NOTES ON ENGLISH

PHONETICS

(Introductory - Corrective Course)

/6

A B C D E F G H I
J K L M N O P Q R S T
U V WX Y Z
 Phonetics is a branch of linguistics which deals with the investigation of the sound
means of the language from the point of view o f their articulation, acoustic qualities and
semantics.
The phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit which is capable of differentiating the
meaning and the grammar forms o f words.
Phonemes are elements o f the language. The number of them is quite definite for every
separate language. In British English there are 44 phonemes, 20 vowel phonemes and 24
consonant ones. In speech they manifest themselves in form of phonemic variants or
allop hones.
The allophone is a material representation o f the phoneme in speech. They appear in
connected speech as a result of assimilation or reduction, or due to individual speech habits.
The number o f allophones in a language is unlimited.
Phonetic transcription and its types
Phonetic transcription is a sort of phonetic alphabet, a system of symbols in which
every phoneme is supposed to have its own symbol. It helps in learning a foreign language.
It is possible to speak about three types of phonetic transcription.
1. The International phonetic transcription. It was introduced by the International
Phonetic Association in 1887. But the science of phonetics has been considerably developed
since then. And drawbacks of that system are quite evident; it suggests the same symbols
for different phonemes: [i: - i], [); -o], [ u: - u ], [d'-ifcl, which gives the wrong impression
that those phonemes differ only in duration ( length).
2. The phonemic transcription (broad). In phonemic transcription every phoneme is
given an individual symbol, the number of which is 44 (according to the number of
phonemes in British English). It introduces four more symbols: 111 for | i J, /1/7 for [If], It)I
for [j)]> /A-7 for jT:]. Words and sentences transcribed with the help of this phonetic script are
placed between the slanting brackets, e.g. /pa:t/. This type of transcription is used in
studying English as a speciality.
3 . The allophonic transcription (narrow). In this type of transcription every
allophone has either a special symbol or a diacritical mark. It is used in doing research work
in the field o f phonetics.
The English Vowel System
The vowel is a speech sound in the production of which the air stream coming out of
the lungs meets no obstruction on its way.
The English vowel system consists of 2« vowel phonemes. According to the stability
o f articulation we distinguish 12 monophthongs and 8 diphthongs.
According to the duration w e distinguish long and short vowel phonemes.
The monophthong is a vowel in the The diphthong is a monophonemic combination
production of which the organs of of two vo.wel elements with gliding articulation.
speech do not change their position The first stressed element is called the nucleus,
throughout the whole duration of the the second one is called the glide. According !o
vowel. the type of glide they are grouped into:
/B /, /01':/, /W/ / U l / j /31/ / 1 / gliding diphthongs, ? d l / / € 1 / / / 0 1 /
IVI gliding diphthongs, / g / j / / 2 / j /
/ D // A /v/t /de/,/1 / W gliding diphthongs, / £ / / / l/ a /
/ 6 /” / Q /
 Vowels in Four Types of Syllables

Letters The first The second The third The fourth

syllable type syllable type syllable type syllable type
(open) (closed) (vowel + r) (vowel + re)
A
fate /7 C
e'Ji // fat /W far /a / fare A a /
mate mat car care '
O note . not . more / i 1/
sofa doctor U/ r / * A before /
E theme , ■ met . mercy /? r
here / r a /
Peter ' 1' / pen / her / 5 '/ serious
U tube / jU:/ CUP / / turn , _
summer '' Thursday
pure
7 cure
/IT 0 ;/
blue ' /u /
I fin ,, ,
fine
time // 40 - 1
1 // girl A '/
pin ' ■/ fir / J '/ IId /dJ3/
Y myth ,
type / i- myrtle A y /d J » /
my / cif/ system ' 1 1

Graphical Rules

III
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letters “i, y” in closed stressed syllables - myth, syllable, sit, window.
2. the letters “y, ey” in unstressed syllables - money, trolley, city, baby
3. the letters “ai, ay” in unstressed syllables - holiday, portrait, fountain, mountain
4 . tire letter “e” in prefixes - begin, decide.
Rare spellings: busy, build, biscuit, foreign, women.

/ i: /
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter “e” in open and historically open syllables - be, he, meter, these, theme.
2. the letters “ee” - meet, see, feel, tree.
“ea” - meat, sea, peace.
“ie” - piece, field, believe.
“ei” - ceiling, receive.
Rare spelling: people, key, breathe, wreath.

is represented in spelling by:

1. the letter” a” in closed syllables - lad, glad.
Note: A number o f disyllabic & trisyllabic words with the letter “a” in an open
syllable fall under this rule - palate, family, cavity.
 le i
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter “e” in closed syllables - bet, better.
2. the digraph “ea” before “d” - bread, head.
“th” - breath, weather.
Irregular readings: friend, deaf, heavy, measure, pleasure, pleasant, health, wealth,
meant, weapon, breakfast, sweat, sweater.
Rare spellings: any, many, bury, says, said.

/a/
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter “a” in prefixes and articles - about, asleep, a big city
2. the suffixes “er” - teacher
“or” - doctor
“ar” - collar
“our” - neighbour
“ous” - famous
3 . the letters “a, o, u” in unstressed syllables (hard reduction) - sofa, autumn, atom.

It>l
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter “o” in closed stressed syllables - not, office, hot.
2. the digraph”wa” - was, want, except “ water”
3 . the letter combination “qua” - quality, quantity.
Rare spelling: because, cough, knowledge, sausage.

IA /
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter “ u” in closed stressed syllables - hurry, uncle, consult.
2. the letter “o” followed by “m” - come, some
“n” - son, ton
“v” - love, glove, oven
“th” - mother, other.
3 . the digraph “ou” followed by “gh” - enough, tough
“bl(e)” - trouble, double & *■
“pl(e)” - couple
Remember: “ou” + other consonants - country, touch, courage, young, cousin,
Southern.
Rare and irregular spellings: blood, flood, worry.

IUI
is represented in spelling by:
1. the digraph “oo” followed by “k” - book, look.
2. the letter “u” after ”p, b, f ’ - pull, bull, full.
Exception: but, bus, butter, pulse, fun.
 Rare spelling: could, should, would, bouquet, women, bosom, wolf.
Irregular spellings: good, food, wood, stood.

/sr/
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter “a” in open stressed syllables - take, make.
2. the letters “ai” and “ay” in stressed position - main, plain, may, play.
3 . the letters “ei” and “ey” - vein, neighbour, grey, they.
4 . the letter “a” followed by “nge” and “ste” - range, change, haste, paste.
Irregular reading: key, height

tan
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letters “i, y” in open stressed syllables - tie, pie, try, final.
2. the digraph “igh” followed by “t” - light, night.
3 . the letter “i” followed by “id”- child, wild.
“nd” - kind, blind.
Irregular readings: wind
Irregular spelling: either, neither.

1011
is represented in spelling by:
1. the digraphs “ ol” boil, oil, join, poison
“ oy” loy, joy, employment.

13 VI
is represented in spoiling by:
1. the letter ”o” in upon syllables - go, home, moment.
2. the letter “ <>” followed by “ 11” - poll, roll
“Id” - old, told
“st” - most, post.
3 . the letter “ o' in word-final unstressed position - hero, photo, potato.
4 . the letters “ini' - boat, road.
5 . the letters “ow” in word-final position - low, show, know, window, tomorrow.
Exceptions: now, how, cow, row, brow.
Irregular spellings: shoulder,poultry, mould, soul, own, brooch.

Id VI
is represented in spelling by:
1. (he digraph “ou” - South, thousand, moulh.
2. the digraph “ow” in the medial position - town, towel, brown, crowd.
Irregular spellings: now, cow, how, vow, bow, brow, allow, bough,plough, drought.
 iQl
is represented in spelling by:
1. the digraph “ar” - cart, party
2. the letter “a” followed by “ss” - pass, grass
“st” - past, fast
“sk” - ask, basket
sp” - grasp, clasp
“ft” - after, craft
“th” - path, father.
3 . the letter ”a” followed by “lm” - calm, palm
“ I f ’ - half, calf (the letter “ 1” is mute here)
4 . the suffixes “ance” and “and” - France, glance, demand, command.
Rare spellings: aunt, laughter, clerk, sergeant, heart, hearth, drama, aria, tomato,
banana, vase, moustache.
l u: I
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter “u” in open syllables - tune, mute /ju:/
It sounds /u: / preceded by “j, r, 1” - June, rule, blue, true.
2. the digraphs “eu”, “ew” /ju:/ - feudal, neutral, few, new
but: Jew, crew, flew /u:/
3 . the digraph “ui” - suit, fruit, cruise.
4. the digraph “oo” in all positions except when followed by “k” or “r” - moon, soon.
5 . the digraph “ou” in words o f French origin - soup, route, youth, wound, you.
Rare spelling: shoe, beauty, queue, who, whom, whose, two.

10 :/
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letters “or” ( the third syllable type) - port, sport.
2. the letters “oor” - floor, door
“our” - your, course
“oar” - board, roar.
3 . the letter “a” followed by “11” and “1 + cons.” - all, tall, salt, chalk.
4 . the letters “au” and ”aw” - autumn, author, law, saw, lawn.
5 . the letter combinations “ought” - ought, thought. f A .
“aught” - caught, taught.
6. the letters “war” - warm, ward.
Irregular reading: our, sour, flower, poor.

13:1
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letters “er”- term, service.
“ir” - bird, fir.
“ur” - turn, fur, nurse.
“yr” -myrtle.
Note: the third syllable type.
2. the digraph “ear” + cons. - earth, heard.
3 . the letters “wor” - work, word.
Rare spellings: journey, journalist, were, colonel.

/ ia /
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter combinations “ere” - here, severe
“ear” - hear, dear
“eer” - cheer, deer.
2. the letter combination “ier” - pier, cashier.
3 . the letter “e” followed by “r” + vowel - era, hero, period, serious.
Rare spellings: theory, museum, theatre, idea, beard, real

i& a i
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter combinations “are” - care, fare, prepare.
“air” - chair, air, hair.
2 . the letter ”a” followed by “r” + vowel - vary, Mary, parents, variant.
Irregular spellings: are /a:/, to bear, to wear, to tear, to swear, pear, where, there.

1031
is represented in spelling by:
1. the combination “ure” - cure, pure, sure.
2. by the letter “ u” followed by “r” +vowel - j 1117, fury, during.
Irregular spellings: poor, moor, tour(ist), Europe

The English Consonant System

The consonant is a speech sound in the production o f which the air stream coming out
of the lungs lias to overcome a certain obstruction on its way.
The English consonant system consists of 24 consonant phonemes.

/p , b /' /f, v / /m /f / n / / /n / /} /
/ij/ /&'*//. /W , /,''/ /h/, /f/
• A ’.z - / J
/ M / /. , /

/ ij Graphical rules

/k /
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter”k ” - keep, kitchen, kind.
2. the letter “ c” before “a, o, u “ - cat, cut, coat
 before consonants - cry, class
in final position - sync, music.
3 . the digraph “ck” - sick, back, buckwheat (only after short vowels)
! digraph qu” when stressed - question, queen
hen unstressed - conquer, unique.

10 /
is represented in spelling by J
1. the letter “g” before a, o, u and cons. - gave, good, gun, grammar.
Irregular readings: give, got, get, girl, finger, begin.
2. the digraph ”gu” - language.
/f /
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter combination “sh” - shoe, she.
2. the letter “ c” and the letter combination “ci” - official, ancient, social, special.
3 . the suffixes “tion”, “sion”, “ssion” - expression, proposition, excursion, examination.
Rare spellings: Asia, Russia, fascist, anxious, sugar, sure

/ s /
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter ”s” - best, test.
2. the letter “ c” before e, i, y - cent, cycle

/w /
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter “w ” - was, want
2. the letter combination “wh” + any vowel, but ”o” - what, wheat.

IK]!
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter combination “ng” - sing, thing, reading.
2. the letter combination ”nk” and “nc” - ink, think, uncle.

/
is represented in spelling by:
1. the letter combination “ch” and “tch” - church, bench, kitchen.
.2. the suffix “ture” / xj / - nature, culture, literature.
Irregular spellings: fortune, century, question,

ic h j
is represented in spelling by: J
1. the letter “g” before “e, i, y” - vegetables, huge, gin, gyps}', Egypt.
2. the letter combination “dg(e)” - edge, judge, budget.
3 . the letter “j ” in word-initial position before vowels - just, Jack, joke
Rare spellings: suggest, soldier.