self evident that reinforced concrete is a
more suitable materiai when corrosive conditions exist. Prefolmed piles can
be driven at a 3ke of up to 1:4, thereby absorbing the horizontal forces better.
piles diameter are normally installed vertically. But it is still possible
of alarge
to absorb horizontal loads in this position, though this gives rise to bending
in the piles. Methods of assessing the horizontal load capacity of large-
diameter piles have been developed, and these utilise subgrade resistance in
combination with stiffness of the pile. The techniques of constructing large-
diameter bored piles are best suited to cohesive soils. Granular layers near to
the surface can be successfully dealt with, but at greater depths, the risks of
the shaft sides collapsing, become greater.
12.28.2lype ol RC Piles
!
12.28.2.1R( [iles moy usuolly be ol the following lypes:
(a) Precast in full and then driven,
(b) Precast in reasonable lengths and jointed while driving,
(c) Partly precast and partly cast in situ during driving,
(d) Casing driven, pile cast in situ and casing withdrawn,
(e) Bored and cast in situ.
ffi artrt rre td Manuat tor Highway and Bridge Engineers
ffi
 AND REPAIR
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCflON, CRACK DAMAGE
Chapter - 72

Typesa,banclcaferecommendedinloosesoilandinstandingwater.Type Disodvonloges
lengthening of piles is
d is recommenclecl for structures on land in loose soil. Type e piles are (i) Not suitable for depths greater than 24 m' as
recommended in stiff clay or on rock and are convenient when piling has to
be
difficult and may involve proPrietary systems for iointing'
proximity of existing and heavily
done in the loaded structures. Piling plant is
(ii)Difficulttobedriventhroughstifflayers,orlayerscontainingboulders,
lesscumberso*" und more easily manoeuvmble in the case of bored piles.
keyed to rock strata'
(iii) Unsuitable if piles are to be anchored or
For casing-driven piles cast in situ, in standing water or slushy conditions, a
for
3 mm thiik mild sieel liner should be used for encasing the wet concrete (iv)Limitedloadcarryingc^P^cityonaccountofrelativelysmallstructural
protection. section'
In precast piles, the precast length is usualiy governed by the structural (ost in situ Piles
sffe;gth of pile section to resist handling and hoisting str€sses. The precast l2.28.2,3(osing Driven
pile unit can be handled by supporting it from a single point or a two-point
iuspension, bur while hoisting, it is usually suspended inclined by a single Advontages
point system only. Since a precast piece may require handling quite a few (D Suitable for larger depths to the order
of 50 m or so'
iimes (depending upon the distance between the precasting yard and the shoe at the bottom end'
(ii) Can penetrate harder strata by virtue of the steel
location of pile for-,.tdation), it is recommended to allow only normal stresses
in concrete and steel cluring handling. However, since hoisting is expected to
Disodvonloges
be done only once and this operation lasts for a relatively much shofter
concreting operations' there is a likelihood
of
duration, the stresses in concrete and steel may be allon'ed to be 2)u/o higher ' (D In the cast ln sil-r"r
a
segregation of concrete due to dropping it from height and
than the normal permissihle sfresses drrring hoisting,
interference by the reinforcement'
A1l driven casings and precast piles should be provided with a steel shoe at
the bottom end to protect the pile-toe as well as to ease the driving. (ii)Inuncasedpiles,,necking'takesplaceeachtimethecasingislifted,
hole'
while concraing is being done to fill up the
vhile the longitudinal bars coming out from the pile head .should be of the soil' as also
adequately anchored into the pile cap, the embedment of pile head into tl-re (iii) In softer soils with uncased piles' the caving in
pile iap should be between 50-75 mm. Deeper embedment can be dangerous waving, is Possible'
as the same can function as a crack former. (iv)Thesepilesarealsogenerallyofasmallsize/diameter(under100cm)
negative
competitive particularly.when
and, therefore' may not be very
'and/or
friction tt to d"""lop keying with rock is required'
ILZE.L2 Precosl Driven Piles
I
""#;;
Advontoges 12,28.L4 Bored (ost in situ Piles

(D Ensured qualiry of concrete,

Advontoges
(ii) Correct disposition of rei4forcement,
(i) Relatively large depths can be achieved'
(iii) Least deviations in structural dimensions,
(ii) Large diameter piles are possible'.. achieving, Iti,"j,lt'O-carrying
skin frlctlon'
negative
(iv) Fast pace of construction. capacity, lesser piles and lesser overall
(iii) No disturbance of the surrounding mass
of soil and hence no reduction
in soil resistance'

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers ffi Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and
Bridge Engineers ffi
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"-"i"*#-$E
Chapter - 12 W srRucrunEcoNsrRucr/oN, cRAeK DAMAGE ANo REPATR

(iv) Specially suited where halder and stiffer strata have to be penetrated (ii) For raking piles: tolerance of up to 5o/o in rake and up to 75 rnm in
(e.g., stiff clay). position at platform level.
I
.
(v) Easy for keying into rock.
;

) (iii) Vhere raking piles are installed from a levei significantly different/higher
i
than the ground level, then the 75 mm latenl tolet1nce mentioned above
(vi) In view of larger load-carrying capacity, the number of piles can be I

shall be suitably increased.due to the effect of enor in the rake'

reduced undel each foundation, which may reduce construction time. i

Disodvontuges ond Diffkulties

:i 12.28.7 Pile Cap
:l
(i) i1 All pile caps shall be .in reinforced concrete and their sizes fixed, taking into
Larger eqr.ripment cost.
ii
i! consideration the allowablg.tolerances mentioned above. The pile cap shall
(ii) Precise constructional control required on concreting procedure, i: proiect a minimum offset of 150 mm beyond the outer faces of the outermost
concfete mix, etc. piles in the .group, For pile caps resting on earth, a levelling course of
(iii) Maintenance of con€ct specific graviry of bentonite slurry at about 1.1 to i minimum B0 mm thickness on lean concrete shall be provided The
1.2 required, otherwise sides may collapse and cave in. attachment of the pile head to the cap shall be adequate for transmission of
loads and forces. Concrete piles are stripped off at the top so that their'
(iv) Reduced skin-friction (since the pile is not 'clriven' into the soil). reinforcement is exposed and anchored into the cap. About 50 to 75 mm of
the pile itself should project into the pile cap, and the bottom reinforcement
12.28.3 Spodng of Piles in the cap suitably adjusced. In marine conditions, ol in ateas exposed to the
(a) lrrctron prles - spaclng, centre to centre, not less than the penmeter of action of liarrllul clreruicals, ul"Li., apart lroru the use of densely compactcd
the pile. concrete of a higher grade, the pile cap and the piles up to abolrt 600 mm
(b) above low water or tide level should be protected with a suitable anti-
End bearing piles - spacing, centre to centre, not less than twice the least
corrosive paint. High alumina cement, i.e., quick-setting cement shall not be
width of the pile.
used in marine constntction; instead hlasi firlnace .slag cement is preferable.
(c) Generally - 2.5 times the bigger dimension of pile section in plan. Pile caps should be designed against shear as well as bending due to piie
forces. Critical section for shear is where a 45o plane from column face meets
12.28.4 Size of (onrrele Piles the mid-depth plane of cap. Piles falting 150 mm or more.inside .such a section
Not less than 0.75 m diameter or the equivalent section area for bridge may be ignored in contributing shear at this section (.....a design point that
foundations in rivers; and not less than 0.4 rn dian-reter or equivalent section must not be lost sight of in the field).
for other locations, viz., wing walls, foundaiions for flyovers, etc.
12.28.8 tlix of (oncrele in Plles
12.28.5 Roke in Piles The concrete used in the piles shall usually not be leaner than 1 : 7l:3 by
The maximum rake normally should not be mole flat than the following: volur$e or equivalent controlled concrete with cement content not'iess than
350 kglcu.m bf concrete from'dirrability considerations. '
(i) 1 in 8 for pile diameter 0.75 m and above.
(ii) 1 in 5 for smaller diameter boreci piles. n.2E.qReinforcemenf' ' 'l

(iii) 1 in 4 for smallbr diameter driven piles.

l lX2&9.1 Driven Precost.(oncrete Piles
12.28.6 lolerunce in Pile Alignment Longitudinal ,reinforcement:,The section arca of longitudinal reinforcement
(i) shall be based on the actual .design but usually shall not be less than the
For veftical piles: 75 mm at piling platform level and tilt not exceeding
following percentages of the cross-sectional area of the piles:
1 in 50.
.

englneers auinu's Fi"td Manuat for Highway and Brtdge Engrneers

.'--'-* - - --@
Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Eridge ffi ]
. .'":alld4.!t\ffi X "',i1sY-?
Chapter - t2
(i) For piles with a length less than 30 times the least width, 7.25o/o.
(ii) For piles with a length of 30 to 40 times the least width, 1.5%.
(iii) For piles with a length greater than 40 times the least width, 2%0.
The curtaiiment of the reinforcement along the length of pile shall avoid
sudden discontinuiry which may cause cracks during heavy driving.
Lateral reinforcement: The lateral reinforcement is of particr,rlar value in
restraining driving stresses and should be in the form of hoops, spirals or
ciosed links. The minimurn diameter of bars for this purpose shall preferably
not be less than B mm. The lateral reinforcement in the pile from each end
for a distance of about 3 times the least width or diameter shall usually not
be less tban 0.60/0 ol the gross volume, and in the body of the pile not less
than 0.2o/o of the gross volume.
12.2L9.2 Driven (osl in situ (oncrete Piles
(i) Reinforcement in the pile should preferably be provided in the entire
iength and shall be based on design requirements' However,
longitudinal rcinforccmcnt within thc pile shaft shall usuaily not be less
than 0.4o/o of the closs-sectional area.
(ii) !/here the casing pipe is withdrawn for the formation of cast in situ
piles, the concreting should be done with necessary ptecaution to
minimise the softening of the soil by excess water. Cast in situ piles shall
not be allowed where mud flow conditions exist.
12.28.93 Bored Cosl in situ Piles
(i)
Reinforcement in the pile shall be provided in the entire 'length
depending upon the manner of transmission of the load by the pile to
the soil, and shall not be less than that as specified above for driven cast
in situ concrete piies.
(ii) In soils which are stable, it may often be possible to drill an unlined hole
and place the concrete without having a casing, In such cases, even if
.
1 : 7l: 3 concrete is used, the permissible stresses shall generally be
limited to 900/o of the design value. In cases in which side soil can cave
into the hole, it is necessary to stabilise the sides of the bore hole with
drilling mud, e.g., bentonite, and where necessary a suitable steel lining
may be used. The liner may be withdrawn when the concrete is poured
in or it may be left in position permanently especially in cases where the
aggressive action of the ground water is to be avoided or in the case of
piles built in marine/muddy conditions.
W*---- ' -'^' Raina's Fietd Manual fot Highway and Bridge Engin""o
SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
12.28.10 Pretoulions lor Pile ftncreling under Woter
(i) The concreting of the pile must be in one conrinuous
completed
operation, using tremie method.
(ii) The concrete should be easily workabie, rich in cemenr (usually not less
than 370 kg,/m3) and of slump not less than 150 mm.
(iii) lvhen concreting is being carried out under wate\ a temporary casing
should be installed to the full depth of soil, excepr rhe porrion in rock,
in order that the fragments of soil cannot drop from the sides of the hole
into the concrete as it is placed.
(iv) The tremie pipe will have to be large enough with due regard to the size
of aggregare. For 20 mm aggregate, the tremie pipe should be of
diameter not less than 150 mm, and for larger aggregate,larger diameter
tremie pipes are required.
(v) The first charge of concrete should be placed with a sliding plug pushed
down the pipe ahead of concrete, so as to prevent mixing of concrete
. with water in pipe.
(vi) The tremie pipe should always penetrafe well info rhe placerl concrere,
with an adequate margin against accidental withdrawal if the pipe is
surged to discharge the concrete.
(vii) The pile should be concreted wholly by tremie and the method of
deposition should not be changed paftway of the pile (to prevent the
laitance from being entrapped within the pile).
(viii) All tremie tubes should be scrtrpulously cleaned after use (and in any
case, before any concrete in them sets).
(ix) The top of concrete in a pile shall be brought above the cut-off level to
permit removal of all laitance and weak concrete before the pile cap is
laid. This will ensure good concrete at the curoff level after stripping
open its bars for embedment into cap.
IZ2&ll Driving ond Boring
A pile driving plant essentially involves a pile frame (raised from ground or
mounted on a pontoon), winches and a driving hammer (monkey). The pile
frame is of steel construction. The hammer can be activated by simple gravity,
steam, compressed air or diesel. For a more efficient transfer of the driving
shock wave, it is preferable to use a heavier hammer and a shofter drop, and
not the converse. The usual weight of hammer is between 3.5 to 5 tonnes and
!! f arrrs ro u Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers .*--ffi
 SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/OM CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - 12

downward moving of the consolidating fill. This additional loacl transmitted to

the usual clrop is afound 1.2 m. I{owever, the weight of the hammer should
the piles by reverse friction, termed negative skin friction, is a fraction of the
pfeferably be not less than half the weight of the pile or casing being driven.
cohesion, because of the sensitivity fictor of the consolidating soil. This
To p.ot..t the pile head against the hammer hit, a cast steel helmet along with
sensitivity factor generalry varies between 2 and 4 for most crays.
doliy and timber packing should be used during driving. Concrete in the top
60-90 cm porrion of the pile being. driven, should be chipped off after driving 12.2&13 Piling
it, as this portion generally shows distress due to spalting effecs'
a) As soon as the materials come to site, the A.R.E. should check to see that
For bored piles, the hole in the ground is formed either by screwing an auger they comply wirh rhe specifications.
or by chiselling. In either case, generally, the sides of the hole are prevented
from caving in either by a retractable mild steel casing or by the use of For pile driving equiprnent, rhe A.R.E. will check ro see that leaders,
activated bentonite slurry. Bentonite slurry is basically a high-density hammers and the like appear to meet requilements.

'. thixotropic fluidy mud. After the reinforcement cage is lowered into the hole, b) Pile locations, alignment and centre line are ro be checked by the R.E.,s
concrete should be placed by trernie beneath the bentonite, ensuring that the Surveyor before piling commences.
delivery end of the tremie pipe always remains slightly beneath the top of the
freshly poured column of concrete. For raking piies, ensure that ailowance is mzt<le for any difference in
height between the undersicle of the actual pile cap and the actual
driving level. The piles are required to be in just the io'ect position ar
l2.2S.l2lnvesligotion for Soil (horoclerislits
the underside of the pile cap.
The Dutch Cone Penetrometer test is highly recommended for estimating the
soil strength around prles. 'l'he appafatus for rhls has bectr develt-rpccl by the If pile stakes are lost or possibly are olrt of position, get the sLlrveyor to
Government Soil Mechanics Laboratory, Delft. It essentially consists of a check or carefully measure from known locations Try to cL-r this befor.e
standard steel cone attached to rocls which are protected by a sleeve. As the it causes clelay to the job.
cone is driven into the soil under hydraulic pressure, the thrust on the lods
and on the sleeve is measured separately. Readings afe taken at regular
c) For driven piles:
intervals, ancl this way, a continuous serrated graph is drawn showing the end
-l'he ultimate
(i) The driving of piles should be clone under close supervision and
bearing and frictional resistance of the soil at various depths. usually fhe one with the largest set (potentially the weakest) will be
bearing capacity of soil at any depth rnay be taken equal to the cone selected for the load tesr ro be carried our. If the pile passes the load
resistance at that depth. Howevef, Van der Veen recommends that the cone test, the rest of the piles will be d'iven to a set less or equar to the
resistance at any depth should be taken as the avefale value over a depth set of the tested pile.
equal to three times the lateral dimension of the pile above tl.rat depth and
one lateral dimension of the pile below that depth. . The set must be taken by the supervisor or A.R.E. and not left to the
Contractol alone.
The skin friction on the pile shaft in cohesive soil is not equal to the cohesion
of the soil since the driving or boring into the cohesive medium relieves its (i1) All precast piles must be carefully handled to prevenr damage to
adhesion characteristics. The reduction in adhesion factor is, however, less in strength and protective coatings. Inspect the piles carefuliy while
the case of driven piles than in the case of bored piles. The actual skin friction they are being derivered to the site and irnmediately reject material
mobilised around the pile shaft is expressed as the product of cohesion of soil ., that cannot be safely used.
and the adhesion factor, and the latter varies almost inversely with the former.
For'cohesion values of 2.5 to 1O t/m', the adhesion factor varies from 0.9 to
(iii) check rhe hammer for rength of stroke and brows per minure, In rhe
0.5 for driven piles. In the case of bored and cast in situ piies in clay, the case of steam or air pressure, if hammer blow or rength of stroke is
adhesion factor may be as low as 0.45. less than the manufacturer's recommendation, the energy imparted
to the pile will be correspondingly less.
In piles through compressible fill, the consolidation settlement of fill causes
additional loacl on piles as the latter remain stationary relative to the
@*-- Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and eddoe €n9t"urs ffi ffi nurr'" r," H Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers __^ffi
..*'-F:ar:
- .,'-. d.*s#a*id5r''-a9-
,@*;
 ClHplet - 12
(iv)Countandrecordaccuratelythehammerblowsrequiredforspecific
increments of penetration' If stroke or speed of the hammer is
differentfromnormal,besuretorecoldtheexactconditions.
(.,) Try to keep driving continuous until the required set is reached'
Somesoils(usuallyclayeysoil)will,,seize',apileifdrivingis
stopped and a false set may get recorded'
If adjacent piles show a slight rise, they must be redriven to the
original depth.
(vi) For steel piles, ensure that there will be a painted length of at least
6 m below the original ground level. Joints berween rwo piles are
to be welded according to the drawing and painted according to
manufacturer's instruction.
d) piles are to be cut off at levels which will be checked by the R.E.'s
Surveyor. The final inclination and position of the piles should be
recorded and approved before further work is done'
e) Keep your field notes as legible as possible Try to make them self-
,.,ffi"i".tt. Never repeat; nevel throw away the original notes' Record,
arrytlriug out of the ordinary cspecially the depth of the pile rip If
anythir; unusual happens (anything unusual observed in pile
installations), report it promptly to the A.R.E.
12.28.14 lood Testing o'Pile'
12.28.14.1 Generol
a) In areas in nhich no reliable experiences are available about the
behaviour of formerly establishe<i pile founclations (if any), every major
;
project requires better knowledge about their bearing c^pacity' This can
i
be obtained by making a loading test on a pile which has been installed
in the same way the other piles will be. These field tests have to be
^s
made well in advance of the construction in order to permit working out
a design which firs the test results.
b) A loading test is usually made on single piles, by applying to the pile
head a direct load on a platform, or by iacking down against a dead\oad
'on a platform, or by jacking against a crossbeam held down by anchor
piles at each end.
c) Piles in granular soils may be load tested after several days after the pile
is driven, by when load test afrangements also have been made. Piles in
*^-' Raina's Field Manual far Highway and Bridge tngin""t"
@---
ffi sTRUCTURECo/vsrRUcr/oN, cRAcK DAMAzE AND REpAtR
cohesive soils, however, should be tested aftef a significant time elapses
(about 30 to 90 days) so that the thixotropic strength gain is substantially
complete. In any soil, sufficient time should elapse to allow partial
dissipation of residual compression and frictional stresses under the shoe
and around the shaft.
d) Since it is not practical to test load every working pile, it is a common
practice to test load at least one to tlvo per cent of the working piles
(routine veftical test load). Such working piles ttr be routine load tested
may be loaded to 1.25 to 1.5 times the maximum working load they have
to carry. However, generally'the safe load-carrying capacity of the pile
should be taken as only two-thirds of the load at which the pile settles
by 12 mm. It is also essential that a few piles are driven at representative
locations but outside the working piles and are tested for the ultimate
load. Such ultimate load tests are essential in order to ensure the tme
safe load-carrying capacity of the piles. That vertical load at which the
pile settles by 10o/o of its lateral dimension may be taken, as a thumb
rule, to be the ultimate load capacity of the pile. The safe working load
capacity of the pile may, as a thumb.rule, be taken as 50o/o of the ultimate
load capacity corresponding to a safety factor of 2.0. (Follortt tbe
contrcrct tcrll! npplicable code,)
e) In the case of drtoen ptles (be they casing-driven and then cast in situ,
or precast and driven), in addition to the above mentioned r.ritimate and
routine load tests, it is also possible to have an approximate idea about
the load-carrying capacity from the amount the empry casing or the
precast pile (as the case may be) penetrates into the ground under the
last few hammer blows. This penetration or 'sett is governed by the
dynamic impact of the elastic bodies. Based on equating the energy of
the hammer blow to the work done irovercoming ihe ground resistancei
and penetration of the pile and allowing for losses of energy due to
elastic contraction of the casing (or the precast pile as the case may be),
its dolly arrangement and the subsoil, and taking due account of the
inertia of the pile mass, a general lormula of the following type can be
derived:
kxwxlt
"rt- e-.
whereU = ultimate resistance of pile.
c and k = empirical co-efficients depending upon the
system of piling, pile driving plant, fotai number
ffi s! Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
{r*+r*@

Chapter - t2
of blows imparted to the pile, inertia of pile
mass, efficiency of blow, units of various
parameters in the formula, etc.
w = weight of hammer
lx = height of drop
p penetration per blow during the last few
;l;#r:e
F) For encl-bearing driven piles, the choice of test pile depends upon the
depth of overburden and the material of the founding layer. For long
piles driven in the coastal areas with soft marine clay as overburden and
sandstone bed-rock or dense sand layer as foundation, the longer piles
with the largest set and more ioints and mole liable to fail in the buckling
mode are the "weaker" piies. in other soils with good lateral restraint, a
shorter pile may be weaker since the skin friction componeni is smaller
although these piles are essentially end-bearing piles.
g) For driven piles on limestone foundation, if the overburden is loose or
soft and the bed-rock surface is very undulating, as is usually the case,
thc rcsult of onc tcst i5 really not conclusive to judge the bearing
capacity of the adlacent piles.
h) Piles driven to apparent set on such bed-rock surfaces may be very
much out of alignment because of defective ioints, structurally damaged
lrile-lips, ur tLat ulrly a portion of tl-re end area is really in contact with
the bed-rock causing local overloading when stressed, and other types
of defects. A pile may suffer none or some of these defects, and each
pile rnay behave differently from the others. Load testing in such cases
is merely checking the performance of the particulzr pile without giving
any conclusive prediction of the performance of adiacent piles.
However, when a large sample of piles is load tested and the results
satis$/ the settlement criteria, it may be concluded "statistically" that the
system used, including the design criteria and the construction method,
is acceptable.
lL2&14.2 Pile Lod lesting
Load testing of a ptle will be discussed here in terms of general detail. In
an actual project, follow the applicable codal provisions (in respect of
settlement under test load, the safery factor, etc.) as may be legally binding on
the contract.
a) The immediate area around the test pile shall be excavated to the
proposed pile cut-off elevation. The test pile shall be cut off or built up
arid9" enoireers
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and
srRUcruRE coNsrRucrloru, zRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
to the pfoper grade as necessary to permit construction of the load
applicaiion apparatus, placement of the Recessary testing and
instrumentation equipment, and observation of the instrumentation.
rvhere necessary, the unsupported length of the test pile shall be braced
to prevent buckling without influencing the test results.
If the hydraulic iack pump is to be left unattended at afty time during
rhe test, it shall be equipped with an automatic fegulator to hold tl-re load
constant as pile settlement occLrrs. Calibration report shall be furnished
for all testing equipment for which calibration is required, and shall
show. the temperature at which the calibration was done.
b) Sclternatl.c Anangement for Aii*l-Cornpresslon Load Testlng of
piles.. These are shown in Figures 12.73, 12.14 aod 12.15, as various
alternative arrangements, and the one appropriate to a. particular site
may be selected.
c) ApparatusforMeasuringMooement
(D All reference beams and wires shall be independently supported
withsupportsfirmlyembeddedinthegroundatac]leafdistanceof
no less than B ft (2.5 m) from the test pile or pile-group and as far
as practical fi.om the anchor pilc or cribbing. Reference beams shall
besufficientlystifftosuppofttheinstrumentationsuchthat
excessive variations in readings do not occur and should be cross-
connecred to provide additional rigidity. If steel reference beams are
used, one end of each beam shall be free to move horizontally as
the beam length changes with temperature variations'
(ii) Dial gauges shall have at least a 2" (50 mm) travel; longer gauge
stemsorstrfficientgaugeblocksshallbeprovidedtoallowfor
greater tr4vel if anticiPated.
The gauges shall have a precision of at least 0'01" (0'25 mm)'
.-i Smooth bearing surfaces (such as glass), perpendicular to the
direction of gauge:stem travel, shall be provided. for the gauge
stems. Scales uied to measure pile movements shall read lo 1/64rh
of an inch or to.0:01r (0.25 mm).
I n rut roH Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
fi
 Chapter - 12
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCI'O/V, CMCK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

WEIGHTS

CROSS BEAMS
STEEL PLATE
WEDGES
TEST BEAMS
HYDRAUTIC
JACK
TEST PTATE DIAL. GAUGES
PTATE
DIAL. GAUGES CRIBBING
REFERENCE
REFERENCE BEAM

BEAM

TEST
PILE

TEST PILE ANCHOR PItE

Figure 12.15 Schematic set up for applyrng load directly to plle
using weighted box or platform
Figure 12.13 Schematic set up for applying load to plle uslng
hydraulic jack actlng against anchored reaction frame (iii) Dial Gauges: Two parallel reference beams, one on each side of the
tcst pile, shall be urierrred in a drrecrion that permrts placing their
supports as far as practicable fr.om anchor piles or cribbing. A
minimum of rwo dial gauges shall be mounted on the reference
beams, approximately equidistant from the centre of and on
WEIGHTED BOX OR PLATFORU opposite sides of the test pile, with stems parallel to the longirudinal
axis of the pile and bearing on lugs firmly attached to the sides of
the pile below rhe resr plate. Arternatively, rhe rwo dial gauges shalr
be mounted on opposite sides of the test-pile, below the test plat.,
TEST EEAMS
with stems paraliel to the longitudinal axis of the pire and bearing
TIMBER CRIBBING
on lugs tirmly attached to the reference beams..
STEET PLATE
For test on individual batter piles, the dial gauges shall be mounted
, along a line perpendicular to the direction of batter.
DIAL. GAUGES
TEST PTATE

REFERENCE
d) Tbe Testlng Assernbty
BEAM (D Diagrams and descriptions of rypical ser up of the resring assembly may
be available from the Resident Engineer. Ask the contractor to supply all
TEST PILE
such details for this proposed testing.

Figure 12.14 Schematlc set up for applytng load to pile uslrrg (ii) The support of the kentledge musr be away from the rest pile. Ir musr
hydraulic jack actlng agalnst weighted box or platform be remembered that the end-bearing c pacity of a pile increases with the

m-** Raina's Fletd Manual for Highway ano anoge engrnaers

S ffi crrrt r," u Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
i!5r. !:i{} i Fr^,.trr-. r-.
,s-.";;'^,ffiF,.
 SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - 12

level' If' for

. Changes in .pore q/ater pressure in the soil caused by pile driving,
surcharge or overburden of the soil, etc' above the founding construction fill, ancl other construction operations which may influence
is placed very near to the test pile' the
example a 300 tonne kentledge the test results for fi'ictional slrppolt in relatively impervious soil such as
surcharge gets increased and the end-bearing capacity increases
clay and silt.
testing)' And
co..".po.rdi.,gly but temporarily (during the course of the
o Differences between conditions at the time of testing and aftel final
this maY be misleading.
construction, such as changes in the grade or groundwater level.
(iii)Thekentledgemustbesoarrangedthatitscentfeofgravifyisasnearas
o Potential loss of soil supporting the test pile from such actions as
possibletotheaxisofthepile.Theamountofkentledgeavailablemust excavation and scour.
te ut least lo_20o/o higher than the maximum test load anticipated.
calibrated' They o Possible differences in the performance of 'a pile in a group' or of a 'pile
(iv) The pressure gauge and the iack used must be properly group' from that of a single isolated test pile.
must also be compatible with the test situation, and with a nted capacity
of 2O-25o/o higher than the maximum iest load' r Elfect (on long-term pile pelformance) of factors such as creep,
environmental effects on pile material, negative friction loads not
The reference beam to which the settlement-measuring dial
(v) gauges are
previor-rsly accounted for, and strength losses.
affected by the kentledge
attached must be on unyielding supports rrot
orthetestpile.Thestandardspecificationrequiresthatthe-supportsbe
o Requirernent that all conditions for non-tested piles be basicaliy identical
the test to those for test pile , including such things as subsurt'ace conditions, pile
at least 2 metres or 3 times the diameter of the pile away from
support fype, length, size and stiffness, and pile installation methods and
pile. These supports must also be reasonably far away from the . equipment, so that application or 'extrapolation' of the lest tesults to
of th. k"ntl.dge, since the transfel of load from the support of the
the silnport such othel piles, is valid.
kentledge ro drl pile rrlay causc movcment of the soil below
of the ker-rtledge' fl Pile Load Testi.ng and Proceclures
(vi) Ttre possible movements of the bearn must be checked during the r General
testing. Normally, the level of a certain fixed point on
the
course of load Initially, a few representative piles placed slightly away from the
reference beam, near the dial gauges if possible' is taken at hourly
'working piles' (i.e., the piles which will be used for the bridge
intervalsthroughoutthetimeoftestingtoascertainthatthereference foundations), must be test loaded to ultimate or at least to twice the
beam has not moved. design load value (working ioad value) so as to ascertain the tnre design
(vii) The travelling stem of the settlement-measuring dial gauge must not rest load capacity.
directly on the concrete surface of the made-up pile cap' A small
glass
The actual number ol such piles, anct their locations vis-a-vis the location
plate ihal be gluecl to the concrete surface and the stem of the
dial
of various foundations in the bridge, will depend on the magnitude of
gauge shall be rested on the smooth glass surface to ensure correct the piling work, the uniforrnity or otherwise of the subsoil
unimpeded settlement readings' characteristics, etc. In certain projects, the client may directly specify the
Sorne Factars tba't can lnfluence Interpretatlon of Test Resuhs number (1 in 200 is not unusual). Once these ultimate load tests have
e) been carried out and working load (i.e., design load) capacity of the pile
r potential resiclual loads in the pile which could influence the intefpreted established, the design work is completed and the construction work
distribution of load at the pile tip and along the pile shaft' taken up.
Possible interaction of friction loads from test pile with upward
friction
o During this actual project constmction work, it is customary (and indeed
transferredtothesoilfromanchorpilesobtainingpartoralloftheir essential) to test-load approximately 1 to 2 per cent of the 'working
support in soil at levels above the tip levei of the test pile' piles'. Such tests are called 'Working Load'Tests or'Routine' Tests, and

ffi R in"sri"ldManual forHighwayandBridgeEngineers -'--"-- - ---- -ffi

&*---" '- Raina's Field Manual for Highway an(t Bidge e'gi'""'" j
Chapter - 12
in tlrese the piles are testloaded only to 1.25 to 7.50 times their working
design load value (d.epending on trre applica.ble contract
requirements).
o Bosic Protedure lor 'Ultimote loqd Test' ol o Pile
- Select the appropriate pile-loading-methodology from the various
schematic arrangements shown earlier. Arrange these details, rehearse
the proiedure, and train the crew.
- Load the pile in increments of 0.25 X, up to 2 X (American Practice)
(where X = working design load value of a pile, in tons), giving 2 hours'
' time betpveen two successive load increments. Note the pile settlement
at the beginning and at the end of each load increment. Leave the 2 X
load on the pile constantly for 24 hours, and if the total net (effective)
seftlement does not exceed 0.01 inch per ton of test load, or 1 inch,
whichever lesser, the design load capacity (i.e., working load capacity)
of the pile can be taken as X tons. However, if the pile appears to be
able to take more load without exceeding the settlement limits, apply
more load - a smaller increment ot, say, 0.1 X per increment, and note
the total net (effective) settlement after 12 hours. That test load, at which
this settlement reaches 0.01 incl-r per ton of its value, or 1 inch,
whichever is lesseq shall be taken as the ultimate load capacity of the
pile. Half of such test load can then be taken as the design (i.e. working)
load caoacity of the pile. Now remove this test load in four equal
decrements, giving oneJrour gap befween ending one decrement and
commencing the next, and note the corresponding settlements also.
' Note if any permanent settiement has taken place 24 hours after
complete unloading. (A load settlement curve can be drawn for the
loading and unloading cycles lust completed.)
NOTE: If the pile settlement exceeds the above limitation either before the test
load reaches the 2 X value, or in less than 24 hours after the load reaches
the 2 X value and the load is maintained, then the pile is assumed to
have an ultimate capacity of less than 2 X. A fresh pile and a fresh
ultimate load test (to less than 2 X value) will be called for, unless the
capacity can be fixed by engineering judgement.
o Baslc Procedure for the 'Routine', 1.e., 'Working' Load Test on a Pile
The procedure here is similar to that described above for the Ultimate
Load Test but the 'test load' here is only L.25 X and the settlement
@--*-- Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Briage Englneers
rc SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGEAND REPAIR
criterion is 'either 0.005 inch per ton of this test load, or 7/4 inch,
whichever is lesser'. The pile on which a Working Load Test has been
done, can still be used as a 'working pile' in the bridge foundations,
unlike the pile on which Ultimate Load Test is done (which is no more
usable as a regular working pile).
NOTE: Different codes of practice specify different value for "ultimate Load" in
comparison to working Load and their settlement values. Follow the
I contractually binding code of practice specification.
t2.29 CA|SS0NS 0R'WE[[' F0UNDAT|oNS
12.29.1 Suitobility
Caisson construction is almost restricted to major foundation works, where
other types of foundations cannot satis$/ the requirements economically.
Usually, a caisson is advantageous as opposed to other types of deep
foundations when some of the following conditions exist:
(l) A masslve substructure is required to eilend to well below the river bed
in order to attract necessary net soil resistance against overturning, healy
scour, rolling boulders and floating debris. Undel such conditions, piles
would obviously be unsuitable.
(ii) The substlata contains large boulders which obstruct penetration of
piles.
(iii) The foundation is subjected to laSge lateral forces.
12.2q.2 llistoricol llole
The essential feature of crissons is ihat they are constructed above the ground
or water level and then sunk as a single unit to the required depth, and also
that this unil forms part ol the permanent works.
Because extensive temporary works, such as sheet-piled cofferdams, are nol
required, they are specially suited to woik in deep and fast-flowing
waterways.
Open wellrype caissons were used by the inhabitants of India, Burma and
Egypt for many centuries for the foundations of river bridges. The masonry of
the wells was built on timber curbs, and the caissons sunk by hand excavation
from within the wells. Skin divers doing the excavation could not work
deeper than 6 m, which limited the usefulness of caisson foundations of this
f I R ir"s ri" H Manuat tor Highway and Bridge Engineers
 srRUcruRE coNsrRuciloN, DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - 12 'RACK

type to sites where a firm inerodible stratum could be reached witl-rin this sliddownlaunchingwaysintothewater'orrolledoutonahorizontal
jacks and suspended
depth. track and then lowlred vertically by a system of
range favour
links. Gently sloping banks on a w^terw^y with a high tidal
However, the engineers who were responsible for bridges over mighty rivers ways, whereas steep banks either in
constructio; o.,''lopi"g launching
in India in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries adapted the . tidal of non-tidal conditions, usually require construction by rolling out
methods by usipg grabs and sand pumps for underwater excavation in the . on a horizontal track'
w-elis. By these methods, they were able to sink caissons to depths of more construction'
Care must be taken to avoid distortion of the shoe during
tfian 30 m. practice is to lay a thick blanket of crushed
on poor ground, the usual
A notable example of this construction was the caissoris fol the Hard.inge Stone or u,i.t. ,.,uut" over the btrilding site ancl to support
the launching
Bridge over the Lower Ganges, where the river piers were sunk to depths ' ways on timber or steel Piles'
varying belween 32 and 36 m below river bed ievel. in their
Economy in temporary works is given by constructing caissons
possible. this can be done for land caissons and
Compressed air was first used in bridge caissons by John Vright in 1851 for final position, wi-rere
dry bed or on sand
the piers of the Rochester Bridge, and a few years later by Isambard Brunel for river work by conitructing caissons on the r.iver
when the
at Saltash Bridge. Its first use for the foundations of very large bridges was by islands (in r-rp to about 5 m of water) Tiris is only advisable
can be predicted reasonably accurately' and there is
James B Eads for the St Louis Bridge over the river Mississippi, which low water periocls
commenced in 1869. The tpvo river piers were sunk under compressed air to no risk of sudden 'flash' floocts'
depths of about 30 m, which was a notable achievement, since the
physiological eflects uf wurkirrg undel high ait' pressures wele urore ot" less bl lowing o llooting (oisson to its finol Sinking Site
unknown at that time. Theoperationoftowingafloatedcaissonfrorntheconstructionsiteto
be taken
The sinking methods devised by Eads have only been changed in matters of its final location must 6e carefully planned Soundings must
detail up to the present day.
alongtheroutetoensufeanadequatedeptholwaterattheparticular
statc of tide or river stage at which rhe towing is planned
to take place'
. A new development in caisson constnrction known as the floatation caisson Anessentialrequisiteofthelaunching'towing'anclsinkingprogramme
principle was introduced in 1936 by Drniel E Moran for the San Fraucisco- isa,stabilltydia'gram'forthecaisson.Thisshowsthedraughtateach
against
Oakland Bay bridge. stage of .o,irt*.iot'' In these diagrams' the draughtis^plotted
theweightofthecaissonforvariousconditionsoffreefloatirrgor
Usually, the'lirniting depth of cofferclams is about 20 m. Caissons are,
floatingwithcompfessedairintheworkingclranrber.Theweiglltof
therefore- essential for constructing foundations through water or through eacb strake o7 inn plating a'nd concrete tttithln its ualk
to be
unstable shifting ground to depths gteater than this. added to gh)e a desired draught can be readfrom tbe diagratn
Also,tbe"oirpt"""u'""intbeworkingcbamberrequlredtogiae
12.29.3 (oisson (onslrutlion ond Sinking tlethods ''
any desited interhal uater lettel can be read oiff the oppropdate
li'nes.
0l (onstruclion ol Well (urb {Shoel
The normal practice in caisson construction (when it is necessary to (l Bed Prepcrotion
. construct it away from its final location) is to build the 'shoe' on land and
.t ThefirstoPerationistotakesoundingsoverthesinkinglocationto
slide or lower it into the water for floating out to the site, or to construct level bed
determine whether any dredging or filling is required to give a
it in a dry dock, which is subsequently flooded to float out the shoe. A study should be made of the regime of the waterway
for the caisson.
Land caissons are, of course, constructed directly in their final position.
Caisson.shoes, constnrcted on the bank of a river or other waterway, are
to determine whethei any bed movement is caused by vagaries of

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Sndge Engmeers ffi f, Ruinus r.ld Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
*--t@
,,r-'j..a--...1:r!ii)- *r )r. v. t .t
'
Chapter - 12
current. Such movement can cause difficulty in keeping the caisson
plumb when landing it on the bottom, especially at the last stages when
increased velocity below the cutting edge may cause non-uniform scour.
Difficutries ttitb bed maaement ca'n be oaercotne by sinking
fuxlble tnattresses of crusbed stone on the stnktng site, and
sometimes by constructlng control dykes (or spurs) upstream
and downstrea'm tbat can alter tbe bed leoel conslderab$t and
also eaen it up.
Sometimes constructing a dyke (nortnal or inclined' to the fiaer
bank) near tbe site can sth up ttre area and oery si'gnlftcantllt
reduce tbe u)ater deptb and oelocity, tttbteb con be of lmmcnse
beIp.
dl Supporting Slructures
The various methods used to hold a ,caisson in position during
lowering include:
(a) An enclosure formed by piling'
(b) Dolphins formed from groups of piles or circular sheet pile
cells,
(c) Sinktng ttrrough a sand island'
(d) Wire cables attached to submerged anchors.
The choice of method depends upon the size of the caisson, the depth of
water, and particularly upon the stability of the bed of the waterway.
o Riuer bed conditions at tbe site of tbe Mackinac Brtdge, USA, were
fauourable
-caissons for the construction of a piled enclosure for the circular
on two pier sites. Tbe 4.6 m wide space between tbe two steel
sbells was diuided radlaQy into eigltt uatertigbt co/ripartnxents. Four steel
tubular touerc were sphced at equal distancbi hround tbe caissons. Tbe
towers ul)ere prefabricaied and tahen by barge to tble'site .where tbey uere
lowered onto tbe riuer bed. Then steel H-beam piles uei'e'lowered down
eacb of tbe pipe piles and driuen to refu'sal. The spece between tbe pipes
and piles was giouted.. Three torne$ were ciiitsrticted:ti'this way and
connected by horizontal box-$pe trusses. /fierfloating in tbe caisson, tbe
fourtb tower was constructed and tbe enclosure cornpleted by additional
connecting tntsses. A clearance of JO cm was prouided betueen tbe
caisson and tbe touels.
Enlineers
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana Bridge f
ffi srRUcruRE coNsrRucr/oru' cRAcK DAMAG E AND REPAIR
a Tbe 67'm by 29 m caisson for tbe west ancborage of tbe Delauare
Memorial Bridge, tlSA, was enclosed by a rectangular penformed by two
9 m diameter sbeet piled cetk fitted witb sand on eacb long side of tbe
caisson, and two steel pile dolpbircs formed from tbree uertica'l and tbree
battered piles on the sbort (sboreuard) side' Fenderlng spanned' between
tbe cells and dolpbins to giue a 1.2 m clearance around tbe caisson. A,fter
touing ie tbe caisson, anotherpair of dolpbins was driuen to conzplete tbe
'li fourtb side of tbe enclosure.
a Sand islands were usedforfouT of (b9 caisson piers of tbe Baton Rouge
Bridge ouer tbe Mississippi riuer. Tbe fast-flowing riuer was known to
cause deep scour, and bed protection was giuen to tbe sites of tbe two
deepest pie?s in tbeform of 137 m by 76 m uouen board ma'ttresses' 7he
islands were 34 and 37 m, respectiuely, in diamete4 and wereformed by
plate sbeetsfilled witb sand. The shelk u)ere sutYounded' by a double
steel
row of piles. The sand islands nanowed tbe watenaay, and tbis caused
its deep scour wbicb tbe rnattresses did little to preuent. Tbe scour at Pier 3
utas 1 2 m deep, ctnd a similar deptb of scour at Pier 4 caused' the w holc
of tbe sandfilling i.n tbe lsland' to disappear in 2 to 3 minutes.
Tbe external uater pressure on tbe sbell then pusbed in tbe 9.5 mm
pt&tirlg wlticb was torix apart. Tbe caisson, uhicb at thctt timo bacl onll'
penetrated 4.6 tlx irxto tbe riuer becl, tiltcd by 2.1 m in line uitb tbe briclge
and 0.6 m in the otber direction, and was plumbed uith great dfficulty
These exper-lences emphasl.ze tbe ba.zard's resulting from
obstrttctions toflottt caused by substantiol ternporarry utorks ln ct
riaer utitlt an erodible bed.
Tbe minl.murn of ternporfury construction and tbe lautest rtsk of
bed. eroslon are gi'aen by tbe metbod of securlng a floattng
catsson to submerged' anchors; tbe caisson belng moored behtteert
floattng pontoons. This method is particularly suited to a multi-span
structure when the high capital cost of an elaborate pontoon-mounted
'sinking plant can be spread over. a number of caissons; whereas, if fixed
stagings are provided for the piers'of a multi-span structure, much time
will be spent in driving and extractirig piles for construction of the
stagings ?! each pier site, with inevitable damage due to repeated re-use.
A floating plant is highly mobile, and can be rapidly switched from one
pier site to another to suit changing conditions of river level and
accessibility at low water stages. It is advantageous in these conditions
to design the fioating plant to be adaptable to working in the dry.
fi auina's rieu Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
Chapter - 12 SIRUCTURE CONSIRUbflON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

el Lowering (oissons g) [xtovolion Method

Four main methods are used for maintaining position and verticality of
caissons during sinking. These are:-
(i) Free sinklng, using guides behteen caissons, and fixed
stagi.ngs or floating Plant'
(l.t) Loutering by btock and tacklc from pi'led stctgi'ngs or
plant,
(tit) Loutering by suspension links andiacksfrom piled stagings
orflaating Pla'nt'
(ttt) Louering uitltout gui'des but controlling ttertt+ahty by use of
air domes.
0 Sinking 0pen Well Cuissons
'When a caisson reaches the stage where concrete has to be added to
maintain downward movement, the rate of sinking should be governed
by a ftxed cycle ul upctatious. The usual proccdurc i5 to maintain a
Z4-hour cycle comprising excavation from the wells' erecting steel
plating or formwork in the walls (steining) and concreting a 1,2 to 1"5 m
iift of the walls.
Infloa.ted caissons, tbe top of tbe ski'n plating sbould ahoays be
maintained. at least about 7m aboae tbe water leael to gua'rd
aga.inst an unexpected rise in leuel Howeaer, tbe freeboard'
sltould not be so much tltat tbe centre of grattity is too btglt to gioe
pro?er control o1f aerticalitY'
control of verticaliry can be achieved by one or a combination of the
following methods:
i) Adding concrete on one side or the other,
(ii) Differential dredging from beneath the cutting edge,
(iii) Pulling by block and tackle to anchorages
(iv) thanding' side,
Jetting under the cutting edge on the
(v) Placing kentledge on one side or the other.
Grabbing is the most commonly used method of excavating from the
open wells, although eiectors, operated by compressed zir or water
pressure, have been used in sandy soils.
hl De-wolering lor Freeing o'Honging'Caisson
floating If excavation becomes difficult, a caisson can be partially dewatered or
:l
pumped out. This increases its 'effective' weight thereby increasing the
sinking effort. The procedure may be dangerous where, the cutting edge
has only just penetrated a clay stratum overlain by water-bearing sand.
The water in the sand may then force its way through a limited thickness
of the clay, causing a localized hlow-in up the caisson, followed by
titting of the caisson, which is not easy to rectify. In the process, the
caisson actually hangs on one side, which may even lead to cracking.
Explosives fired in the wells can be used to cause a ierk, creating a
temporary breakdown in skin friction; but they are nrely effective in
breaking down stiff material from beneath the cutting edge. Explosive
charges, carefuily placed by divers, can be used to break up boulders or
othcr obstructions to sinking.
\water jetting is not usually effective
in freeing hanging caissons, since
'sticky' sinking conditions usually occur in stiff clays or bouldel clays,
which are not easily amenable to removal by ietting.
il Jelling ond lubrkolion
Sometimes, to facilitate the sinking, a film of grease is applied to the
exterior surface of the caisson, and/or water jetting is used. Jet pipes of
1 to 2 inches in diameter, with'noizles, ate cast. in the steining concrete;
usually one series of jet pipes is provided on the sloping surface
immediately above the cutting edge, and one or tlvo series on the
periphery .of the caisson at several meters above the bottom of the
cutting edge. All jets are arranged symmetrically to induce straight
sinking. Since lixed jet pipes can ieadily become plugged, movable jes
have been found to be more efficient. Eight-inch iliameter pipes may be
cast in the concrete for inserting movable jet pipes for inside jening.

More details of this are discussed in the authcir's other book "Concrete Bridge il Wellfoundolions
Practice. . . Constnrction, Maintenance and Reb abilitation ".
.
In the construction procedure for well foundations, some of the points
for guidance are as follows:

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers 8fi ffi Rainas ri" H Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
 SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - t2 W1il;t6:f:t{?&@
conglomerates etc., are envisaged, it is desirable to provide mild
(D At the foundation layout stage, necessary reference points to locate steei plate linels (strakes) on both faces of the curb and for a
part
the wells shalt be fixed in a suitable manner with their exact
i
of the inner surface of steining.
positions away from the zone of blow-ups or possible settlements to
points shall
l (vi) Shuttering for the well curb on the outer face should be similar
iesr.ltir-rg from well-sinking operations. Such on the inner face' due to its
'eference that for iire well steininS. However,
be connected to the permanent theodolite stations with base line on
8 m^y be required to
:

be
peculiar shape, separaie shutterin
the banks. The centre of the individual wells shall be marked with l

fabricated.
reference to these stations. The distance, wherever practicable, shall I

be checked with the help of accurate tapes or distomats and other Steel reinforcement should be assembled, and part of the vertical
I rods fixed securely with the cutting edge with check nuts or by
electronic gear.
welds. Considering the congestion of reinforcement in the iower
:

(iD Sand islands are practicable for water depths of up to about 6m

(and
a limit of up to 9 m) undel stable bed soil condition
For greater d'eptlts of utater and'for locations ubere tbe soll
at tie bed leuel and lmmediately belotrt it ts too uteak to
sustain tbe sand island, floating caissons may bante to be
ad.opted
For dry beds, the cutting eclge may be laid either at the bed level
after levelling the same, or at such lowered levels as is practicable
after excavating the toP soil.
The plan dimensions of the islands shall be such as to have a
*o.ki^g space of at least 2 m all around the steining Sand islands
shall be maintained to pet'fonn their lunctions, until the well is sunk
to a depth below the becl level equal to approximately the depth of
water.
(iii) Forflaating ca.issons, a detailed method/statement for fabrication,
ftoaiing and sinking the caissous should be prepared in advance
and diJtributed to all concerned. Such statements should include the
rorai tonnage of steel involved, welding (specification and locations
' for prefabrication), a complete list of materials,plant required, ard a
desiriptive statement detailing the method of operations and the
manpower required.
(iv) For cuttlng edge, steel sections should not be heated and forced
into shape-. However, 'V' cuts may be made in the horizontal
portions to facilitate cold bending. After bending, such 'Vr cuts
. ihould be closed by welding. Joints in the lengths of the structural
sections, unless otherwise specified, shall be fillet welded, using a
single cover plate to ensure the requisite strength of the original
section.
(v) 'Vhere difficult slnklng stratd' such as boulders' rocks,
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Ariage enOineers @
' i'ri"!;:4q$#;t3!'
to
i
portion of the curb, it is desirable to have medium high
workability for the concrete (slump range of 100 to 150 mm)'
The outer face of the curb may be deshuttered within 24 hours after
concreting, but the inner shuttering is required to be left in place
for
about 36
-horj.,
o. more. Immediately after deshuftering, the sinking
operations should be started until the top of the curb neady reaches
ground level or the top of island level'
Thc geometry of cutting edge and rhe ottter face of the curb should
be cirrectly ensured, al this will facilitate sinking of the well until
completton.
(vii) The concreting of the well steining may be carried oltt in lifts of
about 2 to 2.5 m. Attempts shotlld be made to minimise the number
of consrrucrion joints. ih" fo.r.,-,, shall preferably be of mild steel
sheets,shapedandstiffenedsuitably.Incasetimberfofmsareused,
they shatt be lined with plywood,/MS sheets'
(viii) Needle vibrators, with it least 63 mm needle, should be used' The
concretinglayersshallbelimitedtoabout450mm,restrictingthe
free fall to not more than 1.5 m.
(ix)Laitanceformedatthetopofaconcreteliftonthehorizontal
the
surface shall be removed to expose the coarse "ggtegates before
In initiai stages, only one lift (maximr.rm
final sening of the concrete.
2.5 m) of steining .shall be concreted at a time and sunk before
. adding the next lift' However, subsequently, it may be advantageous
to concrete 2 lifts or more, before taking up sinking oper^lions' T"e
aarious lifis making up tbe stelnhrg sball be butlt up
oertlcol|t ln onc stral.gltt l:inc from bottom to top; and tf tbe
welll.sttltettbene'ctWtobeadd'edshallbealtgnedtnthe
directlon of tlte tilt, or othenoi'se, kinks are formed and
auir"'" rield Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
I
;'rt-"
 l
i
I
I

Chapter - 12 i
ffi STRUCTURE CONSIRUCIION, CRACKDAMAGEAND REPAIR

subsequent slnking and tih rectlfication become exceed.ingfit

I
: (xix)Thefinaltiltsandshiftsobservedinthewellshouldbecollntef-
d.ifficult. :
checkecl and reported to facilitate the designer's decision on the
founcling level, ancl plugging ancl casting of the well cap'
(x) A detailed
i

statement with regald to the progress of well sinking

should be maintained at the site. (xx)Arecordofthemethodsofsinkingadopted'bottlenecks
encountered,.etc-' must be kePt'
(xi) The tilts and shifts of the wells should be duly recorded as the
i

sinking progresses.
i k) :Diomeler of the Well
(xii) For each well, a history of the well should be mainrained, indicaring { fiie minimum size of the well foundation for varying depths depends
among others, details of strata; obstacles met, titles, etc. uf=on the size of the dredge hole also, through which grabbing canbe
I

dbne. rJ?here well sinking is clone using cranes or power winches, the
!

(xiii) Use of explosives should be avoided. However, in situations where I

it cannot be avoided, the quantity of blasting material in each case

i
minimum size of the grab generally used is f cu m and goes up to
shall not exceed 0.5 kg. A minimum sump of at ieast 1 m depth 1 cu.m for bigger diameter well foundations. In order that the grab can
pass vertically without touching tl-re steining surface even under a
well
should be made at the bonom of the well before resorting to minimum cleaf diameter of the
blasting. After blasting operation, the condition of the well curb and
tilt of the order of 7:40 and 1:50, the
dredge hole should generally be 0.6 m bigger than that r-equired by the
steining and the surrounding glound should be examined for any
untoward behaviour. 'oPened' grall.

(xiv) Help of rlivers for removal of ohshrctions, rJisposal of clreclged

material, etc., may be permitted, subject to adequate salety
ll Abulment Wellr

precautions.
(xv) Normally, to facilitate sinking, dewatering of the well shall not be
resorted to, particularly if there is any chance of sand. blaw u:'tder'
the well cutting edge. However, in the case of impermeable soil, viz.
clay, dewatering may facilitate sinking. Adoption of this technique
is not advisable in the earlier stages of sinking.
(xvi) Dredge sumps, ordinarily more than about 2 m in depth, may not
be permitted for fear of blows and tilting.
(xvii) The acttal strata encountered should be taken into consideration
while approving the final foundation level.
(xviii) Bottom plugging should preferably be done
with the help of tremie
pipes. Tremie concreting is superior to using skip buckets. The
diameter of the tremie pipe may be in the range of 150 to 200 mm,
made up of sections 2 to 3 m ln length, with the bottom of the
tremie pipe always kept submerged to a depth of at least 150 mm
under fresh concrete. The zone of influence of'a typical tremie pipe
extends to a radius of about 2 to 3 metres. Theconcrete mix for the
bottom plug may have high workability. ,
The design of abutment wells has been problematic becatrse of the
assumpd;n of scour down to 1.27 times the normal scour depth for pier
wells(belowhightloodlevel).Wrthbackfiltretalneclarrdbridgcirr
scrvicc, the horizontal forces createcl at lhe hack of the abutment
become enormous and difficlult to catef for, unless climensions are
increased considerably. To counteract such effects, where possible, one
way is to adopt a floating span lesting on one side on the deck
cantilevering from the pier and, on the other, on a dwarf abutment
(sometimes called a non-load bearing abutment). In sLrch a case, the
entire abutment well is avoided since a non-load bearing type of
abutment can be rested on fill This fill has to be protected' However'
the floating span should generally not exceed about 5 m and this may
require a longish cantilevering deck from the adjacent pier'
llhe.other way to recluce the effect of earth pressure on the abutment
well. is to. provide a. friction slab or a dead-man-anchor. It is also usual
to back cantilever the well cap and take advantage of relieving moments
dueiiib load of baCkfill'earrh over this well cap cantilever to opPose the
active earth Piesstire effect.

re '^^- Raina'sFieldManual forHighwayandBddgeEngre"." f, S nuinut r,"H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
' --ffi
 Chapter - t2
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCIION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

12,29.4 Problems in (onstrudion ol Well Foundotions (u) Simuhaneous u)ater jetting all round tlte utellfrom outside.
Some of the problerns which arise during construction of well (ai) Using controlled cbarge near the cutting edge fron lnsde
foundations can tbe
be summarised as follows: utell
(i) problems created due to deptrt and
lfrota of u.tater utrtirc makhry
proper temporary lslands on wbich tbe uell cufting edge anit 12.29.7 Scnd Blowing
curb could. be pla.ced. and the stnking comtnenced as ijon tbe dry. If the well is on a clayey lens and inadvertently dewatering is resorted to,
(ti) Problcms created due to ha.rd cra.yeJt strata on one sid.e and sofier then, at some instant, when the outside water head exceeds that from inside,
1
pockets on tbe other side of tbe utettfoundatiott the outside warer forces into the well through some sandy patch. In doing so,
it also forces a lot of this sand into the well, creating depressions around the
(iti) Problems due to artestan conditlons tf met uith inside tbe utell well. This nor only requires removal of ali the muck that has ingressed into
durtng hs sinking. the well (leading to extra cost and time) but, in the process, the well can
(itt) Problcms due to sand bloul.ng into well wtttte sinki.ng it. bodily tilt and shift.
(o) Problems due to hea.uy tilts and. sltlfis tn welt bodjt. \Vhen sand blow occurs, the process of dewatering must be stopped
immediately, a,d grass pools and mattresses of shrubs, etc., must be dumped
(oi) Problems requiring pneumatlc sinklng qf uteils, around the periphery of the well on the outside to bridge the depressions and
12.29-5 (onstrucrion of Temporory rslonds for (osring well (urbs
inhibit tl.re sand movement. placing of additional kentledge also helps and
sometimes it can he helpfrrl if water is filled inside the s'ell in such a nny that
Islands with peripheral 15 cm diameter natural timber piles, the water level is maintained at a considerable height above the water level
as are rrsrrally
made, are quitc succcssful upr tu a tlepth of about 6 m. Such uutsidc.
islands with
double row ol tl.rick and jointed pires, wiLrr sand bags in between, have
been
successfully made even up to a 9 m depth of waier. ryhere 12.29.8 Artesisn Conditions
the river bed
consists of sl.ringle or boulder, it is possible to divert the flow
from one side rvhen artesian conditions are met with inside a well,
and make an i.sland, even in higher velocities up to 4 m/s, but one has to be very
the speed of careful in building extra steining and false steining needed to more than
constfuction has to be very fast.
balance the artesian head by qpntaining the accumulated water- so that if the
12.29.6 Cloyey Srrato well suddenly sinks, it does not create additional problems. plugging under
artesian conditions has to be done only when the aftesian head is fully
well sinking through crayey sttata can be successfuily achieved by the neutralised. During artesian conditions, the well sinks very fast and .no.rgh
following methods or by a combination of these:
steining must be ensured at all times.
(r) Exccrua'fion by aherna.te cbiseiltng and grabbing. rreaoy
ra.il
chisels a1f 2 to 3 tons are oery effectiae. n.lq.q ileihods to rounterod filts ond Shilts in Wells
(tt) Ma'kr.ng sumps and excaoattng betout cutttng edge by tncr:ined
and
Any of the following measures or combinations thereof can be usefully
tapered cltlselling or using speclal undentiter-ctay cutters. employed to counteract the tilts in the well during sinking operations;
(iii) sending doutn dhsers uitb pressarised belmets, utlto work (i) Regukrted gtabbtng: Dredging by eccentric grabbing, using a hook
beneatb tbe-curb to cut the clay uttth pneumatic clay diggers arrangement for grab line.
or
tlitb tbe belp of water and alr jets. (ii) Eccentric taading This has to be kept regulated in order to provide
(ia) Creating sumps and dewatering utitlt kenttedge loading on g'eater sinking effect on the higher side of the well than on its lower
steintng. side. Experience has proved that the weli loaded with adequate
Raina's Field Manual for Highway anA Ariage fngineers
ft ffi Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
,r+>r:s#-***si :_r- t.i tat,if.:,t:v:x.",lgFjFffi ,.4$,t*tn*'wl*es
c t H p lc t - t 2 *:1l.S.trtiltr.iff"i-dgfji6tiEg'1$Ffi drilllt:ffi6.ft 6tl
kentledge, placed with suitable eccentricity and coupled with regulated
dredging, can be very helPful.
iii) wa.ter jetting and/or digging pit outside on the higher side of the well
and simultaneously strutting and pushing by jacks on the tilted side can
be undertaken This is quite effective if proper large size heavy concrete
blocks are available. In the case of the Ganga Bridge at Hardwar (India),
a rilr of 1 in 4 was fecrified by pushing with 2 iacks of 100 ton c Pacity
each. It was a 6 m diameter well, sunk up to 10 m at that stage'
provision of tempofa.ry obstacl.es below the cutting edge: In some
(iv)
cases, wooden sleeper pieces are put temporarily below the cutting edge
of the well on the lower side to avoid further tilt of the well, and
eccenrric gr.abbing continued till the desired condition is obtained.
(v) Pulling the uell: The well may be pulled towards the higher side by
one or more steel ropes tied r<;und the well with vertical sleepers packecl
in between to clistrlbute the pressure over a larger area of the well
steining.Thepullingofropesmaybecarriedoutbywinchesorpulley
blocks with rnultiple sysrem of pulleys. This was successfully tried at the
Gandak Dridgc ncar Dumariaghat (india).
(vi) Depositing stiff material around the tilted side of the well: Sometimes,
tils can be recrifiecl by depositing such a surcharge on the tilted side and
by pushing the well back by its earth Pressul'e'
12.29.10 lo*ling 0bstotles during Well sinking
Many obstacles can be encountered during well sinking. These c6uld be large
boulders, tree logs, hard clay, old sunken boats, etc. If the boulders are within
the clredge hole of the well and riot very large, they can be removed by the
grab. If they lie parriy beyond rhe cutting edge, they cannot be dredged. In
ihi, .ur", these have to be pushed outsicle by the weight of the well or made
to fali inside the ?lreclge hole. In the case of large boulders, which cannot be
tifted by the grab and orher available equipment, the following me.thods can
be employed:
(i) The obstacle is battered by rail chisels'and broken into pieces,.which.can
then be raken out. The obstacle can be broken by pneumatic breakers
workecl by a diver, who goes under water and does the iob'
(iD 'Sfhen the methods mentioned above prove to be slow and ineffective,
the only orhef altefnative is to blast the obstacle by means of gelignite
charges, care being. taken'to avoid any damage to the steining' Deep
holes are drilled inio the obstacles so that it becomes easy
ffi- '-- --' Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway and Bridge
iffi*,*i€*:i:;:,::l.r;rr*;il$j6.+'i$&{1 SIRUOTURE CoNsrRUcI/oM CRAOK DAMAGE AND REPATR
charges in them. All this may have to be an underwater activity (.... .. be
careful!).
(iii) Logs lying across the cutting edges have been known to offer
considerable difficulty. If these are too strong to be broken by the weight
of the well, they are to be removed by cutting down with chisels ol axes
worked by sending divers inside the well, The divers have to use
helmets fed by compressed air.
12.29.11 (rocks in Wells
Sometimes due to carelessness in sinking operations and the use of
excessive and uncontrolled explosives for blasting, cracks develop in
wells. These are generally of two rypes:-
(D Cracks running borizonta.lly:
These ring cracks may not be so serious and.genelally develop during
the process of rectifying the tilts, when a ceftain portion of well steining
gets heavily stressed. These cracks can be gror"rted.
(ii) Cracks runningaertical$t:
These can be of serious n:rture and they develop during sinking, and are
the result of excessive and non-uniform pressures caused by the wrong
use of charges, or excessive and sudden sand blowing, or excessive
eccentric surcharge overburdens. etc. These should be examined in
detail and it. should be examined whether, in such cases, the well
steining can be relied upon to take the design loads. It may be necessary
to reiect the well and bLrild another well inside after refillins the cracked
well with excavated material.
lz.zg.lzPneumolicolly Sunk (oissoris
a) Pneumatically sunk caissons should be used where the arnount of
J'boulders or other hard obstacles in the substrata encountered would
prevent sinking an open caisson, or where the foundation must be
exposed for visual inspection, or where the concrete in the base must
be placed in the dry. '
Pneumatic caissons cannot be.uSecl for depths greater than about 30 m,
as human lungs cannot withstand air pressure needed'to keep much
' more than a 30-m head of water away. The working chamber should be
designed with utmost regard for the safety of the workmen. In addition
to the normal loads produced by the internal air pressure and the
to insert external forces due to sinking, the walls and roofs should be designed
Engi,""o I ffi Rainat rie H Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers -ffi
Chapter - 12 Wi SIRUCTURECONSIRUCI/OM CRACK DAMAGE AND RFPATR

for complete loss of ail' pressure, resulting in full saturated soil or d Design Feutures ol Pneumotkolly Sunk Coissons
hydraulic pressure on the walls, and the weight of any fresh concrete on
the roof. The walls should also be proportioned for unequal distribution Vhen caissons are designed to be sunk under compressed air, it is usual
of loads and for concetrated loads on the cutting edge. to provicle a single large working chambei (FiSure 12.1A instead of
having a number of separate working chambers separated by cross
bl Generol Arrongernenl of Pneumoticolly Sunk Coissons walls. The single chamber is a convenient arrangement for minimising
resistance to sinking, since the resistance is only given by the outer
Pneumatically sunk caissons are used in preference to open-well walls. Control of sinking by differential excavation from a number of
caissons in circumstances indicated above and in situations where
cells is not necessaly since control of position and verticality can readily
dredging from open wells would cause loss of ground around the
be achieved by other means, for example, by the use of shores and
caisson resulting in settlement of adiacent structures, or when sinking
wedges beneath the cutting edge, or by differential excavation beneath
through variable ground or through ground containing obstructions
the cutting edge.
(very hard lenses, conglomerates, etc.) where an open caisson would
tend to tilt or refuse further sinking. The working chamber is usually 2.5 to 70 m high, although where the
caisson chamber is sunk to a limited penetration, the height may be
Pneumatic caissons have the advantage that excavation can be carried
somewhat smaller. The roof of the working chamber (called corbel),
out by'hand' in the 'dry' working chamber, and obstructions such as tree must be strongly built as it may l-rave to resist high air plessures over a
trunks or boulders can be broken out from beneath the cutting edge. wide span.
Also, the soil at the foundation level can be inspected and, if necessary,
bearing tests made directly rrpon it. The foundation concrete is placed Access to tbe u)orking cbamber is througlt shafis. Since all
under ideal conditions in the dry whereas with open-well caissons the excavated material must be lifted through the shafts, the shafts must have
flnai excavadon and sealing (pluggfurg) with concrete are almosr always zrdequaty capacity in size and uumbet's to pass thc rcquircd quantity of
carried out under water. spoil in buckets through the air locks to meet the plogrammed rate of
sinking. The air shaft is usually oval in plan and is clivided into two
Pneumatic caissons are very expensive compared with open-well
compartments by a vertical ladder. One compartment is used for hoisting
caissons and have the disadvantage of requiring more plant and labour'
and lowering spoil buckets and the other is for the workmen. The shaft
for their sinking, and even the rate of sinking is much lower. There is
is built up in 1.5 or 3 m tengths to pertnit its heightening as the caisson
also the important limitation that men cannot work in air pressures much
sinks clown. The air lock is mounted on top of the shaft, and it is
higher than 3 kg/cm', above the atmospheric pressures, which limits the
essential for the safety of the workmen to ensure that the lock is always
depth of sinking to about 30 m below the water table, unless some form
above the highest tidal or river flood levels, with sufficient safety margin
of ground water lowering is resorted to outside the caisson. If such to allow for unexpected rapidiry in sinking of the caisson. Alternatively,
methods are used to reduce air pressures in the working chamber they
the air-locks can be protected against flooding by building up the skin
must be entirely reliable, and the dewatering wells must be placed at a
plating or by providing a cofferdam around the top of the.caisson to the
"sufficient distance from the caisson to be unaffected by the ground required heiglrt.
movement caused by caisson sinking
Tbe deaelopment of large diamcter qtl:indrical foundations
dt'llltng and tbe hmltation ln slnking deptrx due
of Itmtttng arf pfessure tbat the human hngs
ca.n.6wcept,.t tea.r. tbat lrrreunatlc caissons are onljt rare$t used.

----- Raina's Fietd Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engin""r" f Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers - ---m
 DAMAGE AND REPAIR
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCI'ON, CRACK
Chapter - 12

(1) For excavating in hard material, one man can be effectively

Hoisting rope employed in about 3 of working area of a caisson' but in loose
m'?
material, such as sand or gravel, one man may
be allowed in 6 to 7
Corb€l may even be
m'atea.
located at an intermediato
height Muck lock (2) Generally, the number of men in a caisson per shaft
will range from
in the smallest caissons' The optimum number is
10
5 to 10
Man lock
""c.pt
men per shaft.

ffi AhSupply
Man lmk
(3) Sufficient airlocks should be provided to allow the
pass out of the caisson in reasonable
working pressure. For moderate pressures
airlock should be provided for every
time'

90-100
This
(uodet
m' of
whole shaft to
depends
2'5
base
on the
kg/cn-)'
area For
an
high

I, fr"rr,r."r, two loci<s would be considered

for 90-100 m' of base area'
t..u.,r" of the longer time required in 'locking' each shaft in and
out
lluck
bucket of the caisson.
and the
(4) The size of the lock is governed by the,rate of excavation
numberofmerrtobea'.commodated.Thus,themainchamber(or
size to pass
Laddor
muck lock) has to accommodate a skip of sufficient
Ak. Shafr
at the programmed to'": Flt
through the excavatecl material .
a airlock
with a base area of about 90 m- per lock' large
'Corbol
"*u-[1",
can deal with about 9 m3 of spoil per hour; for
continuous shift
m' of would be passed
working at say 2 kg/cfi, 180 material
gives about 100.rf
througliin 20 hours oI'effective'working' This
-shift
of material in the solid'or l 14 pel
m of sinking effective three
the output
Working chamber . day. \With a smaller airlock un<ler similar conditions'
in 20 effective hours'
*o.rld b" about 6 m7h or 120 nri of material
^r' corresponding to a sinking rate of about 0'70 m per effective three-

I shift d'ay. ThJ phnt fo' tie production and supply of

air to ihe working chambei shall deliver a supply sufficient
compressed
to
in the chamber 0'30 m3 of fresh air
Cutting edge provide at the pre-ssure 'per
CP 2OO4
minute per person for the time of being in the chamber'
Ftgure L2.16 General affangement of Pneumatlc Calsson ' ,".o*ndi that whenever work involving compressed air at
than 1 kg/cm' above atmospheric pressure is
pressures greaLet
Decompression
dl Design Detoils lor (ompressed Air Sinking undertrken, the Medical Research Council's
Sickness Panel should be consulted for advice
on decompression
o Air locks rates.

The number of air locks required for a caisson depends upon the number If the air suppiied inaccordance with the above rule is more than
the air-locks'
of men employed in any one working chamber in the caisson. The size the amount lost under the cutting edge and through
from the caisson through a control
of the air locks and air- shafts is governed largely by. the quantity of the surph.rs should be exhausted
material to be excavated, i.e., by the size of the 'muck bucket'. valve.
R inut ri"ld Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana ariaoe enaineers
f I
Chapter - 12 ffi
a Compressors
Compressors fol air supply are usually stationary types. Ideally, they
should be driven by variable speed motors to enable the supply to be
progressively increased as the caisson sinks deeper. The type of plant in
general use is a fwin-cyiinder single stage piiton compressor of
8.5
m3/min capacity motor-driven through a vee bert. Rotary compressors
can be used for supplying low-pressure air. At least 500lo spare
compressor capacity, should be provided for emergency purposes.
Consideration should be given to alternative means of po-"i,uppiy,
fo,
example diesel generators, for electricaily-driven compressors normally
supplied from the mains system, or a srandby steam plant. The rotal
available air supply may require to be fwice the acrual requirement
if
failure is liable to cause danger to life or property, However, a standby
supply need not be provided if the loss of air pressure will not endanger.
the workmen; for exampie, if the caisson is being sunk on to a harcl
stratum which will remain stable, and if workrnen have ample rime to
escape from the working chamber.
Air Treatment
Improved working conditions and grearer immrrnity to caisson sickness
is gir'-en by treatment of the air supply. The air-conditioning plant
should
aim to remove moisture and oil, and to warm the air. fbr c.old weather
working, or to cool it for.working in hot climates. The need to supply
cool dry air is especially important for compressed air work in hot and
humid climates. In cool climates, it is advantageous to provicle heating
in manlocks since the cooling of the air, which always takes place
during decompression, can cause discomfort to the occupants.
el Pneumatic Sinking of (oissons
r control of position and verticality of pneumatic caissons is more readily
attainabie than with open-well caissons. It is possible to maintain
controi
by c4reful adjustments of the excavation beneath the cutting edge; and
if this is insufficient, raking shores can be used in the workiig .iamb.r,
or the caisson can be moved bodily at the early stages of linking by
selectively placing sliding wedges or 'kickers, beneath-tlre cutting jge.
r Excavation in the working chamber is usually undertaken by men
hand-
shovelling into crane skips, compressed-air iools such as clay spades
or
breakers being used in stiff clays or boulder crays. when
ur.
"".u#ion,
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Ariage engineers
@ f
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCI'ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
in sands or gravels, hand-held watef iets can be used to sluice the
material into a sump from where it is raised to the surface thr.ough a
shaft. The latter can also be an open-ended pipe with its lower end
dipping into water in the sump. By opening a valve on this sucking
rsnoreLr pipe, the water and soil are
forced by the air pressure in the
wbrking chamber out of the caisson. The snorcr also performs a useful
' function in clearing water from the floor of the excavation if the soil is
too impermeable for the air pressure to easily drive the water down into it.
r The compressed air supply must be regulated to provide adequate
ventilation for the workmen. In permeable ground, this is readily
by allowing it to escape thror,rgh the soil and beneath the cutting
^ttained
edge. However, when sinking in impermeable clays and silts, ventilation
must be maintained by opening a valve to allow air to escape through
the cai$son roof. Careful regulation of air pressure is necessary when
sinking in ground is affected by changes in ridal water levels.
c Smoking otr naked hghts sbould not be pennifted. ln tbe working
cbamber because of tbe risk of encountering t Iosiae ga.ses, e.g.,
^
naetba.nc (marsb gas), dur.ing si.nki.ng. A careful watcb sltould be
ma.lnta.ined- ln nelgbbouring exca.aations. Accldents haue beett
ktmun to balrpen by compressed air passlng tbrouglt beds of
pea.t and becoming deprfued o1f oxygen due to oxidation of tbe
peat The escape of tbis oxygen-deficier.t alr into trre confined
spaces of excauations has caused asphyxiation of tbe utorkmen
ln tbem.
o In very permeable ground, the escape of air may be so great as to
overtax the compressor plant. The quantity escaping can be greatly
' ieduced by pre-grouting tire well steining and even the ground, with
cement or clay. However, each site has its own problems which must be
looked into carefully in advance.
ll ilowing down a Pneunulicolly Sunk (aisron
. If a pneumatlc caisson stops sinklng due to build-up qf skin
frtctioq lt ca.n be induced to n ooe bjt tbe process knousn a.s
blouing d.oun'. This involves reducing the air pressure to increase the
effective weight of the caisson, so increasing the sinking effort. The
process is ineffective if the ground is so permeable that air escapes from
beneath the cutting edge (at a fasrer rate than can be achieved by
opening a valve), and thus buoyancy-creating water is let in.
R ,tnus r,"b Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers --*._-*@

Chapler - 12
a The procedure in blowing down a caisson is first to get the men out
from the working chamber' The control valve is then opened and the
caisson shoulcl soon begin to move. If it does not do so, the skin friction
is too high, and either kentledge must be added or further excavation
should be done below the cutting edge. Careful control should be
exerciseci when biowing down in ground containing boulders, or when
blowing down a caisson to land it on an uneven rock bed' In some
circumiances, it may be necessary to excavate high spots"in the rock
and fill them with clay and then blow the caisson down into the clay'
a An example of difficulties in sinking on to rock is the pneumatic caisson
pier for a pipe bridge over the Mississippi River at Grand Tower, Illinois,
which has been described by Newell.
a If at alt possible, a caisson should not be blown down in soft or loose
ground, as this might result in soil surging into the. working chamber, so-
i"ncreasing the quantity to be excavated' There is also the risk of
penetrad;n of grouncl into the working chamber, causing settlement of
adiacent structures. It must be remembered that pneumatic caissons are,
in'many instances, used as a safeguard against such settlement' Blowing
down, if properly controlled, is a safe procedure in a stiff clay.
If a caisson is sinking freely without the need for blowing down,
measures must be taken to arrest the sinking on reaching the founding
level. This can be achieved by casting concrete blocks in pits excavated
at each corner of the working chamber at such a level that the caisson
comes to rest on the blocks at the desired founding level.
gl Sulety Problems
For the safety and welfare of workmen, the following precautions should
be exercised:
l. Accurate control ofair pressure
A gauge{ender shoulcl watch the pressure gauge constantly, and. the
gaJgelhould be accurate, regularly caiibrated, and in good working
condition.
2. Sufficient alr circulation
To avoid the air in the working chamber becoming stale, fresh air must
be circulated into the working chamber constantly. This may be done by
opening a valve in the airlock. In granular soils, where a certain amount
oi leakige takes place below the cutting edge and through the soil, the
air is automatically circulated.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engin""o !
-*-
srRUcruRE colvsrRucrtoN, cRAcK DAMAGEAND REPATR
3. Slow decompression
Men working undet' cotnpressed air must be decompressed slowly. If
coming out too fast, they are subiected to caisson disease. This disease
is due to air bubbles formed rn the blood and body tissues which are
compressed while working under pressLlre. A period of about one-half
hour is necessary for decompression from a pressure of 3 kg/cm'.
4. Duplicate and spare equipment
A spare or. duplicate set of air compressors and other equipment for
pneumatic operation should be provided in case of contingency,
5. A medlcal doctor
should be available at the site all the time. All the workers must be
medicatly fit to work inside a pneumatic caisson. No worker should
work inside it for longer than about 4 hours per 24 hours, no more than
2 hours at a stretch. The figures reduce as the depth increases. Extreme
.,care
has to be taken against caisson disease (called the bends') because
of which the workers can lose control over their ioint.s. vomit blood or
. suffer from nasal bleeding' paral)'sis, 'br-rbbles in skin'' and even death
This calls for very controlled acclimatisation of the workers in the
airlocks both for compression as well as for decompressiolr.
l2.29.l3 Lood Testing of o foundotion (Coissonl Well
This is generally done before the well is plugged. The test load is calculated
so as to balance the assumed ultimate soil resistance against the 'bearing area'
of the cutting edge together with an assumed Okin friction on the outer surface
of the well steining up to about 2 m below the surrounding ground level,
taking due account of the buoyant weight of the well as is. The calculated test
load is then applied in five equal increments and the sinking of the well
observed regularly. Before commencing the loading, the well is temporarily
plugged with sand up to curb height to prevent 'squeezing outr of soil from
under-the bearing area. lf the sump is large, the well initially will sink faster.
If the overall sinking does not exceed about 40 mm (with the total test load
maintained for 24 hours) and upon removal of the test load placed on the well
there is no appreciable rebound, the well may be accepted for service.
t2.30 BIARINGS
Check with your A.R.E. that the correct type of bearing is being used before
its installation. Check that the correct type is placed in the correct position and
that the orientation is as specified in the drawings.
] aaina's ri"u Manuat tor Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chapter - 12
a) Check that the Contractor's method of setting and fixing of bearings has
been approved.
b) Bedding for bearings shall be as per approved drawings, usually an
epoxy mortar, capable of attaining a minimum compressive strength of
, 55N,/mm square in 4 days in,the case of steel bearings. Rubber bearings
may be bedded on a 3:1 sand-cement mortar mix. The method of placing
shall be strictly to the manufacturer's recommendation and as per the
approved drawing. The top and bottom surfaces of the bearings must be
in full contact with the concrete surfaces..
c) The correct orientation and level of the bearing is of great importance.
Make sure that you know what is reqr-rired before the Contractor installs
the bearings.
I2.3I EXPANSION JOINTS
o Ensure the correct width of the expansion joint at the time o[ its acttral
physical installation, as pertinent to the coffect ambient atmospheric
temperature.
r Depending upon the .rype of the expansion joint, make sure its fittings
and installation procedure are strictly as per the design and
manufactufe's sPecifications.
I2.32 PARAPTIS
in iase of prefabricated/precast panpet, befble concreting of the edge beam,
the position of the holding-own bolts for the parapet rail may need to be
checked and agreed upon. The bolts must have at least the minimum
'embedment length and must bb securely fixed vertically to prevent movement
, undeicoat. All ,areas that have been welded must be vigorously wi'e
during concreting. The method of securing the bolts will vary frotn contractor
to'contractor, but normally a timber template will be used (fixed to the edge
beam shutter).
,;a) .Care must be taken to ensure that the concrete under the template is
,properly compacted.
b) The posts and rails will be delivered to the site separately and bolted
together using high strength bolts. Generally, the fabricated posts and
rails will be delivered to the site painted to undercoat in the factory.
' c) The posts should be erected, temporarily supported on steel shims, and
adjusted to give an acceptable line and level. The posts must be vertical.
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and enuge Engrneers
--4]#riri*B{#&:
SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCI'ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
The alignment should be checked by eye to see that lines are snooth.
d) Lengths of rail may require to be welded togethef. Make sure that the
n"."rr"ry weld preparation of chamfering back the ends of the rail and
using backing pieces is carried out. This will enable a full-strength butt
welJ to Ue maae. The whole assembly of the parapet rail shor'rld be
bolted and tack welded and the alignment rechecked. Once this is
acceptable, the final welding can be carried out.
e) check that all welds are free from blow holes and slag. For checking
welds on the underside of the rails, a mirror will save a lot of crawling
on hands dnd knees.
\X/hen the full-strength butt welds are satisfactory, they must be ground
flush with the rails.
D The nuts shouid be securely tightened by using a suitable spanner to
refusal and then tightened a further 1/4t:urn by using an extension bar
on the spanner.
\trhen the bolts have been tightened finally, the dry pack mortar should
s)
be rammecl under the base plate and pointed oU neatly' Surplus mortar
chould be. cleaned off the hase plafe srrrfaces.
the
If it is found that bt-rlts have moved during concrcting, it is permissible
fcrr the contfactor to enlarge holes to accommodate the bolt position.
,The decision on rhis shoulcl be referred to the A.R.E. If this is permitted,
it,is essential thar the excess hole area is filled with a suitable rubber-
.bitumen or polysulphide sealant and that the washer completely covers
the hole.
h) The posts and rails will normally be delivered to the site painted to
brushed to bright metal and immediately given the first prime coat of
paint. Subsequent paint coats should be applied and each one rubbed
'hown with wet and dry paper to ensure a smooth final paint surface'
llake surg that the undersides of all surfaces are properly painted'
Nuts and pfotfucling bolts must be wire brushed.to get rid of rust and
dirt and ,should be immediately painted. successive coats should be
applied up to the.undercoat level.,
The final finishing coar of painr should only be permitted to be applied
after two careful inspections of the undercoat to ensufe that all damage
has been repaired.
ffi ] a"ir"'" ri"n Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineere
*;=*rf

Chaptor - 12
The Painting Contractor should have film thickness gauges available'
Make sure these are used to ensure that the total film thickness is
')
applied.
k) Check with the A.R.E. that the paints the Contractor proposes to use are
approved.
I2.33 SI'GGTSTED GUIDEI.INES FOR INSPECTION OF BRIDGES AND
CUTVERTS AT IME OI TAKING OVER THE STRUfiURES
This section includes suggested guidelines for the inspection of bridges and
culverts by an authorised committee at the tirne of take over of the structure
from the Constructoi after the initizil maintenance'period (the Defecs Liabiliry
Period).
It also includes recotnmendatl'ons for Pefl4bles { wananted'
The inspection comprises the following steps:
r In-office reulew,
o At-site lnsPectl.on,
o Repor"t preparation and submission.
In-Ofiice Realew
(i) Study the Supervising Engineer's 'summary report'. This should contain
details about the proiect, various bills ol quantities and change orders,
list of deficiencies '(including those in prestressing and its allied
operations, if applicable), problems encountered during execution of
work, etc.
(ii) Srudy project drdwings; as-built drawings; and all the special and general
specifications' pertineht to the structures.
. (iii) spot-chgck the results of valious tests conducted by the supervising
Engineer during the eiecution'of the work'
' (iu) gas$;n
the above dnd'on i'a"tuit.a discussion with the Supervising
Engrneed,and the'Confiactor, draw up'a'schedule"for field inspection.
\rhile,it is ne.cessafy to inspect'each brielge it is not'so with culverts.
'When inspecting them, it is sufficient to select only representative
culverts, provided all of them w9ry,bu.rlt. by ths 52m. cqntractor. (Many
a time the main . Contractor sublets the structures to one or more
Subcontractors, whose perfol'mance capabilities caftvary.In such a case,
Raina's Field Manuat.for Highway ana Arfa1e enSineers
SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCIION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
it might become necessary to select repfesentative culverts from each
Subclntractor's work.) In drawing up this inspection schedule, prefix
the
the list of deficiencies) maY
special locations/areas which @ased on
also
req.,ire particular checkinf est ing/ coting, if possible' Accordingly'
draft various questions which may require answering by the Supervising
Engineer and the Contractor during the field inspection'
for
(v) although it,is not possible to prescribe in advance the time required
all the"inspection;; but based on the above, at least a rough time
estimate should be prepared for general guidance' To cut this down'
affanqements should be made in advance for various facilities and
.q"ipl""., to be readily available at the site' (For examplc' tbe
uiaiailabiltty of a uater tanker for cbecking tbe drainage system' in a
bridge in on-uibon location can unnecessarily delay tbefield inspection
in tbis case. Water may actually baue to be poured down tbe systenx to
collection
ensure proper working of ctryin pipes, Sulty traps, manholes,
cbamberc, etc.)
4t-siteJ-rcpcclron
Wrat to lookfor
(as explalned ln
A1l possible inspection details per.tinent to the structure
chapter t6 ahead), its construction and perfbrmance'
Yffifffiage drainage as we, as surface drainage, inclu<ling correct
sizes and detailing of all fittings'
o Effective affangement of civil works for lighting (e'g'' construction
'detailsofdraw.pits,theirlocationsandelevations,lesttheyshouldget
filledwithsurface,drainedwatef,theifcovers,pipesforwiring,pull-
wires, finishing around pipes in the draw-pits, etc')'
i'Installation
. of bearings in correct directions, and ensuring their freedom
to perform the intenJed functions (rotation and.movements in diffefent
directions).
r Fixation and perforrt'rance of expansion ioints and the corresponding
riding qualiry of the bridge.
o- tJ?'orkmanship (e.g., at constnrction joints, at cold joints if any'
of
segregation and h-oney combing in concrete, bulging or squeezing
,"Itl"-.tt, general 'line' and 'plumb' of each element, etc')'
R"in"t ri" H Manual for Highway and Bridge Englneere
J f
Chapter - 12 STRUCIURE coNsIRUcI/oM cRAcK DAT/IAGE AND REPAIR

il
. Concrete strengths.
il
weightage,'workmanship' 25o/o and'correctitude of dimensions' 1 5%0.

. Strengths of reinforcement steel, prestressing steel, structural steel. Depending upon the importance of location of the structural element
it involved, shortfall that may be permitted in the rstrength' of is concrete may
r Details at corurections, joints, comers, welds, hinges, etc.
range frorn zero to l9o/o *.
. Correctit"ude of dimensions.
$i
Contractually, however, the structure may not be accepted as normal even if
fl
r Any undue cracks in concrete (if so, what rypes, what causes; whether II the shortfall is lesser. And for shortfalls up to the said 780/0, a penalty at the
curing or admixtures were used and whether the water-cement ratio il
ll rate of 2o/o (of 60o/o of the cost of structure) for every 1%o shortfall in the
adopted was right; whether aggregates were unwashed if dusty, 4l average 28-d^y standard cylinder strength may be levied on the Contractor.
absorptive, flaky and elongated; whether concrete was poured in hot or 5l

windy weather, etc.; how the Contractor's own loads using the structure, it As to the penalties to be levied in case workmanship is poor and 'correctitude
axle to axle, were, compared with the Design Load Axles, etc. of dimensions' is outside the specifications, the committee might decide the
respective penalry percentages (to be applied on the 25o/o of the cost of the
r 'Whether the structure has acn-rally
already been in service or not. structure and on rhe l5o/o of the cost of the structure, respectively), keeping
o Bulging ancl tilting at ioints, and treatment of concrete at joints, for in view the importance of the structure element in question and the likely
example in retaining walls. Proper back-filling (material cornpaction, effect that the shortcomings would have on the public eye and structttral
provision of filters at weep holes, etc.) behind abutments and retaining integrily of the stmcture.
walls.
i Penalties, in case of those other than concrete structures may be decided on
r Fixing details of parapers, hand rails, and guard rails. individual basis on the above lines.
o whetlrer the channel is free from obstructions and susceptible to Unless the committee finds that the supervising team is really not responsible
deviation. for the aforementioned shortcomings, appropriate penalties shall be levied on
o Adequacy of slope protection works and of their toe-walls, size of stone this team too. One way for this would be a penalty in magnitude up to 7o/o of
used, thickness, etc. If grouted, then whether grouting is done to full the total penalry levied on the Contractor.
penetration, etc. In the event any penalties are levied on the Contractor and the supervising
team, the committee may also decide as to whether the period of maintenance
Pe nak! (i! foun d. nece ss ar? I by the Contractor should be extended, making it incumbent on both these
: parties to monitor the performance of the stmcture during this period at no
At the time of start of work itself, the Client authority should make the
extra cost to the client authority. Some load tests may even become necessary
Contractor as well as the Supervisors aware that penalties will be levied on
them (perhaps somewhat in the manner described here) if the execution is in such an event (at Contractorrs cost).
found lacking i, Rep6* Prepara.tlon and Submts slon
Basically the end product, such as a structural concrete work may be lqoked t.
r Assemble all the findings.
upon from three aspects, viz.
o Compare these with the Supervising Engineer's 'summary report', in the
(a) Strength and durability,
(b) Workmanship, r This figure, purely for its evaluation purpose, is based on the 'average of 3' standard core test results in

(c) rhe limit being 0.75 of normal 28-day cylinder strength, which would correspond to 0.75/0.85 = 0.82 of
Correctitude of dimensions. cylinder srrength, i.e., 180/o shortfall. (Normally, no individual core result as less.than 75Vo and the avemge
Of the total cost of the strucrure, 'strength and durability' may be alloned 60% of 3 cores not less than 85% of the 28-day 'cylinder strength' are assumed to mean 10S/0 cylinder strength
attained.)

Raina's Field Manuat fu Highway ana Bridge Engineers ffi n ,tt"t r," b Manuat for Highway and Btidge Engineers
ffi
,, r-11+i::k/a!a:.*es:;,:
 DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - 12
@ srRucruRgcorusrRucr/otv, zRACK

are nor ro be coated but which may be affected by the application of the
light of the as-built drawings, change orders, the initial and the'revised coating, shall be fully masked and, in particular, fTota/fauna shall be
bills of quantities, and the special conditions of contract' protected.
., compile the report, including the recommended penalties (if any), and 1.3 Blow holes and areas of pitting shall be made good with RENDEROC FC,
submit it to the construction department of the client authoriry for a one-part modified cementitious material, and allowed to cure in
discussion and final aPProval. accordince with the manufacturer's recommendations. The application
NOTE: The Superalslng Engineer slcould clearSt and legally understa'nd
shall be in accordance with the manufacturer,s recommendations,
out spot 'c"ecks at particularly with respect to the maximum application thickness of 3 mm'
tltat wbile the commlttee ca'n only cany
randat\be(ttlboispai'dfor'contlnuousa'ndfullydeta'tled' (ooting lllloteriols
superalsion all along) temains ful$t responslble for tlte 'as- 2.
. Tequired'perfonnance of alt tbe structures in eaery detail" and 2.1 The materials are required to provide in-depth protection against
tlte accepiance by tltis coflnnlttee does not in hny u)ay absolae bhn carbonation and chloride penetfation whilst permitting water vapour
of tb is re sP ottslbilit!. transmission from the concrete. The NITOCOTE DEKGUARD system is
considered suitable.

I2.34 CRACK REPAIR TTCHNIOUES 2.2 The contractor is required to adhere stfictly to the manufacturer's
recommendations regaiding the use, stofage, application and safety rules
..... see item 19.6 in Chapter 19. with respect to the approved materials.
2.3 The exposect concrete surfaces as defined in the documents or as agreed
I2.35 DTTAII.S OT SOINE REPAIR TECHNIOUES with the Supervising Officer shall be conditioned by the applicatiorr uf
NOTE: NITOCOTE DEKGUARD PRIMER, a penetfating hydrophobic treatment.
The primer. sl"rall be allowed to dry in accordance with the
Tlre repair materiais referred to in the following paragraphs are proprietary
(Two manufacturer,s requirements. The contractor shall then apply two coats
chemicals. These (their iatest versions) or their equivalents may be used'
Of NITOCOTE DEKGUARD PIGMENTED TOP COAT iN ACCOTdANCC WiIh
of the typical proprietary firms are FOSROC and SIKA') manufacturef's instructions. The finished coating shall be pinhole-free
L: Protection of New or Existing Relnforced Concrete and have a total minimum dry film thickness of 150 microns. The colour
Problem No.
Structures agalnst. Carbonation or Chlodde-lnduced and finish are to be as agreed with the Supervising Officer'
Corrosion 2.4 The coating shall be applied by spray, roller or brush to achieve a finish
acceptable to the strpervising officer. In all operations of storage, mix]ng
SPECIFICAIION and application, the contractor is to comply with ihe health and safety
'

of a penettatln& rea.ctlae pri'fler a'nd top coat systetn to recommendations of the manufactu ter and governing authorities'
The use
mtnlmi.se tngress of acidic gase$' cblardes and usater' 2.5 lrhere required by the Supervising officer, trial areas not exposed in the
finished work shall first be treated using the selected matefials. These
l. Suiloce Prepototion trialareas shall be noted on the drawings and shall be treated using the
1.1 Prior to application, all surfaces must be dry and free from oil, grease, type of materials, mixing procedures and applications that will be used
loose partiiles, decayed matter, moss or algal growth and general curing in the contract and shall be approved by the supervising officer before
compounds. All suc[ contamination and laitance must be removed by the contfactof cofiunences with the general work.
the u.se of grit blasting, highrpressure water ietting or equivalent 2.6 The material employed lor the coating shall comply with the following
mechanical means.
requirements:
7.2 Before proceeding to apply the pfotective coatings, all surfaces, which

ffi*--* Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and BtidgeEnoin""o !!f; ffi Ruinr'" ri"H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers -_ffi
.1"-r.t -
 Chapter - 12
f SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
t
II
Vet film thickness 150 microns per coat l
7.2 The agreed areas shall be broken out to remove cafbonated concrete.
lwhere reinforcement is exposed,, bfeaking out shali continue to expose
Dry film thickness 75 microns per coat tlre full circumference of the steel and to a further depth of 20-30 mm or
: E
E

Reduction in water absorption minimum @ 28 days *, as clirected by the Superwising Officer. Breaking out shall continue along
80%o r'
(ASTM C 642) T
the reinforcement until non-corroded steel is reached and shall continue
50 mm beyond this point or as directed by the Supervising Officer'
Carbon dioxide diffusion resistance A minimum equivalent to 250 I Special care shall be exercised to ensure that any reinforcement exposed
(Research Laboratories Tapvood metres of air I
PI is not cut or damaged.
Engineering Ltd.) fl
tr
,{, 1.3 The depth of breakout on thir edge of any rcpair area shall be a
Water vapour transmission (Research Shall be more than L3 g/m'/day
minimum of 10mm, and featheredges will not be'accepted.
Iaboratories Tayrvood Engineering ltd)
f To achieve tl-ris, the perimeter of tl.re area to be repaired shall first be cut
Reduction in chloride ion penetration 90% minimum @ 28 days
* to a depth of 10 mm using a suitable tool.
2
Freeze/thaw salt scaling (ASTM C 672) Unaffected by 50 exposure cycles
d
7.4 After breaking out as specified, the exposed surface of concrete shall be
NOTE: \Where test methods are not specified, the procedure for establishing
r tested for carbonation by the use of phenolphthalein. The test shall be
compliance with the above criteria shall be agreed with the carried out on the freshly exposed concrete or at least within 30 minutes
Supervising Officer. i of the test surface being exposed. The test shall be carried out on sound,
dry and air-blown dust-free surfaces.
Problem No. 2: Carbonation in Reinforced Concrete -Reinforcing Steel i

within the Carbonated Zone ; If the concrete substrate still exhibrts carbonation, breaking out to
i remove a further 20 mm shall be carried out and the test repeated. If
SPtqtKAT!oir
I
I carbonation is still present, the Supervising Officer shall be notified
before proceeding further.
Ihe replacement carbona.ted concrete by loto-permeabllity repair
o1f I

morta.rs follou)ed. by tbe application oJf a penetratln& reactiae primer 1.5 It is essential that no carbonated concrete substrate shall be in contact
and top coflt sJ/stem. ,i with or within 20 mm of the reinforcing bars, In cases where carbonation
has reached within 20 mm of the reinforcement bar face, the concrete
I (onrele Preporulion shall be broken olrt to expose the full circumference of the steel and to
a further depth of 20-30 mm or as directed by the Supervising Officer.
1..1. It has been established by testing and investigation work that
carbonation of concrete elements has taken place arid it is the intention I 1.6 Once carbonated concrete has been removed or the extent of breaking
I
of the work to remove and repiace the affected concrete. L out agreed w'ith the Supervising Officer, the exposed surface shall be
'. cleaned free of loose particies, dust and any deleterious matter.
The areas to be repaired are shown on the drawing or arc as otherwise t
indicated by the Supervising Officer. These areas are to be marked out
2. Reinforcement Prepolulion
on the concrete elements and agreed to with the Supervising Oflicer
before proceeding.
* 2.1 All exposed reinforcement shall be cleaned in accordance with the
following:
The areas'may be adiusted by the Supervising Officer as the work
proceeds according to the conditions found.
(a) Vhere exposed reinforcement is sound and does not show any
signs of corrosion other than typical of its original condition, it shall
Propping shall be provided as noted on the drawings or as agreed to be mechanically cleaned to remove rust and loose millscale.
with the Supervising Officer.

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge engineers Rainat rre td Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
f, ffi
 AND REPAIR
STRUCTIJRE CONSIRUC'J'ION, CRACK DAMAGE
Chapler - 12

for this' and any area

(b) where exposed reinforcement shows signs of corrosion areas coated at one time must be restricted to allow
where it becomes dry shatl be recoated as per the
manufacturer's
deterioration, it shall be cieaned by grit blasting or any other
approved means to international standards of steel cleanliness such instructions.
as Pl54232 second quality or Swedish Standard SIS 05 5900:1967 NOTE: In situarions where the completed repair wiil be subjected
to
NITOBOND EP' The
Quality SA21z2. constant immersion, the bonding agent shall be
application procedure shall be in accordance with
the
2.2 \Vhen corrosion products have been removed and if directed by the
Supervising Officer, the diameter of the reinforcement shall be manufacturer's Standard Concrete Repair Specificadon'
measured. If considered necessary by the Supervising Officer, the
reinforcement shall be cut out and replaced or additional bars added in 5. Repoir flloteriols
accordance with his insttuctions. was
5.7 In areas where the original concrete cover to the reinforcement
2.3 Reinforcement damaged during the removal of . concrete or the than 15 mm or where the extra buitd-up to provide
equal to or greater
preparation process shall, if required by the Supervising Officer, be structure (e'g '
.o'u". of ti mm does not affect any other aspect of the
repaired or replaced. "appearance), the repair material shall be RENDEROC TG' a high-build
poiyrn", modified cementitious shrinkage compensated repair
mortar'
3. Reinlorcemenl Priming (Type 1 given.ahead.)
3.L $?ithin one hour of preparing and cleaning, the reinforcement shall be 15 mm but in no
coated with a primer to provide active galvanic plotection. 5.2 In areas where the cover to reinforcement is less than RENDEROC S' a
case less than 5 mm, the repair mortar shatl be
3.2 compensated
The primer shall be NITOPRTME ZINCRICH, a single-pack zinc-rich rype Ligh-suength polymer modified cementitiorrs shrinkage
of prinrer complying with the requirements of 8,54652: 1'977. repair mortar. (Type 2 given ahead )
3.3 The primer should be brush applied on to the cleaned reinforcement than that which
5.3 Where the total thickness of mortar required is greater
ensuring tlrat the frrll srrrface area, partictiarly the hidden surfaces of the ,!
i
can be achieved in onc layer without sagging or shrmping, the- material
bals, are fuliy coated iu accordance with the manufacturer's shall be applied in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations. It is essential that this protective primer coat is recommendations, to achieve the desired profile'
continuous with that of any adjacent repaired area where zinc-rich original concrete
5,4 The materials are required to be compatible with the
prirners have been used. ahead when tested in
substrate. They shall have the prope;ties listed
accordance with the relevant standards'
4. (oncrele Bonding Agent
ambient temperature
5.5 These repair mortars shall not be applied when the
4.1 Before commencing to apply the concrete repair mortar, the prepared
is below 5oC or 5oC on a falling thermometer or above 35oC
without
concrete shall be thoroughly soaked with clean water in accordance with
consulting the manufacturer's technical department'
the manufacturer's instructions.
modified pre-
5.6 The mortar powder is to be of the single-pack polymer
4.2 The bonding agent shall be NITOBOND AR for normal conditions or bagged typ", only mixes using full bags are to be used' Part bag
NITOBOND FIAR where specific site conditions demand a higher initial ".,d
mixes will not be Permitted'
'grab'. prepared to provide
5.7 The Contractor is to ensure that sufficient areas are
4.3 The bonding agent shall be well worked into the irregularities of the economical use of the material'
substrate according to the manufacturerrs recommendations.
5.8 The mixing shall be carried out strictly in accordance .with -the
4.4 The repair material shall be applied before the bonding agent dries. The manufacturer'srecommendationsusingonlyforcedactionmixers'The

Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers

re*- Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers I J naina's Field
 €

Chapter - 12 STRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

t

prepared
5.10 The material shall be applied by a gloved hand or trowel to the
:
Contractor is to ensure'that the correct equipment is on site and has
been allowed for in the tender. ..
and primed surface of the substrate and be well worked in, with
i particular attention to packing behind and between the reinforcement
5.9 The powder should always be added to the water. In no circumstances
shall moie water be used in the mix than what is specified by the 5.11 Particular care shall be taken in the application of the repair material.
manufacturer. Remixing and retempering shall not be permitted. W'here necessary, it should be built up in successive wet-on-wet layers
to the required Profile.
Propcrty Tcrl Mcthod RcndcrocTG Rcndcroc S
Type 1 TypcI If sagging occurs, the material must be completely removed and the void
Compressive F1881 cubes 30 s0 filled in two or more successive applications or by the use of formwork
ctrentth Demoulded in accordance with the manufacturer's recotnmendations. After applying
Mlnimumal I dey sufficient mofiar to build the surface to the required level or to achieve
28 days- Curcd28C the required cover to the reinforcement, the surface shalt be trowelled
N/mm' in air
smooth to the finished Profiles.

Flexwalrtrangth !56119 prisms 7 8

(uring
Minimumet Demoulded 6.
28 dave I day 6.1 All the areas repaired using cementitiolrs materials specified above shall
N/m# Cured 20'C
. be fully cured in accordance with good concrete practice'
in air
Ehsticmodulus 7 mln 27 mln Details of thc mcthod of curing should be submitted to the srrpervising
N/mmr x l0l 12 max 33 max Ollicer lor aPProval.
Coefficientof 7.3 7 min
Thermal 12 max 7 Suilcce Preporotion lor Finol Prolettive Cooting
7.1 At the cliscrerion of the supervisirrg officer, where ii is rcquired to
Expansion
x l0-'./t provide a. uniform texture to the over all exposed - conclete surface
Waterabsorption ISAT 0.18 10 min 0.01 10 min
which has nor been repaired, a singlepack polymer modified fairing coat
Maxirnurn 8S l88l:1970 0,06 2 hr 0.005 2 hr
ml/mlleec of ITENDEROC FC shall be applied, strictly in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions.
Carbon dioxide C-alculatd mnr
8.3 20mm
Permoabllity from oxygen max mei In preparation for the fairing coat and protective coating all existing
thictness 'diffrsion ,.rriu.., must be free from oil, grease, loose pafticles, decayed matter,
equlvahot to in sweep gas
moss or algal growth, and general curing compounds that are not
50m drgap'
deemed compatible with the protective coating' All surface
melhod
Chlorideion Cellwithdisc 4.15 x 10-lo 2xlOa
contamination and surface laitence must be removed through the use of
Diltuslon coparrtlng max tnax
ofl2/6ect' lfui'renrat€r
grit blasting, high-pressure water jetting, or an equivalent mechanical
ardSodium *"".tr. After this treatment, the surface shall be washed down with clean
Chtoride- water to relnove all dust, thoroughly soaking the substrate'
$turatcd
lirnoryater
Blow holes and areas of substantial pitting shall then be filled with
RENDEROC FC. The application of this must be in Etfict accordance with
NorE$ 'Typkal concrte l&lmm the manufacturer's recommendations, particularly with reference to the
'rTyplcal concrete 50 x l0a maximum application thickness of 3 mm'
Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Eriage Enoineers Q auinu'" Fi"u Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers --------E
I
*-+j#;ffi,'.iet'"
 srRucruREcoNsrRucrroN, oRACKDAMAGEAND REPAIR
Chapter - 12

8. (ooling Mcteriulr \Water vapour transmission Shall be greater than 13 g/m2/

8.1 The materials are required to provide in-depth protection against (Research Laboratories day
carbonation whilst permitting water vapour transmission from the Ta'ryvood Engineering Ltd.)
';
concrete elements. The NITOCOTE DEKGUARD system is considered Reduction in chloride ion 90% minimum @ 28 days
suitable. penetration
8.2 The Contractor is required to adhere strictly to the manufacturer's Freeze thaw ,/ salt scaling Unaffected by 50 exposure cycles
recommendations regarding the use, storage, appiication and safety rules (ASTM C 672)
with respect to the approved materials.
NOfi: \Vhere test nethods are not specified, the procedure for establishing
8.3 The exposed concrete surfaces as defined in the documents or as agreed
compliance with the above criteria shall be agreed with the
with the Supervising Officer shall be conditioned by the application of
Supervising Officer.
NITOCOTE DEKGUARD PRIMER, a penetrating hydrophobic treatment.
The primer shall be allowed to dry in accordance with the Problem No. 3: Chloride-Induced Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete
manufacturer's requirements. The Contlactor shall tiren apply trvo coats
(Cbloride Penetration from External Entsironment Only\
of NITOCOTE DEKGUARD PIGMENTED TOP COAT in accordance with
the manufacturer's instructions. The finished coating shall be pinhole-
free and have a total minimum dry film thickness of 150 microns. Tl-re sPrctHcAIl0N
colour and finish are to be as agreed with the Supervising Officer. The replacement of cbloride-contaminatecl concrete by low
8.4 The coating shall be applied by spray, roller or brush to achieve a finish permeabtltty repuir' ,tturlatts followed by tlte appltcatlon of a
acceprable f() fhe Srlperuising Officer. In all operations of sforage, mixing penetrating reactiae primer and top coat systern
and application, the Contractor is to comply with the health and safety
. recofunendations of the manufacturer and governing authorities. (onrrele Preporction
8.5 Vhere required by the Supervising Officer, trial areas not exposed in the 1.1 The areas to be repaired are to be as shown on the drawings or
finished work shall first be treated using the selected materials. These indicated by the Sr'rpervising Officer. The areas are to be marked out in
trials shall be noted on the drawings and shall be carried out using the the works and agreed with the Supervising Officer before proceeding'
type of materials, mixing procedures and applications that will be used The areas may be adjusted by the Supervising Officer as the work
in the contract and shall be approved by the Supervising Officer before proceeds according to the conditions found.
the Contractor comlnences with the general work.
1..2 The agreed areas shall be broken out to remove chloride-contaminated
8.6 The material employed for the coating'shall comply with the following
concrete. Where this depth corresponds to the depth of concrete cover
requirements:
and thereby exposes reinforcement, breaking out shall continue to
Wet film thickness 150 microns per coat expose the full circumference of the steel and to a frjrther depth of
Dry film thickness 75 microns per coat 20-30 mm or as directed by the Supervising Officer. Breaking out shall
cotitinue along the reinforcement until non-corroded steel is reached
Reduction in water 8070 minimum @ 28 days
(ASTM C 642) and shall continue 50 mm beyond this point or as directed by the
absorption
Supervising Officer. Special care shall be exercised to ensure that any
, Carbon dioxide diffusion A minimum equivalent to 250 reinforcement exposed is not cut or damaged.
resistance (Research metres of air'
1,3 The depth of breakout on the edge of any repair area shall be a
Laboratories Tapvood
Engineering Ltcl.) minimum of 10 mm, and leather edges will not be accepted. lb achieve

Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana erld|e Engineers f, I nainas Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineerc
^ +'s#.'ffiffi&F.^..w''
 DAMAGE AND REPAIR
il
tl
W; srRUcruRE coNsrRucr/oN, cRAcK
il Chapter - 12

li ensuring that the full surface area, patticularty hidden surfaces of the
this, the perimeter of the area to be repaired shall first be cut to a depth
ii
I
bars, are fully coated in accordance with the manufacturer's
of 10 mm using a suitabie tool.
1i
recommendations. It is essential that this protective primer coat is
7.4 This preparation shall be such so as to leave a sound exposed concrete continuous with that of any adjacent repaired area where zinc-rich
substrate free from dust, loose particles and any deleterious matter. primers have been used.

jl 2. Reinforcemenl Prepcrution , :
5. (oncrele Bonding Agenl
2.1 All exposed reinforcement shall be cleaned of corrosion products by wet 5.1 The bonding agent shall be NITOBOND EP which shall cure to form a
grit blasting or other approved means to achieve a surface finish to barrter against residual chloride ions inherent within the conclete
ll comply with international standards of steel cleanliness such as 854232 diffusing back into the areas of repair. The product shall have an open
I
I second quality or SA2 of Swedish Standard SIS 05 5900: 7967. Special life to suit site-climatic conditions.
care shall be taken to clean out any pits properly whicl.r might have 5.2 The bonding agent shall be prepared in accordance with the
:occuffed in the steel bars. manufactufef's instructions. It shatl be well worked into the irregularities
I 2.2 lVhen the corrosion products have been removed, and if directed by the of the substrate according to tl-le manufacturer's recomtnendatious
Supervising Officer, the diameter of tl.re reinforcement shalI be before commencing to apply the repair material.
I
measured. If considered necessary by the Supervising Officer, .the 5.3 The repair material must be applied before the bonding agent dries' The
arca coated at one time must be restricted to allow for this, and any area
I

i
existing reinforcement shall be cut out and replaced or additional bars
I
added in accordance with hts instructions with adequate where the botrdilrg agcttt becoues dry; thcrc it shall bc removed,
I dowelling/welding, as appropriate. another coat applied and the repair continued.
i

2.3 Reinforcement damaged during the removal of concrete or the

6.
:

Repoir tlotgriols
preparation process shall, if required by the Supervising Officer, be
repaired or replaced likewise. 6.I In areas where the original concfete cover to the reinforcement was
equal to or greater than 15 mm or where the extra build-up to provide
: a cover of 15 mm does not affect any other aspect of the structurc (e'g'
3. tinul (leoning
, appearance) the repail material shall be RENDEROC TG, a high-build
3.1 Due to the presence of chlorides, it is essential that the cleaning process polyner modified cementitious shrinkage compensated repair mortar.
is thorougir and complete. To ensure this, a final wash down of the (fype r given in the following page.)
concrete substrate and reinforcement shall be carried out to ensul'e the
6.2 In areas where the covef to the reinforcement is less than 15 mm but in
removal of all residual contamination.'
no case less than 5 mm, the repair nroffar shall be RENDEROC S' (Type
4.
" 2 given in the following Page.)
4.1 \flithin.one hotrr of preparing and cleaning, the.reinforcement shall be 6.3 Where the total thickness of mortar required is greater than that which
coated with a primer to provide acti:ve.galvanic protection. carl b9 achieved in one layer without sagging or slumpiqg, the material
shail be applied. in accordance with the manufacturerrs
4.2 The primer shali be NITOPRIME ZINCRICH, a single-pack zinc-rich rype recommendations' to achieve the desired profile. . . ,

of frimer complying with the requirements of F,54652 (1971).

6.4 The materials are required to be compatible with the or'iginal concrete
4.3 The primer should be brush applied on to the cleaned reinforcement, substrate. They shall have the properties listed below when tested in
accordance with the relevant standards.

Rur"'" ri" H.Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers .-@

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and anuge engineers
ffi
ffi
 AND REPAIR
Chapter - 12 SIRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/OM CRACK DAMAGE

ate pr-epared to provide

Propefi Test Method Renderoc TG Renderoc S 6.7 The contractor is to ensure that sufficient areas
Type I Tvpe 2 economical use of material'
BS ',l881 cubes with the
The mixing shall be carried out strictly in accordance
Compressive 30 50
strength 5.8 mixers' The
using only forced action
Minimum at Demoulded manufacturer's recommendations
site and has been
28 days 1 day Contractor is to ensure the correct equipment is on
N/mm2 Cured 20o C allowed for in the tender'
in air
Flexural BS 6319 prisms 7 B 6.9 The powder should always be added to the water;
in no circumstances
strength
Minimum at
28 days
Demolded
Remixing and retempering shall not be permitted'
1 day
N/mm2 or trowel to the prepared
Cured 20o C 6.10 The material shall be appliecl by gloved hand
in air and be well compacted in' paying
Elastic and primed surface of'the substrate
modulus 7 min 27 min to packing behind and between the reinforcement'
particular attention
N/mm2 x '103
of the repair material'
Coefiicient of 12 max 33 max 6.11 particular care shall be taken in the application
Thermal 7.3 7 min 'Where necessary, it shall be built up in successive wet-on-wet layers to
12 max must be completely
Expansion
the necessary profile. If sagging occurs' the rnaterial
x 106ioc or more successive applications
Water removecl prioito filling the void in two
with the manufactttrer's
absorption
ISAT 0.'18'l0min 0.01 10min or by the use of fort work irr accotdancc
mortar to build the surface to
Maximum rer^ommendations. After applying sufficient
BS 1881:1970 0.06 2 hr 0.005 2 hr cover to the reinfbrcement'
ml/m2lsec the required level or to achieve the required
profiles'
Carbon dioxide
Calculated 8.3 mm 20 mm the suiface shall be trowelled smooth to the finished
Permeability
Thickness from oxygen max max
equivalent
to 50 m air gap"
diffusion in
sweep gas
f (uring
specified above shall
Chloride ion
method 7.1 All the areas repaire<l using cementitious materials
_o
practice'
Diffusion Cell with disc 4.15x1010 2x1O" be fully cured in accordance with good concrete
separating max max
cm2 / sec** to the Supervising
lime-water and 7.2 Details of the methods of curing shall be submitted
Sodium Chloride- Officer for aPProval'
saturated
limewater (ooling
8. Surfiice Preporotion lor tinol Prolective
NorEs: *Typical concrete 180 mm
discretion of the Supervising Officet, where it
is required to
* *Typical concrete 50 x 1O"" 8.1 At the surface area
conctete
'6.5 provide a uniform texture to the overall exposed
These repair mortars shall not be applied when the ambient temperature poll'rner modified fairing
which has not been repairecl, a single-pack
is below 5oC or 5oC on a falling thermometer or above 35"C without
coatofRENDERoCrcsnaubeapplied,strictlyinaccordancewitht.he
consulting the manufacturer's technical department.
manufacrurer's instructions'
6.6 The mortar powder is to be of the single-pack polymer modified pre- all existing
bagged rype, and only mixes using full bags are to be used. part bag In preparation for the fairing coat and protective coating'
matter,
,.rri".., must be free from oil, grease, loose particles, decayed
mixes will not be permitted.
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway ana eriage enoineers R in"'" rold Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
f f,
Chapter - 12
rc STRUCTURECONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

moss or algal growth and general curing compounds. Al1 surface

contamination and surface laitance must be removed through the use of
9.5 The material employed for the coating shall comply with the following
requirernents:
grit blasting, high-pressure water jetting, or an equivalent mechanical
means. After this treatment, the surface shall be washed down with clean Vet film thickness 150 microns per coat
water to remove ail dust, thoroughly soaking the substrate. Dry film thickness 75 microns per coat
Biow holes and areas of substantial pitting shall then be filled with Reduction in water absorptitrn 800/o minimum @ 28 days
RENDEROC FC. The application of this must be in strict accordance with (ASTM C 642)
the manufacturer's recommendations, particularly with referelnce to the
Carbon dioxide diffusion A minimum equivalent to 250 metres
maximum application thickness of 3 mm.
resistance (Research of air
Laboratories Tapvood
9. (ooting Materiuls
Engineering Ltd.)
9.7 The materials are required to provide an in-depth protection against 'Water
vapoul'transmission Shall be greater than 13 g/ m?/ day
chlorides whilst permitting water vapoLlr transmission from the concrete (Research Laboratories Tapvood
elemenis. The NITocorE DEKGUARD sysrern is considered suitable. Engineering Ltd.)
g.2 The contractor is lequired to adhere strictly to the manufacturer's Reduction in chloride ion 90% minimum @ 28 days
specifications regarding the use, storage, application ancl safety rules penetration
wifh respecf fo the 2pp161recl materials.
Freeze thaw / salt scaling Unattected by 50 exposure cycles
9.3 The exposed concrete surlace as defined in the documents or as agreed (ASTM C 672)
with the Supervising Officer shall be cor.rdirioned by rhe application of
NITocorE DEKGUARD PRIMER, a penerraring hyclrophobic rrearmenr.
NOfi: Vhele tect methodo ore not opecified, tho procedura for ectabliohing
compliance with the above criteria shall be agreed with the
The primer shall be allowed to dry in accorclance with the Supervising Officer.
manufacturerrs requirements. The contractor sl-rall then apply two coats
Of NITOCOTE DEKGUARD PIGMENTED TOP COAT iN ACCOTdANCC With Problem No. 4: Chloride-induced Corrosion in Relnforced Concrete
the manufacturer's instructions. The finished coating shall be pinhole- (Contatnination by Clttorides inlterent utitbin tbe Concrete)
free and havea iotal minimum dry film thickness of 150 microns. The
colour and finish are to be as agreed with the Supervising Officer. SPECITICAIION
9.4 The coating shall be applied by spray, roller or brush to achieve a finish Tbe remoaa.l of chloride contaminated-concrete lfrom tbe aicinity of tbe
acceptable to the supervising officer. In all operations of storage, mixing reinfoTcing steel and replacement ultb lou-permea.billty repai.r
and application,i the contracror is to comply with the health and safety morthl"sfotloued |y tbe apptication of a penetratlngo reactlae primer
,recommendations of the manufactur.er ancl governing
authorities. and top coat systern

9.5 '\)7here required.by

the Supervising Officer, trial areas nor exposed All the following items of work and materials shall be as described for repair
in the
finished work shail first be treated trsing the selectecl materials. These under Problem No. 3 earlier:
trial areas shall be as noted on the drawlngs and shall be treated using 1. ConcretePreparation,
the rype of materials, mixing procedures and applications as will be used 2. ReinforcementPreparation,
' in the contract. These shall be approved by the supervising officer 3. Final Cleaning,
before the Contractor commences with the general work.
4. ReinforcementPriming,
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana andge engrneers
ffi ] naina's Fien Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 STRUCTURE CONSIRUCT'ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
ClEpIer - t2

5. Concrete Bonding Agent, 2. Reinforcement PrePorotion

6. Repair Materials, 2.1. All exposed reinforcement shall be cleaned in accordance with the
following:
7. Curing,
(a) Vhere exposeci reinforcement is sound and does not show any
B. Surface Preparation for Final Pl'otective Coating,
signs of corrosion other than typical of its original condition, it shall
9. Coating Materials.
bi mechanically cleaned of rust and loose millscale'
Problem No. 5: Honeycombed Concrete or Concrete damaged by Phystcal (b) Where exposed reinforcement . shows signs of corrosion
Forces such as Impact or Erosion (No Chlorides or
deterioration, it shall be cleaned by grit blasting or other approved
Carbonatlon present)
means to international standards of steel cleanliness such as 8|54232
second quality or Swedish Standard SIS 055900:1967 qualiry SA21/2
SPTCITICATrcN
2.2 When corrosion products have been removed, and if directed by the
concrete repkrcemcnt using biglt-strengtb, free-Jlotatng cementitlous
supervising officer, the diameter of the reinforcement shall be
micro-concrete,
measured,IfconsiderednecessarybytheSupervisingofficeqthe
reinforcement shall be cur out and replaced or additional bars added in
I (onaele Prepototion
accordance with his instructions, adequately ovedappingy'welding' as
1.1 The areas of repair shall be marked out on site and agreed with the appropriate.
Supervising Officer.
2.3 Reinforcement damaged during the removal of ct)ttcrete ut the
1.2 All honcycombcd, loocc, cracked or friable concfete in these areas shall preparl{l,ioll 1,ruccsb shall, if rcquircd by thc Supen'iaing Officer' he
be removed until sound concfete is reached. Due account shall be taken repaired or rePlaced likewise.
of any propping or other instfuctions given by the Supervising otlicer
regarding sequences of removal and repair (seek Designer's advice -
3. Formwork
important).
3.1, Adequate formwork shall be provided in accordance with the relevant
7.3 The equipment and methods used to break out the concfete shall be codei of pracrice. This shall be securely fixed to withstand the hydraulic
such that no reinforcing steei or other embedded item such as conduits pressuresof the fluid microconcrete repair material without distorlion or
or lifting sockets erc., is loosened or damaged unless so directed by the movement during Placement.
Supervising Officer.
The formwork shall be watertight at all joints between panels and
7.4 In situations where reinfofcement is congested, making removal of between the formwork and the existing concrete surface so as to prevent
concrete by mechanical means difficult, then the use of high-pressure . grout leakage.
water jetting shall be considered, and a necessary provision for
protecting the rest of the structure shall be allowed for' 3.2 The formwork shall be constructed from appropriate matefials as agreed
with the Supervising Officer to achieve the required finish'
1.5 The prepared voicl shall be profiled so that entrapment of air during the
repair process using fluid micro-concrete is avoided' 3.3 Formwork surfaces that are to be in contact with the repair
micro-concrete shall be treated with a suitable mould release agent such
I.6 The minimum depth of repair shall be 40 mm tfuoughout. The perimeter in with the manufacturer's
as REEBOL. This shall be used accordance
of the area to be repaired shall first be cut to a depth of 10 mm using a
recommendations.
suitable tool as feather edges will not be accepted'
The entry point of the feed pipe into the form shall be at the lowest
1.7 The exposed and prepared concrete surface shall be sound, clean and 3.4
point of the void.
free of loose particles, dust and debris.
Raina's Field Manuat for Highway ana Aridge engineers j Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 srRUCTUREcoNsrRUcrloN, cRAcK DAMAGEAND REPAIR
@l
Chapter - 12

Test Method Conbextra HF

3.5 Sufficient hydrostatic head or pumping pressure shall be maintained to
Compressive BS 1881
ensure that the void is filled completely and no air remains entrapped.
Strength minimum
3.6 \rhere necessary, provision shall be made for controllable bleed points at 28 days
to prevent air entrapment and enable the extent of flow of the repair N/mm2
material to be assessed. Flexural strength BS 4551
minimum at 28 @ w/p ratio of 0.18
4. Pre-Sooking
days @20o c' 10
N/mm'
4.I The formwork shall be inspected by the Supervising Officer and, if 10 min.
Coefficient of
approved, filled with clean water which: thermal
expansion x 10-" 1"C 12 max.
(a) Demonstrates that the formwork is grout-tight and,
Thermal 1ll2wlmo3
(b) Saturates the prepared concrete surfaces:
conductivitY
4,2 The formwork shall be completely drained and resealed' Elastic modulus
N / mm2 x'103 BS 18Bi 2S
NOTE: In situations where the completed repair will be subjected to
constant immersion, the bonding agent shall be NITOBOND EP' The Anchorage bond
Cp100 Part 1, 1972, Passes
application procedure shall be in accordance with Section 5 of stress (ultimate)
problem I\o. 3 eadler. (requircmcnts for Table 22
siandarcl concrete Repair described under
40 N/ mm2 concreie
@ 24 hrs)
5. Repair Moleriol Expansion
5.1. The repair material shall characteristics:
plastic ASTM C 827 Complies
(a) Be shrinkage compensated in both liquid and cured states; hardened CRD 621-B2A Complies
(b) Contain no metallic expansion system; Pressure to restrain appx. 0.004 N/ mm2
(c) Be'pre-packed and factory qualiry controlled;
CONBEXTRA HF micro-concrete is considered suitable'
Be a free-flowing cementitious material that has a co-efficient of
'
(d)
thermal expansion fully compatible with the host concrete and Alternatively, the repair materiql 1!all r lt:,
which complies with the following requirements' (a)Beshrinkagecompensatedinbotlrliquidandcuredstates;
(b) Contain no metallic expansion systemi
(c) Be pre-iacked and factsry,qualiry controlled;
(d) Have a maximum equivalent sodium oxide content of 3 kglm3 (uK
O"prrt-an, of Transporr Specificatiti'n ioi Higlrway Works 1986'
I CIiss,e VA4.6);'
G)Beafree-flowingcementitiotlsmateri?l'th{IT.a.co.efficientof
thermal expansion fully compatible with the host concrete and
which complies with the following requirements'
nrt"troldManual forfiighwayandBridgeEngineers '-@
rl:t:l Raina's Fietd Manua! for Highway ana ariase enOineers Q
f,
""s'ffiqffi+'*t-r:__!!_
 STRUCTURE CONSIRUCIION, CMCK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - 12

6. Formwork Removal
Property Test Method Renderoc LA
6.1 The formwork shall not be removed until the repair micro-concrete has
UK Department of mmm achieved a compressive strength of at least 10 N /rnm' or as directed by
of mixed material Transport Standard No bleed or the Supervising Officer.
BD 271 86 Para. segregation
4.6(b) I Curing

Compressive BS 1881 cubes 55 7.L Immediately after removal of the formwork, the repak arca shall be
demoulded 1 daY cured in accordance with good concrete practice by the use of
strength minimum
cured 20o C in high-efficiency, spray-applied curing membranes such as CONCURE 90
at 28 days
water or other approved methods.
N/mmz
Elastic modulus
7.2 Details of the methods of curing shall be submitted to the Supervising
BS 1BB1 (static) 30 min Officer for approval.
N/mm2x103 37 max
Calculated from Problem No. 6: Chloride or Carbonation-lnduced Corrosion of Reinforced
Carbon dioxide Concrete where Iarge Concrete Volumes are involved or
permeability oxygen diffusion in 20 mm max
sweep gas method where Trowel-applied Mortars are considered less suitable
thickness
equivalent to 50 m
air gap* SPTflFICAIION
tr Cgncrete replacement usi.ng biglt-strengtrl, free-fla uttng' cementltious
Chloride ion Cellwith disc mlcro-concrete follouted by tbe application of a penetrating' reactioe
diffusion separating 2 x 10-'o max primer and top coat slstertl
cm2 / sec** limewater
and sodium (oncrefe Preporolion
I .

* chloride saturated
limewater
NorES: *Typicalconcrete 180 mm
**fYPimlconcrete 50 x 10e
RttlDtROC LA mkro'concrele is considered suitoble.
5.2 The micro-concrete shall be mixed and placed in accordance with the
rnanufacturer's recommendations, particularly with regard to water
content, mixing equipment and placing time.
5.3' The placing of the micro-concrete shall be, as far' as possible'
contiriuo.rr.lh. mixing operation shall be timed so tl-rat there is minimal
interruption in the material flow. If, however, placing is intemrpted, the I
op"r"tio., shall recommence as soon as possible while the repair
' material is still retaining its flow characteristics'
1.1 The areas to be repaired are to be as shown on the drawings or as
indicated by the Supervising Officer. The areas are to be marked out in
the works and agreed with the Supervising Officer before proceeding.
The areas may be adjusted by the Supervising Officer as the work
proceeds according to the conditions.
1,.2 Tt;e agreed areas shall be broken out to remove all contaminated
.8h.r"t". \0fhere the depth corresponds to the depth of concretb cover
or more and thereby exposes reinforcement, breaking out shall continue
to expose the full circumference of the steel and to a further depth of
20-3O mm or as directed by the Supervising Officer. Breaking out shall
continue along the reinforcement until non-corroded steel is reached
and. shall continue 50 ,mm beyond this point or as directed by the
Supervising Officer. Special care shall be exercised to ensure that any
reinforcement exposed is not cut or damaged.

Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana AriOAe enOineers J I Rurrt ri" H Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chapter - 12
7.3 The prepared void shall be profiled so that the entrapment of air during
the repair process using fluid micro-concrete is avoided.
7.4 The minimum depth of repair shall be 40 mm throughout. The perimeter'
of the area lo be repaired shall first be cut to a depth of 10 rnm using a
suitable tool as feather edges will not be accepted.
1..5 This preparation shall be such so as to leave a sound exposed concrete
surface free from dust, loose particles and any deleterious matter.
2. Reinforcemenl Prepurclion
2.7 All exposed reinforcement shall be ileaned of corrosion products by wet
grit blasting or other approval means to achieve a surface finish to
comply with international standards of steel cleanliness such as 854232
second qualiry or SA2 of Swedish Standard SIS 055900: lp6T Special
care shall be taken to clean out any pits properly which might have
occurred in the steel bars.
2.2 Vhen the corrosion products have been removed, and if directed by the
Super-vising Officer, the diameter of the reinforcement shall be
rneasured. If considered necessary by the Supervising Officer, the
'exlstlng reinforceruerrt shall be cut out afld rcplaccd or additional bars
adcled in accordance with his instructions, adequately
overlapping/welding as appropriate.
2.3 Reinforcement damaged during the removal of concrete or the
preparation process shall, if required by the Supervising Officer, be
repaired or rePlaced likewise.
3. tinoldeoning
3.7 Due to the presence of chlorides, it is essential that the cleaning process
' is thorough and complete. .To ensure this, a final wash down of the
concrete substrate and reinforcement shall be carried out to ensure the
removal of all residual contamination.
4. Reinlorcement Prinring
4.1, $Tithin one hour of preparing and cleaning, the reinforcement shall be
coated with a primer to provide active galvanic .protection to the
reinforcement.
4.2 The primer shall be NITOPRIME ZINCRICH, a single-pack zinc-rich type
primer complying with the requirements of 854652 (1971').
Raina's Fi6td Manual for Highway and Bridge enOineers
STRUCTURE CONSIRUCI/ON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
4.3 The primer should be brush appiied on to the cleaned reinforcement,
ensuring that the full surface area, particularly hidden surfaces of the
bars, are fully coated in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations. It is essential that tl-ris protective primer coat is
continuous with that ol any adjacent repailed area where zinc-rich
primers have been used.
5. Contrete Bonding Agent (where inherent chlorides exisl or where the
completed.repcir i,yill Ie subletted to conslonl imrnersion]
5.I The bonding agent shall be NITOBOND EP, which shall cure to form a
barrier against residual chloride ions inherent within the concrete
diffusing back into the areas of repair. The procluct shall have an
openlife to suit the site--climatic conditions.
5.2 The bonding agent shall be prepared in accorclance with the
manufacturer's instructions. It shall be well worked intcl the irregularities
'of the subsirate according to the nanufacturer's recommendations
before commencing to apply the repair material.
5.3 Thc rcpair matcrial must bc applicd bcfbrc thc bonding agcnt drics. Thc
area coated at orre time must be rcstricted to allow for this and any arca
where it becomes dry, the bonding agent shall be removed befbre
applying another coat and the repair continued.
6. Formwork
6,1 Adequate formwork shall be provided in accordance with the relevant
' codes of practice. This shall be securely fixed to withstand the hydraulic
pressures of the fluid micro-conclete repair material without distortion
or movement during placement.
The formwork shall be watertigl-rt at all joints between panels and
beNveen the formwork and the existing concrete surface so as to prevent
g-rout leakage, '
6.2 The formwork is to be constructed from appropriaLe materials as agreed
with the Supervising Officer to aihieve the required finish.
6.3 Formwork surfaces that are to be in contact with the repair micro-
concrete shall be treated with a suitable mould release agent such as
REEBOL. This shall be used in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations.
6.4 The entry point of the feed pipe into the form shall be at rhe lowesr
point of the void.
ffi ffi n"rrsr,"HManual forHighwayandBridgeEnglneers* - --ffi
W
"{
 I

f M STRU?TURE coNs.]TRUcfloN, cRAcK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

Chapter - 12 t
I
6.5 Sufficient hydrostatic head or pumping pressufe shall be maintained to Property Test Method Conbextra HF
:
ensure that the void is filled completely and no air remains entrapped' I Compressive BS 1881
,l Strength minimum @ w/p ratio of 0.1B
6.6 W'here necessary, provision shall be made for controllable bleed points {t at 28 days 64
@zAoC
to prevent air entrapment and enable the extent of flow of the repair N/mm2
E
material to be assessed. g
Flexural strength BS 4551
I
t minimum at 28 @ w/p ratio of 0.18
I
7 Pre-Sooking (where no inhetenl chlorides existl, days @2Ao C 10
N/mm2
7.1, The formwork shall be inspected by the Supervisin! Officer and, if
approved, filled with clean water which: Coefficient of 10 min.
thermal
(") I)emonstrates that the formwork is grout-tight and, expansion x 1O'/oC 12 max.

(b) Saturates the prepared concrete surface

Thermal ltlzwlmoC
conductivity
7.2 The formwork shall be completely drained and re-sealed. Elastic modulus
N/mm2x103 BS 1881 29
7.3 lrhen chlorides are inherent in the struiture or where the completed
repair will be subiected to constant immersion, the pre-soaking shall be Anchorage bond
replaced by priming with NITOBOND EP to form an impermeable
{
stress (ultimate) Cp100 Part 1,1972, Passes
{ (requirements for Table 22
barrier between the host concrete and the replacement micro-concfete'
The application of NITOBOND EP ,shall be in accordance with Point
t 40 N/ mm2 concrete
@ 24 hrs)
No. 5 earlier. i
i Expansion
I characteristics:
8. Repoir lUloteriol i plastic
't ASTM C 827 Complies
hardened cRD 621-82A
8.1 The repair material shall Complies
:L
Pressure to restrain
(a) B-e shrinkage compensated in both liquid and cured states; t;
plastic expansion appx. 0.004 N/ mm2
i.
(b) Contain no metallic expansion system;
CONBEXTRA HF micro-concrete ls consldered suitable.
(c) Be pie-packed and factory quality controlled; Alternatively, the repair material shall
(d) Fe a free-flowing cementitious material that has a co-efficient of (a) Be shrinkage compensated in both liquid and cured states;
thermal expansion fully compatible with the host concrete and I
which complies with the following requirements;
(b) Contain no metallic expansion system;
(c) Be pre-packed and factory quality controlled;i
(d) Have a maximum equivalent sodium oxide content of 3 kglm3 (UK
Department of Transport Specification for Highway uforks 1986.
Clause 1704.6); ..'
(e) Be a free-flowing cementitious material that has a co-efficient of
thermal expansion fully compatible with the host concrete and
which complies with the following requirements.

Raina's Field Manuat for Highway ana ariage enoineers f Rainas rra H Manuat for Highway and Bidge Englneerc
]
 STRUCTURE CONSTRUCIION, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - 12

,Property Test Method Renderoc LA t0. Curing

UK Department of 700 mm min, 10.1 Immediately aftel removal of the formwork the repair area shall be cured
Flow characteristic
of mixed material Transport Standard No bfeed or :i in accordance with good concrete practice by the use of high efficiency
BD 271 86 para. segregation
tn
. spray-applied curing membranes such as CONCURE 90 or other
4.6(b) approved methods.
tf
E

Compressive BS 1881 cubes I 10.2 Details of the methods of curing shall be submitted to the Superuising
strength minirnum demoulded l day i, Officer lor approval.
I
at 28 days cured 20o C in I

N/mm2 water I
t. Surface Prepcrotion for Finol Protetlive Cooling
f I
Elastic modulus, BS 1881 (static) 30 mtn fi tt.t et the discretion of the Supervising Officer, where it is required to
N / mm2 x'103 37 max I
provide a uniform texture to the overall exposed concrete surface, a
i
7
Carbon dioxide Calculated from I fairing coat and protective coating shalt be applied, strictly in accordance
permeability oxygen diffusion in 20 mm max with the manufacturer's instructions.
thickness sweep gas mbthod
equivalent to 50 m
]i
In preparation for the fairing coat and protective coating, all existing
air gap* l surfaces shall be free from oil, grease, loose particles, decayed mafter,
moss or algal . growth and general culing compounds. All surface
Chloride ion Cell with disc contamination and surface laitance must be removed through the use of
dittusion separatirtg 2x 10-10 nrax
limewater
grit blasting, high-pressure water jetting, or an equivalent mechanical
cm2 / sec**
and sodium mcans. Aftcr this trcatmcnt, thc surfacc sl"rall bc w'ashcd down with clcan
chloride saturated wafer fo remove all drrsr, thornrrghly soaking fhe srrhslrafe
limewater I
Blow holes and areas of substantial pitting shall then be filled with
NorEs: *Typical concrete 180 mm RENDEROC FC. The application of this must be in strict accordance with
.
**Typicrl concrete 50 x 10s the manufacfurerrs recornmendations, particularly with reference to the
I
maximum application thickness ol 3 mm.
nEi\iDEROC IA, micro-concrete is considered suitable:
8.2 'ilheimicro.concrete shall be mixed and placed in accordance with the 12. Cocting llluteduls
manufacturer's recommendations, particularly with regard to water to provide in-depth protection against
1,2.7 The materials are required
.otr"lll -ging gquipment a:rd placing time.
. , chlorides and carbonation whilst permitting water vapour transmission
8.3 The placing of the micro-concrete shall, as far as possible, be 'from the concrete elements. The NITOCOTE DEKGUARD system is
continuous. The mixing opeiation shall be timed 3o that there is minimal considered suitable.
interruplioq ifr lhe material flow. Il however, placing is interrupted, the
12.2 The Contractor is required to adhere strictly to the manufacturer's
operation .shall recommence as soon as .possible whiie the repair
specifications regarding the use, storage, application and safety rules
m'ateiial still' retdlns its flov(i characteristics.
':t.' ..1
i. " with respect to the approved materials.
9. Formwork Removol 12.3 The exposed concrete surface as defined in the documents ol as agreed
9.1 ,The formwork shall not'be removed'until.the repair micro-concrete has with the Supervising Officer shall be conditioned by the application of
achibved a'compressive strength of at least 10 N/mrn' or as directed by NITOCOTE DEKGUARD PRIMER, a penetrating hydrophobic treatment.
the Supervising Officer. The primer shall be allowed to dry in accordance with the
Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Briage Engineers fi I nur"tri"HManualforHighwayandBridgeEngineers "__ -".ffi
 STRUCTURE CONSTRUCflON, CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Chapter - 12

caused
manufacturer's requirements. The Contractor shall then apply two coats Problem No.7: Non-active Narrow Cracks within Concrete Elements
Of NITOCOTE DEKGUARD PIGMENTED TOP COAT iN ACCOTdANCC With bY Shrinkage or Other Structural Movement'
the manufacturer's instructions. The finished coating shall be pinhole- t.e. TREATMENT OF NARR.OW. DORMAIIT CRACKS
free and have a total minimum dry film thickness of 150 microns. The
colour and finish are to be as agreed with the Supervising Officer. SPECITI(AIION
72.4 The coating shall be applied by spray, roller or brush to achieve a finish Tbe use of lortt-ttiscostty epoxY iniection resin to fill and seal non'
acceptable to the Supervising Officer. In all operations of storage, mixing actlae cracks and restore structural lntegrity' It is a t'igidfiller'
and application, the Contractor is to comply with the health and safety
recommendations of the manufacturer and governing authorities. Preporotion of Concele
12.5 Vhere required by the Supervising Officer, trial areas not exposed in the 1.1 It has been established by testing and investigation work that cracks
and/or
finished work shall first be treated using the selected materials. These have become manifest within concrete elements due to shrinkage
It has further been established that the cracks are
trial areas shall be as noted on the drawings and shall be treated using structural movement.
the rype of materials, mixing procedures and applications as will be used non-active.Theintentionofthisworkistofill,andsealthesecracks.The
in the contract. These shall be approved by the Supervising Officer' extentofthecracksisasindicatedonthedfawingsorasisotlrerwise
out
before the Contractor commences with the general work. indicatecl by the Supervising Officer' These cletails are to be marked
supervising officer belore
on the concfete elements ancl igr.eed with the
12.6 The material employed for the coating shall comply with the following
proceeding.
requirements.
'l'heextentofthewurkrraybeadjustcdbythesupervisingC)fficeras
wet film thickness 150 microns per coat
thc prolcct proceeds' according to the rondifions found'
Dry film thickness 75 microns per coat
I.2 Grease, oil or othcr contaminants shall be removed. Algae or other
bacterial growth shall be removecl by scrubbing with bacticide
Reduction in water absorption B0% minimum@ 28 days or
(ASTM C 642) detergent Ind clean water. lf necessary, wire brushes shall also be used.

Loose or spalling areas of concrete, laitance, traces of paint or

Carbon dioxide diffusion A minimum equivalent to 250 other
7.3
resistance (Research Laboratories metres of air coating materials within the marked out scope of the work shall be
Tapvood Engineering Ltd.) removed.
'Water vapour transmission Shall be greater than 13 g/m'/ day L'4Allcracksshallbethoroughlycleaned,usingclean,oil-freecompressed
(Research Laboratories air. Both the concrete tuifu.. and the cracks shall be allowed to dry
Taywood Engineering Ltd.) before continuing. .
,thoroughly
Reduction in chloride ion 90% minimum@ 28 days
penetration 2. Fixing lnieclion lliPPles
The injection nipples shall be fixecl at intervals along the length of
each
Freeze thaw / salt scaling Unaffected by 50 exposure cycles 2.t
(ASTM C 672) crack.Thedistancebetweensuccessivenippleswilldependonthe
width and dePth of the crack.
NOTE: Where test methods are not specified, the procedure for establishing
iompliance with the above criteria shall be agteed with the Spacingshallbecloseenoughtoensurethattheresinwillpenetrate
Supervising Officer. uio.rg th. crack to the nexr point of injection. This will normally be
between 200 mm and 500 mm'

narnat rie ld Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers -^- --ffi
Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway ana eriaOe m1ineers j ffi
.-r* !r$il.-.-4*+1i'JlF
Chapter - 12
ffi srRUCruRE coNSrRUcrroN, c RAzK DAMAG E AND REpAt R

Each nipple shall be firmly bonded to the concrete surface by using

FOSROC SURFACE SEALANT.
Property Test Method
2.2 FOSROC SURFACE SEALANT shall be supplied in two parts (iiquid base
and hardener system). The two components shall be thoroughly mixed Compressive
together for 3 to 4 minutes until a plrtty-like consistenry is achieved.
Strength (minimum BS 4551 ,2782,6319 77N/ mm2
2.3 The mixed SURFACE SEAI.ANT shall be applied io the metal base of each
@ 7 days40"C)
surface-fixed nipple. These shall be pressed firmly into place and held
for several seconds until secure. The mixed SURFACE SEALANT shall be Tensile strength
applied around each embedded nipple, ensuring a complete seal is
(Minimum @ 7 BS 12 30 N/ mm2
made. In this way, all the nipples shall be fixed along the length of the
crack. In the case of a wall or slab which is cracked all the way through, days)
nipples shall be located on both sides with those at the back placed at
mid-way points berween those at the front. Elastic modulus tsot R 527 1600 N/ mm2

2.4 The surface of the cracks befween the nipples shall be surface-sealed Tensile adhesion to Failure in concrete
with a band of SURFACE SEALANT, 30 to 40 mm wide and 2 to 3 mm damp concrete
thick. Both sides of any cracks, which go all the way, fult
depth,/thickness shall be sealed in this way. Viscosity @ 40oC 300 centipoise max
2.5 The prepared cracks shall bc allowcd to curc for 12 to 24 hours. At low
ambient temperatures (5'C to 12oC), the curing time will be extended Specific gravity 1080 kg/ m3
and the applicator shall ensure that the surtace sealant has adequately {densitv)
cured prior to continuing.
2.6 One end o[ the irrjectit-rrr Lose slrall be attacired to tlr€ lowest nipple on
NITOKIT epo:ry resin supplied in pre-packaged kit form and
vertical cracks or to nipples at eithel end of horizontal cracks.
CONBEXTRA EPLV epexy resin supplied in pre-weighed bulk form are
considered appropriate.
3. Resin Applkotion 3.5 The material shall not be used when the ambient temperarure is below
3.I Each crack shall be treated in a single, continuous operation. Sufficient 5oC or is 5oC on a falling thermometer without consulting the
material shall, therefore, be made ready prior to the commencement of manufacturer's technical departmenl-.
the work. 3.6 The injection resin shall be of a pre-packaged or pre-weighed type and
3,2 The Contractor is required to ensure thar sufficienf iracks are prepared only the use of full units will be allowed. No part packs or on-site
to provide economical use of the mixed material. batching will be allowed under any circumstances.

3.3 The preparation, mixing and application of the marerials shall be 3.7 In all operations of storage, mixing and application, the Contractor is to
undertaken in strict accordance with the manufacturer's comply with the health and safety recommendations of t}re manufacturer
recommendations. The Contractor is to ensure that all necessary tools and governing authorities.
and equipment are on site and have. been allowecl for in the tender.
4. Curing
3.4 The injection material shall be compatible with the host concrete and
shall have the properties listed below when tested in accordance with 4.1 The injected system shall be allowed to cure for 24 hours and shall be
thi: relevant standards. left undisturbed for this time.
:.lt: I
Raina's Field Manual for Highv#y anO FnaS,e enOrneur frfi
W'ri
fl na,nas Fietd Manual for Htghway and Bridge Engineers - -- *_--fi
 ffi STRU0TURE coNsIRUcIloN, CRA9K DAMAGE AND REPAIR
chapter - 12
Spacing shall be close enough to ensure tl-rat tl-re resin will penetrate
any
4.2 The nipples and bands of surface sealant shall then be removed arrd along the crack to the next point of infection. This will normally be
Officer'
damaged areas made good to the satisfaction of the Supervising between 200 mm and 500 mm.
Prbblem No. 8: Narrow within Concrete Elements where a Degree of
Cracks Each nipple shall be firmly bonded to the concrete surface by using
' Future Movement is anticiPated i.e TREATMENT OF narrow FOSROC SURFACE SEALANT.
LTVE CRACKS
2.2 FOSROC SURFACE SEAIANT shall be supplied in flvo parts (liquid base
and hardener system). These two components shall be thoroughly mixed
SPECIIICAIION together for 3 to 4 minutes until a putryJike consistency is achieved.
Theuseoflaw-aiscositypo$luretba'neinJectlonreslntofillandseal
cracks utbere a degree of future lnoaeffient is antlci'pated It ls a
2.3 The mixed SURFACE SEALANT shall be applied to the metal base of each
surface-fixed nipple. They shall be pressed firmly into place and held for
flexrblefiller. several seconds until secure. The mixed SURFACE SEALANT shall be
applied around eacl.r embedded nipple, ensuring a complete seal is
l. Prepmotion of (ontrele made. In this way, all the nipples shall be fixed along the lengtl.r of the
l.llthasbeenestablishedbytestinganclinvestigationworkthatcracks crack. In the case of a wall or slab which is cracked all the way through,
have become apparent within ioncrete elements due to structural nipples shall be located on both sides with those at the back placed at
movement^''atnatadegreecrfnrovementmaycontinue'-Theintention midway points befween those at the front.
of this work is to filt anJ seal these cracks. The extent of the cracks is

asindicatedonthedrawingsorisasothefwiseindicatedbythe
Supervising Officer. These detaits are to be marked oui on tlle currLlete
elenrents ind agreed with the Supervising Officer before proceeding.
Theextentclltlreworkmaybcacl}ustedbytheSupervisingofficeras
the project proceeds, according to the conditions found'
1'.2 Grease, oil or other contaminants strall be removed Algae or other
bacterialgrowthshallberemovedbyscn-rbbingwitlr.bacticideor
detergent ind clean water. If necessaly, wire brushes shall be used'
1'.3Looseorspallingareasofconcl.ete,laitance,traces-ofpaintorother
coating malerials" within the markecl out scope of the work shall be
removed.
1,.4 All cracks shall be thoroughly cleaned out using clean,
compr<issed air. Both the concrete surface and the cracks shall be
allowed to dry thoroughly before continuing
NoTE:vherewaterisseepingthroughthecracks,thisshallbestoppedby
theuseofCotNBexrRA\rs60,arapidfoaminglow-viscosity
injection resin before continuing'
2.4 The surface of the cracks between the nipples shall be surface-sealed
with a band of SURMCE SEALANT, 30 to 40 mm wlde afld 2 [o 3 lrrtr
thick. Both sides of any cracks, which go all tl.re way through, full
depth/thickness shall be sealed in this way.
2.5 The prepared cracks shall be allowed to cure for 12 to 24 hours. At low
ambient temperatures (5"C to 12oC), the curing time will be extended
and the applicator shall ensure that the surface sealant has adequately
cured prior to continuing.
2.6 One end of the inlection hose shall be attached to the lowest nipple on
vertical cracks or to a nipple at either end of horizontal cracks.
3. Resin Applkotion
oil-free
3.1 ''Each crack shall be treated in a single, continuous operation. Sufficient
material shall, therefore be made ready prior to the commencement of
the work.
3.2 The Contractor is required to ensure that sufficient cracks are prepared
to provide economical use of the mixed material.

2. Fixing lniedion l{iPPles

3.3 The preparation, mixing and application of the materials shall be
undertaken in strict accordance with the manufacturer's
2.1, The iniection nipples shall be fixed at intervals along the length of each
recommendations. The Contractor is to ensure that all necessary tools
crack'Thedistancebetweensuccessivenippleswilldependuponthe and equipment are on site and have been allowed for in the tender.
width and dePth of the crack'
f, a"tn"'" ri"ld Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers

@-- --' --' Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge enOineers
''
ffi
r:!''_rt:r'r-:+Qr$r--r' ! :
 Chapter - 12 STRUCTURE CONSIRUCflOM CRACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

3.4 The inlection material shall be compatible witl-r the host concr€te and Sudoce Preporotion
shall have the properties listed bglow when tested in accordance with
7.1. Prior to commencement, all concrete surfaces to be treated shall be free
the relevant standards. from oil, grease, loose particles, decayed matter, moss or algal growth.
Al[ such contamination and laitance must be removed by the use of grit-
Property
blasting, high-pressure water. - jetting or an equivalent mecl-rnical means.
Specific gravity of mixed grout 1.0
L.2 In the case of new concrete elements or repaired sections, irregularities
Viscosity of freshly mixed grout (@ 25"C) 300 centipoise caused by grout,flow.between formwork panels shall be removed by an
Reaction time (tropical grade) approved method,

@ 25"C 95 minures As directed by the Supervising Officer, blow holes and areas of
substantial pining shalt be filled with NITOMORTAR 'FC in strict
@ 35'C 55 minutes accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations.
CONBEXTRA tiR63 is considered appropriate. I.3 Any residue ol curing membranes shall be removed prior to applying the
3.5 The material shall not be used when the ambient temperaftlre is below surface coating. Again, this may best be achievecl by grit blasting or
5"C or is 5oC on a falling thermometer without consulting the high-pressurb water ietting. All surfaces shall be prepared to the
manufacturerrs technical department. satisfaction of the Supervising Officer.

3.6 The iniection resin shall be of a ple-weighed rype and only the use of
2. Joinls
full units will be allowed. No paft packs or on-site batching will be
allowed under any circumstances. 2.1 All juirrts irr [lre cuucrel-c cletlcll-s arc reqtrircd tu lurrrr a watertiglrt seal
to prevent the ingress of waterborne contaminants and to offer a high
3.7 Lr all uperat"iurrs uf sturage, ruixirrg arrd applicatiurr, lhe Corrt-ractor is io degree of resistance to a wide range of chemicals. NITOSEAL 220 is
compllr lrrith the health & safeq' lsc.mmendations of the uanuftrcturer consldered suluble. The Jolnts shall be reared prlor to dre applicatit-rrr
and governing authorities. of the selected surface coating. '
4. (udng 2.2 The preparation of the joints shall be exactly in accordance with the
sealant manufacturer's recommendations. Particular care shall be paid to
4.1 The inlected system shall be allowed to cure for 24 hours and shall be
the joint shoulders and, where existing joints are being refurbished, to
left undisturbed for this time.
the compiete removal of the existing sealant and primer. All preparation
4.2 The nipples and bands of surface sealant shall then be removeil ancl work shall be to the satisfaction of the Supervising Officer.
any damaged areas made good to the satisfaction of the Supervising 2.3 The joint walls shall be conditioned by the application of a single coat
Officer. of NITOPRIME 21. lffhere difficulty is experienced in properly drying the
'-" walls, they shall be conditioned by the application of i single coat of
Problem No. 2i Srrfface Prot€ctlon of Concrete in Contact with Sewage,
ti
i
Associated Chemicals and Industdal Waste, Sea Water and NITOPRIME 22. The primer shall be allowed to dry in accordance with
t: Sebkhat Solls the manufacturer's requirements. The Contmctor shall then apply
NITOSEAT 220 in fuL| accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
The mixing of part packs will not be permitted. The sealant shall be
SPTCITI(ATION
compacted into the joint and surface finished to the satisfaction of the
Tbe use of cbenlcal$t-reslstant surfa.ce coatlngs and Joint sealants to Supervising Officer.
protect and prolang tbe'kfe of concrete structu,res.
2.4 Any residue of sealant on the adjacent concrete surfaces shall be
li
* Salt-laden soil (Arabic) removed prior to the subsequent application of the protective coating.

ffi
t;

'' -'- Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge eng."er" ffi nm"s fle H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
;i
!f
-,4,effiM"..r'ar ffi
Chapter - 12
2.5 The material employed for the sealing work shall be a pitch extended
pol''urethane with proven long-term resistance (minimum 3 years) to
bio-deterioration and shall comply with the following requirements:
Movement Accommodation Factor: 2Oo/o
Shore-A Hardness (14 days @ 2O"C): 15-25
Service Temperature: -30'C to +B0oC
NOTE: Test methods for establishing compliance with the above criteria
shall be agreed with the Supervising Officer.
3. (ooting Motericls
3.7 The materials are required to form a continuous coating, fully bonded to
the concrete substrate, which will offel a high degree of resistance to a
wide range of chemicals. Where ioints exist in the concrete substrate, the
coating materials shall abut the joint sealing material and be fully
compatible with it. The following materials are considered suitable:
(a) FoSRoC NITOCOTE EP405,
(b) FOSROC NTTOCOTE EP410,
(c) FOSRoC NITOCOTE EP430,
(d) FOSROC NITOCOTE ET55O
3.2 (a) NITOCOTE F,P4O5I Exposed concrete surfaces, as defined in the
documents or as agreecl with the Supervising Officeq where the
cured surface film is required to be non-toxic and/or where the
substrate is damp or wet and cannot be dried, shall be treated with
two coats of NITOCOTE EP405. The coating shall be applied in full
accordance with the manufacturerrs instructions, shall
pinhole-free and have a finished total minimum dry film thickness
of 400 microns. Where cracks exist in the substrate or where
directed by the Supervising Officeq glass fibre reinforcement shall
be incorporated into the first coat as required. NITOCOTE 8P405
shall be applied by brush, roller or airless spray equipment to
achieve a finish acceptable to the Supervising Officer.
(b) NITOCOIT EP41O: Exposed concrete surfaces, as defined in the
documents or as agreed with the Supervising Officer, where the
cured surface film is required to exhibit high resistance to a wide
range of chemicals and/or will be permanently submerged, shall be
primed by the application of NITOPRIME 25, an epoxy bonding aid.
The primer shall be applied in a single continuous coat and allowed
to cure in accordance with the manufacturerrs requirements. The
Contractor shall then apply a single coat of NITOCOTE EP410.
.al.lrr
Raina's.Fietd Manual for Highway ana ariaoe Enoineers
@ STRUCTURE CONSIRUCIION, CRACKDAMAGEAND REPAIR
\iTherecracksexistinthesubstrate,orwheredirectedbythe
Supervisingofficer,asecondcoatshallbeappliedinconjunction
*iih glass"fibre reinforcemenr. The coaring shall be applied in full
"..ord"ta.withthemanufacturer'sinstructions,shallbe
pinhole-freeandhaveaminimumdryfilmthicknessof250microns
per coat. 'NITOCOTE 8P410 shall be applied by nylon brush and
iinally smootl.red out using a steel trowel to achieve a finish
1 acceptable of the Supervising Officer'
r
itl (c)NlTocoTEEP43ozExpbsedconcfetesurface,asdefinedinthe
I
documentso.^sag.ee.dwiththeSupervisingofficer,wherethe
cured film is requirJd to exhibit high resistance to a wide range of
chemicals or witj be totally or pafrially immersed in sea water and,
l
l
in particular, where the substrate is damp, wet or submerged, shall
belreated wirh two coas of NITOCOTE 8P430. The coating shall be
applied in full accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, shall
bL^ pinhole-free ancl have a finished total minimum dry film
thicliness of 400 microns. Where cracks exist in the substrate of'
where directed by the Supervising Officer, glass fibrg reinforcement
sha[ be incorpoiated into the first coat as required. NITOCOTE
8P430 sliall bi a applied hy stiff-bristled brush to damp, wet or
underwater concretb- surfaces. it may also be applied by brush'
rullcr ur aifless spr.ay cquipmcnt to dry concrete surtaces. A finish
acccPtablc to the Supervising Officer shall be achieved
.(d)NITocoTEET550:Exposedconcretesurfaces,asdefinedinthe
documentsorasagreedwiththeSupervisingofficer,wherethe
film is required to exhibit high resistance to a wide range of
cr-rred
chemicals, contaminated ground water and sebkha soils, or will be
be permanenrly submerged, ihall be treated with one to three coats of
NlToCoTEET550.Thecoatingshallbeappliedinfullaccordance
l
with the manufacturer's instructions, shall be pinhole-free and have
a minimum dry film thickness of 350 microns per coat' 'Where
1
I
I
I cracks exist in the substrate or where directed by the supervising
I
' Officer, glass fibre reinforcement shall be incorporated into the first
i coat as rEquired. NiTocoTE ET550 shall be applied by brush, roller
orairlesssprayequipmenttoachieveafinishacceptabletothe
Supervising officer.
3.3 In all operations of storage, mixing and application, the. contractor is to
complywith the health and safery recommendations of the manufacturer
and governing authorities.
3.4 Vhere required by the supervising officer', trial areas not exposed in the
finished work shall fi|st be treated using the selected materials' These
Q aur"s Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
fi
 Chapter - 72 ITRU:TURE coNsrRucrloru, zRACK DAMAGEAND REpAtR

trial areas shall be noted on the drawings and shall be treated usi'g the In addition, the coatings shall exhibit excellenr resisrance to a wide
rype of materials, mixing procedures and applications thar will be used range of industrial chemicals, oil-based products, sea-water,
on the contract and shall be approved by the supervising officer befo'e contaminated ground water and sebkha soils.
the Conractor commences with the general work. NOTE: Test,methods for establishing compliance with the above criteria (as
3.5 The materials employed for coaring work shall comply with well as for establishing resistance to specific chemicals) shall be agreed
the
following requirements: with the.Supervising Officer.
Problem No. 10: Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete lnduced by Chemtcal
NITOCOTE NITOCOTE NITOCOTE NITOCOTE Attack
EP4O5 EP41O EP43O EP55O
SPTCIFIftIION
Wet film
Ihe repl.acement of cbemica.lljt contamina.ted. concrete by hnpermdable,
thickness cbemicalllt-resista.nt resin repair rnortafs,
per coat 200 254 200 530
(microns) I (oncrele Preporotion

Dry film 1.1 The areas to be repaired are to be as shown on the drawings or as
indicated by tfre Supervising Officer. The areas are ro be marked out in
thickness the works and agreed with the Supervising Officer before proceeding.
per cbat 204 250 200 350 The areas may be adjusted by the Supervising Officer as the work
(nricrons) proceeds acCording to thb'conditions fbund.

Volume 1A0o/o 140% 1,.2 The effected concrete in the.agreed areas shall be broken out to remove
1000/o 66%
. .chemically contanlinated corrcrete. rVliere tlris cleptlr corresponds to dre
solids
depth of concrete cover or more and thereby exposes reinforcement,
No. of 2 breaking out shall continue to expose the full circumference of the steel
1-2 2 1-3
and to a further depth of 20-30 nun or as directed by the Supervising
coats
Officer. Breaking out shall continue along the reiiiforcement until non-
Pot life @ coroded stbel is reached and shall continue. 50 mm beyond this point
or as directed by the Supervising Officer. Special care shall be exercised
2ooc to ensure that any reinforcement exposed is not cut or damaged.
(minutes) 30-40 90 30-40 240 1.3{1 The depth of breakout on the edge ,of any repair area shall be a
Touch dry qinifnqm of 10 mm as feather edges w!ll. not be accepted. To achieve
this, the perimeter of th€ area to be repaired shatl first be cut to a depth
@ 2O'C of 10 mm using a suitable tool.
(hours) 6 12 6 4 'Where directed by the Supervising Officer, all areas.shall be
1.4 cleaned with
Recoatable a suitable grit or 'water.blasting technique in order to remove any
remaining surface contamination
@2f c
(hours) 1.5 The preparation shall be such so as to leave a sound exposed concrete
6-18 12-30 6-24 24-168 substrate free from dust, loose particles and any deleterious matter.

f aainu's rieu Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bndge Engtneers
ffi
-..-.,aHF, --
Chapter - 12 ffi srRUcruRE coNsrRucfloru, cRAcK DAMAGE AND REPATR

2. Reinlorcemenl Preporotion 5. Concrele Bonding Agent

2.7 All exposed reinforcement shall be cleaned of corrosion products by wet 5.1 The appropriate bonding .agent shall be used, (see 'Primer' in table
grit blasting or other approval means to achieve a surface finish to abead.,) depending upon the final selection of resin mortaf, in stfict
comply with international standards of steel cleanliness such as B.54232 accordance with the manufacturer's requirements.
second qualiry or SA2 of Swedish Standard SIS 05 5900: 1967. Special accordance with the
care shall be taken to clean out properly any pits which might have
5.2 The bonding agent shall be prepared in
manufacturerrs instructions. It shall be well worked into the irregularities
occurred in the steel bars.
i
of the substrate according to the manufacturer's recommendations
2.2 When the corosion products have been removed; and if directed by the before commencing to apply the repair mortar.
Supervising Officer, the diameter of the reinforcement shall be
5.3 The repair material must be applied before the bonding agent dries. The
measured. .If considered necessary by the Supervising Officer the
area coated at one time must be restricted to allow for this and any area
existing reinforcement shall be cut out and replaced or additional bars
where it becomes dry, it shall be removed before applying another coat'
added in accordance with his instructions, adequately lapped/welded as
appropriate.
6. Repoir Mcteriols
2.3 Reinforcement damaged during the removal of concrete or the In vertical or overhead locations, the repair material shall be
6.1,
preparation process shall, if required by the Sr"rpervising Officer, be NITOMORTAR HB, a lightweight, high-build epoxy resin non-shrink
repaired or replaced likewise.
repair mortar.

3. Finol Cleoning 6.2 Il1 hor.izofrtal locations, or vcrtical locations where the repcired areas ttill
be subiected physical abrasion, the repair material shall be
to
3.1 Duc to thc prcscncc of chcmicals, it is essential that the cleaning plocess
NITOMORTAR S, an abrasion-resistant epoxy resin non-shrink repair
is thorough and complete. To ensure this, a final wash down of the
mortar.
concrete substrate and reinforcement shall be carried out to ensure the
removal of all residual contamination. The substrate shall be allowed to 6.3 In locations where an impermeable lining or render is required, the
dry thoroughly before contil"Iuing. repair material shall be NITOMORTAR EL, an abrasion-resistant epoxy
resin lining mortar.
4. Reinforremenl Priming 6.4 \rhere the total thickness of mortar required is greater than that which
4J Within one hour of preparing and cleaning, the reinforcement shall be can be achieved in one layer without sagging or slumping, the material
coated with a prir,ner to provide active galvanic protection. shall be applied in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations, to achieve the desired profile
4.2 The primer shall be NITOPRIME ZINCRICH, a single-pack zinc-rich type
of primer complying with the requirements of P,54652 (1971). 6.5 The materials are required to be compatible with the original concrete
substrate. They shall have the properties listed below when tested in
4.3 The primer should be brush applied on to the cleaned reinforcement,
accordance with the relevant standards.
ensuring'that the full surface area, particulady hidden surfaces of the
bars, are fully coated in accoidance with the manufacturer's
recommendations. It is essential that this protective primer coat is
continuous with that of any adiacent repaired area where zinc-rich
primers have been used.

Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway ana Bn?ge englneers ffi Rur"s ri" H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
f
','/rr:r?{ r4!*(:S::,
Chapter - 1 2
*gffig STRUCTURE C)NSTRUCTI}N, ?RACK DAMAGE AND REPAIR

PROPERTY NITOMORTAR NITOMORTAR NITOMORTAR 5.11 Particular care shall be taken in the application of the repair material. It
.HB -s .EL shall be applied by trowei or gloved hands to the prepared and primed
Primer NITOPRIME 28 NITOPPRIME 28 none
:

!
sulface of the substrate and be well compacted in, paying particular
(vertical) I
.l attention to packing behind and between exposed reinforcement.
NITOPRIME 25 .:

(other) : 6.12 I7here necessary, the repair material shall be built up in successive
Compressive :
wet-on-wet layers to the necessary profile. The maximum thickness
strength:
i
i
recommended by the manufacturer shall not be exceeded. If sagging
minimum @ 7 40 70 70 ( occurs, the material must be completely removed, prior to filling the void
days. N / mn? in rwo or more successive applications or by the use of temporary
Flexural
I
I
formwork, in fi"rll accordance with the rnanufacturer's recommendations.
strength:
I
After applying sufficient moftar to build the surface to the required level
minimum @ 7 15 20 28 I
or to achieve the required cover to the reinforcement, the surface shall
days. N / mnf :
be trowelled smoorh to the finished profiles.
I

Tensile
i
strength: 7. Surfoce Preporotion lor Fincl Prolective Coating
minimum @7 7 10 12
days. N / ,ir' i

l
7.7 where it is required to provide additional protection to the structure in
I form of a chemically-resistant coating to the overall exposed concrete
Water
a[-rsurpliurr: . srrrface area which has not been repaired, NITOMORTAR FC, an cpoxy
Maximum. % o.45 0.20 0.10
resin fairing coat, shall be applied, strictly in accordance with the
rnanufacruter's insructions.
Compressive
modulus: 4.5 16.2 7.5 . In preparation for the fairing coat and protective coating, all existing
KN/m# surfaccs must be free from oil, grease, loose particles, decayed matter,
moss or algal growth and generai curhg compounds. All surface
6.6 These repair mortars shall not be applied when the ambient temperature
contamination and surface laitance must be removed through the use of
is below 50C or is 5oC on a falling thermometer.
grit blasting, high-pressure water jetting, or an equivalent mechanical
6.7 The resin morrars are to be of the pre-weighed, pre-packed type so that means. After thi$ treatment, the surface shall be washed down with clean
no batching is required on site. only mixes using full packi are to be water to remove all dust, thoroughly soaking the substrate. The substrate
used. Part pack mixes will not be permitted. shall be allowed ro dry thoroughly before continuing.
6.8 'rhe Contractor is to ensure that sufficient areas are prepared to provide
Blow holes and areas of substantial pitting shall then be filled with
for economical use of material. {:NlToMoRTal FC. The application of ihis rirust be in
strict accordance
6.9 rhe mixing shall be ca'ied out strictly in accordance with the with the manufacturer's recommendations, particularly with reference to
manufacturer's recommendations using only suitable mechanical mixers. the maximum application thickness of 3 mm.
The contractor is to ensure that the correct equipment is on site and has
been ailowed for in the tender. 8. (ooting llloteriols
6.10 The liquid components shall always be thoroughly mixed together fircr, 8.1 Reference should be made to standard coating materials described in
and the powder/filler added to the mixed liquids. In no cirJumstances Concrete Repair under Problem No. 9 earlier.
shall any other components be used in the mix other than those supplied
by the manufacturer.

Raina's Fietd Manual tor Highway ana ariage engiieers

f ffi R rrt ri" H Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
 I r, ,r,.: i ,

,, , .-rt ; ,!!,, ! ..'i I

..1;i l

t 3;O DESIpN OF HIGH'STRENGTH

coNc RETE Mtx, 3-tATl5fl€ar
CONTROT OF ITS QUALITY.
GOOD CONCRETE PRACTICE &
ACCEPTABITIIY CRITERIA FOR
COMPN. TEST RESUTTS
t 3.1. rHndouotott I 3.4.2 'Workoble' ond 'Reosonoble' Gruding

of '(omiined Aggregole'
l3.l.l 0enerol
Umits

13.4.3 Some Useful 0bservolions

13.1.2 lmporlonte of Compodion
r3.5. illrHoD 0t (otBlNNG AGGRIGATIS
13.1.3 BoskAim
t3.6. DESTGN 0r A Coil(nEr[ nlx
t3.2. 'AVtRAG[' Al{D'fill}llfitut' sTR$lGTHs
13.6.1 Generol
t3.3. DTGRET OT WORIGBII.IIY $ (OI{(RETT
I 3.6.2 Slep by Slep Procedure for Designing o
t3.r. GRADII{G OF AGGREGAIIS (oncrele Mix
13.4.1 Stondord Sieve Sizes

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Eridge Engineers

 rcDESlGNoFcoNcRETEMlX,ANDSTATtsTlCALcoNIRoLoFCoNCRETEQUALlw

t3.9. IXPtRlfi{GS: I3.O DESIGN OF HIGH.STRENGTH CONCRETE

13.10. RE(OilHINDAI!0NS lor good concrele in MIX, STATISTICAL CONTROL OF ITS
hol & oggressive climoles in morine
environmenl
GIUAIITY, GOOD CONCRETE PRACTICE &
I 3.I I. (ONTROI. OT SURIAG TVAPORAIION ACCEPTABILITY CRITERIA FOR COMPN. TEST
AI{D IIS IIIIPORIANG RESULTS
t3.l2. r'tsPtotoil, sAmPuNc & TESI|NG toR
(ONfiETT
I 3.1. INTRODUCTION
l3.l2.l lnspeclion

I 3.1 2.2 Sornpling ond Te$ing:

r 3.1.1 Generol

r3.13. coftlPr.lANcE wtTH vARrous

. The versatile material called GoNCRETE, which comprises cement*, sand
(called fine aggregate. F.A.), crushed stone chips or natural stone gravel
REOUIRTMEilIS
(called coarse te, c.A.) and potable (but neither salty nor sugary)
I3.I4. (URIiIG AND PROITCTION OI ^ggfeg
water, all mixed together in definite proportions, then placed in position,
CONCRTIT compacted, and cured adequately (to prevent its moisture content ffom
direcq drying), lends itself to casting to any shape and section convenient
I3.I5. ACCPTABITIIY OT IESI RISUTTS TOR
to the designer and constructor.
COTIIPRTSSIVI CRUSHINO STRTNOTH
OT CO1{CRTTT . The engineer can put this capacity of concrete to limitless possibilities and
cast concfete in-situ at site or precast it in the yard or tactory, to whatever
twist, shape and profile he may fancy'
. This is one up on sqructural steel !!!

. Unlike most other struitural materials, concrete can be produced almost

anywhere and is truly the developing world's friend'
. It can compete with the other most used material -'structural steel, even
where the latter may be cheaply and locally produced'
. Consequently concrete technology has come a long way since Portland
cement and reinforced cement concrete 'were first used''
For getting the best from.concrete, best has to be given to it in terms of
qualities of l'.iq.., C.A. and water and'their proportioning and miing, in
udditlottto the basic gradings of the'aggregatesi'optimum ambient
atmospheric conditions of temperature, wind and humidiry during
mixing, placing and curing,. and the adequacies of vibration (for
compaction) and curing (for gain of strength).

* Lime stone or chalk (calcium caibonate) and shale or clay (Iron Oxide, Silica & Alumina)

J a"ina'" ri"b Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers

's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge en9r"er" ffi
.'. -i, *!r#{*si.;:'i: ; '^}"
 Chapter - 13 ffiDEsIGNoFcoNcRETEMlx,ANDsIAI,sI/cALcoNIRoLoFcoNcRETEQUALlTY

a Apart from rstrength', concrete has to be 'durable' and has to develop
'bond' with its reinforcement.
The lafter tvyo items are long term entities and demand a certain
'minimum' cement content which also helps against corrosion of concrete.
finely powdered clinker of clay or shale (i.e. alumina, silica and lron-
oxide), water and finely ground Limestone or Chalk (i.e. calcium
carbonate)
rstrengthr alone might be obtainable with lesser cement but rhat alone is
not enough.
Simultaneously, it has to be remembered that use of more than the
'optimum' amount of cement (upper limit for high strength mixes is about
500 kg per m3 of concrete) or that of extra finely ground cement lead to
release of undesirably more heat of hydration during the gel-formation,
while ceinent is chemically reacting in the 'mixing' and'setting' processes,
the resulting thermal gradients - while the concrete is still plastic - can
initiate cracking!
More cement, up to a certain proportion, may give stronger concrete but
not necessarily'better' (longer lasting) concrete!
a This is often not realised when people lazily resort to simply increasing
the arnount of cemenr rarher rhan lmprovtng rhe qualtry and gradation of
the aggregates, a tighter water-cement ratio and compaction and curing
control.
No amount of cement alone can improve the overall quality of concrete
if the aggregates are treactiver, 'dirty', 'unwashed', 'highly absorptive',
'flaky', or 'under sized'.
a Matters can become worse if, in addition, the placement is done under
hot (ambient atmospheric temperature at site, in shade, more than about
32oC) or near freeziog temperature and windy atmospheric conditions.
a This can lead to initially almost invisible (plastic shrinkage and plastic
settlement) cracking of concrete while it is still plastic, leading to loss of
monolithicity and bond and durability, and ultimately to destruction of
structural integrity of concrete.
These cracks may show along the grid pattern of the reinforcement and
even exhibit an almost cancerous $azy pa$An easily visible on the under
surface of thin slabs if the top is hidden.
. Subsequent fatigue loading can bring oui the defective nature of such
concrete in a relatively shofter time-when it will already be too late to
. realise the sins committed in the manufacture and placing of concrete!
. . Concrete technology, as well as the care during construction, is of utmost
importance first in designing an appropriate concrete mix and then in
allowing it to mature well.
. Whatever may be the methods adopted in designing a concrete mix, they
are all basicallY emPirical!
. They only help in zeroing-in on a near-enough proportioning of the
constituents.
. Final proportioning for each site for each type of F.A. and C.A. has to be
petfeited by taking a number of Trial Mixes and testing thclh till desired
results are obtained.
. The mixes can turn out to be 'under-sandy' or 'over-sandy" which will
need further trials.
. The 'workabiliry' of a mix can be improved by adding cenain plasticisers
(certain approved chcmicals), and this then permits reduction of water
content,whichleadstohigherstrengthwithoutlosingworkability.
. I.ikewise certain approved retarders can be added in order to retard the
setting i.e. increase the setting time of a mk, which can allow longer
hauls from the central mixing (batching) planl. alrd bettel pumpability of
concrete. It can also permit taller pours since concrete in lower layers
would not yet have begun to set and therefore would not run the risk of
getting.disfurbed'whilelayersabovearebeingcastandvibrated|
. Where side-shutters are desired to be removed in about 8 hours instead
of the usual of 24 hours (so that they could be re-used quickly), certain
approved accelerators can be added in the mix to accelerate the setting
(lessen the setting time).
o However, despite the manufacturerrs instructions for the use of these
additives, tfial mixes must be made and tested prior to finalising the mix
proportions.
. This is a must and cannot be over-emphasised'
. i......for Details about the'additives', see the Reference)

'-' Raina's Fietd Manua! for Highway and Bidge Enginee^ f nr,tnus ri"H Manual for Highway and Btidge Enginears
I
-^'{e@#FtsiEsids- *'*i{--
g*;ffi -
Chapter - 1 3 Effiffiffiffiw DESIGN oF CoNcREiE MtX, AND coNIRoL oF coNcRETE QUALIW
'TAT|STICAL

t 3.t.2 lmporlonte ol (ompoction Table 1.3.1

. Concrete must be satisfactory in two states, namely, in the plastic state Conditions Minimum works strength as
percentage ofaverage strength
and in the hardened state.
'Very good control' with weigh-batching,
. The choice of the proportions is govelned by both these conditions. use of graded aggtegates, moisture
BO
-
. If the condition of the plastic concrete is not satisfactory, it cannot be
determinations on aggtegates, etc.
Constant supervision.
properly compacted and its structural value is reduced. 70
control'with weigh-batching, Use of
'Fair
. If there arc J per cent of air voicis (by volume) due to incomplete two sizes of aggregate only, rJ7ater
compaction, the strength will be reduced by about 30 per cent, and 10 content left to mixer-driver's iudgement,
per cent of air voids will cause a loss of strength of about 60 per cent! and occasional suPervision.
. Satisfactory compaction can be obtained only if the concrete is sufficiently 'Poor contlol', inaccurate volume 50
batching of all-in No
workable. ^ggregates.
supervision worth the name.
. The figures given ahead refer to concrete that is thoroughly compacted.
. The colnmonest criterion of the quality of concrete in the hardened state I3.3. DTGRET OF WORKABII.IIY OT CONCRTTI
is its crushing strength, since, although a high crr-rshing strength may . Table 13.2 provides a guide to the rdeglee of workabiliry' required for
fiequently be only one criterion in itself, it is usually accompanied by"high various classes of work, but the selection of the degree will also depend
tcnsilc and flcxural strcngths.
upon the conditions and methods of placing on each individual iob'
r (Jther essential teatules such as good dLu'abilib, ancl impermeability to
Table 13.22 uses of concfete of Different Degfess Of workability
water are equallf important, the latter one particulady so against
corrosion, sr-rlphate attack, and aggtegate reactivity. Degree Slump in Compacting Concrete is
of Vorkability mm.' Factor Suitable

13.1.3 Bosic Aim "Extremely low" 0to15 0.65 Where vibrated by power oPerated
"Very low" 15 ro 25 0.78 machines. (Precast concrete using steel
The basic aim in the design of a mix for a given purpose is to obtain a forms and thoroughly compacted.)
concrete of the required strength, workability and durabiliry, at the lowest "Low" 25 ro 5O 0.85 Vhere vibrated by hand- oPerated
cost, by a suitable choice of materials and their propofiions! machines. (Mass concrete foundations
without vibration or lightlY
reinforied/pre- stressed concrete
r3.2. 'AVIRAGE' AilD'IWNIMUM' STRE}'IGTHS vibrated.)
. In making a choice of the conctete's strength required for any particular Manually compacted beams and slabs
purpose, especially if a definite minimum works strength is specifiecl, "Medium" 50 to 100 0.92 using crushed aggregates' (Normal
provision must be made for the normal variation in avefuge strength of reinforced concrete manuallY
'works' test cubes or cylinders. compacted; heavily reinforced sections,
and cast in situ prestressed sections,
. The amount of this variation (between minimum and average) depends adequately vibrated.)
on several factors, but principally on the accuracy of the batching and
control operations and on the uniformiry of the raw materials used. * The slump is not really mathematically related to the workability or the
. The figures given in Table 13.7 may be taken as a rough guide. comPacting factof.

'r!:l,i
'-'' Raina's Fietd Manuat fot Highway and Eridge Engin""." ffi ffi R"ir"t ri"H Manual for Highway and Bridge Englneers

!- :*it 4,.iJ:1*::.ii:"j.* I,"

Chaptet - 13 reDEs,GNoFcoNcRETEMtx,ANDsTATlsTlcALcoNIRoloFcoNcRETEoUALlw

The figures given above must therefore be regarded as providing a rough 13.4.2,Wo*oble' ond'Reasonable' Groding limils ol'(ombined Aggregote'
indication of the workability and only the oider of the slump. . In'Figs. 13.1 and 13.2, sets of grading curves are shown for 20 mm and
. 40 mm down aggregates, respectively.
t3.4. GRADING OF AGGRTGATTS . These gradings have been chosen so as to give good resuls with normal
' a,ggregarcs, but they should not be regarded as being in any sense 'ideal
'r 3.4.r
$tondord Sieve Sizes gradings'.
. Grading of aggregates is generally expressed in steps of 'how much per
cent of a given sample weight of the partii:ular aggregate'pasdes through loo
various standard aperture size sieves held one below the 'other in /
reducing older of apefture size.
90
80 ,//l
/tf
. These apefture sizes, referred to as standard sieves, are: .9
ta
270
4O rntn(32.1 mm) i.e. I l/2lnch o 6/9 '//
(L9 mm)
20 m:rrr 1.e.3/41nch freo @ {,4 I
r50
-4 /,/y
I
1o mm (9.5 mm) i.e. 3/8 inch o
F+o
a?
,h
4.75 rnrn i.e.3/l6lnch
(# 4 ASTM sieve)
z
8so
tld ?t
/'
.T9 @ ;*.8
/1
\(D

mm t.e. #
o20
tt //v ./)
2.36 8 ASTM
(# 7 BS. sieve)
r0
o 16

2c/0 loo 50
-/J {? 30 16 6 3/s 3
riuiE ltzt-lllcllc! ..t
1.18mm i.e. # L6 ASTM sr:YC xo3.
(ASTMI slEvE slzEs
(# 14 BS.)
Fig. 13.1 20 mm Down comblned aggregate curwes of four workable gradings
60O micron i.e. # 30 ASTM
(# 25 BS.)
300 micron Le. # 50 ASTM
(#52 BS.)
150 rnicron i.e. # 10O AS'IM and BS. : "11'.
l'dfn!
75 nicron t.e. # 20Q ASTM and BS.

Mpre details aboffi ASTM a

giuen in tbefinst cbapter of the Reference. wbicb ma? be referted to.)

ffi* Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway ana aridge Engtneers I f naina's ri.u Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers @
Chapter - 13
EreDEs/GNoFcoNCRETEMlX,ANDsTATlsTlCALcoNTRoLoFcoNCRETEQUALlw

roo In these cases it will usualiy be lound that either the amount of fine
90 / material passing a No. 30 ASTM sieve is more, or that the amount of

(9
so //f coarser particles in the sand (berween No. 16 ASTM and 3/16 in. sieves)
is excessive.
(a).9 '///
6to
o o t/) In the first case the quantity of sand (i.e. material passing 3/16 in.)should
//
860
./41 /2
/%
t be reduced by an amount up to 10 per cent of the total aggregate, and in
the second case higher sand contents will be required to produce a

'4-1 '7't
950
4
a7
smoother grading, approximating to the one required.
!40
LJ to 4 ./> ^O A. large excessof material between No. 16 ASTM and 3/16 in. sieves in a
H30
lrl
a20
2a /Y K"9 combined aggreg te produces concrete of a harsh nature which will
l5
-4 -;, -rrt6te
"'-
require increased cement content to give a good workability.
'When crushed rock is used as the fine aggregate, it is often found to
lo
t
too
4 t- 30168 3/e 3/c
contain a rather large proportion of dust passing a No. 100 sieve,
I
Aithough this material has little effect on the strength of concrete (unless
!IEYE artrTutE !tzE-lllcllE it contains clay) and small quantities may be beneficial from the point of
(AsrM) slEvE slzEs
view of workabiliry, large amounts of such stone-dust necessitate an
Ftg. 13.2 4O mm Down comblned aggregate curves of four workable gradings
increase in the water-cement ratio and should be avoided.
The maximrrm amnuilf of drrsr normally allowahle depends mainly on the
13.4.3 Some Uselul Observolions nature of the dust, the grading of the aggregate a\d the degree of
. To obtain the compressive strength, the maximum size of C.A. should be workability.
as large as conveniently possible, but it should not normally be greater
In case of doubt it is advisable to make a test of the amounts of water
than minimum clear distance berween adlacent reinforcement bars less 6
required to produce the same degree of workability with the aggreg te in
to 10 mm.
question and with the same or a similar aggregate containing no dust.
. The grading of the aggregate in any given case is of great importance.
The differences in strength to be expected in practice could then be
. Sieve analyses of the available fine and coarse aggregates should be estimated.
made, and then they have to be combined in such proportions so as to a If the proportions by weight are to be converted into their equivalents by
give the grading of the combined aggregate similar to one of the
volume, the 'bulk densitiesr of the materials used must be known.
suggested four in item 13.4.2 (Figs. 13.1 and 73.2) earlier. i
Since these vary considerably, no figures can be given, but the time taken
. It may, however, be found more economical to increase the cement
to determine them experimentally is quite short!
content above the minimum required and use a iess satisfactory but more
easily obtainable combined grading! a Care must be taken to allow for the bulking of damp sand.
. II often happens that the only fine aggregates available have gradings of It is recommended, however, that for high-class concrete, batching should
a fype that makes it impossible to combine them with the available coarse always be done by weight.
aggregate to obtain an overall grading curve similar to one of the
suggested four.

E*-' Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana erraoe enaineers j

I a"ir"', ri"b Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
IT'F
E
 regngg DES,GN oF coNCRETE Mtx, AND srAtlsrtcAL coNrRoL oF coNcRErE ouALtr'l
Chapter - 13

c
o
o
r 3.5. IiJITTHOD OF COI'IBIN II{G AGGRIGATES G
o
o
. 'When two or more aggregates have to be combined to give a grading g
n
u
approximating to the one required, there are a number of methods of t ts
ln NA'lo OF FIIIE AOERE€AT€ TO TOTAL
7g6 ond L o
eitimating the required proportions but the following method is one of lcrl.r lErt?trad cr a Prtrntoirl (,

"'l
o
the simplest. too too

. As in Example 'A' ahead, it will be assumed that it is required to combine It

a fine and a coarse aggtegate having the gradings shown in Table 73'3, I
-l !o
in such way as to correspond with curve No. 1 in Fig. 13.1 which to
contains ^
(9
IF
30 per cent passing a 3/16 rn. sieve (combined aggregate).
I

a
z AeeR L' Ff I

-u,
I
o
l

Table 13.3 Gradings of Aggregates : Example A \ U'

<6(, =
I
an F
al,
60{
Percentage Passing (L
l!
Sieve size Coarse Fine Combined Grading No. 1 lrl
0 a30 o
(ASTM) aggreg te aggfeg te (from Fig. 13.1) roFz
^ggreSate
(from Fig. 13.3) F /to
lrl
3/4 in. 100 100 100 t! SoYc !/.h l(J
3/B in. 3r 48 45
C)
G ic
lr!
lr.l
o. zo rto Lao a
3/16 in. 7 1ttO 30 3U I
I
o? 23 ?2,
IrIo. 8 0 I

h
No. 16 76 1.9 t6 I

loo lo
o
No. 30 48 1.2 9 rt rs LLER
No. 50 an
5 2 I
'I
ASTM

No. 100 3 1 0 fig. 13.3 Example A: proportloning of aggregates

STEPS parentage of material passing a 3/16 in. sieve required in the combineci
grading (in this case 30 Per cent).
(1) A piece of 'squared' paper is marked with percentage scales along three
sides as shown in Fig. L3.3. (6) The ordinates of the intersections of the combined ag8.tegate line drawn
in (5) with the sloping lines drawn in (4) represent the grading of the
(2) The grading of the fine aggreg te is marked off along the left-hand
combined aggregate as shown in the fourth column of Table 13 3'
vertical axis by marking points and numbedng them with the sieve size
or number such that the ordinate of each point represents the Percentage The percentage of fine aggreg^te, as delivered, required in the total is
of material passing that sieve. read bn the top scale, where this is intersected by the combined aggregate
line (in this case 25 per cent).
(3) The grading of the coarse aggteg te is marked off along tl-re right-hand
axis in a similar manner. . This method rakes into account only one point on the grading curve
to which the aggregate is required to approximate'
(4) Each marked point on the left-hand axis is joined by a straight line to the
point with the same sieve size or number on the right-hand axis. . Comparing the combined grading with curve No' 1 in Fig' 13'1, the
percentage passing the 3/16 in. sieve necessarily agrees but in
(5) A vertical line is drawn through the point where the sloping line general the other values do not!
"o'":-*'ing 3/
16'"':i::::
*""'"*
ffi :;",::,:;:,i, ",,H,"": r-# .:.., . .-,-- ::-:ar...,
I a"ir"'s ri"H Manual for Highway and Brtdge En7ineers
Chapter - 13
ffiDEslGNoFcoNCRETEMtX,ANDsTATtsTlcALcoNIRoLoFCoNCRETEoUALlTY

Tablel3.4 Gradings of Aggregates: Example B

In the present case the discrepancy is in no case greater than 3 per
cent and is unimPortant. Percentage Passing
Ifhowever the discrepancies are large, the proportions may be Sieve size ilin Sand
coafse
Combined fine
and coarse
Grading No. 1

(from Fig. 13.2)

changed by shifting the combined te line to the right or left (ASTM) crushed
^ggreg aggregate
so that the discrepancies are reduced! rock (from ^ggtegate
(from
liflhere three are to be combined (Example B:Table 13.4 Fig 1.3.4a) Fig 13.4b)
^ggfegdtes
and Figs. L3.4a and 73.4b; Example C: Table 13.5 and Figs. 13.5a ,1 100
lZln. 100
and 13.5b) two Aaggregates should be combined first, and the 48 50
resulting grading combined with the third. 3/4 in.
36
3/8 in.
If two coarse aggregates (say 1 7/2 in. single-sized aggregate 24
^nd 3/15 in. 100 24
3/4" to 3/16" graded aggregate) are to be combined with a sand, the
to 40 the 18
rwo coarse sizes should first be combined, using 30 as No. 8 7B 17

percentage passing a 3/4 in. sieve as the criterion. No. 16 59 13 12

o
If two sands are to be combined, the criterion should be 40 to 50 as No. 30 40 7

the percentage passing a No. 30 ASTM sieve. No. 50 1.2 3 3

0
In each case, for the final combined aggreg le, the criterion should No. 100 1 0

of course be the percentage passing I'he 3/16" sieve from the

appropriatc curve in Fig. 13.1 (for 20 mm, dorvn combined J
!, l:
Aggregate) or Fig. 13.2 (for the 40 mm. down) as the case may be. >l
dl
elu
dt st3
rwhen an aggregate has been adjusted to conform approximately to
one of the gradings in Figs. 13.1 or 13.2, il does not necessarily
:l -l(,
follow that the grading is ideal for the purpose.
;lnl iatto oa v{lr. ailvcl- To toTlL atlveLl
I Ertr.rtaa al I laa3atlltal I

tttt roo
a Thus a mix may be such that it is readily compacted but is too harsh roo
li. ln,
for a smooth surface to be obtained. T
a In such a case the grading should be finally adiusted in the Trial
Mixes until it is found to be satisfactory.
.g
T e
.€
I
Usually these adiustments involve only minor alterations to the ratio Lo
L0
t
ao
of fine to coarce aggregate.
Ic t
?
-' a
g a0 {o O

t r.
---r ?o o
c

lo
{-

ra o
ASTM ASTM

Elg. 13.4a Example B: proportlonlng of aggregates

Engr"ers f a"in"'"Fi"ld ManualforHighway and Bidge Engineers

Raina'6 Field Manual for Highway and enuge ffi
Chapter - 1 3 re E DES/GN oF coNcRETE Mrx, AND srArrsr/cAl coNTRoL oF 9aNCRETE QUALIW

urr
U'I ol
z.l
EI E,
(, <l
<l I utl
al
zl
<l
utl RATIO OF SAIIO TO TOTAL
ol
C'I
ACOt E o^ta I
ul
zl
r.l IATIO OF FIIIE 3AI{D TO TOT^L 8AT'D
;l'
lErtlaalla cl ! Patcait otrl (Ertr.Iaa cr c Ptrcrnttlrl
too to ao ao
"l ,tt" roo
roo

\ ffi ln.

ttt I
T to
ao ta I o o
o
c

d
o
60 rt6
\ \
i
i E c
o
o-
o
o
o
.E
o
t
o
a

roE
.E
n

O
o
o \ o co
l60lo
o
o
G
o 40
o a30
\ ao o
c
a,
G
o
o 40
la
aOo
g
o
t/t =
F
o
IL
3
o-
o
4 U' -F o
o-
=
F.- 21 o/d v,
tn
20 20 I
t/c ato r!o
rto I

!lrc I roo
o o
o too o
{ too
Fig. 13.4b Ex4mple B: proportioning of aggregates Flg. 15.5^ Example C: propurtlouhrg uf aggrcgatcs

Table L3.5 Gradings of Aggregates: Example C

Percentage Passing

Sieve size Cmshed Coarse Fire Sand Combined Combined Grading No. 2
sand sand (from Fig. 13.1)
(ASTM) granite sand (from Fig aggfeg te
1.3.Ja) from
Fie 13.5b)
3/4 in. 100 100 100

3/8 in. 32 100 100 t3 55

3/16 in. 7 95 100 98 35 35

No. 8 0 70 95 86 ')'l 28
-7) 21.
No. 16 40 85 22

No.30 L4 62 45 1.4 L4
2
No. 50 6 14 11 3
No. 100 0 3 2 1. 0

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and addge Engi'eers I naina's rre b Manual for Highway and Bddge Engineers
ffi ]
-...4!Mtr-€'#!\s.,-."s'".'
Chaptet - 13 I DEs/GN oF coNcRETE Mtx, AND srArrsrrcAt coNTRoL oF IaNCRETE eury:rw;
t

:,;r I 90
:21 Hk c
:! <|
i1
.t :{ Gninirr
ol rerto or cotttr.lo rlxD To roral- arai*a^rr i ir;l:=
t

P.F-l.l.l - Aggrr with Noluro

{ *u'd
t't Por lond
i
r
a I

-..,o
,.?.e
I ri
_ li ,,,.
:.s
fl
J,
I
t1
o
o; I
a
c
a)
.. 1

UJ t' I
i

ao
I

i
I Vr
o r4t
t,,!t
M

Fi&!!0.5b.Bx4mple, €: proportion{ng oftaggreg4tes

I
I

I3.6. DESIGT{ OF A COI{CRETE MIX

13.6.r Generol
. One of the standard empirical methods for concrete mix design is after
Erntroy and Shacklock.
. They have suggested certain empirical graphs relating the compressive
strength to an arbitrary'reference number' for concrete made with coarse
aggregates of crushed granite and irregular gravel.
. These graphs are reproduced in Figs. 13.6 and 13.7 for mixes with
ordinary Portland cement and in Figs. 13.8 and 13.9 for mixes with raPid i.\i oa lOc; 20P 30I 40s 50r 70
hardening Portland cement. :'€t{Lmpr
r,i r r;frifllfl?Ct 1

nlq,tlrg Sg,l+j.i"+ ,Perye$'f,",qlp"s,r.",1w,ig,.Bq$ fsi. ng,{sr,?,+gf N.yFF,t

Rainai. Flold.Manuat tot Highway andandoe,Fnerheers ! a"in"'".ri"H

f Manuat for Highway end Bddge Enginderc
 ffilntffi oEs/GN oF CoNCRETE Mrx, AND srAflsr/cAL coNTRoL oF coNcRErE ouALlrY
Chapter - 13

90 90
lrregulor Grovel Coorse Crushcd Gronite Coorsc
Aggregote wilh Nolurol Sond
Aggregote with Noturol Sond
80 \
80 Ropid Hordcning Porllond
i Ordinory Portlond Cemcnl \
Ceman I

70 70

R'l N \
e C
E60 e60
z
I
r50
\ S **k {o-
zcN(
z
I

fso
C'
\ 3k \
)k
c,
cCN o
,ot + \
tn 40 \ a4c,
qr -{q. ID
.a
tt
'a o \
,r,
9ro
3. so
o
E
-{q \ cl
E
o
C) \E
/
()
20
20

ro
k", ro (i

o o
o ro 20 30 40 50 60 70 o ro 20 30 40 50 60 70
Ref ercncs Numbe r Refcrcnce Numbar

Fig. !3.7 Relatlon between compressive strength and Refeience Number Ftg. 13.8 Relatlon between compresslve strength and Reference Numtrer

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bddge Engineers

... i;c'+1].-Wi3',
I - .'J
f Rair"'" Fi"u Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineets *'. ---*._-,@
 DES'GN OF CONCRETE MIX, AND SIATISIICAL CONTROL OF CONCRETE QUALIW
Chapter - 13

90 o.50
lrrrgulor Grsvrl Coorr
Aggrrgotr uith Noturol Sond o o
.46
20mm
(mcr. iizcl
Agg,.golr
/7
'6/
I
80 I I

Ropid Hordrning Porllqnd o

E
D.9r.c. of Wor{ouility

il
Clm.rnl o.42 I
:
t

70
C
o
E
Y
o $
(\l
I
a
o'38
*/ ,9/
,/
E 1.{or. o
teo o
{
,//
z
I
qgq 3
0.34
f50
tt
c
o

'qo
o
.:D
u
e
q
a o-30

o.50
0to
oro lt
lOmm Agorcgolc
20

20
30 40
Rrlrrcncr Numbat
30 40
50

50

r1 /
60

60
70
7A

o (mor. rirrl
E30
€
o
C'

20
.t
o
E
o .46

o .42
o.o.{", *,f hobility
''
a
//, v
-rq c0
,/ /
E
o3 o .3S {/
t0
o
o
= o
.34
#
Pt/ I //
o
oto2030405060?Q
Rcferencl Numbrr o.30
r
Fig. 13.9 Relatlon between compresslve strength and Refer€nce Number ' Flg. 13.10 Relatton between w/C and reference number
. The relation befween the 'water-cement ratior and reference number' for The relations between the'aggregate/cement' and ratios to rwater/cement'
20 mm arid f0 mm maximum size aggregates is shown in Fig. 11.10 in achieve the desired workability with a given 'rype' and 'maximum size' of
which four different'degrees of workability are considered, thd range of aggteg^te are compiled in Tables 13'6 and 13J for rwo different types of
the degree of workabiliry varying from.rextremely. low' to 'medium' cemenfs viz. ordinary Portland Cement and Rapid Hardening Portland
corresponding to the compaciing factor vaiues of 0 55 and 0.92, Cement.
respectively.
The limitation of these tables is that they were obtained with combined
aggregates containing 30 per cent of combined material passing rhe 4'75

ffi ---- Rana's FieldManualforHighvtayandBidgeE gin""'" ffi ffi Rainas rie H Manuat for Highway and Bidge Engineers ffi$
.r \t i3_ r' ::r,:r+ :ir_ii:-!,!-, '@tF'e,€ui+5#ssryFtlry:ry:T1
 pEstGN oF coN ,RETE Mtx, AND srA,slcA L coNTRoL oF ,,NCRETE QUALtw
Chapter - 13 renffi
mm sieve. In any case, suitable adjustments have to be made in the mix i
. Step lV
proportions (Trial Mixes).
Water/Cement ratio
!

Aggregates availab\e at site may be suitably combined by the graphical against the value^
I Read off the value of 'water/cement ratio' (by weight)
method (explained in item 13.5 earlier) to satis$r the above requirement 13.10 for the chosen degree of
of 30 per cent passing 4.75 mm sieve (3,/16").
of ,h" ,R"f"r.nce Number' from Fig.
,workability' ('fable 13.2) and the maximum size of coarse aggregale'
In view of the considerable variations in the properties of aggregates, it
is essential that a number of trial mixes are made and suitable adjustments a Step V
in grading and mix proportions effected to achieve the desired resuks.
Aggregate,/Cement rati.o
a The above tables are uselul only to naffow down the number of tlial Aggtegate/cement ratio for the particular
of (combined)
Read the value
mixesl from Table
values of water/cement ratio and ihe degree of 'workability'
(depending on the type of cement-OPC or RHPC) for the
t3.5 or 13.7
13.6.2 Step by Step Procedure for Designing o Concrete llllix ,!le.t"d ryp. of C.A. - irregular.gravel or crushed stone' and for the
selected maximum size of C.A.-20 mm or 10 mm'
o Step I
Maxlmum slze of CA. and indioldua.l Gradings of 8,4- and. C.A. a Step Vl
Establish the maximum size of C.A. to be used (for high strength rnixes, Proportton of F,'4- in the Combi'ned Aggregate
i{. is 20 rrurr generally).
Proceedbythegraphicalmethodexplaineclitlitcllll3.5ear.lierand,using
in Step I' establish
Establish thc Crading of rcprcscntativc samplcs of F.A. and C.A. to be the indiviirral giadingt of the eA "tta C e' established
proportion of F.A. in the combined such that 30
used at site. the percentage ^ggregate
4J5 mm (3/16") sieve'
f"r f"", of tie combine d aggregate passes
falls within the
a Step ll Unless the grading of the combined aggregate thus formed
four gradings suggested in Fig' 13'1
Auerage' Slrengtb L*". urrait" .tpl"t bounds of the
ir iown) or Fig. 13.2 (if C'A' is 40 mm down)' the vertical
lif ce. 20 mm.
passing' horizo,ntal
From the conditions of quality control expected to be exercised, and the line drawn through the intersiction of the '30 per cent
specified minimum works cube crushing strength at the specified age, line and the 3/i6" Q.e. 4.75 mm) sloping sieve line may be carefully
esdmate theraverage cube strength'at that age, using Table 13.1. ,frin"a to right or left until the grading of the combined aggregate
(If concrete strength is reckoned in terms of rylinder strength, then the becomes accePtable.
(as explained
equivalent cube strength may be taken as I.22 cylinder strength.) The intersection of this vertical line with the top scale line
i"-it"* rf.S, step (6), and as indicated in Figs' 13'3, I3'4b and 13'5b )'
lll aggtegate'
a Step reads the percentage proportion of FA' in the combined
Refetence Number
a Step Vll
Depending upon whether. the cement to be used is Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) or Rapid Hardening Porttand Cement (RHPC), and ProPortlons bf tbefirst Trial Mtx
whether the coarse aggreg te to be used is crushed stone or irregular Theaggregate/cementratio(togivetlredesiredworkability)andthe
(natural) gravel, read off the 'Reference Number' for the 'average strength' ratio are known from steps V and IV'
*"t".G-"nt
at the specified age from Figs. 13.6 to 13.9, as relevant.

Raina's Field Manual fot Highway and Bridoe Engin.eo nainat Fleld Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
fi !
.i. {r,.r/ jjjsi€.:r*!.? I.,..
 Chapter - 13 ffi rc OES/GN OF CONCRETE MIX, AND STATISTICAL CONIROL OF CONCRETE QUALITY

Knowing the ratios of waterlcement aggregatelcement, and FA to Total Natural sand used in combination with.both .rypes of coarse aggregate
Aggregate, and the specific gravities of the ingredients of the mix, the (crushed or gravel)
cement content is obtained by the absolute volume method ("-{plajned_tn EL = extremely low VL = ygry,low I = l* M : medium
Examples I and II ahead)
Table 13.7 'Combined Aggregate',/Cement Ratio (by weight)
Thereafter the rBatchr quantities are worked out after adjustments for Requiled tb Give Four negre-s of workability with Different
moisture contenr in the aggregates (see the last step in Example No. I watei,/Cemeni natidi (by weight)
ahead).
Using Rapid-Hardening Portland Cement
o Step Vlll
Firral Mix Tvpc ofcm LregutiCgllvol..,. _, I Cro@,gfti,le
Muimum sia of aggrcgate .20mm l0mi 20 mm l0m
Having empirically thus established the proportions for the first trial mix,
' a number of trial mixes should then be made with slight alterations in the Degrc of wctrbility" ELVL L M ELVL L M ELVLLM ELvLL M

proportions.for strength and workability, and these should be tested in r#rtcr/emcot

order to finaiise rhe exact propofrions.of the mix to.be finally adopted.
Btio by w€i8hl o.32 2.6:- - - 2.9--- 3.5-*-
0,34 3.4.2.2 - - 2.8- -- 3.6 2.4 - - a, _ _
0.36 4.t 2:t 2.3 - 3.5 2.4
- - 43 2.9 2.4 - 392.5 -- -
13.7 IXATIIPITS OF HIGH.STRTNGTH CONCRETT IIIIX DESIGN 0.38 4.8 3.2 2.8 2.3 4.2 2.9 2.1 - 1.9 3.4 2.9 2.4 4.5 rA 2.5 -
0.4Q 5.5 ,3.7 3.2 2.7 4.9 3.? 2-8 2.3 .5.5 3.9 3.1 .2;' 5.O .3.4. 2.9 2.4
o.42
- .4.2 3.6 3.O t.7 3.0 23
- 4.t !.5 2.9 * 4.2 3.6 3.0 s.5 3.8 X.2 2.7
13.7.1 Worked Exomples 0.44
- .4.6
,5.0
4,O 1.4
4.3 - 5.1 4,3 3.6 - 42
- 1.s 3.8 3.2 3.5 3.O
4.6 3.8 3.2
4.7 4'0 3,3
Two examples. Nos. I and II. are presented below. one with a specified 0.46
- 3.7
- -
- 4.9 4.t 3.5
+ 5.5 4.6 3.9 - 5.0 4.1
lminimum works cube strength' at28.days (usirg 0.48
- .55 4.0 4.? -* 5.2 4.4 1;l 3.4
OpC; 10 rrrrrr crushed C.A., 0.50 5.0 4.9 - - 4.9 4.1 - J.1 4.4 .3.7
and'very low'workabiliry, suited for precast high strength concrete) and the *
other with a specified 'average cylinder srrength, at 7 days (using RHpC, 20 Natural sand used in combination with both types of coarse aggregate
mm irregular natural gravel C.A., and ,low' workability, suited for cast in situ (crushed or gravel)
high strength concrere). ++ EL:extremelylow W:Verylow L=Low M-medium
Table'1,T6'Comblned Aggregate,./Cement Ratlo (by weight) Required to ExamPtel ' ''i
Give Four Degrees of Workability with Different Waterlcement Ratios
(by weight) Design a high strength concrete'mix for use in the production'of thin precast
. prestressed,concrete elements to suit'the followinglrequirementsr I

Uslng ordinary cement

. Specified minimum 2}-days works"cube;stiength : 45 N/mm' (not the
Typc of .{)W r&rdc' Ircpts Fv6l Cruh.d fil.
I Meimm '. iaverage works strength')
20 nn l0 mm mm l0m
Dcliw of wclebility- i:l w r. il' EL'VL L M ELVL L M . Very good degree of control (contiol factor = 0.80, Table 13.1)
[rio by *i8hr 0.30 3.O--- 2.4--- 3.1--- 2.9 - -- Degree of workability: Very low.
0.72 r.8 2.5 - 3.2--- 1.0 2,6 - 3.6 2.3 - -
2J -
I

45 3.0 3,92n - 4i 3.2 2.6 -- ,L?.as: r.: -- i

0.34
0J6 5.2 3J 3.0 2-s- 4.6 3.t 2.6 -
- 5.2 t.6 3.t Z6 i.f i.2' z7 L1 Type of cement: Ordinary Fcjrtland. ,'
0.!8
- 1.0 3A 29 .5.2..3J 30 2J
-,,{.1 3J 2.9 5.2 1.6\3n 2.6 t
0.40
- {.4 3.8 r.2 L' 3.9 !3 2.1 {i 3.d 'i.2
- 4,9 : .40 33 2.9 a Type of coarse aggregate: crushed gtanite (angirlar) of mbximum
o.12
- 4.9 4.1 3J - 4.3 3.6 3.O - 5,3 4,2 - 4.4 3.6 3.1
;'
0.44 53 4J
- _ 4,8 3.8 -* 4.7,.3.9 3.3,
-
3,5
4:5,!,7 .
-* 4,8 3.9 !.3 ,. sizer 10 mm. :,i". ;.
0.16
- 4.0 5.t 4.2 3,6 - *- 4.8 a.0 5.t 4.2 3.6
0.48
- -5.24A - 5,4 4.5 3.8
- J.l ,.2 - 5,t 4.5 3.8 Type of fine aggregate: natural sand.
0.r0
- - 5.5 1:t - - 4-t 4.0 - - 5.1 4,5 - -4,1 4n

@^*i-- Raina'sFieldManual forHighwayanaeridge.engineers f nainat'rie b Manuat for Highway and Bidgo Engineets
ffi
., .,r::'irrr-:..rr,;:.^::a\ri r.l
 frcffi8 DEs/cN oF ooNCRETE Mrx, AND srATtsrlcAl coNrRoL oF coNcRETE QUALIry

. Specific gravit:1 of cement = 3.15.

. Specific gravity of.sand = 2.60. fl Rciio of tin.' to torof lggrrgotr rl
( Percr nt I 26
. Specific gravity of coarse aggregate = 2.50. 20
loo l0mm 2Omn
. Fine and coarse aggregates contain 5 and 1 per cent moisture respectively 4'75mm lOnn
and have grading characteristics as detailed in Table 13.8.
Table 1.3.8 80 2.56 80
'o
Standard sleve size Percentage passing
GT
E 5ar.
a l'18mn \ \ o.

I\
ASTM Coaf€e aggregate Fine aggregate
E.o 60€
mm (3/4") O
2O 100
B 600y o
o
10 mm (3/8")
l' \ +
96 100 E40 40E

N N.
t(, t,
4.75 mm (3/16't) 8
2.36 nrrn @8)
98

80 f,
3O7o -\* 3096
I
1.t8 mm (*16)
600 micron (*30)
o)
50
20
300P -$ $ 475trrn
20

300 micron (#50) 10 o 15O tr 2.36mn 0

E rmohr
150 micron (#100) 0
Flg. 13.11 Courbhilrrg of coarse :urd lilc ugg(cgatca
Design of Mix
. Average 28-day works cube strength = 45/0.80 : 56.25 N/mm' (Table 13.1)
. Cement: F.A. : C.A. : !(ater
Reference number (Fig. 13.6) = 35
. Water/cement ratio (Fig. 13.10) : 0.40 r' ,(Er+o) , lfl"+.o) ,
\1oo / \1oo ) .
o.ao

. Using OPC, for 10 mm maximum size crushed Aggreg te and 'very low
workability, the aggregate/cement ratio for waterlcement ratio of
i.e.,l : 1.0 : 3.0 : 0.40
(Table 13.6)'= 4.0.
0.40 ' If C = weight of cement in tonnes tequited'
.. The aggregates are tombined by the graphical method shown in per mu of concfete, then
Fig. 13.11 so that 30 per cent of the combined material passes th-rough the
4.75 mm sieve. 1.0c 3.0c 0.40c
c +-+-+-=1.0m- 1

. From Fig. 3.11 it can be seen that the ratio of fine to total dggegate is 25 3.15 2.6 2.5 1.0
per cent.
. Required proportion by weight of dry materials: Gbsalurc-vql-mClba@: :. C - 0.451tonne or 451 kg.

Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers I fl n"in"'" ri.ld Manual for Highway'and Bridge Engineers

. , 4,r r' i1 , i )L . ,' t.

'i;11+-*.,#
Chapter - 13
rcDEslGNoFcoNcRETEMlx,ANDsTAT!sTlcALcoNIRoLoFcoNcRETEQUALtw
Table 13.9: Batch quantities per m3 of Concrete (as first Triat Mix) Table L3.10
(Kc) (Kc) Standard sieve size Percentage passlng
Ingredlent With Dry ?ggr€gates With Moist aggregates
(Moisture: .F.A. 5o1o C.L lo/o) ASTM Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate
Cement 451. 451.
20 mm 3/4') 100
lwater L80.4 *,1,44.3 (3/8')
10 mm 45
Fine aggregate 45i ,473.6
Coarse aggregate 1.353 *1.366.5 4./> mm G/16^) 100

2.35 mm (#B)
* 457x1,.05 = 473.6
77
1.18 mm 1*16) 53
*' 1353 x 1,.01 : 1365.5 600 micron @30) 30
*** {180.4
- (473.6 - 451) - (1366.5 - t35rl .- 144.3 300 micron (#50) 10

Examote II 150 micron (#100)

Desi$n the concrete mix and calculite the b'atch quantities required for a cubic metre Design of Mix
of concrete [o suit the following data: '
. rAverager 7-day cube strength corresponding to
'averager 7-day cylinder
. Avelage'7-day 'cylinder' works strength = 26 N/mm2 (not
the strength of 26 N/mm' = 1..22 x 26 = 31..72 N/mm'
'minimum wofks strength', hence Table I3.1 con[rol factor already r Reference number (Fig, 13.9) = 5Z
taken into account).
. .' Water/cement ratio (Fig. 13.10) -- 0.50
Degree of workabiliry; low
. For 20 mm maximum size gravel aggtegate with 'low' workability with
Type of cement: rapid hardening Portland
Rapid Hardening Portland cement, *te aggregate/cemenr rario for the
. Type of coarse aggregale: irregular gravel (20 mm maximum size). desired workability (Table 13.2) = : O
. Type of fine aggregate: natural sand . The aggregates are combined by the graphical method so that 30 per cent
. Specific gravities of cement, sand and gravel arc 3.I5,2.50 and 2.50
of the lcombined aggregate' passes through rhe 4J5 mm sieve.
respectively. . This results in a ratio of fine to toJal aggregate as J0 per cent.
. Fine and coarse aggregates are stockpiled separately at site, are dry, . Required proportions bl' weight of dry materials: GbSelUle__JAIU!0e
and have the following gradings: m6thod):

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers

ffi I Rainas Fre td Manua! for Highway and Bddge Engineers
.' ! -r.r. I i:r!.:.rt.?...
 Chapter - 13
nDEs/GNoFcoNcRETEMlx,ANDsTATlsTtcALcoNTRoLoFcoNCRETEoUALIw

Cement F.A. : C.A :Water en o

ul
@
1

[#,.'t, (Js*uo) , ou
C) Theorelicol or
i.e.,1 1.5 : 3.5 :0.5
If C = weight of L normcl 'curvc -
cement in tonnes required o 5
I

per mo concrete . then, G

c 1.5C ''--
3.5C o.sc lr.l
+ -'".- =1.0m3 @
3.15
-+-+ 2.6 2.5 1.0 '=
.'. C 0.358 tonne
- or 358 kg. 3
z o
Therefore, dry Batch quantities by weight per m3 of concrete: 200 a1o 2to !20 ltto {oo 410
Cement 358 kg First Trial
COMPRESSTVE STRE NG TH kglcmt
\fater 179 ks Mix can be Ftg. f3.f2 Histogram and normal curve in concrete cfushing strength testing
Fine aggregate 537 ks tried with these GftercauqE)
Coarse aggregate 1.253 kg propoftions! d) As the number of observations is increased, the distribution or results
will
tollow more and more closely the line of the theoretical or normal
.- and the final mix proportions can be finalised through
.,. ... '
testing various trial mixes distribution curve shown.
(slight variations of lst Trial Mix).
e) The shape of lhe normal curve depends on the accuracy of the
I3.8. STATISIICAI. COI{TROI. OF CONCREIE SUATITY observations.

D !?'here conditions are not carefully controlled one would expect to find a
13.8.1 lhe Normol Curve (Goussion) copparatively large number of readings distrihuted further away from the
a) lvhen a number of observations averuge value, and then the curve will be ,flattened'.
are taken of the compressive strength of
concrere cubes (or cylinders, as rhe case g)
-"v ULl ,I"0" irl- uniror*
materials, under carefully controlled uniform conditions, the results
But with rigid control mosr of the readings will be grouped within a small
still range of the mean, and rsharper, i.e. narrow spread curve will be
vary about i.e w.r.t. some mean value. obtained.
b) This variarion is not due to error or mistake on tie part of the h) In this way the degree of control exercised during making of concrete,
^fiy
observer, but is accounted for by small unavoidable variattns the taking of a set of cubes and then their strength observations may be
in the
batching, mixing, compaction and testing of the materials. estimated from the shape of the Inormal, curve.
c) If the results are now divided into groups having a range of say 7o
kg/cm, i) The factor which determines the shape of the normal curve is known as
and the numberof cubes having a cett',in rt the standard deviation, s, which may be expressed algebraically as
-"u' rs plotted against
"ngih toihat
that strength, a frequency diagtam or hisrogram simiiar shown in
Fig. 13.L2 will be obtained (after Gauss).

Raina's Field Manua! for Highway ana Bauge Engtneers

f,S f n ,tr,"t rr b Manual for Highway and Btidge Engineers
.-.1e>t'*1is&W -... r.--''
Chapter - 13 @o€s/GNoFcoNcRETEMlx,ANDsTATlsTlCALcoNTRoLoFcoNcRETEQuALlTY

q) If it is desired that no more than a certain percentage of test results shor-rld

fall beiow a given (required) minimum strength value x, then the target
T
s= 'mean' or 'average'strength value I given by: .rc=x + sx , can be calculated,
N-1 s, being the deviation frqm thermean'ortavetage'.
wherc t is the arithmetic mean of the readings xl, x2, &, etc., and N is the r) The following Table 13.11 is based on data contained in "Quality Control
total number of readings. ' Charrs" BS. 600R I I942BSI, Iondon, 1943; Dudding andJennett, and is
The coefficient o[ variation of a set- of readings is simply the standard extremely useful for this purpose.
i)
deviation expressed as a percentage of the mean Value F. Table L3.11
k) It should be pointed out that statistics is the science of large numbers, and Norrnal Curve Relationships
can only be applied with fair accuracy where a reasonable (large) number
of observations are made. 'Deviation For not more than the 'Deviation For not morc than
It is obvious, for instance, that the mean value, calculated as it is from a from mean indicated percentage from mean' the indicated
D
divided by of test results to fall divided by percentage of test
limited number of readings, can vary considerably from the true mean rstandard
'standard below the specified results to fall below
value of the normal curve, particularly if it is based on only a small cleviation' minimum strength deviation, the specified
number of resulls! s*/s sx/s minimum strength
m) $7here the number of readings is small, the range, i.e. the difference 0.674 25.0 1.960 2.50
bcmvccn thc highest and lowest value, is prubably suflicierrrly indicative 0./ 't4.2 ) lt 2.28
of the accuracy of the results, but it should be particularly noted that for 0.8 21..2 2.1. 1..79
large numbers a simple expression of range is insufficient to define 0.842 20.o 2.2 1.39
accufacy. 0.9 1.8.4 2.3 1.07
1.0 16.0 2.326 1.00
n) In determining the compressive strength of concrete specimens the tinal 1.1 13.6 2.4 0.82
results depend on variations in a number of independent operations, e.g., 1..2 1.1.5 a< 0.62
batching, mixing and compaction and even curing! 1..282 10.0 2.576 0.50
1..3 9.68 2.6 0,47
o) If the standard deviations in results due to each of tbe latter operations 1..4 8.08 )-7 0.35
independently (i.e. keeping all other factors absolutely constant), be sr, sz, 1..5 6.68 2,8 0.26
si, etc., then the standard deviation which may be expected in the 1..6 5.48 2.9 0.19
1.64 5.00 3.0 0.13
compressive strength reading may be expressed as
7.7 4.46 3.090 0.10
1.8 3.59 3.2 0.07

,,," =.fi[!T{+ll.. 1.9 2.87 3.3 0.05

and not as s,.,ul = 31 * s, * s. + ... +,,.

s) As an example of the use of this Table 13.11, suppose that for a proposed
/concrete work, not more than 5 per cent of all cubes taken should have
p) The normal distribution curve can be used not only in assessing the a strength below 210 kg/cm'and that the standard deviation will be 28
accuracy of a set of observations, but also for predicting the number of kg/cm' (Table 13.12), then s* = 1,.64 x 28=46 kg/cm", so that the 'mean'
observations which will differ from the mean by a stated amount under
any assumed condition of control!

Raina's Field Manuat for Highway ana aridge Engineers f, Ruin"t rre H Manual for Highway and Bidge Enginees
I
.,.*;{,rs";.e4ffi*$ti.-.. -', "'
 Chaptet - 13 EoEsIGNoFcoNcRETEMlx,ANDsTATlsTIcALcaNTRoLoFcaNcRETEQUALIw

strengthx to be aimed at is therefore about (210 + 46) = 256 kg/cm" . The formulae then become:
(approx,) and this is ,the figure which would be used for mix design
purposes as the raverage' strength in Step II of item 13.6.2 earlier.
.
.N-&4
13.8.2 Shndord Deviotion lor Different Degrees of Ouolity Confiol
. For cube crushing strengths higher than about 210.kglcm', the standard
and J=
I nJc

deviation values are given in Table 13.12 for various degrees of control: N-1
Table 13.12 where y = deviation of." average'' strength,
s = the standard deviation,
.:..,.
Degree of C,ontrol Standard Devlatlon n = number of test rcsults in agroup of
kglcm'
tesults of a particular range of strength,
Excellent 28
Good 42 N =Ln
Average 56 .r = diffetence bctween the avetage (i.e. the
Poor 70
None 84
middle) value of the suength of tl-re

paricular goup of tesults and the

. tApproximate Mcan's&ength viluc.
13.8.3 (omputotion ol the (orrect 'Averoge' or 'lfieon' Strength from 'Works Tesl
Resuhs', ond fteir Stondord Deviolion 1'Ihe lattdr is obtained, very approximate\',

. \,Vhere many 'works test' observations are involved, computation of their as the simplc avetagc of all thc obscrvcd
true rmeanr or raverage' value and their standard deviation from the srengths.)
formula previously given is a tedious process.
. Numct'Ica.l Exqmftlp
Reference to an)r standard work on statistical theory shows that by
grouping the observations in such a way that instead of values of Table 13.13 illustrates the method of calculation:
'individual observations if only the number falling within a range is
. The total range of the observed strengths is first divided into suitable
considered, the calculations may be simplified.
groups as set out in Column (1).
o In Column (2) are entered the 'number of observations' falling in the
respective groups.

,1 i::' Ralna.s Field Manuat for Highway ana Baaoe msineers a"ira'" rwa Manuatfor Highway
f f and Brtdge Engineers
--.].,.'ffif,sa#
gl:_
chapter- t3 rcDEs,GNoFcoNcRETEMlx,ANDsTATlsTlcALcoNTRoLoFcoNCRETEQUALl1y
l

Table l1,.l3 calculation of standard Deviation a Summation of the columns to give the values of n, (nx) and (nf)
completes the tabulation.
Column (l) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) {7) (8)
The calculation of the standard deviation is now set out as follows:
Strength Numbcr Avcrage
grouP in group (i.e. middtel (3)-AM+ retarive s
(kglcmz) rt, value of the !s value flt nx2 n(u + l)2
group ;{s)_ (-z"ro) =-4.8kg/cm2
r60-169
N48
t7a-t79
I
5
165
t75
-60 -6 -6 36 25

180-t89
-50 -5 -25 ,25 80
5 t85 -40 -4 -20 EO 45 Then, "avcragc" or "mean" strcngh of thc
190-t99 4 195 -30 -3 -12 36 t6
observed rvork test results = 225 - 4.8 = 220.2kg/cm2
2w209 .,
,19*219
2 205 -20 -2 -4 8

2?,J-229
6 2t5 -t0 -l -6 6 0
3 225 0 0 0 0 3 Theit standard deviation
2fi-239 5 235 +10 +l +5 5 20
24{}-249 I 245 +20 +2 +18 36 8t t nx
25G-259 5 255 +30 +3 +15 45 80
2@-269
N-1
3 265 +40 +4 +t2 48 75
Tolals 4E -23 425 4n
Xz=N E(na) D(n*) x(a(r + I)2) 425 - -23 /48
x7o2 --29.7kg/cmz
'based on 'relative r vatue' in col. (5). 47
Column (B) is drarvn up simply to check the
+ AM = Approximate Mean
arithmetics of the <>perations :

Column (3) shows the 'middle values' for each grotrp, and from In statistical terms
inspection of Columns (2) and (3); the approximate mean (AM) of the
central values may be worked out and marked. lr(, + 12 = 2nxz + 2l nx + | n
o In the example, the value of 225 kg/cm, is taken as the approximate mean Referring to Table 13.13 v"'e see that
'AM'. 427 =425-46+48
o To reduce the numbers to manageable proportions, the approximate = 427
mean is now subtracted from each ,middle value' as shown in Column (4).
and conscqucndy the working out is corrcct.
A further simptfication is introduced by dividing rhe differences so
obtained by some suitable number, in this case L0, as shown in Column (5).
13.8.4 Soving in Cenenl Through Ouolity Control
By multiplying Columns (2) and (D the values of rx are obrained and . Considerable savings are possible when the control is tightened up on
entered in Column (6). comparatively uncontroiled work than when improvements are made on
o Finally the product of Columns (5) and (6), coresponding ro nx,, are well-controlled sites!
entered in Column (7). . If the standard deviation is reduced to below about 30 kg/cmr, more and
,

Raina's Field Manuat.for Highway ana ariaoe Engineers

f Htghway and Bidse Ensineers
#
Chapter - 13
moreexpensivemethoclsmustgraduallybeemployed,andsincethe
possible saving in cement will be more and more doubtful, a limit will
iinally be reached beyond which stricter control becomes uneconomical!
13.8.5 lUlinimum Concrele Strength
. An important fact emerges from a study of the normal curve'
. It can be seen that all such curves afe asymptotic to the stfength axis.
. This rneans that it is not possible to guarantee a 'minimum'strength below
which no cubes will fail!
. Where engineers specily that the minimum strength of test cubes shall be
a given value, the specification theoretically is impossible of fulfillment,
. sirrce, with a large number of test cubes, some results are bound to fall
below the minimum.
. The auitude of 'most engineers' is rypified by the following instance.
. For a certain work the engineer specified a 250 kg/cm" concrete'
. The lirst set of rhree test cubes showed strengtlls averagirrg 271kg/ctt't',
and atl concerned were very pleased.
o The next 6et of three cubes averaged anly 7j1 kg/cm''
. In conscqucnce the engineer admonished the contractor severely, and
required that he use a richer mixl
such action on the part of an 'engineer' indicates complete ignorance of
the practical implications of the compression test results and the need for
considering them in totalitY.
. Sometimes cores (5 cni diameter, 10 cm long) are drilled out of actual
concrete'subsequently from the doubtful zone and tested for compression
crushing.
. Usually cores exhibit lesser strength than laboratory cured standard
cylinders and, as per ACI specifications, if at least 3 cores are taken out
of a representative paft of concrete and none of them shows compressive
rtr"trgih to be less tha; 75 pef cen! of the required standard cylinder
strength at rhat age and their is not less than 85 per cent of the
^venge
latter, the concerned coocrete is assumed to have altained the specified
minimum strength and is taken as acceptable.
. Therengineer' to kindly note.this clearly!
@-- - '- Raina'sFieldManualforHighwayandBridgeEnginee^ m fl
IF DES/GN OF CONCRETE MIX, AND SIAI/SIICAL CONTROL OF CONCRETE QUALITY
13.8.6 foctors Affecting the'Stondord-Deviotion' in (oncrele Strength
. It has been shown that better controlled concrete and.herice economy is
related to the reduction in the .standard deviation of concrete.
. The standard deviation on any iob, howev.er, is calculated from the results
of compression strength tests on specimens made at the site.
I
r ltny site factor affecting the compressive strength must accordingly
s influence the standard deviation, and bigger variations in test compressive
l strengths (meaning lax control) will have the effect of increasing the
,
{
I standard. deviation. (Higher Standard Deviation means poorel'control in
I
i concrete.)
i . It must be stressed that, in this discussion, 'variations' in the factors do not
include 'mistakes' on the part of the operator due to miscalculations.
. Such mistakes are far commoner than most engineers would like to admit,
and in the experience of the Portland Cement Institure, have been
responsibie for many major variations of concrete strength on .jobs.
. It should also be pointed out that variations attributable to the factors
listed ahead relate to strengths as obtained from test specimens prepared
according to rstrictt specifications.
. Varlatlons ln rhe srrengdr of the actual concrete - in the structure are likely
to be far greater!
. The relation between compression test and concrete strength out in the
structure is not 'same to samer.
. This has been discussed in the beginning of Chapter 2 in the Reference,
which should be studied.
. Boyd Mercer has listed no less than 50 factors which contribute to
variations in the measured compressive strength of concrete! See Table
'12.2 in Chapter 12.
I3.9. EXPIRITI{CES:
Some typical concrete-mixes that were finally adopted in some Project works
located in hot and aggressive climates (with marine--erlironment* in some
cases):
* Sulphate-attack and Chloride-attack can be severe in marine-environment,
hence special precautions are called for.
R ,tr"
"
ri" H Manual for Highway and Bidge Engineers
Chapter - 13 M OES/GN OF CONCRETE MIX, AND STATISTICAL CONTROL OF CONCRETE
QUALIW

Table L3.15
a) SbatT-al-Arab Brid.ge, IraE
Compressive strength kg/cm2
A concrete bridge comprising a movable span was designed to replace Admixture
, the old wooden bridge over the Shatt-al-Arab at Basra in Iraq. Mix percent of Spread Wc Bulk lnitial
No.
Tvpe
wt. of (cm) ratio density sefting time 12357 28
T/mr (hours)
The new bridge is a75O n long prestressed concrete structure, for which cement .

day days days days days days

concrete of grade 350 kg/cm'was specified.
't
To achieve the desired rate of progress and prestressing, a 3-day 1 none 47 0.55 2.36 2 91 118 158 190 225 341
compressive strength of not less than 240 kg/cm" was required.
2 superplast 2.5 44 0.44 2.38 6.4 220 346 525
The best cement produced in Iraq, from Um-Qast was not of a type
suited to meet these conditions, certainly in so far as the initial strength retarder 1.0
was concerned.
In view of these results, application was made for a licence to import
3 superplast 3.5 46 0.45 2.39 9 94 232 269 321 378 494
high-strength cement from Europe for building the superstructure of the retarder 0.6
bridge (about 11,000 m3 of concrete).
Since the Iraqi government declined to issue an import licence, the
contractor was obliged to develop an alternatlve solutiolr. b) Ih.aclling Units in Saudi Arabia
'lb operate a rational building
The suitabiliry tests were based on a concrctc mix with a maximum mcthod as an alternative to'rasuruy ir_ was
cement content of 380 kgl mt, consistenry conforming to 'flowable' (high decided to apply an in-situ concrete construction system for buildi'g a
workabiliry) concrete, and aggregates with a 'mean' grading. large number of dwelling units.

The aggregates were obtained from a local source and were supplied in A steel tunnel-form system combined with accelerated curing with low-
four particle size fractions. pressure steam formed the basis for a l-day working cycle.
Starting from a 'blank' mix (no admixture), test mixes were prepared with The required strength on de-moulding, 14 hours after placing, was 170
the addition of a superplasticiser (sulphonated melamide formaldehyde kg/cm", while the final strength ro be attained by the concreie was 300
condensate) and a rctarder (phosphate), either individually or in kg/cm'.
combination. This procedure was exhaustively tested in the Netherlands by the
The three most interesting mixes in this series of tests, with their ,contractor.
characteristics, are indicated in Table 13.15. Various methods of accelerating the hardening process, the pumpability
and flow behaviour of rhe concrete (placed in a 150 mm thick wall
containing a double mesh of reinforcement) and the sensitivity to
cracking in relation to the prevailing temperature and wind *"re rtuii.d.
The information obtained from these investigations was checked and
adjusted in saudi Arabia, parricular attention being paid to the rapid
decline in consistency of the mix.
The coarse was composed of crushed rimestone and flint
^ggtegate
xana s tsEIo Manual rcr nlgnway ano orr9, .rr"rrooro f f aaina's rrcu Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineerc
Chapter - 13 @W DES/GN oF ooNCRETE Mtx, AND srATtsncAL cbvraot oF coNcRETE euAury

obtained from a wadi (dry river bed) in the 5-10 mm and 10-20 mm size The preliminary (suitability) tests therefofe concentrated on rhe possibility
fractions, while 0-1 mm 'dune sand' was used as the fine aggtegate. of letting the cement fr.rnction at its own source of heat, namely, by
finding an optimum combination of cement type, its content and water-
The superplasticiser used for making the concrete had a sulphonated cement fatio.
melamine formaldehyde condensate as its active ingredient.
The parameters of this suitabiliry investigation vr'ere as follows:
T'his admixture was applied in a dosage I-7.3 per cent of the cement by
weight. Cement Type 1 (German Z 35 F)
The basic concrete mix composition per mr was as follows: t Cement content 390, 420, 450 kg/m'
Water/cement ratio o.53,0.51.,0.48
.. Cement 325 ke
Dune sand 0-1 mm 705 kg Cement Type III (German Z 45 F)
Crushed aggreg te 5-10 mm 505 kg Cement content 350, 39O, 420 kg/m)
Crushed aggregate 10-20 mm 675 ks
weight of cement 'Water/cement ratio
Superplasticiser l-1.3o7o og 0.57,0.54, o.53
'Water-cement ratio 0.50
Slump of 'blank' mix (no admixture) 50 mm Next, the effect of a superplasticiser based on sulphonated melamine
Slump with plasticiser 150 mm formaldehyde condensare was studied in dosages ol 1 j Rer cent, 2 per
cent and 2
| Oer cent of the weight of cement.
The specified concrere grade of 350 kglcnr', tested en 150 mm cubes in Also, the decllne in consistenCy, the effect of over-dosing, and the
accordance with BS 1881, was duly attained, the test figures obtained influence of the initial temperature were investigated.
were as follows:
After due consideration of all the advantages and disadvantages, the
Mean compressive strength 398 kg/cm' following mix composition was adopted for the concrete:
Standard deviation 38 kg/cn'
Coefficient of variation 9.5o/o Cement Type III (Z 45 F)
Cement content 390 kg/mt
c) Pre-cast Extemal WaII Ll,nlts. QassittL S.rudi Arabta 'Water/cement ratio
0.48
Concrete with a specified final strength of 350 kg/cm' and a strength of
Superplasticiser 7.50/o
750 kg/cm" on demoulding was required for the production of 150 mm
' thick pre-cast units for the external walls of a school and a housing estate. Mlx proportlons of the aggregates:
Crushed basalt 20 mm
The unirs were cast in steel tilting moulds in a l-day production cycle. 50o/o

After removal from the moulds the units were passed through a stationary
Crushed basalt l0 mm 22o/o
grit-blasting installation in order to give the exposed surfaces an Dune sand 2 tnm 28o/o

appropriate texnrre. Compressive strengths attalned by the concrete:

To ensure uniformity of the texture, the strength of the concrete at the 3 days 400 kg/cm'
. time of grit-blasting was required to be 200 kg/cm'. 7 days 460 kg/cm'?
For budgetary reasons it was not possible to apply steam curing and 28 days 5L0 kg/cmz
hardening by means of heat from an external source.

Raina's Fietd Manual for Highway and eidge Engineers fi ! nainat Fietd Manual for Highway and Bridge Engineers
*i4-a,F,S-d1f,M4F r r-: ! -: -
 DES/GN OF CONCRETE MIX, AND STATISTICAL CONIROL OF CONCRETE QUALITY
Chapter - 13

In the course of the suitability investigation in the relation beNveen the
cylinder strength,(determined on 150 mm x 300 mm cylinders, as required
by the specification) and the cube strength (150 mm cubes) was
established.
The resident engineer then gave permission to use cubes for the routine
monitoring of the strength development of the concrete.
As the specifications imposed no limit on 'the maximum initial
temperafure of the fresh concrete, the stability of the required consistency
of the mix was given due attention in the mix stability investigation.
This was considered necessary in view of the fact that on this construction
site initial temperatures way above human body temperature - 37oC- were
measured in summer.

d,) QuaJt Wallsfor a Harbour in lra.n A superplasticiser with a retarder (for retarding action) was used!
(This admixture was based on a synthetic organic polymer)
(Use of PortIand Blast-Funtace Slag Cement)
The quay walls in question formed part of a harbour complex in the Gulf On the basis of the suitability tests the following composirion was
and consisted of T-shaped sections of 80 mm wall thickness, 3.50 m x 3.50 adopted for the concrete mix:
m overall dimensions, and lengths ranging up to 30 m. Type of cement: Portland blast-furnace slag cement HSNW complying
The concrete was required to be of grade 300 kg/cm' (minimum works with DIN 1164
. strength), while the composition of the mix had to ensure a very easy i.e.
high degree of workabiliry because of the placing method to be Cement content 350 kg/mt
employed: tremie method with Nvo tremies per wall bay.
\Vaterlcement ratio 0.51
In compliance with the tender documents the cement was to be Slunp (using thc Adurixture) 180-200 nun
purchased locally, with freedom of choice between Type I, Type V or
Portland blast furnace slag cement. Srrperplasticiser (Admixh rre) 1,7 per cent by n'eight of
cement
However, as the last-mentioned cement was unavailable in Iran and the
Aggregate crushed limestone from
sr"rpply of Type V corrld not be adeqrrately grraranteed, fhere was acfrrally
wadi
very little scope for choice!
Max. particle size 25 mm
Fortunately, the consultant, who was appointed only at a.later stage of the
work, managed to convince the employer that European Portland blasr
furnace cement in combination with a superplasticiser would be very CIjBE STRENGTII TEST RESULTS:
suitable for construction in the highly 'aggressive' environment ! Number of cubes 353

The reason why this type of cement gives good results under such Mean cube strength 382 ks/cn'
conditions is that it forms a much more dense and hardened cement Standard deviation 24.9 kg/cmZ
paste, so that penetration of chlorides is reduced.
Characteristic cube strength (382-L.64x24.9)
This high density inhibits both chloride as well as alkali-aggregate attacks. = 351 kg/cm'
In orcler to rule out mistakes in the cype of cement used for different parts
of the structure, an import licence for blasrfurnace slag cement to cover
the requirements of the whole project was issued !
This provided an efira bonus in that the buildings had an anractively light
colour.

Bidge Engineers f aaina's ri"H Manuat for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Raina's Field Manual for Highway ana f
 Chapler - 13
wffiDEslGNoFcoNcRETEMlx,ANDsIAI/sI/cALcoNIRoLoFcoNCRETEQUALtTY
e) Saudi Arabia-Ba.brain Causewa!: KFC
Cement content 400 kg/m1
(tlse of Portla.nd. Blast-Jurnace Sla.g Cement)
Water/cement ratio 0.38 maximum
The original scheme for linking the island qf Bahrain to the Saudi Arabian
mainland envisagg5l the construction of a steel bridge.
Superplasticis er : 7.4-7,5Vo pulphonated naphrhalene formaldehyde
For the structural steel alternative, the effect that the 'aggressive' condensate (of weight of cement)
environment could be expected to have upon the durability of the
steelw6rk involving expensive rnaintenance, prompted the Dutch Retarder O.125-1, per cent phosphate
contractor to produce an alternative deSign based on prestressed concrete
Aggregates 33 , per cent .fine ' sandi(local),
construction.
27-32 pei cent gabb,ro'4-t2 mm (imported
The notable feature of this design \{,as that the structural components from Emirates), and
would largely be produced in a concrete pre-casting plant set up near the
construction site and the structure was conceived in a way that wouid 35-40 per.cent gabbro 12-25 nW
enable a very high degree of repeiitive production of simiiar units to be '(imported from Emirates)
supplied since the causeway is 26 km. long involving many kms. of
bridge portion! - Strengths Attained:

The 28-day cylinder (works) cmshing strength of the concrete for the Cylindelstrength 495 kg/cm'
girders and piles was reqrrired ro he 400 kg/cm', defermined on
Coeti. oi variation j.2J per cent
cylindrical test specimens (150 mn.r x 300 mm).
The nraximum permissible temperatul'e of the fresh concrete was 32"C, a
requirement which was fulfilled by substituting crushed ice for part of the Concluding Remarks
mix water. A linrit of 70oC was laid down for the curing temperature. a) The use of Admixtures has been accepted by the designers and
AII these conditions offered an ideal opportunity to apply a combination builders in copcretg, ., ,i :,,:.., , .

of Portland blast-furnace slag cement, superplasticiser, retarder and steam The flow of information on the possibilities offered by admixures
curing ! continues. ,:.. .. :

In ttre mix-investigations for the proiect, naturally a good deal of attention And this is necessary, more so because the international codes and
had to be paid to the durability of such a majar structlrre (the required regulations are lagging far behind the development achieved,
service life was to be at least 75 years) and to the locally available certainly in so far asisLferplasticisers'are concerned.
materials.
'b)
Concrete technology made the following contribution to the alternative
scheme: scarcitv of fresh water the aggregates, for use
l
l Rasic Miv For Girders end Piles' in the mix and for curing) in desert regions and in hot andlor humid
:
and marine environments. and the necessity in such areas of
Type of cement: Portland blast-furnace slag cement:35 tHS N!7 NA sometimes having to use coarse aggregates containing silicates and
complying with DIN 1164
:

carbonates (that can be attacked by the alkali in cement) and coarse

and fine aggregates containing salts (that can trigger chloride attack
on reinforcement).

& Raina's Field Manual for Highway and Bidve Engineers

ffi n Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and Bldge Engineers :.a,
.
-r.r#WSn:ASd;;a,
!-. r " "' -*ffiWs'
 I
I
Chapter - 13
I
ffifre DESTGN oF coAicRETE Mtx, AND srATtsncAL coNTRoL oF coNcRETE euALtw

These attacks lead to expansive chemical reactions which destroy i

company's representative each time the scales are set up, and at
concrete through resulting volume change and cracking. least every one month thereafter.
Moreover, blast-furnace cement also has a good sulphate attack - A significant change in the weight or appearance of the concrete or
resistance. apparent yield is reason to question the accuracy of the scales.
c) Admlxtures need not claim any special place in the philosophy of Assure that the various sizes of aggre gate are not intermingled in the
building. compartment$ of overhead bins.
Their advantages should not be exaggerated.
- Assure that the materials are taken from the stockpiles in a manner
rWhere circumstances require its use, an admixture can simply be to maintain uniformity in grading and moisture cement.
regarded as an integral component of the concrete mix - no more
and no leSs!
- Frequently, the bottom one metre of sand lhat was stockpiled when
wet, contains excess moisture. This layer must not be mixed
randomly with the drier sand but should be picked up and placed
13.10. Rt(0Mftlltt{DATI0NS lor good (0ncrele in hot & cggressive climotes with sand tb be used another day.
in morine envitonmenl* : - Moisture content of stockpiled dggregate should be checked. daily
..... for details refer to Chapter 19. and adjustment made in water content of the mix.
* Sulphate attackand Chloride-attack can be severe in marine-environment, - Assure that batch trucks are positioned accurately under the
hence special precautions are callcd-for. batching plant so rhat part of a batch does not empty into an
adjoining compartment.
I3.I I. CONTROI. OT sURTAff TVAPORAIIOT{ AND ITS IITJIPORTAI{CE - S?'atch with particular care fol inaccuracies, accidental or othelwise,
in weighing bulk cement.
..... for details refer to Chapter 19.
- See that the scale registers 'zero' when the cement weighbox is
I3.I2. I1{SPECTIOI{, SAIUIPTING & TESTING FOR CO}ICRETT emptied completely for each batch, and that the cement is
discharged into the intended compartment on the batch rruck, or
l3.l2.l lnspecion into the mixer, without loss of overflow to an adjacent
compartment.
o Batching:
- Check the accuracy of the proportioning to assure that it meets the
i Before and during batchtng olr€rratlons, tlre clienfs Enginebr should: requirements of the approved mix design.
I

- Inspect the stockpiles ofaggregates as required by the specifications
I, to ensure that they are not contaminated with dust, dirt, wood chips,
grease, or other foreign matter.
- See that the various sizes of aggregates\are drained for specified
length of time before used in batching.
- Check the accuracy of the batch scales and see that each sized
matefial is weighed accurately.
- The scales need to be tested for accuracy and serviced by scale
Mixlng, dellvery and placemenh
- Mixer drums should be inspected frequently, kept clean, and blades
or paddles renewed when necessary.
- The quantity of concrete irecessary to be mixed per hour (which is
the greater of twenty cubic metres per hour or two cubic metres per
hour per metre of slab width perpendicular to the direction of
placement) should be determined, and a. mixer large enough to
suppiy the required output be provided.

Raina's Fietd ilanuat for Highway,and eaaga enoineers rbu

f ] a"na's Manual for Highway and Bridge Englneers
Chapter - 13

- The size and capacity of agglegate handling equipment should be
adequate so that materials can be delivered to the mixer in sufficient
quantities to meet the determined placement rate.
- The mixer should be operated at the recommended speed and for
the required time of mixing. (For details see the Reference).
The concrete shall be thoroughly mixed, with no segregation when
- generally three cores to a zone.
discharged from the mixer.
If ready-mixed concr€te is to be used, the plant and equipment must
. The Engineer should inspect the plant to determine that the plant
: and delivery equipment meet specification requirements and are
capable of producing and delivering to the proiect site concrete
conforming to the specifications and at the required placement rate.
13.12.2 Sumpling ond lesting:
. . Tests for concrete and component materials should be in accordance with
the relevanf standard procedr rres.
. Testing frequencies shall be as specified or as directed by the Engineer
' but not less than those required by the Minimum Sampling and Testing
Schedule.
r Process control testing in addition to that required by the contract or the
Engineer shall be the responsibility of the Contractor.
. All Fersonnel and equipment necessary to assure the quality of the final
product should be provided accordingly.
. Samples for strength tests of each class of concrete should be taken not
Iess than once a day nor less than once for each 50 cubic metres of
concrete or once for major pour.
. Each strength test result should be the average of at least three cylinders
. from the same sample test at 28 days or the specified earlier age.
. At least six strength tests (3 each at 7 days and 28 days) should be made
for each class of concrete on any project unless relaxed by the Engineer.
o The cylinders (cubes) shouid normally be cured under conditions that are
i' . not more unfavourable than the most unfavourable conditions for the
' .portiofls of the .concrete which they represent - keeping in view the
(unfavourably) high surface area to volume ratio in the test specimens vis-
)-vis that in the actual strllcture. For this reason it is normal to cure
specimens in water-baths.
For the Acceptabiiity of strength level of the concrere follow the
stipulation given ahead in item 13.15 ahead. However, where doubtful,
100 mm diameter by 20O mm long cores (also 50 x 100 mm) may be
extracted (preferably venically) from the zone of concrete.in question,
ACI criteria for accepting this concrete are that the average crushing
strength of the three cores tested should not be less than 85 per cent and
no individual core should be less than 75 per cent of the 28-day standard
cylinder strength requirement at the test age.
I3.I3. (OMPIhNCT WITH VARIOUS RIOUIRTMENTS:
This shoulcl be determined in accordance with the following standards:
. Sampling Fresh Concrete: T I41. (ASTM C 172).
. Weight per CLrbic Metre, Yield and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete:
T i2l (ASTN{ C i3B).
. Sieye Atalysis uf Firrc arrd Cuarsc Aggleg Let T 27.
. Slump of Portland Cement Concrete: T i19 (ASTM C 14r.
. Air Conteni of Freshly Mixed Concrete, by the Pressure Method: T 152
(ASTM C 231).
. Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate: T 84 (ASTM C I2B).
. Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate: T 85.
. Unit Veight of Srrucrural Lightweight Concrete ASTM: C 567.
. .Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory: T 1,26
,(ASTM C 192).
. Tests for Strength shall be made in accordance with the following:
Making and curing concrete 'compressive and flexural
- test
specimens'in the field: AASHTO T 23 (ASTM C 31).
- Compressive strength of moulded concrete rylinders: AASHTO T 22
(ASTM C 39).

Raina's Field Manuat.for Highway and Bidye Engineers

.,+*r:#;effi!,,.
fi
:,,.
i ffi n"r"troM
'@s,!*gr^v4ffi,.9s.*g;*oa.t
ManuatforHighwayandBridge Engineers
"*"
---#
Chapter - 13

13.14. CURIl{c AND PR0TECIIOI'| 0F CON(R[T[

..... for details refer to Chapter 1!'

I3.I5. ACCTPTABITITY OT TTST RISUTTS TOR COI'IPRISSIVE fiUSHING

STRENGIH OT CONCRTTE
..... for details refer to Chapter 19.
Reference:
"CONCRETE FOR CONSTRUCTION - FACTS & PRACTICE'
Dr. V. K. Raina; Shroff Publishers and Distributors Pw. Ltd., Mumbai.

I4.O CONCRETE IN DESERT-REGIONS wlTH

, HOT.DRY
;1.!,, , -"ri:,ii oil,,r
OR HOT.HUMID CLIMATES,
AND,IG@NCRETE IN SEA.WATER
SURROUNDINGS

t4.t ll{IRoDUCTtoil 14.1.8 fffeclofSeo Woleiqnd Morine

Invhonmenl
l4.l.l Eusks
14.1.9 (ondusion
I 4.1.2 lnfluence of Hot 0imote on Moking
{oncrele 14.2 tilnuilft 0F cEtEilI cHolc 0ll
14.1.3 lnfluence of Temperolwe on Deslrudive DURAsILITY

Processes ftal offecl Hordened (on(ele I4.2.1 Types of (ementchiefly used

14.1.4 lnfluence of Moislure on Destrurlive 14.?.2 Durobility Prohlems in Relofon b ftoice

Proceses thol offed Hordened Comrete of (emenl
I4.1.5 tffed of Sunounding Woler
I 4.2.3 (orrmion of Reinforcemenl due h
14.1.6 tffed of Biologkal Attock ftloride Penelrolion
14.1.7 [ffectofEroiion 14.2.4 SulpholeAflock

Raina's Field Manuat for Highway and eriaOe enlineers J I nain"'" ruo Manuat for Highway and.Bidge Engineers
 Chapter - 74
W coNcRErE rN DESERT- REGToNS wrH Hor - DRy oR Hor-HrJMtD
C LI M AT E S, A N D CONCREIE /N SEA - WATE R S U RROUNDINGS

I4.O CONCRETE IN DESERT.REGIONS WITH

I 4.2.5 AlknliAggregote Recctivity I4.5.1 0imqle
14.2.6 lhermol Deformotion 14.5.2 Steel for Reinforcemenl, Preslressing

I 4.2.7 Storage of (ement (obles ond ilreir Ducts HOI.DRY OR HOT.HUMID CIIMATES, AND
14.2.8 (ondusion 14.5.3 (oncrele Producfion in Hol Weofier i: CONCRETE IN SEA.WATER SURROUNDINGS
t 4.3 SUITABII.IIY OF AGGRTGATIS 14.6 CURtltG t;

I4.3.1 Types of Rock for Aggregotes I 4.7 RE(ofllfllEl{DAI|0l{s

j
t4.t INTRODUCTION

14.3.2 Alkoli-Silicq Reooion #| Type of (emeil to be Used

l4.t.t Bosics
#2 (oqrre qnd tine Aggregotes
14.3.3 Alkqli-torbonote Reoction a) In regions with a hot climate the qualiry of contrete demands extra
14.3.4 (ontominstion by Solts #3 Wuler for fte Mix ond Woter for (uring attention. Marine conditions associated with aggregates that may possibly
be highly absorptive, undersized, gap-graded (vlith malority'oi single
14.3.5 [ontominotion by 0oy, #4 limils on Woter-(ement Rotiq
li,lico ond Dust sized particles), elongated, and having more than the usual share of dirt
14.3.6 Groding (i.e., Sorling by 0rder Temperolure of Conaele [lix, ftloride and dust since efficient washing may not generally be resorted to due to
ond
Amount of Different Portide Sizes) qnd
(onlent, Sulplrote (onlenl and Alkoli lack of sweet water, are more particularly envisaged. Many a Field
(onlenl in Concrele Engineer uith etcpericnce in structural concrete i.n other reglons,
Porticle Shope
bas cut a sorqt figure utben working in desert regions witb hot-
I4.3.7 0ther Durobility Aspects
#5 Admixtures .
dry or bot-bumld etwironffient infested witb such ma.nifestations!
#6 fnsuring low permeobility of (onaele
14.3.8 fondudons b) Thc codcs and standards are selloru geared very clearly tu suclr iocal
{so fiot ftere is less Leoching ond conditions. This quite often gives rise ro prohlems More parricularly in
14.4 AD'NIXTURTS AS AN AID IO IVIAKII{G
(oil(Rtlt Peilorutiorr for Beiler Durobtltty ond some pats of the Nliddle East, the instances of deterioration of concr.ete
Redwed Diffusion/ngress of ft loride have occulred frequently.
4.4.1 ln some deserl regions ....
I
ond Sulphote lons! c) The Concrete Technologist working in such environs should judge as to
14.4.2 Experiences #l Surfoce (oating what extent the concfete structure concerned is exposed to aggressive
conditions and thus decide recommendations which are useful in situ. Ir
14.4.3 (onduding Remorks
is very important to understand that the durability of concrete is directly
t 4.5 TTTTCT OT CUMAIT AI{D WORKII{G reiated to the type of cement chosen. This choice can be made
c0l{DtIt0l{s deliberately, whereas the other component - materials of the concrete
mix are usuaily determined by the resources of the iocation where the
structufe is to be built. Usually the contractors and consultants may not
always realise the extent to which the local conditions are liable to affect
-the . production, placing and durability of concrere, with all the
consequences'thereof in terms of structural deteriorationl
d) The experience of recent years in builcling durable concrete structures has
indeed been alarming. Instances of serious deteriorative damage occurring
within just five years of completion are by no means exceptional.
e) fhe.causes of such deterioration are listed in Table 14.1. A proper
understanding of these influences is indispensable for making 'an
optimum choice of materials and achieving good quality in the execution
ol the work.

Raina's Field Manual for Highway and aridge Engtneers rieu Manual
fi Q aaina's for Highway and Bridge Engineers
Chapter - 14
ffi coNcRErE /N DEsERT - REG/oNs wrH Hor - DRy oR uor-fruMtD
CLIMATES, AND CONCREIE /N SEA - WATER SURROU/VD/NGS
Table l4.l Causes of Raptd Deteriorating Damage, affecrtng Concrete
Intfluenclng Factors
Structures tn Hot and posslbly Humid Climates Effects on Concrete

Influencing Factors Effects on Concrete
A. Externdl factors:
a) High temperatures, alternating - Diminishing workability
high and low humidity placing, plastic shrinkage cracking,
rapid penetration of aggressive ions
(chloride, sulphate, carbonic acid,
etc.), rapid corrosion initiation.
b) Surrounding water (ground Reinforcement corrosion initiation by
water, sea water, soft water) ciloride ions, surface damage due to
expansive salt deposition, severe
leeching in soft water in hot humid
(wet tropical) countries.
c) Biological attack due ro boring Reduced effective cover more rapid
molluscs in marine structure corrosion initiation due to
ions.
d) Sandstorms Erosion.
B. [nternal factors:
(i) chotce of materiak:
(a) Sulphate-resistanr
Low resistance to penetration by
Portland cement chloride ions (although good
resistance to sulphate attack on cement
because of low CiA).
(b) Porous aggregates Diminishing workability during
placing, higher permeability ro
aggressive ions, increased drying
shrinkage and creep, low shape-
stability, resulting in rapid surface
deterioration due to salt deposition;
(c) Dusry aggregares - High water demand, therefore high
shrinkage and creep, low strength and
high permeabiliry, cracking of plastic
concrete;
Raina's Field Manual for Highway and fuiage Ersineers
,-..Jagpsa**rasffiv
(d) Aggregates containing Reinforcement corrosion initiation by
chloride and sulphate chloride ions, surlace damage due to
expansive salt deposition.
during (e) Majority of sand being of one Bleeding, plastic shrinkage cracking in
size setting concrete, cracking due to plastic
(sedimentation) settlement cracks in
setting concrete, high water demand,
therefore higher porosity and high
sfuinkage and more cracking.
(0 Alkali-sensifive (reacrive) Cracking due to expansive reaction,
aggregates and pop-outs, loss of effective cover to
reinforcement.
(i1) Fauhs
of execution and
utorkmansbip:
chloride (a) Incorrect storage of materials Frequently there is salt deposition on
reinforcing steel, so that reinforcement
isdirectJy irr a potelr[ial sute of
corrosion and expansive salt
deposition may occur on the concrete
surface.
(b) Inadcquatc compaction Honcy combs, gravel pockets and
voids; therefore, more mpid penetration
of aggressive substances and corrosion.
(c) Inadequate curing High permeabiiity, loss of gain in
strength, shrinkage cracks, if concrete
is cured with salt water, rapid
penetration of chloride ions and
consequent disintegration due to
ieinforcement rusting, also sulphate of
such water will react with cement and
cause expansion, cracking and
disintegration.
(d) Other defects, including Poor quality concrete, with early
unmindful supervision and deterioration and lack of strength and
quality-control durability, cracking, porous concrete,
lack of impermeability, hence eventual
deterioration imminent.
Bidge
f ! Rainas Fre ld Manual for Highway and Engineers
lrc,*
Chapter - 14
t 4.t.2 lnfluence ol Hot dimote on mcking Concrete
- The amount of water needed for obtaining a certain workability increases,
requiring a higher water-cement ratio and,/or a higher ..-".r, .onr.nr.
- The workabiliry of the fresh concrere decreases more rapiclry. This may
result in poor workabiiity and therefore poorer compaction, or- it may
necessitate the addition of water and therefore an increase in the
wate.r-emenr ratio. Both rhese consequences ,d;"r;;t- ,ff.ii tt"
durability of the concrete.
- There is a probabiliry of cracking of rhe concrete, from surface down, due
to plastic shrinkage. This risk is greatly increased if concreting is done in
' hot and windy conditions. The temperature of the concrete mix and of
the ambient atmosphere, the relative hurnidity ancl the wincl velocity are
of maior importance in connection with this.
- Accentuation of thermal gradients due to additional heat releasecl fi.or'
hydration of cenrent: This will increase the temperature gradient in the
young concrete, with higher risk of cracking in consequence.
- The formation of a porous soft top rayer due to r.apid evaporation of
water, incrcascd differential sluirrkage across rhe depth and consequent
increase in deflections.
tleosures required lo counteroct the above mentioned effects ure
- tlstng u)ater-reducing admixtures.. A complicating feature is that their
action, particulady in the case of superBlasticisers, is confined to a rather
lirnited period of time. This problem can somewhat be eased by the use
of retarders as well. It is advisable, however, to add these admixtures only
a short time before placing the concrete in the formwork.
- Keeptng the temperature of tbe ifresh concrete belau.t 32"C:
Many specifications for works to be carried out in hot climates state that
the temperature of the fresh concrete should not exceed about 32"C.
. Quite often this means that artificial cooling will
be necessary. This can
be most effectively achieved by adding cnrshed ice to the water for
mixing and fog spraying t}re coarse aggregates, forms, and reinforcements
(which then cool down quickly).
- Protectlon
from direct solar radlatloa and from wind,
covering the concrete, installing screens, etc.
Raina's Field Manuat tor Highway and Briage Engineers
i*ri..
CONCREIE DESERT - REG/ONS WTH HOT - DRY OR HOT-HUMID
CLIMATES,
'N AND CONCRETE IN SEA - WATER SURROUNDINGS
- Tbe preaentlon-or at Least elffecthte$t debytng of eaaporatlonifrom
cast corrcreteJfor a period ctf at rcast 14 d.ays or unfiI at reast 7o%
of tbe 28-day cotnpressiue strengtlt bas been afiai.ned-
A practical problem associated with the use of cement in hot and humid
' climate regions is the rapid ageing of the cement during storage. This is due
;
I 'to the early'reaction of cement with moisrure, with the result that ttre portland
.cement clinker particles become enveloped, as it were, in.hydrated cement.
i
d
The.consequence is that early strengthdevelopment is considerably slowed
down. This effect is most likely to manifest it .f *h"n cement is supplied in
paper bags or in other packaging material permeable to moisture.
14.1.3 lnfluence of Temperoture or Dertructiye procesrer thst affed Hordened
Concrele
The considembly high temperature of hot-arid regions accentuates the degree
of, attack on concrete and reinforcement by -the
penetrating aggressive
substances such as chloride ions, carbon dioxide gas, magnesifm ions and
sulphate ions, particularly if humidity abounds.
The initiatlon time lfor conosion of the retnlforcement at 3OoC is
npprarimatelJ, one-thi.rd, of tha.t at IO,C I
once corroslon bas heen inr,tiaterl, the carrosion procoss tlie in bot
and humM clhnates, proceed at afaster rate as fl conseqrrsnce ofthc
higber ternperetures. From tbe scarce data aoailabfr, t can be
inlfet-red. that tlte rate is ttoo to tbree timesfaster tba.n in cold climates!
rt sltould be noted,tbat tbe rate of cor'rosron also depends upon trre
,noisture content, botlt in trre concrete as well as ln tbi at:mosphere.
cracking due to expansion of concrete as a consequence of the formation of
salts due to sulphate attack on cement is probably slightly less importanr
at
high than at low temperatures! A possible ixplanation Lf tiris smaller amounr
of expansion at high temPeratures is that at iuch temperatures, the solubility
of.c{cium hydroxide is lowered, whefeas that of calcium sulpiate and orher
salts increases. Because of this, these salts.are deposited ln solution not
causihg as much expansion. Sulphate artack (on cement and consequenr
expansion and deterioration of concrete due to expansion and cracking)
is
less aggressive above 30oC or so!
Although this form of sulphate expansion is of relatively.minor irnpqrtance
in
e.g., by hor climates, the use of sulphate-resisting portland cement (portland cemenr
with a tri-calcium aluminate content of not more than 3o/A has increasecl
greatly owing.to precaution against sulphate attack when the temperatures
are
low.
ffi I R"rrt ri, M Manual fot Highway and Bridge Engineers
_-. \,*rillJil*:; -..