TH E A RT OF AVI ATI ON

Bl b a nbboo h
UPO N

A E RO PL A N E S A N D T H E I R E NG I NE S
W I TH N O T E S UPON P R O P E LL E RS
T H E A RT OF AV I ATI O N

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T H E A RT OF AV I A TI O N

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UPON

A E RO P L A N E S AN D TH E I R E NGIN E S

W ITH N OT E S UP O N P R O PE LLE R S

R O B E RT w . A . Q RE W E R
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A UT H O R or
“
T HE mo r o n CA R
"

W ith n umero us allustt a ttons a nb Di mensi oneb m mgs

N EW YO RK
M CG R A W H I L L -
B OO K CO M P A N Y
239 W E S T 39T H STRE E T

L ON DO N
CROS B Y L O CK W O O D AN D SON
1 9 1 0
To a mpa n i o n wh o se co un se ls I h ig h ly
co

e ste e m i n mo me n t s o f s ucce ss o r d e pre ssi o n ,

w h o h a s al w ay s been to me th e t rue st o f
fri e n d s, th i sbook i s de d i ca t e d, i n t h e s in ce re
h o pe t h a t th e s ci e nc e o f a v i a ti o n w i ll o n e d a y
be ad v a n ced a ste p by

TH E A UT H O R .

25 05 6 01
 P RE FA C E .

T H IS work is intended to d eal more with the practical

a spect o f fl i
y gn mach ine s tha n the theoretical , and it i s

there fore written wi th the object o f i ntere sti n g the

maj ority o f the th i n k i n g pu blic The theoretical aspect o f
.

mechan i cal flight and aerody n a mic s h a s been so very

ably dealt with , that it wo uld be o ut o f place to attempt
to do more than touch on the fringe o f the subject here .

The author o f thi s book h a s be en fo r some ti me more

i nti mately con nected w ith the con struction o f fly i n g
mach ine s and o f engine s o f the high speed internal co m
,

bust i o n type and many practical notes u po n these subject s

,

a re embodied herei n . There are a n u mber o f work s deal

i ng with the underlying pri nci ple s o f dynamic support
w hich may be con su lted , and the author o f thi s little
w ork attem pt s to stri ke a li ne between the h ighly sc i e n t i fi c
a n d the purely descri ptive side o f th i s mo st i ntere sting

subj ect .

I t h a s been n ece ssary an d advi sable to i ntrod uce

c ertai n de scriptive matter , an d by the help o f the il lu stra

tion s thi s h a s been co n den sed a s fa r a s po ssi ble , on ly a

fe w o f the leadi n g type s o f flying machi ne s and their
e ngi ne s being deal t with . I n several place s throughout
thi s book explanation s are given o f the use o f variou s
control s at present adopted i n aeroplane practice, and hint s
o n the A rt o f A viation and the early d i ffi c ult i e s o f the

learner , may prove u se fu l to those who are con templati n g

x PR E F A CE

becom ing successful fli e rs I n a subject whi ch make s such

.

ra pid stride s a s that o f F light it i s d i ffi c ult to be ab solutely

certai n o f data , maker s varyi n g their desi g n s radica lly a n d

freq uently .Care h a s been taken to gi v e correct fi g ure s
when possible , and where m i stak e s or d i screpancie s occu r
the author tru st s the se wi l l be excu sed .

There are a n u mber o f table s throughout the book and

i n the A ppendi x , which shou ld prove o f some use i n work
i ng out aeroplane problem s but it i s not intended that an
aeroplane cou ld be design ed u pon data co n ta i ned herei n ;
certai n o f the fu ndamental formul a : w il l be fou nd i n other
work s devoted more particularly to the m a thematical side
o f the subject The au thor i s i n debted to the proprietor s
.

o f F li gh t fo r perm i ssio n to make use o f some o f thei r

dra wings a s a ba si s fo r the prod uctio n o f several plate s
at the end o f the book A ck nowledg ment and tha n k s
.

are tendered to the proprietors o f the A e ro fo r the loan

o f nu merou s photograph s, which are reproduced , and fo r

permi ssion to use certai n tables o f strength s o f material s .

The il l u stration on the fron t cover i s from an origi nal

sketch en titled The A erial Scorcher o f the Futu re , by
E .W ake Cook , E sq by who se ki nd perm i ssion it i s
.
,

reprod uced .

R . W . A . B .

L ON DO N , Ap ri l 1910
.
 C O NTE NTS .

IN T R O D UC T I O N

C H A PT E R I .

C o mpa ri so n b e t we e n M o n o pla n e s a n d —
B i pla n e s Di fli culti e s
L
‘
A
o f th e e a rn e r w i th th e R e spe c ti ve T y pe s

C H A P TE R I I .

T h e F o rm o f a n A e ro fo i l— D yn a mi c S uppo rt— S ta b i li ty ,W e i g h t,
an d H o rse -
P o w e r F o rmulae

C H A PT E R 1 11 .

E a rly l —
M o d e s H e n so n s M a ch i n e a n d
’
i ts G re a t C o n ce pti o n

C H A PTE R IV .

E i
ng ne P b le ms
ro and P ri n ci ple s o f
D e si g n — Th e S i z e o f
E n g i n e s a n d H o rse P o we r R e qui re d— T y pe s o f E n g i n e s
-

R o ta r y,Vee — R a d ia ti o n F a c i li t i e s R e li a b i li t — E li mi n a
—
y
ti o n o f A lumi n i um— S tre sse s i n a C ra n k C h a mb e r— L ubri
i E ffi c i e n t S y ste ms C ra n k
L
ca ti o n , Th e N e ce ss t y fo r
— —
C h a mbe r ubri ca t i o n C a rbura t i o n T h e N e ce ssity o f a
Ca rbure tto r a n d T h ro ttle C o n tro l—T h e a ck o f E x te rn a l L
H e a ti n g A rra n g e me n ts

C H A PT E R V .

De sc ri pti o n o f E n g i n e s— A n to i n e tte : C o n d i ti o n s fo r th e E li m
i n a t io n o f V i b ra t i o n — G n o me : M e th o d s o f M a n ufa cture
a n d C o n st ruct i o n , D e ta i ls o f a ll t h e W o rk i n g P a rts

E sn a ult P e lte ri e : M a i n De ta i ls, F i ri n g A rra n g e me n ts,

-

V a lv e A rra n g e me n ts A n z a n i : C y lin d e r a n d F i rin g

A rra n g e me n ts P i pe : A rra n g e me n t o f A i r C o o li n g ,
M a te ri a ls o f C o n st ruct i o n , Ca m a n d V a lv e M e ch a n i sm
 C ON T E N T S .

C H A PT E R VI .

PA G E

E n g in e s C o n ti n ue d — G o bro n B ri lli e
-
z M e th o d o f O pe ra ti n g
C a rbure tto r D a rra cq
L— b
V a lv e s, P a n h a rd A ste r
W ri g h t D e ta i ls of u ri ca t o n i and Co n sump
t io n of F ue l, F i ri n g S e que n ce G re e n : A rra n g e me n t o f
W a te r Ja c k e t s— S i mm s : I n le t V a lv e s T w o

S tro ke S y ste m— D e ta i ls o f th e L e a d i n g T ype s

C H A PT E R VI I .

P ro pe lle rs : T h e T h e o ry o f P ro pulsi o n , R e la ti o n s b e twe e n

P i tch , S pe e d , D i a me te r, Th rust, a n d H o rse -
P o we r— T h e
C h a uv iere P ro p e lle r

C H A PT E R V I 11 .

E ffi cie n cy o f P ro pe lle rs : E xa mple s fo r D iffe re n t P ro pe lle rs,

E ffi ci e n cy by H o rse Po we r M e th o d a n d by T h rust M e th o d
-

o f C a lcula ti o n — T a b le s o f E ffi ci e n ci e s

C H A PT E R IX .

M a te ri a ls o f C o n st ruc ti o n fo r A e ro pla n e s W o o d, T ub in g ,
—
W i re , F a b ri c T a b le s o f P e rmi ssi b le a n d M a x i mum S t re ss

C H A PT E R X .

De ta i ls o f M a n ufa ct ure : W i re S tra i n e rs, W o o d S e cti o n s,

M e th o d s o f F ix i n g , S usp e n si o n — S tre sse s i n th e S truct ure

C H A PT E R X I .

S ucc e ssful M o n o p la n e s A n to i n e tte : T y pe s IV . and VI I .

- —
E sn a ult F e lte ri c B lé rio t : T y pe s I X , X L, X I I , D e ta i ls
. .

o f C o n st ruct i o n a n d C o n tro l— S a n to s Dumo n t : G e n e ra l

D e sc ri pti o n a n d D e ta i ls

C H A P TE R X I I
L
.

B i pla n e s— W rig h t Vo i si n C o mpa re d —Th e a te r V o i si n

L
and

M a ch i n e — A ll th e e a d i n g D e ta i ls G i v e n a n d t h e i r M a i n

P o i n ts E x pla i n e d
 CON T E N T S x fii

C H A P TE R XI I I .

PA G E

T h e H F a rma n — C urti ss— M a urice F a rma n a n d C o d y M a ch i n e s

L
.

T a ble o f P a rti cula rs o f th e e a d in g M a ch i n e s

C H A PT E R X I V .

P ro g re ss v ei M o n o pla n e —
Re co rd s B i p la n e R e co rds — Rh e i ms
R e co rd s a nd P e rfo rma n ce s d uri n g th e Ye a r 1 909, wi th
I llustra ti o n s o f so me o f th e N o ta b le M a ch i n e s

C H A PT E R XV .

Th e — —
A rt o f F ly i n g E a rly Di ffi c ulti e s G li d i n g E x pe ri me n t s
— r li d r —
P o in ts to be Re me mb e re d T ra n spo t o G e s S te e ri n g
f
— B a la n ci n g — H o w to M a n i p ula te a F ly i n g M a ch i n e , a n d
th e E ffe ct of i
th e Va r o us C o n tro ls

C H A PT E R XV I .

F uture De v e lo p me n ts— A G li mpse of P o ssi bi li ti e s to be A t

—
ta i n e d a n d th e i r P ro spe ct s o f S ucce ss T h e Use of F ly i n g
M a ch i n e s i n W a rfa re a n d E x plo ra ti o n

CH A PTE R XV I I .

G lo ssa ry of T e rms and E i

x pla n a t o n o f th e F un cti o n s o f e a ch

P a rt of a F ly i n g M a ch in e

A PP E N DI X O F T A B LE S AN D US E F UL D A TA

I N DE X
2 A E RO I L A N E S
’

u pon machine s o f thi s cla ss A n y exten sive fli g h t wh ich

.

h a s been made with the se machines h a s on ly appeared a s

an i mproveme n t u pon a previou s record W ith regard , .

ho wever, to monoplane s, in spite o f many years o f study

and experi m ent , machine s o f thi s type had , at that ti me ,
only man aged to flutt e r or take , at the most , long j u m p s
across the grou nd .

W ithout previou s warn i ng or sel f adverti sement o f any

-

k in d , we sudden ly hear o f extremely successful fli g h t s

made by monoplanes The on ly i n d ication that seriou s
.

work coul d be done by such a type o f mach ine w a s

p erhap s the fli g h t o f M
. Bl eriot from Toury to A rt h e nay

and back w ith o n e stoppage on 31 8 1: O ctober 1 908 a ,

d i stance o f 1 4k ilometre s in eleven m in ute s .

W hen , however , we come to st udy the que stion o f aerial

fli g h t , we fi n d that the earl ie st ex peri menters devoted
them sel ve s al mo st enti rely to the monoplane principle .

Th i s wa s, no doubt , d ue to the endeavour o f man to i mitate

mechan ical ly the shape o f the w i n g s o f a bird There i s .
,

i n the Victoria an d A lbert M u seu m , South K en sington , 3

model o f a machi ne made more than sixty years ago by
Hen son and String fel low The model w a s bu ilt i n accord
.

ance with data gi ven by Si r G e orge Cay ley , who made a

very deep study o f fli g h t a cent ury ago I t i s stated that Si r
.

G eorge s i n sigh t i n to the problem o f aviation wa s pro found ,

’

but neither h i s o wn generation nor h i s successor s real i sed

h i s merit , fo r he wa s so much in advance o f h i s ti me that
it h a s needed an i nterval o f a hu n dred years to demon strate
the truth o f h i s a ssertion s Sir G eorge Cayley antic i pated
.

the advent o f aeroplanes a s he foresaw the great d i ffi c ult i e s

a ssociated w ith dirig i ble bal loon s on account o f their h uge
size. H e e x peri mented to determ ine the l i fting e ffect
wh ich could be obtai ned from sur face s moving through the
ai r at sl ight incli nation s to the horizontal H e al so sug.

ge sted the use o f a tai l a s a mean s o f obtain ing automatic

longi t ud i n al stabil i ty, and he showed how the pivoti ng o f
that tail wo uld enable i t to be u sed a s an elevator H e .
 ’
H E N SO N S M OD E L 3

al so deduced the advantage o f w ing fle x i o n from h is

ob servation s o f bird flight .

Hen son s model , which i s shown i n diagram i n P late s

’

1 to I V and de scribed i n detai l i n Chapter I I I wa s pro

. . .
,

d uce d i n 1 843, and wa s fo r a steam d riven monoplane -

embodyi ng S ir G eorge Cayley s principles I t h a s two ’

.

paddle s 3 ft in d iameter with their blades se t at

.
,

the se paddle s being placed behind the main sur face .

Beh ind the propellers i s a fa n shaped tai l which can be

-

opened or clo sed , a s wel l a s moved i n a vertical plane ,

by mean s o f cord s a nd pu lley s, th i s latter movement
cau si ng the machine to ri se or fal l The actual d i me n
.

sion s o f the model a re 2 0 ft across the main plane by

.

ft wide , givi n g 70 sq ft o f su stai n i ng su r face to the

. . .

mai n plane and abo ut 1 0 sq ft to the tail

. . .

I t may seem , there fore , somewhat strange th a t over

si xty years have elap sed be fore actual r e sult s have been

obtained w ith a ful l si zed machi ne , but th i s i s accou n ted

-

fo r by the fact that it i s o n ly during the la st fe w year s

that a suffi c ie n t ly l ight and po wer fu l motor h a s be en
produced .

I n spite o f the ti me which h a s been taken i n the

development o f practical fly i n g mach ine s, and the enormou s
amo un t o f ex perimental work that h a s been done , it i s
sati s fact o ry to k no w that the lo ss o f l i fe wh ich thi s work
h a s clai med h a s be e n so small , particu la rly i n view o f t h e
hazardou s natu re o f the ex peri ment s P robably thi s ma y .

be due to th e i ntrepid nature o f the ex peri menter s, a s

a lthough fal l s h ave been many , the type o f man h a s been

such , a s
g enera lly e scape s without se riou s i nj u ry N o w .

that the pre li mi nary sc ie n ti fi c wo rk i s practical ly com

p le te d , men o f thi s type may per form the mo s t u nex pected
feat s o f flying .
 C H A PT E R I .

A C OAI P A R I S ON B E T WE E N M ON OP L A NES A N D
B I P L A NES .

W E can not whether one type o f machi n e or another

sa y

i s the correct type fo r fly i ng E ach one h a s i ts advantage s,

.

and i f the general principle s o f de sign are correct , there

i s n o rea son why several type s o f successfu l fly e rs should
n o t be prod uced
” F rom the author s poi nt o f vie w, how
.
'

ever, the monoplane i s the mo st l i kely to be sati sfactory

fo r certai n pur po se s, and h i s rea son s fo r thi s statemen t
‘

are a s follow s
P ri marily with regard to sa fety I t i s a w ell k n ow n .
-

fact that i n order to maintai n rea sonable stability in the

air, i t i s necessary that the maxi mu m velocity o f the
mach ine shoul d be about twice the velocity o f any gu st
wh ich it i s l i kely to encounter I t mu st be borne i n m i nd
.

that one depend s entirely Upon one s vel ocity relatively to ’

that o f the surrou nd ing atmo sphere , fo r su ste ntation and ,

th at if the se rel ative velocitie s are not maintained , the

sustentation at once di mi n i she s, and the machi ne come s

to eart h.

The monopla n e i s e ssentially a hig h speed machi ne ,

an d whereas i n the case o f a bip lane about 2 lb per square .

foot i s the a verage su stai ning e ffect o f the planes, in the

case o f a monoplane thi s fi g ure m u st be nearer 5 lb per .

square fo o t xl
'
O wing to str uctu ral d i ffic ultie s in manu

Th e flig h ts o f th e y e a r 1 9 9 co n fi r
0 m th i s th e o ry .

l S e e T a b le
‘'
on p g
a e 1 78 .
 L
F E X I BI L IT Y AN D R I G I DI T Y 5

fa ct uri n g a large plane area o f the l atter type , the su stenta

tion i s n atu ral ly obtained a s a re su lt o f spe ed so that i f ,

the speed i s kept h igh , it i s possible to make the su stai n ing

sur face smal l. The question the n ari se s w hether a certai n
sustai ni ng area shou ld be ut in to o n e plane or several
p .

The rea son s i n favou r o f the single plane are a s fol low s :
M onoplane con struction i s fle x i ble to a cert a i n ex tent ,
a s the end s o f the plane are only con nected by guy s, some o f

the se bei n g attached to the control ling mechan i sm which i s

operated by the aviator Thi s enables the plane to warp
.

i f struck by a gu st o f win d , and in mo st con struction s a

double warp re su lt s, that i s to sa y , should a gu st stri ke the
trail ing edge o f one wing , thi s edge i mmediately tend s to
assu me a po si t ion paral lel to the earth s su r face , that i s, i ts
’

angle o f incidence i s automatically altered by the pre ssure

o f the w i nd , and the intercon nec t ing mechani sm w il l lower

the trail ing edge o f t h e oth e r w i ng, thu s tend ing to re store
stabili ty. O ne wou ld thin k , there fo re , tha t monoplane s
wou ld be able to fly on fai rly w indy days, and recently the
exploit s o f M Latham have p roved th i s to be the ca se
. .

The higher velocity o f fli g h t o f the mach ine having the

smaller su r face area al so tend s to increa se i ts sa fe ty by

reducing the ri sk s from gu st s o f w ind .

The rigi d con struction o f a bi plane doe s not len d itsel f

to thi s automatic action , and in addition the rigid con nec
tion s between the two plane s mu st be mai ntai ned by me a n s
o f wood or me t al su pplemented by wire s which all o ffer

some re si stance to the air, and the amou n t o f re si stance

which i s produced by a vibrati ng w ire i s su rpri sing .

N o w con sideri ng the matter from the point o f view o f

,

the biplane , we return at once to the que stio n o f velocity

o f flight and su stentatio n , and to the beginner the former

i s o f great i m portance The learner i n every other sport i s

.

a ble to progre ss by ea sy stage s, the motor car driver , fo r

in sta n ce , may proceed slowly u n til he h a s obtai ned mastery

o f the art o f st e ering A flyi ng machine , however h a s
.
,

a critical m in imu m velocity at wh ich su ste n tation occu rs,

6 AER O P LA N E S

and such being the ca se , early flig ht s m u st con si st o f

flutters or hop s u n ti l the buddi ng aviator h a s ob tai ned
suffi c i e n t co n fi d e n ce to increa se h i s velocity and remai n

fo r longer period s in the air The bi plane here h a s the

.

advantage , a s owin g to i ts sur fa ce being generally o f

larger area than that o f a monoplane su sten tation u sually ,

occurs at a vel o city o f approx i mately 30 miles per hou r

relati vely to that o f the ai r .

The begin ner would be well advi sed to commence

F 1G . 1 .
— A n E a rly G li di n g E x pe ri me n t, th e a ssi sta n ts e sca p i n g be lo w th e
M a ch i n e .

operation s in a fairly still atmo sphere and facing a wind

o f sa y 5 mile s per hou r The soaring velocity
. o f the
machi ne relatively to the land mu st be , there fore , o f the
order o f 2 5 m iles per hour I n the case o f some mono .

planes a con siderably higher velocity i s nece ssary and ,

more ne rve or co n fi de n ce w il l be requ ired in order to com

mence operation s at these h igher speed s ; fu rther, the fi rst
wi sh o f the learner on lea ving the ea rth being to return to
it agai n a s quickly a s possibl e , thi s a t h igh speed s become s
 L E A RN I NG T O FLY 7

a d angerou s proceed ing The q ue stio n o f the inertia o f

.

the mach i ne a s a whole mu st be tak e n into accou nt , and

a fa l l at a h igh ve locity may be ex pe ct e d to be more
seri o u s than at the lower velocity o f the bi pl a ne .

There i s another poin t o f great i m portance a n d o n e

which the l earner at onc e d i scovers on making h i s in itia l
trial s and that i s the great d i ffi c ulty o f j udging one s
,
’

position relatively to the earth and al so the y e lo c i ty o f the ,

mach ine and i ts direction o f motion in a vertical plane .

G en erally speak in g th e posi t ion o f the aviator i n a biplan e

,

A e r a ph o to .

FI G . 2 .
-
B o n ne t -
La bra n ch e M o n o pla n e , t h e P o si t i o n o f th e A v ia to r s S e a t
’

wi ll be no ti ce d .

is more convenient from which to make observation s o f

thi s character than i s the ca se with a monoplane I n the .

lat ter mach ine the aviator s seat i s u su a lly near the trai l ing
’

edge o f the main planes, and when the ma ch ine i s i n flight

the se plane obscu re the view al mo st entirely ; u nle ss an
elevated land mark i s available ,the d iffi culty o f locating one s ’

po sition and d i rection m ust be very con siderable .

The forward po sition ob tained i n biplan e co n struction

does not e ntail these d i ffi c ulti e s to an y thing l i k e so great
8 A E RO PL A N E S

an extent , a n d particu larly i s thi s n oticeable i n the F arma n

machi ne, where the aviator h a s a clear v ie w bot h forw ard s
an d d irectly do wnward s I t may be con sidered an a dv a n
.

tage to be able to observe the front elevator which i s i n

many in stance s fi t te d to bi planes a s d i stinct fro m the tai l
o f a monoplane but on the other hand the latter machine
,

u sually h a s i ts engi ne i n vie w o f th e aviator, but it i s on ly

the expe rt who h a s t i me to give any attention to i t W ith .

re ference to engi ne position an i m po rtant feature i s o ften

l ost sight o f, and that i s the relative sa fety a s fa r a s the
aviator i s con cern e d o f variou s engine po sition s .

W e ma y sa y w ith some d e gree o f certai nty that the

sad ly fatal accident s to both Captain Ferber and M .

Le fe bvre were d ue to the en gine being behi nd the av iator

a n d cr ushing h i m when the machin e fell forward .W hen the
engine i s placed in front th i s i s not so l ikely to occu r ; both
po sit i on s, however, lend them selves to d i re ct con nection
bet ween engine and propel l e r a s in stance the Bl eriot and
,

A ntoinette mo n o plane s and the Farman bi plane I n some

.

o f the late st monoplane s th i s di fii c ulty o f ob servance i s

avoided by placing the aviator s seat be low the main plane s

’
.

I t i s q ui te remarkable h o w soo n several begi n ners have

acqu ired the art o f flight wi th monoplanes an d prov ided
,

one h a s suffi c i e n t nerve and pre sence o f mind t h e high ,

e n gi ne powers now em ploye d may i n a mea sure acco un t

.

fo r these succe sses .

Learn ing to fly w ith a monoplane i s u ndoubtedly a

more si mple matter t h an w it h a biplane o f the W right
type , the former when o f the Bl eriot type i s much l ighter,
and i ts i nertia i n flight i s there fore less Succe ssful be
.

gi nners o f the monoplane school vastly outnu m ber those

who are le a rn ing to fly biplane s and the ti me taken du ring
,

t h e proce ss i s ge n eral ly much shorter .

IO A ER O P LAN E S

o f bi rd s which are capable o f su stai ned flight are al l o f thi s

fo rm, a n d h a ve a d ipping fro n t edge I t i s a curiou s fact
.

that thi s d ippi n g edge h a s on ly be en observed com para

t i ve ly recently , the c urvatu re a n d sh a pe o f the thicken e d
”
lead ing edge i s known a s Phill i ps E ntry ’
.

’
Phill ips speci fi cation , N o o f 1 884
.
, show s aero
cu rves o f som e d i fference, some are shown i n F i g 4; A , .

however, wa s a repl ica o f Hen son s T he theory o f Phil l ip s

’
.

FI G .
4
.
-
I h i lli ps A e ro fo il
’ ’
Cur v e s.

wa s that the shape o f the u pper su r face at h is entran t edge

cau sed the ai r to be d e fle c te d upward s a fter meeti ng the
u pper side o f the entran t edge o f the plane and thu s to ,

form a partial vacuu m above the a fter su r face o f the plane .

Fig 4, A , show s a plain single curved su rface o f stee l,

.

the lead ing portion nearly hori zon tal so a s to meet the
ai r without shock T he body o f ai r i s gradual ly d e fle c te d
.

downward s, and i t i s the reaction o f th i s downward de

 P H I LL I PS ’
AE RO F O I L S 1 1

fle ct io n o fthe ai r that cau se s a n equal and opposite

u p ward l i ft u pon the pla n e .

The motion o f the air i n a downward di rectio n sho uld

.

be gradual ly accelerated until the trai ling edge o f the

plane i s reached i n order to secu re maxi mu m e ffi ci e n cy .

T he form o f the cur vatu re to produce th i s re su lt i s

there fore hyperbol ic .

Structural d i ffi c ult ie s occur i n making a thi n plane ,

such a s shown i n F i g 4 , A , so
. Phil lip s prod u ced the de sign
o f Fig 4.
, B , combin i n g rigid ity an d strength o f structu re
with h i s previou s u nder curvature .

The whole o f these design s were the result o f a large

serie s o f p ractical ex peri ment s, a n d it wi ll be noticed that

the convex ity o f the u pper sur face mu st be made greater

than the concavity o f the lo wer one , the combination o f
these t wo cur vatu re s at the leading edge producing a
more pronou nced vacuou s e ffect above the aero foil .

Phi ll ip s found that thi s vacuou s S pace extended farther

forward than i n the ca se o f the single curve , and the i n
crea sed e ffect ba lanced the increa sed head re si stance due
t o the blu nter entry .

Thi s b lu nt entry i s, however , in no wa y really de tri

mental , a s it con form s to true stream l i ne cu rvatu re , the -

trail ing form being o f greate st i mportance , a s i t i s h e re

that the max i mum eddie s woul d be prod uced i n a badly
de signed body .

’
Phi l li ps spe ci fi ca ti o n , N o o f 1 89 1 , show s an
.

aero foil o f the section given i n Fig 4, C, and i s de signed .

to have greater width in direction o f motion , and i s there

fore made more sub stantial .

G reater l i ft can be obtai ned by increasing the chord .

u p to a certai n poi nt withou t d i spr0po rt io n a te increa se o f

skin friction Phil l ip s doe s not favo ur the d ippi ng fron t
.

edge a s i n Fig 4, D , in fact , he strongly condemn s i ts

.

adoption , d ue to the eddie s formed in the l e adi ng portion

o f the concaved sur face marked A i n the fi g ure
, He .

al so states that it requires more power to propel such a

12 A E RO P LA N E S

s u r face , i ts d ri ft i s greater and it h a s a tendency to dive

,

down ward s .

Lanchester sta tes that the theory o f Phil l ips i s i n

complete and erroneo us, though tha t fact i n n o way
detracts from the val id ity o f the patent s .

The question o f dyn am ic su pport i s the fundamental

one o f aeronau tical science Dynamic su pport can on ly be
.

obtained i n air a s a re su lt o f putting in motio n a ma ss o f

’
some sort , and tha t ma ss mu st be ai r N e wto n s law i s to
.

the e ffect that momentu m generated in a mass i n u n it ti me

i s proportional to the force ac ti ng u pon i t I n t h e form o f .

a n equation ,

w h e re F = force , m = ma ss, t = t i me i n seco n d s, and o = the

velocity i n u n it s per second , and fo r a solid body thi s is
easily u nd e r stood .

I n t h e ca se o f air we mu st con sider the mass to be the

sum o f an in fi n ite n u mber o f particle s o f ai r which are se t

i n motion by a moving plane , and the motion i s im parted

con tin uou sly to the particle s the whole ti me the pl ane i s i n
motion Thi s is equ ivalen t to the movement o f the w hol e
.

mass o f air which come s i n contact with the under sur face
o f the plane , th i s ma ss b e ing d e fl e c te d downward s by the

curved plane There is con seque n tly a n equal a n d oppo sit e

.

force ac t ing u pward s u pon the p lane , thi s force being

divided i nto two com ponent s that su stain ing the plane i n
,
”
the ai r cal led the l i ft and tha t acting i n a horizontal
“
,

d irection to overcome the skin friction o f the mach i ne

thi s i s cal led the d ri ft .

N o w , conti n u i n g N e wto n s theory, when W = the weight

’

supported m = t h e mass o f air project e d per secon d , o = the

.

velocity o f do w n w a rd d i scharge i n l i near u nit s pe r se cond ,

we h ave

W mv, o r 71
 A CTI O N OF AN AE RO F O I L 1 3

and E = the energy ex pended per second

5
2
E 1 ,and
1117

If the weight to be sustai ned i s con stant , the energy

ex pended varie s inversely a s the mass o f the ai r moved per
seco n d . W e fi n d , however , i n practice that the weight
su stained by a plane varies approx i mately with the area

o f the plane and the den sity o f the fluid , and a s the square

o f the velocity o f the plane relatively to the air .

The action o f the plane being to d e fle ct downward s a

layer o f air , when the angle o f i ncidence o f the plane i s
smal l i t may appear d i ffi c ult to con tem plate the thic k ne ss

o f the layer o f ai r a ffected The layers o f air in im m e diate

.

contact with the sur face wi l l in tu rn a ffe ct tho se neighbou r

i ng them and so on u nti l the magn itude o f the d e fle ct io n
,

become s inappreciable , so that a con siderable thickne ss o f

ai r stratu m w ill be se t i n motion Lanche st e r state s that
.

the factor li m iting thi s th ickn e ss i s the si ze and shape o f

the plane , a s the more remote layers e scape on ly by rea son
o f the local ci rcu lation o f ai r between poi nt s o f great e r and

le sser pressu re Thi s ci rcu lation depend s u pon the si ze

.

a n d shape o f the plane , an d but l ittle upon i ts angle .

Langley fou n d that with su perposed plane s, 1 5 i n span .

by 4 i n chord , and at angles o f i nciden c e o f le ss than

.

such plane s do not ap pear to have any lo ss o f su stentation

power i f they are sepa rated by a d i stance o f 4 i n The .

conclu sion , there fore , i s that 4i n wi ll be a fai r assum ption

.

a s to the th ickne ss o f thi s layer o f air I n co n sidering the

.

de fle ct i o n o f the stratu m o f air the ela sticity o f the mediu m

mu st be borne i n mind A n inelastic med i u m would ha v e ,
.

o f cou rse , an i n fi n i t e l
y th ick str a tu m to d e fle c t , a s each thi n
layer wou ld be de fle cte d an d l ie paral lel to i ts neighbou r ,
the med i u m below the plane wou ld be de fle cte d i n a
stream parallel to the trai li n g angle o f the plane fo r an i n fi n i te

di stance below i t , or wou ld spread ou t laterally fanwi se .

O wing , however , to the ela sticity o f the ai r, the a mpl i

1 4 AER O P L A N ES

tude rapid ly decrease s a s we leave the vici n ity o f the plane ,

and eddy cu rrent s pa ss from the low e r or p ressu re side o f
the plane to the u pper or ra re fi e d side .

I f the ai r i s a bruptly parted , the sudden alteration o f i ts

relative momentu m c au se s a thru st o n the body cau sin g
thi s movement , the partial vacuu m at th e rear o f the moving
body increa se s thi s r e si stance , a n d the sk in friction o f the
body h a s some e ffect depen d i ng Up on t h e roughn e ss o f i ts
su r face .

The air on being parted doe s not move in sm o o th

stream l ine s, but i n a serie s o f edd ie s th e ki n etic energy o f ,

wh ich mu st be su ppl ied by the source o f e nergy movi ng

the body .

The shape o f the body determines to a great exte nt the

energy which wil l be lost in formi ng eddi e s, the mag n i
tude o f the e n ergy wi ll al so be proportional to the sq uare
o f the velocity o f the body .

The dynam ic re si stance o f a plane movi ng i n a d i re c

tion normal to i ts su r face depend s on the ma ss o f air
a ffected , and thi s i s proportional to the area , so that
I f P th e to ta l pre ssure i n po un d s,
S th e a re a i n squ a re fe e t,
V = t h e spe e d i n fe e t pe r se c o n d,
k th e ma ss o f a c ubic fo o t o f a i r d i v i de d by 2
:

a t n o rma l te m e ra ture a n d p re ssure ,

p
”= th e ra ti o o f th e d y n a mic to th e n e ga ti ve pre ssure a n d
e ra l l th r mo re th a n 2
g e n y ra e .

P
(
b
)
2
= x + -

SV ,
l

(
1
mg to d 1 fi e re n t me n te rs
'

an d k 1 + vari e s a cc o rd ex p e n

from 00 0 1 3to 00 0 1 7 Langley s value being the l atter ’

.
,

and substituting i t we have

P k SV 2
.

the plane , in stead o f bei ng moved i n a normal d irco

If
tion , makes an angle o f i n cidence y , to the direction o f ,

motion , the dynamic action i s no lo n g er symmetrical and

 DY N A M I C RE S I STA N CE OF A P LA N E 1 5

sk in friction come s into accou nt , al so the negative pressu re

decrease s a s the vacuou s space behi nd the movi ng plane
becomes less For all ordina ry a n gle s o f i ncidence between ,
.

°
sa y , 2 and the fol lowi n g relation hold s good
2
P 2 k SV si n 7
.

W hen the angl e f

incidence decrea se s to zero the resi st
o

ance i s that o f the entrant edge and ski n re si stance .

Lanche ster makes th i s approx imately

zé 2
S V
P m
( po un d s) 20

Thu s the co e ffi ci e n t o f skin friction i s more than 5 per cent .

o f the co e ffi c ie n t o f resi stance .

C u rved su r face s show a si mi lar re si stance to flat sur face s .

W hen the cu rvatu re i s de fi n i te the co e ffi ci e n t i s somewhat

higher .

The dynam ic resi stan ce over the whole sur face i s not
symmetrical , the re sul tan t pre ssure being ahead o f the

centre o f the area , a d i stance depending Upon th e a n gle o f

incidence o f the su rface .

I f A i s the d i stance in feet from the entre o f p re ssure c to

the cen tre o f area , and L = th e length o f plane in the dirce
tion o f motion ,
A = o 3 (1 —si n y ) L
. .

z i n i s fo r mula
’

(Jo e sse l a n d A )
ra n .

A t n ormal inclination o f, sa y , the centre o f pressure

i s a bout one third o f the length o f the chord from the
-

leadi ng edge A s the angle o f incidence decrease s, the

.

centre o f pre ssu re move s forward u nti l a critical angle i s

reached , when it rapidly move s backward s .

I n order to have condition s o f stabi lity the centre o f

“
pressu re and the centre o f gravity m u st coi ncide ; i f th i s i s
not the case a turn ing moment wil l be se t up abou t the
centre o f gravity, the magn itude o f which wi ll be the
i nt e n si ty o f the stre ss upon the centre o f pressure i nto

In a ct ua l flig h t th e ce n tre o f g ra v i ty sh o uld be ig h tly

sl a h ea d o f

th e ce n tre o f p re ssure . S e e pa g e 17 .
16 A E R O PL A N E S

the d i stance between the centre s o f pressure and gravity .

I f the angle an d the normal pre ssure are con stant thi s
tu rning moment is con stant and can be neutral i sed by
moving either the centre o f gravity or that o f pre ssu re
until the two coi ncide E arly experi men ters endeavoured
.

to move the centre o f gravity by sh i ft ing their body or legs

i n i mitation o f a bird , which throw s fo r ward i ts head or
legs to su it the prevailing condition s The Vrig h t bro th e r s .
-

F 11 1 5
. .
-
Mr A . O gi l i
v e s
’
W ri gh t C l rk e G li de r n th e S t
-
a o a rti n
g Ra i l
,

sh o wi n g C o n t ro l G e r a d F ro n t E le a t r
a n v o .

d i scov ered that it wa s much ea si e r and at the same ti me

qu icker to move the centre o f pre ssur e , and fo r thi s pu rpo se
de signed the front elevator plan e so that i ts su stentation
power s could rapidly be altered by al tering i ts angle o f
i ncidenc e (Fig 5 and F i g
. .

A n aerop lane i s longitudinal ly stable i f the fo llo w ing

two cond ition s are mai ntaine d (Chatley a n d Captain
Ferber ) :
I 8 A E RO I LA N E S ’

sol w i t, and to cau se the fro n t to d ip ; the centre o f pre s

sure mov e s fo r w ard and te n d s to re store t h e plane to i t s
,

original po siti o n ; the downward v elocity ca used by gravi

t a t i o n t e nd s to increa se the sp e e d o f flight , so that i f t h e
machin e i s stable the co n d itio n s wil l bala n ce W h e n the .

machine se ttle s down to a condition i n which the re si st

anc e d ue to the re sulta n t v e locity j u st balanc e s th e com
pon e n t o f we ight i n th e d ire ction o f motio n , st e ady hori
z o n t a l flight wi ll en sue ; i f t h e v e locity i s red uced , the
mach in e wi l l drop a n d gain k in e tic energ y u ntil i ts critical
v e locity i s ac q u ire d I f howev e r t h e vel o city o f the
.
, ,

mach i n e i s i n cre a se d it w il l ri se a n d gain pot e ntial en e rgy

, .

W e ig ht .
—T h e
re lation s b e twee n weight an d su stenta
tion are a ha v e a lre a dy be e n re fe rre d to a n d ta k ing 7 a s ,

t h e a n g l e o f i n c id e n ce w h e n 7 i s smal l ,

Le t co s 2 1 , a n d si n a nd S = th e a re a
7 ,
y
zé (2 x 00 0 1 7) ( a c o n sta n t),
si n
3
W 2 1 SV
'

7 s
‘
c o y,
“
7
2

W
S
0 00 1 2 V
'

If V 20 mi le s pe r h o ur :
30 ft pe r se c o n d , sa y
.

8 W th a t i s th e a re a in sq ua re fe e t th e we i g h t i n po un d s .

To fi n d th e thr ust r e qu ire d

IfH th e fo o t po un d s pe r se c o n d ,
o

R th e re si st a n c e o f t h e ma c h i n e i n u d s
p o n ,

P th e t o ta l pre ssure o n th e pla n e s i n po un d s,

S t h e a re a i n squa re fe e t,
R P si n y si n
‘
2
y .
*

S i e — co si n e — ta n ge n t 5 e nd f ch apter
( n . 00 o fo r

p la n a ti o n ) .

IfC th e p ro j e c te d ma c h i n e a s a wh o le i n squ a re
a re a o f th e
fe e t, a furth e r re si sta n ce , C V , must be a llo we d
"
.

( CV 2
)V 21
( 8 si n
‘

11 R 1

y C )V 3
.

Th us t h e p o w e r v a ri e s a s th e cube o f th e s pe e d ,

See T a b le an d N o te s i n A p pe n d ix .
 S U S T E N TA T I O N A N D P O W E R RE Q U I RE D 19

If
we decrease y , and keep C c o n stan t , and keep i n
view the fact that 7 h a s a l i miting val u e determ ined by the
weight o f the mach ine so a s to ma i ntain the l i ft
W hen the motion i s h ori z onta l ,
W P co s y 2k S V 2
si n 7 c o s y,
and when V i s known , 7 can be fou n d the val ue fo r V will
be the soaring speed o f the machine .

N o w H = TV that i s, the thru st m ul tipl ied by the

velocity i s equal to the foot pou nd s per second , -

2
T R CV C
Z k S si n 7 co sy
’

and neglecting the second term which i s smal l ,

ta n y = si n or
1,
\V

3 o r 4
M r Thu rston give s i ts val ue , ho weve r, a s
\V
‘

If a propel ler thr ust o f 12 lh . per horse po wer , the n -

“ I
1 2 H
,
4
th e n W =
48 H ,

so that 1 H P . . wou ld be req u ired per 48 lb weigh t . as a

l i mit .

S in e .
— The mean ing o f
thi s property o f an angle can
s o ll —
be sim ply ex plai ned a f o ws z S u ppose we have an
incl ined plane an d a wooden block is moved a long it from
,

the bottom to the top , the bloc k w i ll attai n pote n tial e n ergy ,
or i n other word s i ts po sition w ith regard to i ts di stance
from the centre o f the eart h wi l l be i ncrea sed T h e ratio .

o f the height i t wi ll be rai sed to the length o f the path it

h a s traver sed up tlze i n cli n ed p la n e i s nu merically e qual to

C h a uv i ere co mb i n a ti o n g iv e s a th rust o f a pp ro x
T h e A n za n i -
.

1 0 i h pe r H P a g a i n st a fi x e d po i n t, a n d W = 3 4 H i h
'

. . .
3 a ppro x n t e .

B leri o t X I ty pe I n fli g h t, o f co urse , th i s th rust i s lo we r

. . .
20 A E RO P L A N E S

the sine o f the angle that the face o f the plane make s with
the horizon tal .

—
T a n g e n t Suppo sing now that i n moving the block
along the plane the di stance traversed i s reckoned i n a
Izo rzz o n ta l di recti o n o n ly , the ratio o f the height the b lock
'

wa s rai se d to the horizontal d i splacemen t wil l be nu meri

cally equal to the tangent o f the a n gle that the face o f the
plane m a k e s wi th the hori zontal I t wi l l be se en that w lzen
.

z/ze a ng le i s sma ll the val ue s o f the sine and the tangent

‘
are approxi mately equal .

I f we have an ela stic med iu m such a s ai r, and the block

or i ts eq uivalen t i s arrange d to move on an i ncl i ned plan e ,
bei n g an alogou s to the angle o f incidence o f an aero foil ,

and the block i s moved , i ts path will not be u pward s

n e ce ssa ri ly o w ing to the d i splac e m e n t o f the ela stic medi um .

I f the path o f fligh t i s hori zontal in stead o f the b loc k

,

or aero foi l attain ing pote n tial energy it wil l i m part energy
to the ai r, and t h e slip wil l be 1 00 per cent The e ffect .

wou ld be si mi lar in the ca se o f a sol id to the bloc k de

pre ssing or l e vel l ing out the i ncl in e d pla n e Under such .

cond ition s it will be the tangent o f the ang le which concern s

us . N o w sti ll furt h er m a k ing a su ppo sition the flight path
, ,

i s i ncl i n ed u pward s, thi s add itional angle i s appl ied a d

j a c e n t ly to the previou s angle , and the sli p i n the former
con dition s being exactly 1 00 per cent the second angle .
,

mu st be con sid e red fo r i ts sine value so w e have the sum ,

o f the tangent o f the normal angle o f i ncidence and the ,

si ne o f the angle o f a scent . W e can write th i s do wn a s

twice the si ne or the tangent o f e i th e r angle i f we plea se ,
when the angle i s smal l and the relation o f one va lue to
the other will be u n ity .

The Co si n e o f the angle i s the ratio o f the length o f

the path along the i nclined plane to the hori zontal path ,
and it i s obviou s that when the a n gle i s smal l i ts value i s
approx imate ] y u n ity .

A ta b le o f th e se v a lue s i s g i v e n i n th e A p pe n d i x .
 EA R L Y M OD E LS .

H e n so n s M a ch i n e
’

(Plate s I .to Th i —
s machine h a s

been re ferred to i n the open i ng chapter, a n d owing to the

remar k able nature o f Hen son s d i scoverie s, w i ll be treated
’

here i n detail A lthough Hen son invented h i s machine i n

.

the year 1 835 , i t wa s not u ntil the year 1 842 that he fi le d

h i s fi n a l spe c i fi ca t i o n wh ich wa s fi n a lly sealed on 2 9th
M arch 1 843 Hen son i s descri bed in h i s spe c i fi ca t i o n a s
.

an engineer and h i s foresight and abi lity shou ld ran k hi m

,

a s one o f the foremo st o f h i s pro fession The spe c i fica t i o n

.

i s fo r “
I mprovemen ts i n locomotive apparatu s and
machine ry fo r conveying letter s good s, and pa ssengers
,

from place to pl ace through the air , part o f wh ich i m pro v e

ments are applicable to locomotive and other mach i nery
”
to be u sed on water or on la n d The com mercial in stinct
.

wa s here evident , although even at thi s pre sen t ti me

aviation i s sti ll con sidered a s a sport rather than a s a
commercial problem .

The spe c i fic a ti o n de sc ribe s the i nve n tion a s relating

fi rst to the con struction o f locomoti ve machinery and
apparat us fo r con veying letters, good s, and such l i ke
through the air ; a n d second ly, to certai n i m provemen t s
in steam boilers and mach inery I t i s only to the fi rst part
.

that we wil l give con sideration at pre sent

If any li gh t a n d fla t o r n e a rl y fla t artic le be pro j e c te d o r
t h ro wn e dge wi se i n a sli gh tly i n cli n e d po si ti o n , th e sa me will
ri se i n th e a i r till th e fo rce e xe rte d i s e x pe n de d, wh e n th e a rti c le
so t h ro wn o r p ro j e c te d will d e sc e n d a n d i t wil l re a d il y b e
2!
22 AE RO PL A N E S

co n ce i ve d th a t i f th e a rticl e so pro j e cte d o r th ro wn po sse sse d

i n i tse lf a c o n ti n u o u s po we r o r fo rce e qual to th a t use d i n
t h ro wi n g o r pro j e c ti n g i t, th e a rt ic le wo ul d c o n ti n u e to asc e n d
so l o n g a s th e fo rwa rd pa rt o f th e sur fa c e wa s up ward s i n re spe c t

to t h e h i n d e r pa rt . Su ch a n a rticl e wh e n th e po we r wa s sto ppe d

o r wh e n th e i n c li n a ti o n wa s re ve rse d wo ul d d e sc e n d b a i t
y g r v y
o n l y i f t h e po we r wa s sto d b i t ai d d b th e fo r c e
pp ,
e o r y gra v y e y
o f th e po we r c o n ta i n e d i n th e a rt icl e i f th e po we r be c o n t i n ue d ,
”
th us i mi ta ti n g th e fli gh t o f a bi rd .

The fi rst part o f the in vention con si sted o f an apparatu s

so con structed a s to o ffer a very extended sur face or p lane

o f a l ight but strong con struction re sembl ing the wi ng s o f

a bird when the bird i s sk i m mi ng through the air , bu t i n

place o f these wing s having any reciprocati ng movement
a s have a bird s wing s suitable padd le s, t wo i n nu mber ,
‘

were fi x e d at the rear o f the mai n su pporting planes .

I n order to gi ve control to the who le con struction , a tai l

( Plate I V )
. wa s provided capable o f being rai sed or i ncli ned ,

so that when the power acted to propel the mach ine , the tai l ,

when i ncl ined upwa rd s, o ffe re d re si stance to the air, thu s

cau sing the mach ine to ri se on the ai r Conversely w hen .

the i n cl i n ation o f the tai l wa s reversed the mach ine wa s

i m med iately prope ll e d downw a rd s, the path o f flight be ing
proportional to the i ncl ination o f the tail I n order to .

guide the machine a s to latera l direction , a vertical rudder

or second tail wa s provided , and accord i n g a s th i s wa s
d e fle c te d i n one d irection or another , so wou ld the lateral
path o f the mach ine be d i rected The main poi nt s i n the
.

con stru ction o f thi s mach ine were lightn e ss comb i ned with
str e n gth in r e spect to the machine it se l f— and l ightne ss with

re spe ct to the magn itude o f the pow e r developed by the

e n gine .

Plate I re pre se nt s Hen son s machi ne with the covering

.
'

fabric re moved i n order to trace more read ily the con

structi o n o f the frame wor k Plat e I I sho w s the same
. .

machin e with th e cov e ring i n p la ce Plat e I I I show s the

. .

underside vi e w o f the machi n e with the covering fab ric in

 D E T A I LS 01 1 CO N ST RU C T I O N OF H E N S ON S
'
M AC H I N E 23

place and gives an idea o f the appearance o f the m a chi ne

,

to an ob server below when the mach ine i s i n flight O t h e r .

fi g ure s are shown givi ng detail s o f con struction to a la rger

scale . Plate I V show s a side view o f the mai n frame o r
.

wings Plate I V , fi g 5 , show s a plan o f the t a i l fo r con

. . .

trollin g the di rection o f the machine in i ts u pward and

downward di rection , and Plate I V , fi g 6 , show s a side view. .

o f the same tail Plate I V , fi g 7, show s one o f the frame

. . .

bars which run from front to back o f the machine and it ,

wi ll be noticed that the con struction o f thi s bar or rib i s

exact ly in accordance wi th modern idea s fo r the c o n stru e
tion o f t h i s member The arch e d form i s al so embod ied
.

though the curve i s sl igh tly d i fi e re n t from the mod e rn

'

cu rve o f Phil l ips Hen son states that he pre fer s t h e

.

material to be wood or bamboo in order to obtai n suffi

cient l ightne ss combined wit h stre ngth Section s o f t h e .

hollow wooden bars are al so sho w n , and the se are mo st

i n tere sting in vie w o f modern co n struction , al so t h e tight e n
ing screw s fo r the bra cing wi re s o f t h e riggi n g .

I t will be seen th a t the m a ch ine con si st s o f a wid e

plane or su r face exten ding on each side o f the car or body
o f the machine .

Thi s body i s i ntended fo r th e conveyance o f the letters

or good s re ferred to be fore The position o f t h e propel l ing
.

mechan i sm i s al so shown and it is d i stinctly stat e d th a t

,

the location o f thi s gear shou ld be rather fo rward i n th e

car becau se from ex peri me n t Hen son fou nd i t d e sira ble
, ,

that the weight carried by such a type o f machine shou ld

be forward .

There wa s no doubt some ex p e ri me n tal d e termi nation

a s to the po sitio n o f the centre o f gr a vity , and i ncidentally

o f the centre o f pre ssure u pon t h e su pp o rting sur fac e s but ,

no re ference i s made a s to eith e r o f the se two important

i n flue n c e s i n the d e sig n o f the machine .

The mach i ne wa s provid e d w ith three wheel s so that

it cou ld ru n fre ely u p o n the e a rth without i nj u ry a n d it ,

wa s anticipate d that o wi n g to t h e fa ci l iti e s fo r contr o l

,
24 AE RO PL A N E S

o tTe re dby the tail , the car cou ld be governed in i ts de scent

so a s to come to ear th at an incli ne so slight that in taking

the grou nd , very l ittle shock wo uld be perceived by the

passengers .

The wing s were securely su pported on the c a ntilever

pri nciple from two masts fi x e d i n the car whic h ri se above
,

the upper p art o f the car F rom the u p per end s o f these
.

ma st s th e main plane s are su spended on either side and ,

the fram i ng o f the p lane s wa s b raced to the lower end s o f

t h e se ma st s The su spen sion wa s by wire s, pre ferably o f
,
.

an oval section in order to min i mi se ai r re si stance A i s .

the fore ma st and B the h ind ma st and the su spe nd ing

,

wi re s ( 1 ) ( 1 ) de scend to the poi nt s (2 ) (2 ) o f the lateral

main bar s C D o n either side o f the car, and t h u s su spend
,

the se bar s from the ma st s .

The other su spend ing wi re s (3) 3) attached to the upper

part s o f the ma st s cro ssed eac h other and were attached
,

to the same point s (2 ) (2 ) on the bars C , D , there being

corre spo ndi n g wire s to the lower end s o f the ma sts S us .

pending wire s (4) (4) were attached to the framework E E , .

carryi ng the tail o f the mach ine, and wi re s (5 ) (5 ) were

tak en from the u pper part o f the fore ma st A to the
fro n t o f the car and wi re (7) wa s fi x e d to the u ppe r part
,

o f the fore ma st , and attached to t h e h in der frami ng o f

the car O ther wire bracing i s shown on the fi g ure s and

.
,

it w il l be noticed how complete wa s the triangu lation o f

the sy stem , the object bei n g to obtai n gr e at sti ffness and
stren g th combin e d with l igh t ne ss o f structu re .

The mai n bars C 1) were made hollow , and the bar G

,

wa s a plan k o f wo o d on edge , i t being the central mai n bar ;

th e se thr e e were fi x e d together by t h e end piec e s H , H .

The fron t bar I o f the machi ne w a s combined with the

other three main bars to form one frami n g by mean s o f
the add itional bar s H , J, K .

The covering o f the framework w a s o f strong oi led si l k ,

a n d these coveri ng s were to be fi x e d to l ight frame s, capab le

o f sl idi ng to and fro on the mai n bar s C , D , G i n such a

 C H A PT E R IV .

P RI N CI P L E S OF D ES I G N A N I ) ENG I NE

W H E N con sidering the design o a machine , the fol lowing

f
point s m u st be borne i n m ind : fi rst, the weight o f the
comple te machi ne with the aviator ; second , the velocity at
which thi s machine i s to be projected th rough the ai r th ird ,

the hor se power nece ssary to produce th i s velocity The

-

elementary principle s wh ich govern the se factors a re dealt

with i n Chapter I I , but one cannot de fi n i te ly fi x on al l
.

these li m it s i n an arbitrary manner Certain fundamental

.

requ i rement s m u st be decided u pon ,and the other d e pe n dent

featu re s m u st be care fu l ly wor k ed out and the who le o f the
re su lt s mo d i fi e d to su it each other a s the conception o f
the machine proceed s For i n stance we may decide u pon
.
,

the ve locity o f flight , then the que stion o f t h e si ze o f the

machine depend s to a great exte n t u pon the w e ight o f the
machine it sel f, becau se the factors o f weight head re si sta n c e
, ,

an d ski n friction m u st be cou nterbalanced by th e su pport

which the atm o sphere a fi o rd s when acting u po n the lower
sur face o f the su pporting plane s N o w the w e ight o f t h e
.

mach i ne depend s u pon the weight o f the motor, while that

i n tu rn depen d s u pon the hor se power which i t mu st ex e rt
-

S o that a s the de sign proceed s it will be se en that certai n

matters crop u p which n e c e ssit a te sl ight mo d i fi ca t i o n s i n
order to fi t i n with the c a lcul a tion fo r the whol e mac h i n e .

G reat i mporta n ce mu st be attached to t h e hor se p o w e r o i

'

the motor becau se with a n y pa rticu lar si ze o f machine an

,

increa se o f thru st to that machine ma k e s an en o rmou s

26
 H OR S E P O W E R R E Q U I R E D
-
27

di fference , a s wil l be seen from the actual per formances

which have been carried out i n France Ta k e , fo r i n stance ,
.

the per formances o f Bl eriot and Farman who , each with ,

smal l machines, succeeded i n carrying, be sides hi m sel f, fi rst

one passenger and eventually two the ratio o f weight o f

these two passengers to the weight o f the com plete machi ne
mu st have been very con sidera ble I ncrea sed weight can ,
.

a s h a s been already shown , be carried by i ncrea si ng the

horse power o f the e n gine , combined , o f cou rse, with a

-

su itable propeller fo r t ran sform ing that horse power into -

horizon tal thru st

.

R e ferri ng to the data g iven i n Chapter I I we may

take a s an average that one thru st horse power i s requ ired
-

fo r eve ry 34 lh weight o f machine fo r aeroplane s o f

.
,

the u sual type s a s made i n 1 909 flyi ng at a speed

,

of 3 0 m i l e s per hour Thi s val ue cannot be taken a s a

.

hard and fast fi g ure , and it depend s natu rally upon m a n y

rul ing con sideration s such a s air re si stance a n d h e a d
re si stance an d the de sign o f the prope ller .

The work requ ired to im part a given speed to any

machine i s equal to {1 711 12 i n foot pou n d s per second The
2 -
.

attain ment o f flight , there fore , re solves it sel f i nto the

ex pend iture o f foot pound s o f work u pon some re si sting
-

medi u m I t d o es not sign i fy whether the se foot po un d s

.
-

are ex pended by the engine itsel f or by a falling weight or

any other sim i lar mean s I n add ition to the above factors,
.

the skin friction o f the machine and t h e friction o f i ts

wheel s or runners u pon the grou nd m u st be taken i nt o
accou nt I t i s evident there fore , that i n a mach ine o f the
.
,

u sual type which relie s entire ly upon i ts engine to over

come th i s i nitial friction , the power o f the engine m u st be
suffi c i e n t fo r the purpo se , and greater than that requ ired

to propel the mach ine at i ts soaring velocity in the ai r .

G eneral ly speaking the d i Ffi culty o f fi n d i n g a su itable

,

level starti n g track , u pon which a high velocity can be

attain e d , also nece ssita tes th e use o f a fairly power fu l
mo tor , a s the di stance to be traversed upon the g rou nd
28 A E RO PL A N E S

depend s upon the acceleration o f the machi ne , and t h e

greater thi s i s, the shorter wi ll be the prel im inary ru n .

A s the sur face o f the plane i s a con stant quantity and

cannot at pre sent be increased when it i s de sired to ri se
from the gro und , thi s larger engine power sho uld be pro
v i d e d in practical machi ne s so that w h en in actual fl ig h t
the engine w i ll work below i ts max i mu m capacity I n t h e .

author s opi n ion th i s i s a d e sirable state o f a ff airs, pa rti cu

’

la rly i n view o f the fact th a t an engine working at fu ll load

“

fo r contin ual period s i s d i ffi cult to mai ntai n , a s h a s be en

proved u pon the Brooklan d s track i n t h e long di stance -

motor car races .

The exact value o f the power requ ired to propel a n

a eroplane wil l vary with ea ch part i cular type o f mach ine .

A s an ind ication o f thi s power we wi ll take the co e ffi c i e n t

o f traction a s be i ng equa l to one si xth o f the wei g ht o f t h e -

W
machi n e , T P in which ca se a machi ne weighing
6
1 ,5 00 lhwou ld requ ire a thru st o f 2 5 0 lh , and one weighing
. .

2 5 0 lh wou ld requi re 6 7lb

. .

T h e thru st hor se power i s the product o f the thru st i n

-

pou nd s and the speed o f flight ; thu s i f the flying speed

o f the mach ine i s 40 mi le s per hou r, and the thru st
requi red i s 2 5 0 lb, the horse power
.
-

25° x 4° 5 2 8°
T h rust H P . .

60 x

N o w thi s fi g ure m u st be modi fi ed to allow fo r lo sse s in the

e ngine and the t ra n sm i ssion , and fo r the e ffi c ie n cy o f the
propel ler, and ta k ing a rea sonab le fi g ure a s 5 0 per cent .

fo r the sum o f the se lo sse s, at lea st a 5 0 H P engine . .

would be de si rable Con sidering now the a ssumed .

smal ler mach ine , the thru st o f 6 7lh fo r a m a chine weigh ing .

The B leri o t XI . ma ch in e re ui re s a
q th rust o f 1 80 lh . a g a i n st a

fi xe d po i n t fo r a to ta l we ig h t o f 700 lb . T and i n flig h t a pp ro

4
W
10 t h rust h o rse po we r -
.

7
 T H RU S T H OR S E P O W E R R E Q U I R E D
-
29

400 lh (
.the D emoi“
selle weigh s without the aviator 2 42

we have , at 35 mi les per hou r, 6 2 5 thru st H P Hence . .

,

sa y , a 1 2 B H P engine , showing th a t a comparatively sm al l

. . .

engine ca n suffi ce to propel and su stain a machi ne o f the se

d imen sion s T he se engi ne po wers are only fo r hori zontal
.

7
. G no me E n gin e e re cte d i n th e Te sti n g Fra me .

flig h t and ma k e no accou nt o f the power req uired fo r

ascend ing .

F lying machi ne e n gi ne s are by no mean s settled down

to one or even t wo conventional type s, and scarcely any two
ma k e rs o f repute a re prod uci n g similar engine s The mai n .
30 A E RO P L A N E S

d i fference s may be cla ssi fi e d i n to arrange me n t o f cyli nde rs,

n umber o f cylinder s either odd or even a n d radiatio n either
,

by water j acket s or by ai r di re c t .

The arrangemen t o f the cy li nders i n star shaped or -

radial form al lo ws o f a short cran k sh a ft and a good d i s

t ri but i o n o f im p ul se s
. E ngine s o f thi s ty pe were original ly
fi tte d on ly to monopla ne s .

The G nome engi n e (F ig .however, h a s pro ved so

succe ssfu l that biplan e s are fi t te d wi t h i t, notably the

Farman machine .

R ad ial engin e s are ei ther arranged with stationary or

rotary cyl inders, advantage being taken o f the rotating
ma ss in the latter i n stanc e fo r th e el i min a tion o f a separate
fi y wh e e l R otary cyl i n ders, however have several d i s
‘

.
,

advantages one o f wh ic h l ie s i n the power re qu ired to

,

overcome the ai r r e si stance se t up by the rotati n g cyli nders

at h i g h speed s, i n the G nome engine thi s i s a bo ut 1 5 H I ’

.
’
.

There are mechanical d ifli c ultie s al so and the mean s

‘
,

adopted i n overcom i ng som e o f the se wi ll be apprecia ted

when re ference i s made to the de scri ption o f the G nome
engine in the next chapter .

W he n the cyl inders a re o f the ve rtical fi xed type or

o f the Vee arrangeme n t , the engine i s more nearly si m i lar

to the ordinary motor car engine but such i ncrea se s i n the

,

nu mber o f cy linders a s are now qu ite u sual in flying engine s

p ermi t o f the en ti re el i m ination o f the fl y w h e e l .

Some o f th e eight cyl in der engine s wi ll run at spe e d s

-

a s low a s 1 5 0 revolu tion s per m i nute w ithout falter , no fl

y
wheel being fi tt e d .

The problem o f radiation i s somewhat si mpler in a

fly i n g machi n e engine than i n that o f a motor car, a s i n
the former case the engin e it sel f i s placed i n an ex po sed
po sition The velocity o f fli g h t prod uce s ai r cu rrents o f
.

con siderable m a gn itude , thu s ma k ing d irect air cool ing o f

com paratively large e n g i n e s a po ssibil ity The el i mi nation
.

o f water j acket s with thei r attendan t ra diator, p um p ,

and body o f w a ter ena ble s the weight o f the prop e ll ing
 TYPE S OF E N GI NE S AN D E N G I N E P RO B L E M S 31

mechan i sm to be r e duced , bu t at the same time rel iability

o f ru n n ing may be i mpaired B y rel iabi lity i s meant the .

du ration o f period o f ru nn ing con secutively, developi ng

max im um power .

The engi ne problem h a s i n the pa st been the retard i ng

factor i n the attain ment o f mechan ical flight Thi s problem .

i s d ivided into two part s : ( 1 ) max i mu m power prod uced

with an engine o f m ini mu m weight , and (2 ) reliabi l ity o f the
engine which wi l l not overhe a t when ru nn ing fo r long
pe riod s at ful l power The d i ffi c ulty o f k eeping flying
.

e ngi n e s ru n ning fo r lengthy period s i s an accepted fact ,

8
.
-
Di a g ra m o f th e D uth i e l -
Ch al me rs T wo -
Cy li n de r

O pp o se d E ng i n e .

and generally speak ing a water cooled engi n e h a s a better -

chanc e o f maintai n ing a normal worki ng tem peratu re than

h a s an air c o oled one , bu t p e rhap s n o t to the exten t which
-

i s repre sented by the guaran t e e o f D ut h i e l Chalmers Thi s -

.

fi rm guarantee s a twelve hou r run with their water cooled - -

motor (F i g . having two cyl i n der s 1 2 5 m m d iameter , , .

but wi th thei r ai r cooled motor, with the sa me cyl i n der

-

’
d iameter , they guarant e e o n ly a one hour s ru n I n con .

si d e ri n g the se fi g ure s we mu st a l so ta k e i nto acco un t the

fact that the water cool e d e n gi n e weigh s 75 lh per horse

-
°

power wherea s the air cooled en g i ne weigh s only 3 1 lh

,
-
.

per horse power

-
.
32 A E RO PL A N E S

M odern tendency h a s al l been toward s the de sign o f

ultra light engine s, i n which alu m in i u m h a s be en adopted
-

a s one o f the pri nci pal material s ; steel cyl inder s and pi ston s

al so form a feature i n modern engine con struction A lu .

m in iu m i s generally an u ndesi rable material , fo r many

rea son s, fo r use where heavy stre sses occur , such a s i n

cran k chamber con stru ction I t i s al so u nrel iable a s a

.

fi x i n g fo r stu d s, and i n the maj ority o f ca se s coul d well

be replaced by su itable pre ssed steelwork . Suc h a
material care fu lly propo rtioned wou ld be in fi n itely su p e rior
to al u mi ni u m i n every way, even though i ts weight were
l ittle more than that o f al u mi n iu m fo r the same purpose .

Tal<e fo r in stance the upper hal f o f the cran k chambe r

_

thi s i s pri mari ly a fi x i n g bed fo r the cylinders in a four

cyl inder motor o f ordinary type Thi s portion o f the
.

engine al so act s a s a su pport fo r the cran k sha ft , and act s

a s a di stance piece betwee n the cyl i nder s an d the cra n k

sha ft . I t h a s to w ith stand the stre sse s d ue to the thr ust

o f the pi ston s, tran sm itted to the cran k sha ft th rough th e

con necting rod s T h e uppe r h al f o f the cran k chamber i s

.

there fore in ten sion between the cyl inder faces an d the
main bearings and i t m u st be longitudinal ly sti ff to pre vent
,

the cran k sha ft from springing The dutie s to be performed

.

do not conclude here, a s the cyl in ders mu st be fi rmly held

on accou nt o f the side thru st o f the pi ston s due to the
an gu larity o f the connecting rod s I t wi ll be seen there
.
.

fore , that great strength and rigid ity are requ i red , and in
’
the a uthor s O pin ion thi s can be st be obtained by st e el
suitably de signed w ith ribs between the top face and the

mai n be aring bracket s The holding down bolt s o f the

‘
.
-

cy li n de rs ca n be made use o f a s in the G ree n engine , to

retai n the main bearing caps i n po sition , and thu s strengthen

the whole con struction M agnaliu m i s being u sed in some
.

engine s to replace alu min ium ; it i s light and strong, bu t

somewhat ex pen sive .

Perhap s the mo st i mportant problem s i n con necti o n with

ae rial engine s are tho se o f l ubrication and carburati o n .
34 AE R O P L A N E S

material seize more readily tha n two cast iron su r face s in -

contact owi ng to the fi bro us nature o f the material .

W hen splash l ubrication i s rel ied u pon fo r the cyl i nder

wall s, the problem i s somewhat si m ilar to that in motor car
de sig n , a s the i ncli nation o f the engine i n a fore and a ft
dire ction will be approx imately the same i n both ca se s
’
under ord in ary worki ng condition s O ne o f the condition s .

o f the te st s o f engine s fo r the Patric k A lexander pri ze i s

that the engi n e s mu st be ru n fo r a period o f one hou r i n

either d irection at an i ncl ination o f D irect cou pl e d
engine s fo r aerial work have an extra bearing v i z , the , .

thr ust be ari ng, which requ ire s lubrication , a s the whole o f
the thru st o f the propell e r m u st be ta k en u p from the e n d
o f the cran k sha ft S pecial arrangements are provided i n
.

other e n gine s fo r the lubrication o f t h e cylinder wall s by

mean s o f d irect oi l feed R otary engi ne s receive their oil
.

supply fo r thi s pu rpo se by the aid o f centri fugal force .

The ex a ct qual ity or spe ci fi ca t i o n o f the l ubric a nt fo r

any partic ular engine or sea son can on ly be determined
sati sfactorily by e xperi ment Pau lhan u sed fo r h i s G nom e
.

engine at Broo k land s a m i xture o f castor oil and petrol in

equal propor tion s I t i s the duty o f the oi l man ufacturer s
.

to sup ply a sati sfactory l ubrican t , and out side the scope o f
thi s boo k .

Ca rbura ti o n fo r A e ri a l E
The probl e m o f the ng in e s —

carburatio n fo r th e e ngi n es o f flyi n g machine s d i ffers in

so me re spect s from t hat o f mo tor car engine s I n the fi rst .

plac e the se engi n e s ru n u sual ly at or n e ar ful l po wer , they

,

are not requ i red to be throttled do wn to any exte n t , and

i n som e e n gine s no provi sion i s even made fo r thi s pu rpo se .

O nly wh e n engine s o f extra large si ze are fi tte d i s such a

S o me wh a t si mi la r p re c a ut i o n s a re ta k e n , so t h a t a ll th e c o n n e c t

in g ro d e n d s sh a ll di p to th e sa me e x te n t in i
th e o i l p ro v d e d in th e
ba se ch a mb e r, se pa ra te o i l t ra y s a n d ch a n n e ls a re d e si g n e d fo r e a ch

ro d end . T h e se c h a n n e ls a re a lw a y s k e pt to th e sa me o i l le v e l by
me a n s o f a n o i l pump a n d o ve r o fl ws .
 CA R B URA T I O N P RO B L E M S 35

provi sion necessary Seeing that u sual ly no clu tch i s inter

.

posed between the engi ne and the propel ler ,i t i s i mpossible

fo r the engine to race since the resi stance o f the p ropeller
i ncreases a s the cu be o f the rate o f revol ution s, an d
increa se o f propeller spe ed can only be obtained , there fore ,
at a grea tly i ncreased engine power . The problem i s
some what an a logou s to that o f a motor boat engine , and

in practice the same method o f pu m ping fuel di rec t into

the engi ne or into the ind uction pipe i s sometimes re sorted
’
to I n the author s opin ion , however, such a proceeding
.

i s not de sirable a n d he pre fers the adoption o f a carbu rettor,

,

to any direct and po sitive method s o f fuel feed when petrol

is the fuel util i sed . The rea son s fo r thi s opin ion are a s
fol low s
Primarily , the que stion o f economy i s o f con siderable
i m portance particu larly where long flights are at tem pted ,
,

a s the we igh t o f fuel to be carried h a s an i m po rtant bearing

upon the rel ation s o f weight to l i ft , and th e succe ss o f any

long di stance a ttempt i s generally dependent to a great
measu re upon the adequacy o f the fuel su pply A h e ffi c ie n t
.

uti l i sation o f the fuel carried wil l e nable a more lengthy

flight to be maintai ned , other condition s bei ng compl ied
with , and the weather remain ing favourable .

Fuel feed ing O perated d irectly by a pu mp may contin ue

in regu lar proportion fo r some time , bu t owing to sl ight
w e ar o f the moving part s a con siderable d i fference in the
actual delivery may occur I f the pum p could be re lied
.

u pon to give a regular and proportionate flow i n accord

ance with engine speed , such a method would be a d mi r
able in case s where no throttle valve i s fi tte d W e can not ,
.

however, a s be fore ex plained , co mpare the cond ition s o f

an aerial engine to those o f a motor car engi n e , a s the
propeller e fle ct bears a d e fi n i te relation to engi ne power
'

W hen the mach ine i s moving through the ai r the

power requ ired to rotate the propelle r at any given speed
i s the same , fo r i m med iately the machi ne leaves th e ground
it i s air spee d and not earth speed that cou nt s W hether .
36 AE RO PL A N E S

the machi ne travel s with or again st the w ind i ts speed

relatively to the ai r remain s a pprox imately con stant so ,

that i ts petrol co n su m ption wil l be con stant , and propor

t i o n a l to engi ne speed .

O u the road , however , such condition s do not obtain ,

a s the road re si stance varie s from ti me to time , nece ssitating

a g re a te r or le ss petrol con sum ption w ith the engine ru nn i n g

a t Me sa me ra te of re vo luti o n .

I n the latter ca se a carbu rettor i s e s e n tial though i n s

,

the former i t h a s been sho wn to be not so A carb urettor , .

h o wever i s de sirable on accoun t o f i ts po ssibi litie s fo r

,

fi n e r adj u stmen t more per fect carbu ration by mean s o f

,

a su itable spraying device , and adaptabil ity fo r throttle

control The fact h a s bee n po i nt e d o ut that the power
.

requ ired to rai se the machi n e from th e ground i s greater

than that requ ire d to mai ntai n the same machi ne i n flig h t ,
so that w h en i n act ual hori zontal fligh t i t become s p o ssible

and someti me s de sirable to throttle do wn the engine and

reduce the rate o f revolutio n o f the propel ler Thi s ca n .

on ly be done sati sfact o rily and economica lly when a

carburettor i s fi tte d A tt e ntion h a s b e en cal led to the
.

fact that carbu ration trou ble s have occu rred to several o f
the lead ing aviator s and the author attri bute s the se to the
,

lac k o f provi sion fo r su pplying suffi c i e n t heat to the fuel

spray or i ncomi ng ai r d uring the carbu ration proce ss .

S uffi c ie n t h eat mu st be su pplied to equal t h e lat e nt

he a t o f evapora tion o f the pe trol that i s i n a give n time , ,

t h e n u mber o f therm a l u n it s tran smitte d to the carbure ttor

or i nduction pipe mu st e q ual th e late nt h e a t o f t h e fu e l ,

mu lti plied by the quantity o f the fu e l vapori se d i n any ,

’
given tim e .

I f thi s i s not done , two alternativ e s pre se n t th e m se lv e s

the fi r st i s the add ition o f an exc e ss o f fu e l to r e duc e the

Th is su bj e ct i s fully d e a lt wi th i n The M o to r C a r, by th e
sa me a uth o r . Hot a ir i
p p e s a re no w be i n g fi t te d t o so me a e ri a l
i
e n g n e ca r b ure t to rs .
 C A R B U R E TT OR H E A T I N G 37

drop o f tem peratu re which occu rs or a di m in ution o f the

,

q uantity o f air p a ssing to the engine Both o f the se are .

bad pol icy ; the former re su lt s in a waste o f fuel , and the

latter in a reduction o f the power developed by the engi ne .

The e ffect o f either method i s to en rich the proportion s

o f the m i xtu re and thu s rai se i t s fr e ezing point O wing .

to the tem perature o f the upper atmosphere being lower

than that on the earth s su r face , and al so owing to the
’

ex posed po sition o f an aerial engine these que stion s are ,

more i m portan t in the ca se s o f such engines than in tho se

o f motor car e ngine s, yet they appear to have been so me

what overloo k ed I t may be argu e d that th e hi g h temp e ra

.

tu re o f air cooled cyl inder s i s ta k en advantage o f fo r the

-

pu rpo se o f supplying heat to the partial ly carbu rated air ,

but thi s doe s n o t prevent th e carbu rettor it sel f from
freezing .

I t wou ld appear that the adoption o f a very volatile

spirit with a low boil ing poi n t tend s to aggravate matter s,

an d we hear o f at least one celebra ted aviator resorting to

a somewhat le ss volatile spiri t in cold w e ather The exact .

e fTe c t i s not qu ite ea sy to ex plain , except i n the following

manner W hen a spirit i s very volati le, the greater portion

.

o f it i s evaporated e ither i n the carbu rettor it sel f or in the ,

induction pipe A great d rop o f temperatu re wil l there

.

fore ta k e place in thi s v icin ity i f no h e at i s added .

O n the other hand ,with a le ss volatile spirit , t h e greater

part o f the fuel i s carried i n su spen sio n i n the form o f fi n e
particle s in to the engine cyl inders an d the heat o f the
,

bu rnt ga se s an d th a t radiated by the cylind e r wall s suffi ce s

to complete the evaporation proce ss .

The author i s obtain ing special sam ples o f petrol i n

order to further i nve stigate thi s matter with air cooled -

water cooled , a n d oi l cooled cyl i nd e rs

- -
.
 C H A PT E R V .

D E S CR I P TI ON OF S OM E L E A DI N G E N GI N E S .

A n to i n e tt e
.
— Thi s engine (Fig s 9 1 0, an d 1 1 ) i s th e pro
.
,

duction o f a fi rm which h a s been engaged fo r many years

i n ma k in g l ight motors and the 5 0 H I engine u sed by
, .
’
.

Latham in h i s fi rst attem pt at the Chan nel flight h a s

prov e d si n ce that M L e v a v a sse ur s wor k both exc e lle n t
'

a n d ingen io us.

F 1G .
9
.
— A n to i n e tte E n g i n e , E le v a ti o n .

The fi rst e sse ntial s o f an internal combu sti o n motor

fo r aviation are that it should be light give ample po wer , ,

and at the same time be free from vibration .

Th e se con sid e ration s o f vibratio n are dep e nd e nt u pon

the two follo w in g fa ctor s
 SS
CA U E OF VI B R A T I ON IN E NGI N E S 39

1 That the centre o f gravity o f the whole o f the

.

moving part s remain s stationary .

2 The tu r n i ng cou ple i s con st a nt

. .

O f these two problem s the former i s fairly ea sy o f

attain men t but the latter can not be real i sed except by
,

the em ploymen t o f a cert ain n um ber o f cyl inders W hen .

four cyl inders only are u sed the cou ple varie s be twee n
,

positive an d n egative bu t when the nu mber o f cyl i nd e r s

,

Fm
. 10 .
— A n to i n e tte E n gi n e , E n d E le v a ti o n .

is increa sed to eight the turn ing mom e nt i s alwa y s positive ,

and to al l i n tent s and purp o se s con stant I n t h e A nt o inette

.

motor, there fore e ight cyl inders are emplo y e d and th e

, ,

vi bration i s practical ly n il T h e adoption o f eight c y l ind e rs

.

al so give s overlapping i m pul se s and it can be so arrang e d

,

that the motor w i ll run in either d ire ction by si mply sl idin g

the cam sha ft so a s to bring a n other se t o f cam s int o opera
tion I n the A ntoinett e motor thi s i s a cc o m pl i sh e d in a
.
40 AE RO PL A N E S

very simple manner by mean s o f a k nob fi x e d at the end

o f the sha ft .

The cyl inders are made i n block s o f four in one solid

piece o f steel complete with thei r valve boxe s They are .

fi x e d on the top o f the cran k chamb e r at an angle o f

°

9 0 to each other , the centre l ine s o f the cyl in d er s

are incl ined at an angle o f 45 from the vertical Th e °

.

pi ston s are ma d e o f cast iron , and the crank sha ft h a s fou r

cran k pi n s so that two oppo site connecting rod s act uate
,

the same crank pi n O ne cam sha ft O perate s al l the in let

.

and e x hau st val ve s The wat e r j acket s are formed i n an

.

Fm . 11 .
-
A n to i n e tte E ngine , Pl
a n.

i nt e re sting man ner o f el e ctrolytically deposit e d coppe r .

E ach j ac k et i s a se parate sleeve formed with the ca sing

rou nd th e v a lve box a n d so arranged th a t the exhau st
,

valve spi ndle gu ide i s al so water j ac k e ted .

A particul arly neat man ner o f fi x i n g the j a c k et s to

t h e cyl inder s i s adopted ; the j ac k et s them se lve s sli p over
t h e top s o f t h e cylind e r s and valve b o xe s the sl e ev e s are ,

th e n giv e n a tu rn so that the cyl ind rical part o f t h e jac k et

i s mad e conc e ntric with the cyl ind e r it sel f, a n d t h e whole
sl ide s d o w n ti l l the low e r ed e c o v e r s some groov e s formed
g
ci rcu m fere ntially ro und the cylinders and i s here soldere d , .

The train o f gears operati n g the e ngine m e chan i sm

42 AE RO PL A N E S

parti ti on s are o f the same height Th i s en sure s each big .

end dippi ng into the same amou nt o f oi l at every revol ution .

A n oi l c h an nel conduct s the oil to one end o f the

chamber an d to the su m p o f the oil p um p, maintai n ing
the oi l re servoirs al way s at the same level the oil i ng i s ,

thu s a utomatic The wo rking o f the pu m p can be a sce r

.

F 1G . 12 .
— “ G n o me E n g in e , sh o wi n g C bure tto r a n d
ar L ub ica to r i n P
r i
o si t o n .

(P h o l as b m f Al arm Ga ul ): ze r (3 Co )
'

y pe r i ssi o n o
°
.

by open in g a smal l cock p laced on the del i very pi pe

ta i n e d
from the oil pu m p i n a conven ient po sition .

Ca r/ mm tzo n i s e fle cte d by a smal l pe trol pu mp worked

' '

by the moto r, d rawing petrol from the ta n k and d e l iv e ring

it to eight smal l d i stributers placed on the in lets to the
suction port s Strainers are interpo sed in the pe trol pipe
.

to prevent foreign matter entering the d i stributer and ,

 TH E G NOM E E N GI N E 43

th e amoun t o f petrol del ivered to the cyl inders can be

vari e d at will by al tering the stro k e o f the pu mp .

I t become s a sim ple matter to a dj u st the petrol supply

to suit the varyi ng atmo spheric cond ition s, and to obtain
the be st and mo st econom ical proport ion s o f mi xtu re o f
petrol and ai r .

G n o me — The seven cylinder G nome engi ne (F i g 1 2 ) i s

.
-
.

o f the rotary star type , air cooled The be st k nown type i s .

the seven cyl inder 5 0 H P engi ne which h a s chrome n ickel

-
. .
-

Flo . 14 . G no me C ra n k
Ch a mbe r, sh o wi n g S lo ts
FIG . 13. Gn o me Eu fo r Cy li n d er Re t a in in g

g i n e y lC
i n d e r, sh o w Ri n gs a n d th e B o lt I I o le s
i n g th e G
ro o v e i n to p a ssi n
g th ro ug h th e
w h i ch th e L ck i n g
o C h a mbe r be tw e e n th e
R i n g F i ts . Ri ng S lo ts .

steel cyli nders mach in e d with th e ir ribs out o f sol id block s

o f metal (F i g The se cool ing ribs are o f max i mu m
.

d imen sion s n e ar the cyl i nder h e ad s a n d di mi n i sh in si ze a s

they approach the cran k chamber an d no al umi n i u m i s ,

u sed i n t h e w hol e con structio n A ste e l plate or d i sc .

form s each side o f t h e cran k chamb e r see n in F i g s 2 5 and , .

2 6 , and the t wo di sc s a re locat e d on twice the nu mb e r o f

dowe l pin s a s the re a re cyl i n der s a s shown in Fig 1 4 , . .

N o bo l t s are e m ployed to fi x the cyl i nd e rs to t h e cran k

chamber a s th e y fi t i nt o ci rcu lar o ri fi c e s bor e d around the
44 AE RO PL A N E S

chamber F i g and when i n plac e steel rings (F ig 1 6 )

.
, .

are fi tte d into groove s tu rned in the c y lind e r tru n k s th e se

Fm . 15 . E n g i n e , sh o wi n g M e t h o d o f A t ta c h i n g
th e Cy li n d e rs to th e C ra n k C h a mbe r .

rings are sec ure ly h e ld i n plac e by t h e seven lo n g bolt s

which hold the e n d plat e s o f the cra n k chamb e r i n po sitio n ,

the bolt s are par a ll e l to th e cran k sha ft ,

F 6 11 1 .
1 ng be t wc e n e a c h ne v ]l bo urmg
1

o ne b
.

m
e r

f
G no e n . a
gi ne C y li n ie r
1 r o f c y lmd e rs
Rin g .
p a .

Th is 8 11 s fi t s
3 T h e se ven co n n e c t mbf1 rod s (P 01
1h .
o n the (J ro o ve

p ate u p o n a smg le c ra n k p m o n
ro
)
un d t h e ut
17 o
o

idsm mC y e 0
e r

th e st a tiona ry cran k sh a ft ( F i
5113“13 325
1
g
m
.

m k w hil st th e cyl i n d e r s th e mse l v e s r e v o lv e

ggg zf
i n
n

toge ther w ith t h e cra n k chambe r to

which the pro pe ll e r i s fi x e d A pro bl e m pre se n t s it se l f .

on acco unt o f th e rotati o n o f th e cyl in d e r s c a usi n g the

 G N O M E CY L I N D E R S 45

cool ing a i r to i m pinge on one side o f the cyl inders

on ly, that the lead ing side ; the trai l ing side o f the

P 1 11 . 17 . (i no me E n
g i n e wi th o ne en d o f C ra n k C h a mbe r
remo v e d . S h o wi n g A sse mbly o f C o n n e ct nig Ro ds and

A rra n g e me n t o f Ba ll B e a ri n g s .

w al l s w i ll m e e t t h e co o l air but will be surround e d by

no t
e ddie s o f w arm e r a i r Thi s t e nd s to d i stort the cyl ind e r
.

bore fro m i ts tru e fo rm wh e n hot so that special provi sion ,

m u st be made fo r k e e p i n g a tight pi ston j o int O rd inary .

ring s wou ld be too sti fl fo r th i s purpo se and re sort h a s

’

been made in the G n om e e n gi n e to a fle x i ble t y pe o f j oint

sim ilar i n sh a p e to the cu p l e ather o f an hyd raul ic pi st o n .

L e ather nat ur a l ly can n o t be u sed , so a light ring o f L

section bra ss i s em ploye d Th i s ring i s split and ma k e s
.

a clo se j oi nt wh e re t h e e nd s b utt an d i s u sed merely a s ,

a j oi n ti n g mat e rial .
46 AE RO PL A N E 8

The nece ssary rigid ity o f fi x i n g i s mai n tained by mean s

o f a ca st iron ring placed i n side i t , and fi t t i n g in a wide
-

gro o ve i n the steel pi ston The pi ston (F i g 1 9) i s a fairly

. .

loose fi t i n the cyli nder , so a s to eli

m i nate r isk s o f sei zing .

The arra ng emen t o f th e seven con

n e c t i n g rods i s a s fo llo ws z — O ne rod
i s made i n one piece with a large
double d isc e n d (F i g 20) form ing the
.

outer race o f a ball be aring ru nn ing o n

th e cran k pin . A t in terval s o f 5 1 5
around the se d i sc s, si x attach ment pin s
are held between webs or d i sc s (F i g .

thu s d ividi n g the point s o f attach

m e n t into se ven equal angular i n t e rval s .

The rema i n ing si x con necting rod s are

attach e d to pi n s at the se poi nt s and it ,

w i l l be see n in Fig 1 7 that their obli

.

q u i ty in cour se o f revol utio n wi l l be

greater than that o f the rigidly con
n e c te d rod .I t i s n e ce ssary however to
, ,

locate the big end di sc to one o f the rod s

to prev e n t it rock ing on t h e cran kpin .

The carbu re ttor which i s, o f cou rse

, ,

m sta t ionary fe ed s t h e e n gi ne through

e
,
o
nthe hollow cran k sha ft in to t h e cran k
chamber (se e Figs 1 7 and . and
each pi ston d ra w s i ts m i xture from
thence i nto th e cyli nd e r th rough an
au tomatic i n l e t valv e situate d i n the
m iddle o f the pi sto n h e ad (F i g .

A n aw k ward probl e m had to be tackled

i n d e si g n i n g th e se i n let v alv e s on a c
cou n t o f th e cent ri fugal forc e a fle c t
i n g thei r m a ss .A n automatic valve m u st o f n e c e ssity be
l ight , and contro l led by a l ight spring i n ord e r that the
,

max imu m q ua n t ity o f expl o siv e m ixture shal l en ter the

 G N O M E VA LVE S AN D CO N N E C T I N G R OD S 47

cylinder I t wou ld be i mpracticable to retain these a uto

.

matic valve s on thei r seat s by spring s designed sti ff enough

to cou nteract centri fugal force at h igh speed s, such a s at

7 00 revolu tion s per m i nute .

Under varying rate s o f revol ution the e fi e ct iv e pressu re '

o f the spring upon the valve remain s practical ly the same ,

w h il st the force acting u pon the sprin g varie s That i s to .

sa y , that when the e n gine i s bei n g rotat e d by h and at

F tc . 21 .
— “
G n me o

E nd ~
Ri g o f
n

Ma in C o n e ct
n

i ng Ro d .

Fm G me F 1 11 Gn me G m ’
. 19 . no . 20 . o F 1 11 . 22 . no e

Pi sto n a n d S h o rt Ma in Co n n e cti n
g E n gin e G udg e on

C n e c ti g R
o n n o d. R o d, sh o wi n g Pin and I isto n
’

I I o le s fo r S ub H e a d ; th e I n le t
si dia ry Pi n s. V a lv e i s n o t

S h o wn .

s tarti ng th e spri n gs which wou ld w o r k wel l at high spee d s

,

would be too sti ff to al low the valve s to open at a ll T h i s .

d i ffi c ulty h a s bee n overc o me i n a very ingen iou s man ner

i n the design o f the G nom e engine by counterbalanci n g ,

the ma ss o f the val ve by t w o other ma sse s o f equal magn i

tude the force u pon the se two smal ler ma sse s act s through
two short levers i n a somewhat si mi lar man ner to the l e vers
and weight s O perated by a carbu re ttor floa t The two ful .

cru m s are ext e n sion s o f the valve gu ide , and the two in ner
48 AE RO PL A N E S

end s o f the levers engage in a slot cut th rough the valve

stem W hate ver the force acti ng on the valve an equal
’
. ,

and oppo site force act s u pon the v a lve stem through the

FI G . 23 . G no me F 11 1 . 24 . Gn o me
E n i
g ne E x h a ust E n gin e C o n ta ct

V a lv e R ck
o e r. Pla te .

m e d iu m o f the se two smal l l e v e r s Two flat spring s are .

fi tte d over the two balanc e w e ight s wh ich they partly ,

embrac e and the se se rve to r e tu rn th e val ve to i ts seat at

,

FIG . 25 . ( i n o me E n g in e
”
C ra n k Ch a mbe r C o v e r Fl u. 26 . G n o me C ra k C h m
E ngine n a

(l
’
ro e l
p le r 11ml), sh o wi n g
1
her C o ve r . H ig h T n si n D i st i bute
e o r r

G e a ri n g o
pe ra ti n g th e and I i n io
’
n s d i i g O i l P ump n d
r v n a

Ca m R in g . M a g n e to .

the end o f the sucti o n stro k e o f th e engi n e T h e se springs .

are ea si ly det a chabl e .

T h e e xh a u st v a l v e s a re situ a t e d i n t h e c e n t re s o f the
5 0 AE RO PL A N E S

provi sion fo r fi x i n g either tran sm i ssion gear or the pro

pel ler that at the rear (F i g 2 6 ) carrie s a thru st beari ng i n
, .

addition to a large bal l beari n g .

The cam s which are in the forward

casing are seven flat steel collars
with one boss keyed on to a spindle
and d riven from a se t o f reduction
ge ari ng attached to th e revolvi n g
cran k case (F i g .

Lu brication i s by mean s o f a
two cyl inder reciprocating pum p -

( F i g 2 8 ) driven i n a s i m ilar.man ner

to the magneto (Figs 2 9, 30 and .
,

I t i s fi tte d with an oil d i s

P 1 11 2 9 b o o me S pur
t r1bute r ha y 1 ng seven way s and i ts
. .

W h e e l d ri vi n g th e Ln ,

b ic t g
i
r P u
a m p a
n n d th e action i s ind e penden t o f the v i s

Mag n w e co si ty of the oil and o f any

negative pre ssu re i n the cran k
chamber W hen th e e ngi ne stop s, any su rpl u s oil can
.

be d rained out o f t h e c yl i n d e rs by open ing the lowe st

exh a u st valve T he .

fi v e cyl i nd e r e n gi ne
-

i s o f 30 H J
’
and .

h a s a bo re o f 1 00
mm by 1 00 m m
. : .

stroke a n d we igh s 60

k i l o g r a m me s ; t h e
seven cyl inder engine
-

gives 5 0 H l at .
’
.

revol ution s pe r ,

minute w ith cy li n
ders 1 1 0 m m bore .

by 1 2 0 mm S troke ‘

30 — G n o m ’
e E n g i n e M g t .T h“
i s a ne o .

and w e i g h s 76 ki lo i s fi tte d upside d wn

"
o .

gramm e s or 33 lbs .

p e r hor se power -
N o fl y w h e e l i s nece ssary
. with th e se

engine s .
 E N GI N E 5 1

E sn a ult F e lte ri c —
-
. Th i s rad ial engi ne (F i g 32 ) i s con
.

structed with fi x e d cyl ind e rs, and a s there wou ld be con

si d e ra ble d i fl
‘
i c ulty i n c o n nection with lubrication were the
cyl in ders arranged enti rely around
the cran k sha ft what would be the
,

three lower cyl inder s (i a the seven

cyl inde r engine ) are there fore fi tte d
, ,

i n their d iagonal ly oppo site po sition

above the sha ft but in a plane a d
j ace n t to the other fou r cyl inders,
thu s giving the engi ne seven stag
re d cy l1 n d e rs I n order to pre
g ca m
e .
“
vent the lowe st c y l inder o n the
lead ing side from obtain ing an exce ss o f lubricatin g oil ,
the t ru n k o f the pi ston i s d ri l led w ith a n u mber o f hole s .

E xperiment h a s determ ined the nu mber and size o f hole s

E n gi n e .

requ ired to pre v e n t an exce ssive quantity o f oi l fi n d i n g

i t s way u p into th i s c v li n d e r
.

The d i stributio n o f cyl inders i s so arranged that a

5 2 AE RO PL A N E S
'

cam with two hu m ps actuating the i n let and exhau st

rotate s at a speed o f (N 1 ) time s the speed o f the cran k
sh a ft , and i n t h e oppo site d irection to i t N the n u mber .
:

N
( )
1
o f cyl inders . Th i s cam has h umps o f equal height
2

arrange d u pon i ts peri phery . The fi ri n g equence

s is 1, 3,
5 7 1 1
61 1 °

The Cra n k s/zaf t i s ar ra nged with two cran kpin s se t at an

angle o f a n d o wing to the fa n shaped di spo sition -

o f the cyli nders it i s po ssible to so shorten the cran k sha ft

that the stress i n th e material i s reduced to a mi n imu m .

I n order to accompli sh th i s arrangement fou r connect

i n g rod s a ctuate u pon one cran kpi n , whi l st the other
th re e are connected to the other pin T he cran ksha ft .

i tsel f weigh s 2 } k g fo r the 30 H P engine , and i n th i s

. . .

sha ft no stre sse s exc e e d 1 5 k g per sq m m u nder work . . .

i ng condition s The bearings hav e a very large sur face,

.

e specially those wh ich carry the thru st o f the propel ler .

The Co n n ecti ng R o ds are o f pa rticu lar i ntere st becau se

one o f the head s rece i ve s three rod s and the other four .

O ne large end in each grou p i s a solid piece , and th i s end

i s arranged to receive the requ i site n u mber o f loo se rod s
which are fi x e d i n turn to i t I n order to reduce the
.

weight o f t h e rod end s, an amou nt o f material h a s bee n

c ut away without a ffectin g the area o f the bearing sur face s .

The smal l end s o f the rod s are mach ined in such a manner
that th e pressure i s carried by the exterior o f the eye
which i s fi tte d to the pi ston head , a s wel l a s by th e
gudgeon pi n ; the se t wo sur face s work i n conj u nction with
each other and are h u she d w it h gu n metal i n each ca se -

The rod s t h em se lves are o f H section steel .

—
Cy li n de rs a n d P zsto n s The cylinders are able , on
'

accou nt o f the special type s o f valve s, to be made com

p le te ly s ymmetrical arou nd thei r centre l i ne s They are .

ea ch fi x e d to the cran k chamber by three bolts having n ut s

and lock n ut s The pi ston s are made i n one piece and
.

are fi tte d to the con necting rod end s a s above de scribed

 RE P
. . . E NGI N E D E TA I L S 53

Va lv es — Those. i n the 1 909 type are o f a special type .

They open in the fi rst place to ad mi ssion , and then to

exhau st The valve it sel f i s held i n a cylindrical sleeve
.

whic h h a s at i ts o utmost e n d a serie s o f holes d ril led

t h rough i t, through which the m i xture enters the pocket .

W hen the valve i s li fted 4 m m from i ts seat ,these holes are

.

covered by a fi x e d guide , and the valve on open i ng al low s

the exhau st product s to e scape W hen the valve l i ft s .

another 4 m m the hole s become uncovered , and a flange

.

o n the valve sleeve covers the pa ssage to the exhau st , so

that the cyl ind e r i s p ut i n d irect com m un ication with the

i nlet pi pe A t the e n d o f the stroke the val ve return s to
.

i ts seat and i s completely closed O ne o f the chie f poi n t s

.

i n thi s arrangemen t i s that the sl e eve betwee n the valve

head and the l i fter i s out o f the path o f the exhau st g a s,
th u s reducing the tendency to sei zu re ; i n addition , the
ad m i ssion o f th e charge through the same valve tend s to
kee p thi s valve from overheating i n wor k ing I n the late st .

R E P engine s separate i ndependent valves are fi tte d

. . . .

T h e engi ne i s arranged wi th two i n let pi pe s, each o f

w hich h a s i ts own carburettor The carbu rettor i s made
.

al mo st entirely o f alu m in iu m , a n d com plete w ith i ts flo at

weigh s a l i ttle over 1 lh The carburettors are placed at the
.

base and on the out side o f the cran k cham ber , but each fee d s
i ts m ixture into a receiver w ith i n th e case , from wh ich the
i ntake pipes lead to the cyl inders There are four lead s .

from th i s recei ver, three o f them branching o ff to two

cyli nders eac h and one going d irect to a single cyl inder .

Lubrication i s by splash , the com pactness o f the mai n

organ s and the position o f the cylinders mak ing i t un
necessary even to use a pu m p T h e oi l i s fe d to the mai n
.

beari ngs, t h en al lowed to dri p i nto th e c ra n k case , whence

'

it i s spla shed u p i nto the cyli nders .

The ign ition i s by mean s o f a special high ten sio n

m a gneto , ru nn ing at hal f crank sha ft speed , a n d h a s a n
ebon it e d i stributer with the u sua l metallic contact The .

cylinders are air cooled by mean s o f fi n s, thu s avoidi ng

54 AE RO PLA N E S

the use o f water Jac k et s, pum p and radiator N 0 fa n i s , .

nece ssary , a s the fi n s them selve s have proved to be suffi c ie n t

to keep the cyli nders cool .

An z an i F i —
( g 33
.
, a n d Fig 6 8 p Thi
. s engine
, .

c h ic fly clai m s attention a s it w a s w ith t h e A n zan i engine

that B lé ri o t s cross C han nel tri p w a s a ccom pl i shed Bl eriot
’
-
.

him sel f expre ssed the highe st prai se fo r thi s engine and
i ts ad m irable w or k ing a lthough it i s pe rhap s the sma ll e st
,

and si mple st e ngi ne yet fi tte d to a n aeroplane The .

particular engine u se d wa s a th ree c y l inder air cooled - -

33
. A n za ni E n g in e . Ty pe B leri o t XI .

s em i radial type o f 2 5 H I th e c y l i n ders j utti n g out from

-
.
’

the u pper hal f o f t h e cran k cha mb e r A s a re su lt o f th i s .

con struction t h e engine i s very co mpact .

The cyl i n ders o f the sta n dard e n g ine a re o f the ribbe d

ca st iron p a tt e rn t h e pi st o n s b e ing o f ca st iro n with ca st
-

i ro n rings A ll the pi sto n s actuate through th e ir co n necting

.

rod s on to the sa me c ra n k pin , which n e ce ssitate s two o f t h e

rod end s being for k e d T h e a n g l e b e t w e e n n ei g hbou ring
.

c y linders i s th e fi ri n g se qu e nc e being 1 3 2 Ta k i n g , , .

N o 2 a s the ce n t re cyl i n d e r from 1 to 3 i s 1 80 6 0

.
,
— :

and the next i n t e rval from o 3to N o 2 i s 360 60 300

N .
— .
:
 ANZ A NI E NGI N E 55

and from N o 2 to N o 1 i s the same T h e e x h a ust va lx e s

. . .

are cam actuated , but the i n let valves, w h ich are si t ua te d

above them , are automatic The exhaust k remarkably .

free , a s the pi ston on i ts ou tward stro k e u nco vers hole s

dr i lled i n the cyl inder wal l s, and th e exhau st u nder
pressure i s thu s ex pelled The valve s al low the exhau st .

gases to clear on the retu rn stroke o f the pi ston The .

cyl inder di men sion s are 1 05 m m bore by 1 30 m m stroke . . .

A s fi t te d to the Bl eriot X I type o f aeroplane t h i s engine .

run s i n a le ft handed d irection when looki n g toward s the

-

propel le r fro m the front o f the machi ne A view o f the .

engine from the rear i s shown i n Fig 6 8,page 1 45 ,ta k en from .

a photograph o f the machi n e at Hendon , which form s t h e

fronti spiece to thi s book The three inlet pi pes a re fi x e d
.

by union n ut s to the cage s retain ing the automatic i n let

val ve s a n d thence sweep downward s to the G A carbu re ttor . . .

The ign ition contact brea k er i s attached to the cra n k

chambe r at the oppo si te side to t h e propeller, the actuating
cam bei ng sli pped over an exten sion o f the cran k sh a ft .

T h i s exten sion h a s a taper hole i n i ts c e ntre and fou r sa w

cut s are made at right angle s i n a longitud ina l d irection o
.

A taper screw ended plug fi t s i nto thi s h o le a n d i s the on ly

-

mean s o f locating the cam u pon the sh a ft B owden wire .

control i s fi tte d both to the contact rocker and to a se g

men ta l exhau st valve li fter .

Petrol i s fe d by gravity from a cyli ndrical tan k the ,

rear e n d o f which contain s lubricati ng oi l T he oil i s pu t .

under sli g ht pre ssure by mean s o f a hand pu mp and passe s

th rough a sight feed lubricator to the cran k chamber ,chan nel s
bei ng provided internally to e ffe ct the di stribution o f the oi l .

Some d i ffi c ulty may be ex perience d i n properly lubri

cating the cen tre pi ston and the author h a s had cau se to
,

su ffer 1 n thi s re spect .

The 35 H P water cooled A n zan i engine h a s four

. .

cylind e rs, i n grou p s o f two , se t V sha ped on t h e cra n k -

T h e we i g h t o f th i s e n g i n e co mple te 15 65 ki lo g ra mme s, a n d i ts
pric e i s £ 1 20.
5 6 AE RO P L A N E S

c h amber the an g le between the centre s o f the two grou ps

being 45 The se cylinders a re o f cast iron , fi t te d with steel
pi ston s,having ca st i ron rings T h e exhau st valves, a s i n the
-
.

5 H . P . engine , are c a m actuated and the i nlet s automatic .

The v alve pockets a re situated at the out side end s o f

the cyl inders, at the four extremities o f the cyl inders,
and on the centre l ine o f the cyl inder block s i n e ach ca se .

The cran k sha ft h a s two cran k pin s, op po site connect

i ng rod s operating on the same pin one rod o f a pair ,

hav ing a forked end .

T h e cran kpi n s are se t at 1 80 to one another , and

’

a s t h e fi ri n g order i s fro m one cyl inder to the next one ,

a ct ua t i n g o n the other pi n
o
then to the cyl in der situate d
,

di a gonall y across the se t and last ly to i ts neighbou r , the

,

h ring period s are a s fo llo ws z— N o

°
1 fi re s ; then 1 80 .

elapse s when the neighbo uri ng cylinder fi res thi rdly the
d iagonal ly opposite cyl inder fi re s a fter 1 80 then
i ts neighbour fi re s a fter 1 80 and fi n a lly the d iagona lly
O ppo site one ti re s at 1 80
°

The cran k sha ft i s supported on two beari ngs, and two

fly wh e e ls a re fi tte d with in the cran k chamber , which i s
°

vertically d ivided i n the centre fo r the pu rpo se .

The four i n let pipe s sweep u p in an easy curve from

above the val ve pocket s, and return downward s to a central
sp h ere situated be tween the cyli nders to which the car

bure tto r i s attached .

T h e com mut a tor fo r the coil i g nition i s attach e d to th e

o ut side o f the cran k ch a mber ,and driven by a red uction gear .

The cyli nder d i men sion s o f the engine are 1 00 mm .

bore by 1 20 mm stroke , an d at. revolution s per

m in ute the hor se power i s 35 The weig h t o f the engine
-
.

complete i s 83 k g , and it i s priced at £ 1 5 6

. .

T h e P i pe E (F in g in e
g 3)
4 i s remarkable i n many
.

re spect s, principal ly on accoun t o f i ts air cool ing, thi s

be ing perhap s the large st scale on which ai r cool ing h a s
be e n adopted fo r so many statio n ary cyl inders The .
 OPLA N E S
AE R
 TH E P I PE EN GI NE 59

revol ution s per mi nute and 5 0 H P at

, re v o lu
. .

tion s per min ute The cyl inders (F ig 36 ) are very compact
. .

an d free from poc k ets, a s bo th valves are con tained i n one

cage se t vertical ly i n such a manner on the upper side o f
the combu stion chamber that the centre li ne o f th e valve

Pi p
e E n gi n e . T ra n sve rse S e c ti o n .

t m s bi sects a l ine passi ng acro ss the top o f the paral lel

s e

portion o f the pi ston at the centre l ine o f the cyl i n der ,

when the pi ston i s at the top o f i ts travel .

The pi sto n s are dome topped , si m ilar to tho se em ployed

-

in the Pi pe motor car e n gine s and the crank sha ft h a s four

,

j ournal s, opposite pi ston s actu a ting on the same one The .

60 AE RO P L A NE S

cran k sha ft i s o f a special steel o f an e l a stic l i mit o f 1 20 k g .

per sq m m , havi n g an u lti mate breaki n g load o f 1 5 0 k g

. . .

per sq . and at the same ti me a good ductil ity I t i s .

carried u po n three
large bal l be arings,
and h a s a smal l
bal l thru st beari ng
at th e pro pe l le r
end The other .

end o f the sha ft

h a s a t u rbi ne
shaped inductio n
blower k eyed to i t,
fre sh air i s dr a wn
t h r o u g h c a si n g s
a rou nd t h e c y li n
d e rs, which a re i n
c o m m u n ication
w i t h the centre o f
the blower ca si n g
(s e e Fig .

The single cam

sh a ft is carried
in side the crank
c h a m b e r a t i ts
apex a n d i s sup ,

po rt ed o n th ree
bal l bearings ; i t i s
made in o n e pi e ce
w i t h i t s si x t e e n
cam s and o f a ,

F i o 37
. E n gin e Va l A r n ge m t
. ve s pecially
ra hard
en .
steel
(s e e Fig .

The valve arra n gem e nt i s on the concentric sy stem

F
( g i . eac h valve operat e d by a s e parate r o c k ing sha ft ,

76 to n s pe r sq i n
. . and 95 to n s pe r sq . in . re spe c t i v e ly .
 P I P E VA LV E A R RA N G E ME N T 61

though both sha fts ru n on the same beari ng The centre .

sha ft h a s a single end pre ssi ng u pon t h e in let valve stem

at the centre , th i s valve bein g o f the u sual mu sh room form .

The an nu lar seating o f thi s valve i s on a second valve i n

the form o f a sleeve whic h on being depre ssed carries the
i n let valve with i t, and ope n s a pa ssage to the exhau st .

The i n let gase s tend to cool the ex hau st sleeve on their

way to the engine , and thu s to prevent any overheating
w h ich m ight occur .

The arrangement o f the val ve springs i s worthy o f

attenti o n
. I t wi l l be noticed that the fork ended lever
-

actuating the exhau st valve pre sses u pon a cap enci rcli ng
the i nlet valve stem , at the same ti me com pre ssi ng a smal l
spring below th e cap and a heavier spring which the i n let

valve washer i s pressed agai n st .

W hen the ex h au st valve return s to i ts seat there i s

clearance between th e wa sher on the i n let valve a nd the
cap round the exhau st valve stem , so that on ly the thicker
spring i s actuating .

Th e i gn ition i s by high ten sion m a gneto arranged to

give a variable tim i ng , and a single se t o f plugs i s fit te d
i n the cen tre o f the top o f each cy li nder .

The carbu rettor i s placed in the c e ntre o f the engine

between the cyli nders, an d h a s four branch pipe s, one
serving each neig h bouring pai r o f cyl i nder s .

A n extra air val ve i s fi tte d , wh ich h a s an ai r da sh pot-

attache d to i ts stem ; variable spee d i s obtained by mean s

o f a special form o f throttle valve .

The engine complete weigh s 1 31 k g .

 CH A P T E R VI .

T YP E S OF E N GI N E S Co n ti n ued .

T h e G o bro n B ri lli e
-
ae ria l e ngi n e (F i g 38) is built on the .

same principle a s the moto ro a r engine by the same fi rm,

i n tha t two pi ston s are fi t te d to each cyli nder The m a nu .

fa cture rs clai m that thei r e n gine i s subst antially constructed

FI G . .
—
38 Th e C o h ro n -
B ri lli o E n gi n e .

as Wel l light but that no u ndue sa c ri fi ce o f weight h a s

as ,

bee n mad e i n th e e sse n tial part s and that it is owing to

,

speci al neatne ss o f de sign that thi s end h a s be en secured .

T he engine con si sts o f eight cyl ind e rs i n g rou p s o f two ,

fi tte d in radial manner , the angle betw e en the c e ntre s o f

62
 GO B R O N B R I L L I E
-
E N GI N E 63

°
the cyl inders being 90 i n eac h in stance The crank.

sha ft i s situated i n t h e centre o f the grou p , and h a s tw o

t h rows and four cran kpin s, the two centre one s being i n
line , and the two out e r one s i n l ine with each other , but
at an angle o f 1 80 to the centre pin s
°
The throw
.

o f the outer pin s i s sl ightly le ss than that o f the cen tre

pin s
. The in ner pi ston s operate the centre cran kpi n s
i n the u sual man ner by mean s o f connecting rod s, whi l st
the outer pi ston s are fi tte d with connecting rod s operating
reci procating cro sshead s, one pair o f adj acen t pi ston s bei ng
con nected to one crosshead R eturn connecti ng rod s a re
.

attached bet ween the end s o f the se cro sshead s and t h e

outer cran k pin s, these rod s being in ten sion when w orking .

I n such an arrangement the combu stion space con si st s o f

the cyl indrical clearance between two pi ston s when at
thei r i n mo st position and the in let and exhau st val ves are
,

there fore situated at the cen tre o f the w orking barrel .

The adoption o f two pi ston s enables a long working stroke

to be employed , combi ned with a lo w pi ston speed .

The arrangeme n t fo r ope rating the exhau st va lve s i s

novel con si sting a s it doe s o f a n e ccentric c am C (F i g
, .

centrally located on the cran k sha ft , and actuating the

valves through the levers t and the rocking arm s a ;
The eccentric h a s a double g roove con nected together at
one poi nt , i n which run s a shuttle Du rin g rotation o f
.

the cam thi s shuttle run s fj om one groove to the other i n

turn , and thu s operate s the levers o f one or other o f the
exhau st val ve s o f the adj acent pai r o f cyl inders at the
proper moment .

The inlet valve s are automatic , a n d fi tte d i n boxe s at

the centres o f the working barrel s Two carburettors are
.

fi tted , and the i n let pipe s to al l the valve boxe s are o f

equal length T wo magnetos are al so employed , each one
.

fi ring in fou r cyli nders .

There are thu s virtually two di stinct motors, wh ich

render the machine a s a whole i m mu ne from total break
down .
64 AE RO PL A N E S

The magneto s are driven by skew gearing from the

cran k sha ft , a n d are fi x e d to small seat s formed on the side
o f the cran k cham be r The cyl inders are fi tte d w ith coppe r
.

water jacket s, an d they have a bore o f 90 mm and a com .

bi n e d stroke o f the two pi ston s o f 1 60 mm The engine .

develops 60 H P at. . revolution s per minute, and 80

H P at
. . revol ution s per minute .

F m 39 . .
—G o bro n -
B ri lli e C a rbure tt
o r.

The water circu lation i s mai ntai ned by mea n s o f a

rotary pu mp ; the quantity o f water requ ired i s about
35 gal l on s .

A smal l gear pu mp d raw s oil from the lower part o f

the cylinders,an d force s it back to the upper portion o f the
same The Go bro n carburettor (F ig 39) i s qu ite si m ple ;
. .
66 AE RO PL A N E S

to M Santo s D u mo n t s l ittle flyer Demoi se lle , h a s two

.
’ “

hori zon tal opposed cyli nders, 1 30 m m d iameter by 1 20 .

m m stroke The cyl in d ers are made o f steel cut from the
. .

sol id , and are fi t te d with copper j acket s, hard sol dere d i n

p lace T h e valve s are placed i n the cyl inder hea ds, a n d

.

are eac h operated by pu sh rod s, actuating through short

rocki n g lever s at tached to the cyl inder head s .

I n addition to the exhau st valve an extra mean s o f

e scape fo r t h e bu rnt ga ses i s provide d by a n u mb e r o f hole s

A rm p lum) .

F 1 11 .
40 — Th e
.
“
Da rra cq E n
g i n e as fi tte d to th e S a n to s D um o nt M o n o pla n e .

about 3i n in d iamet e r drill e d through the cyl inder wal l s

.
,

which the pi ston s u ncover o n th e ir outward travel The .

magneto and water pu mp are placed on the top o f the

cra n k case and are driven by a n i n cli ned sha ft
, .

Lubrication i s by mea n s o f a pu m p w hich sprays oil ,

i n to the crank chamber A single c a rbu rettor i s fi tte d , a

.

pipe lead ing the mixture to each cylinder .

W ri g h t E i
ng ne .
— Th i s e n gi n e i s made i n F rance by
 wmo m ‘
E N GI N E V A LV E A R RA N GE ME N T 67

B a riqua n d M arre , and al so by B o llee , to the de sign s o f

the W right brothers The engine i s a s si mple a s po ssible ,
.

and i ts neat n e ss o f appearance i s qu ite stri ki n g Th e .

‘
designers were u nable to proc ure a su itable engi n e fo r
their early ex pe ri ments, and much ti me wa s ex pended
in the i n itial stage s o f thei r flig h ts with power machine s
i n producing an engine wh ic h would work con tin uou sly
u nder the severe conditi o n s The 30 H P eng i ne , wh ich
. . .

i s the on ly si ze made to thei r de sign s, h a s fou r ca st steel -

cyl inders arranged vertical ly on the ba se chamber, the

head s and val ve pocket s being in one pie ce w ith the
'

cyl inders The valve s are o n th e to p o f the cyl inders

’

and in v erted , and they lie along the centre l ine o f the
engi ne arranged so that neighbou ring pairs o f in let s are
togeth er The valve s are i ntercha ngeable , the exhau st s
are ope rated by overh e ad m
.

echa ni sm act uated by lo n g

pu sh rod s, the i nlet s being automatic and fi tte d with
rath e r sti fi S prings A long f
'

.
h
the top o the ba se chamber
a fla t se at i s m a ch ined , and o n it ride fou r me tal bloc k s on
'

'
a ro d ; the block s are d rilled an d the rod passes th rough
them ; a spring i s sl i pped on to the rod on each side o f one
block a nd pre ssed agai n st it by a collar The rod i s free
to m
,

ove end wi se and motion i s i m parted to it by a smal l

bel l cran k lever at the end o f the cran k ca se having i ts
short a rm cam shap e d .

Depre ssion o f the long arm put s a compre ssion on the

fou r springs on one side o f each o f the fo hr block s, a n d a s
the valve s i n turn l i ft , the block s sl ide u nder their stem s
and hold them O pen Thi s i s the only engi ne control
.

provided , a s the magneto ign itio n i s fi Xe d a n d there i s n o

throttle .

Petrol i s fe d in to the bell mouthed end o f the in let pi pe

-

by a small rotary pu m p forci ng the fuel th rough a jet

o ri fi ce an d n o h e ati n g appl iance s are provided .

The water j acket s to the cylinders con si st o f alu mi n iu m

sleeve s which embrace the cyl inder barrel s on ly and a re

h e ld i n place by steel ri n g s shru n k o n N o water j acketing

-
.
68 AE RO PLA N E S

i s provided fo r the cyl inder head s The connecting r o d s .

are tubu lar ste e l and h ave the u sual tee shaped end s -

con nected to bron ze beari ngs The d imen sion s o f the .

engi n e a re 1 1 2 m m bore by 1 00 m m stroke , an d the

. .

weight 96 k g The horse power developed at

.
-

revol ution s per m in ute i s 30 .

I n the W right mach ine a pair o f n ine toothed sp rock e t -

F m 41 — E i g h t y li n de r 70 H P
. .
-
C . . E n gi n e fi tte d to M r C .

G
ra h a me \Vh i tc s B leri o t
’
-
Type XI I . M o n o pla n e .

(P / w/o b r mzb ra lza m

y pe si n o
f Ai r C G
'

whee l s a re attached to the e n d o f t h e cran k sha ft be hind t h e

fly wh e e l and the dr i v e i s by chai n s to t h e th irty thre e
,
-

toothed cha i n wh e e l s attached to the t wo pro pel lers The .

gear wheel s wh ich O perate the cam sha ft and mag n e to are
o f fi bre , o ut side the cran k chamber an d n ot c a se d i n .

E N V
.
— . . E
The N V e n gine (Figs 41 a n d 42 ) h a s e i g ht
. . . .

cyl in ders in two gro u p s o f fou r a n d situated i n V shape upo n

,
 E N V
. . . EN GI N E 69

the cran k chamber in order to en su re equ il ibriu m without

,

great le n gth o f cran k sha ft The cyl inders them selves a re o f

.

ca st iron , bored i n side and tu rned out side to en su re equal

thic k ne ss o f metal and u n i formity o f the cyl inder wall s .

G reat care i s taken to make every cyl inder o f exactly the

FI G .
42.
— E i h
g t
-
Cy li n de r E N V
. . . E n gi n e .

s a me d i me n sion s, so that the compre ssion is equal i n each .

T h e con n ecting rod s a re attached in opposite pai rs to

These pin s are se t at 1 80 and
°
t h e four cran k pin s .

the t wo set s o f cyl ind e rs at The crank sha ft i s

supported on fi v e ball beari n g s there b eing o n e bet w ee n
,

e ac h cran k , a lso o n e thru st ball race at the forw a rd e n d o f

70 A E RO PL A N E S

the sha ft The thru st race i s to ta k e the th ru st o f the

.

propeller when d irectly con nected to the cran k sha ft The .

ca msha ft i s made i n one sol id forging with i ts cam s, the

o n e sha ft operating both set s o f valve s, it h a s si xteen
cam s Upon i t I t i s supported by one ball beari ng at
.

either end , and two plain bearings near the centre (F i g .

T h e in let and exhau st valve s are placed side by side

u pon the adj acen t side s o f the grou ps o f cyl inders and the ,

valve stem s are se t at a slight a ngle to the centre l ine o f

the cyl inders i n order to reduce the clearance volume s o f
the cyl inders The cam s actuate tappet s through a large
.

bal l situated at the ba se o f each tappe t ; thi s bal l ride s i n

a bron ze slee ve and t h e tappet rod re sts o n the top o f i t .

T h e lubri catio n o f th i s e ngine i s carried out i n a v e ry

ingen iou s m an ner A pi ston pu mp o f the hol low buc k et
.

plu nger type i s fi t t e d i n the late st model s thi s pum p i s

operated by an eccentric fi x e d at the rear e n d o f the cran k
sha ft o f the engine , the plunger h a s a bal l foot valv e which

act s a s the buc k et valve , the oi l being del ivered th rough

the e ccentric rod which thu s form s t h e delivery pipe from
,

the pu mp (F ig . The o i l then pa sse s i nto the in terior

o f the eccentric str a p and thence t hrough several holes
dril led radially through the ecce n tric shea v e to a central
hole d ril led through th e cran k sha ft The web s o f the
.

sha ft and the pin s are al so d ri lled so that the oi l i s tran s

mi tte d to the large end s o f the con nect i ng rod s The oi l .

i s thence forced , u nder a pre ssure o f some 30 lh per squ a re

.

inch , u p the connectin g rod s to th e gudgeon pin s The .

o utfl o w o f oil to the se pin s i s particularly neatly arranged .

The pi n s have longitudinal h o le s drilled through them , and

each one h a s a radial h ole leadi n g from i t s j ou rnal i n such
a man ner that the feeding hole i n the bron ze beari n g o f
the small end o f the co n necti ng rod i s o n ly d ire ctly
oppo site to the hole in the gudgeo n pin , and oil ther e fore
on ly flo ws when the pi ston i s o n i ts upward stroke The .

o sci llatio n o f the rod bl i nd s the hole o n the dow n ward

po we r stroke s so t h a t n o oi l the n flo ws I t i s claim e d t h a t
.
E N V
. . . L U B R I CA T I ON
72 AE RO PL A N E S

s uch an arrangement prevent s smoking at the exhau st and

en sure s proper lubrication o f the working parts The .

con su mption o f lubricati n g oil i s on ly 3 pint s per hou r

when the engi ne i s developing 60 H P . .

A central Z en ith carbu rettor with double jet i s fi t te d ,

and the fou r inlet pi pe s branch out from a ball fi tte d above
the carbu rettor E ach branch pipe feed s t wo cyl inders
. .

The con su m ption o f petrol i s give n at lh per H P per . . .

hour with both the 40 and 60 H P engine s O n test , thi s . . .

w a s mea sured a s lh per B H P hou r with the

. . . .

engi ne developing ti mes i ts R A C rated power . . .

.
.

Partic ular attention h a s been given in designing th i s

engi ne to the cool ing arrangement s, and i t wi ll be seen
that e ach cyl inder i s fi tte d with an electrolytical ly depo sited
copper water j ac k et The inlet and outlet pi pe s a re
.

attached at the lower end s o f the j ac k et s and b e twee n t h e

v a lve pock ets to short branches formed with the j ack e t s,
“

a n d th e
-

water circulation i s maintained by mean s o f a

c e ntri fugal q mp .

The ign ition i s ei ther by a mag n e to placed i n front o f

the engine or by accu mu lator and coil s T h e magneto i s .

driven by t h e cran k sha ft through i ncl ined geari n g a t twice

cran k s ha ft speed The driving pin ion sl ide s on t h e cra n k
.

sha ft i n such a man ner that the point o f h ring can be

‘

controlled and al so the positi o n o f t h e cam sha ft relati v e ly

,

to t h e cra n k sha ft , by rea son o f t he incl ined t e eth Th e .

d i stributer fo r battery ign itio n i s driven by the cam sha ft .

E ach cyl inder can have two plug s fi t te d , and the two
sy stem s made quite separate an d ind e pendent o f one

another .

The h ring seque n ce i s care ful ly arra n ge d to en su re

lo n git udi nal balance and so that th e pre ssure from two
oppo site cyl inder s i s never upon o n e cr a n kpin a t the sa me
time ; i t i s carried out there fore a s fol low s
N u mbering the cyl inder s from the fro n t end a s 1 , 3 5 7 , ,

fo r the le ft hand four cyli n der s, and 2 , 4, 6 8 b e i n g the

-

n umbers o f t h e four cyl ind e rs oppo site to th e m , the fi ri n g

74 AE RO P L A NE S

enables al l the cyl i nders to be mad e exactly u n i form , an d

the ver tical valve pocket s reduce the area s out o f direct
l ine o f fi ri n g The water j a c k et s are o f thin coppe r
.

presse d ou t o f one piece , an d wire gauge thic k T h e -

.

j oint at the lower end i s made by mean s o f a rubber ri n g

F I G 45
. .
— Th e G re e n E n g i n e ma de by th e A ste r C o .

fi tti n g i n to a groove i n a fla n g e formed on t h e cyl inder

body The j acket end i s sli g htly bell mouthed , and sl ides
.
-

on over thi s ri ng , thu s al lowi n g fo r ex pan sion and con

tra ction o f the j acket on the pri nciple embod ied in the
Cro ssley g a s engine l i ner s A ll the ring j o i nt s ro und th e
.

v a lve s and pipe s are made o f metal wa sh e r s T h e valv e s .

 G R EE N V A LV E ME CH A N I S M 75

are o f the u sual m u shroom type i nverted and retained i n

,

separate cage s, held dow n i n po sition by i nternal l o cking

rings .

The water j ac k et s are carried rou nd fla n g e s made with

the valve poc k et s a n d sec ured to them by external lock in g
,

rings screwed on to thread s formed on the valve pock e t s

fo r the pu rpo se . The valve stem s are not d irectly operated
by mea n s o f th e
rockers, but a short
tappe t pin i s i nter
po sed , being gu ided
i n a d o m e sh a p e d
-

head over the valv e

sp r i n g a n d w a sh e r .

The valve s are oper

ated by an overhead
cam sha ft , each pai r
o f cam s together w ith

th e roc ke rs be i n g
‘

enca sed i n a rota table

al u min i u m ca sing .

T h e se c a si n g s
rotate on bearings
through wh ich t h e
cam sha ft pa sse s a n d
,

the u ndoing o f a
si n gle n ut al low s o f

a section o f the cam

c a se b e i n g ro t a t e d
F I G 46 . Th G r n E ngi n e Ca rbure tto r
.
-
e
“
ee .

abou t the cam sha ft

together with the rocker and short tappet pi n The .

valve s can thu s be d rawn without i n any way i n terfering

with the adj u stme n t o f the tappet B y th i s arrangement .

a lso prop e r lu bric a tio n i s e n su red without the ri sk o f oi l

travel l ing down t h e va lve stem s and i nto the cyl i n ders .

T h e method o f su pporti n g the cran k sha ft to the top hal f

o f the cra n k chamb e r i s al so noteworthy The u sual webs .
76 AE RO P L A N E S

b e twe e n each pair o f cran k s h ave a pair o f sol id colu mn s

ca st wit h each These are dril led o ut, a n d the bolt s which
.

pa ss th rough the se hol e s i n add ition to holdi ng the bear

,

ing caps, al so pa ss through the u pper hal f o f the cran k

chamber and hel p to hold down the cylinders in po sition
, .

Thu s the work ing stre sses are d ivided between the
al u m in iu m casting a n d the steel bolt s, thi s arra n gemen t
making a strong form o f con st ruction .

The lower hal f o f the cran k chamber i s o f sheet

alu min i um , a n d form s an oi l chambe r wi th a large su m p
i n the centre The pi st on s and valve cages are o f cast
.

i ron , the engine beari n gs are o f bronze l ined with wh ite

metal The lu brication o f the engine i s carried ou t a s
.

—
fo llo ws z A n oi l chan nel i s ca st sol id w ith the u ppe r
hal f o f the cran k chamber an d ru n s a long one side
through out i ts whole length O i l i s forced through th i s . .

by a smal l gear pum p , and the oil i s d e l ivered from t h e

main ch an nel th rough hole s at right angles to it di rectly
i nto the h ollo w col u mn s th ro ugh which t h e mai n bearing
bol ts pa ss and thence to the main bearings and hollow
,

cran k sha ft The bolt s are red uced in diameter at thei r

.

cen tre s, so formi ng an an nu lar oi l channel There are .

thu s no pi pe s wh ich may come adri ft or leak .

T h e S i mms Briti sh bu i lt 5 0 H P si x c y li nder e ng ine

-
. .
-

F i
( g 47s a n
. d 4)8 i s one o f a t y pe o f e ngine w hich h a s been
bu ilt fo r many years by the S im m s C ompa n y fo r aerial
work , but it h a s re ce n tly b e en re de signed and i ts weight -

w ith fly wh e e l reduced to 2 2 0 lb Thi s engine d e velop s 5 0 .

H P at
. . revol ution s per m in ute and 60 H P at , . .

revol ut ion s per m inute being at the rate o f 1 H P fo r 4 lb

, . . .

o f weight The c y l inder s a re o f ca st i ron w ith ca st iro n

.
,
-

water j ac k et s, and thei r bore i s 1 1 0 m m with 1 1 0 m m . .

stro k e The se cyl inder s are a rranged i n triple set s, and

.

are at an angle o f 1 20 to one anoth e r The water circula

°
.

tion i s by c e nt ri fugal pu m p and the oi l by a ge a r pu m p o f

,

gun metal , and both are g e ar d riv e n

-
.
 SI M M S C A R B U R E TT O R 77

A trai n o f operati n g gears i s pl a ced out side the cran k

chambe r .The top pi nion d rive s a Si m m s magneto t h e ,

i ntermediate wheel gears with a pin io n wheel on the cran k

sha ft and drive s the cam sha ft , and the lo we st pi n ion d rive s

the oi l pu m p The carbu rettor i s o f an alu m i n iu m al loy ,an d

.

com bi ned with i t i s the thrott le and air valve which are ,

fo rmed a s port s i n the spl it halve s o f a sleeve , an d a rrange d

so that the a i r mu st pa ss through the th rottle port th us ,

FIG —
47 Th e S i mms E n g i n e
. . .

y permzsszo n fof A era M o to rs L td )

(P bol os b
' '

each h a s an i nd e pendently controlled sem i rotary move -

ment The se val ve s are held i n position by a flat spring

.

pressing u pon thei r flan ged cover s the c a rbu rettor b e ing a
,

si m ple si ngle j et w ith a float feed and h a s no j acket .

The three throw cran k sha ft i s hol low and weigh s on ly

-

lb the oi l i s forced through it to al l t h e be a ri ng s

. .

The whole o f the val ve s are operated by a single hol low

cam sha ft placed i n a fore a n d a ft d i rection be t we en the
cylinders and m a de in o n e piece with the cam s The
.
.
78 A E RO P LA N E S

’
i n let valve s a re on R E Phil li ps sy stem and sem i auto
. .
-

matic . As a v e ry small e ffort i s requ ired to move

F I G 48 —Th e
. . S i mms E n gin e .

the m, the O perating gear is o f a l ight type , al l tre sse s

s

bei ng ten sile .

 M OR T E N GI N E 79

The exhau st valve s are o f the u nderneath type , a n d

worked by fi n g e rs pivoted abou t a com mon sha ft with
t h ose o f the in let gear .

N ew E n g in e Co mpa n y .
— The type o f en g i n e no w

— s T wo Cy c e h i o rt E n g i n e: of
'

V1e w
’
FIG 49. T h e N e w E n g i n e Co .
-

l
P
ump S i de .

made by thi s Briti sh fi rm i s i ll ustrated i n Fig 49, a n d i s .

termed the M ort en g ine .

T h e engi ne work s on the two cycle pri nciple , th a t i s, an

-

ex plosio n occurs eve ry ti me the pi ston i s at the to p o f i ts

stro k e , and a s c o mpared with a four cycle engine ha v i n g -
80 AE RO PL A N E S

th e s ame n u mber o f cylinde rs the torque i s more even and

,

the engine i s con siderably smaller and either l ighter per

horse power or more robu st fo r th e power produced
-
.

A t th e lower en d o f the cyl i nder i s a ring o f port s

— o n the one side fo r ad m i ssion ; on the o t her fo r the
exhau st A s t h e pi ston de scend s, it fi rst u ncover s the
.

exhau st port s, thu s reducing t h e pre ssu re in side the

cyl inder to that o f the a tmosphere A s the pi ston move s .

do wn further the i n let port s a re ope n ed A i r i s driven .

u nder pre ssure th rough the i n let port s, d ri ving the remain
in g e xhau st g a s be fore i t The cylinder i s thu s fi lle d with
.

fre sh air . A s the pi ston r1 se s on the com pre ssion stroke i t

com mence s to clo se the port s Sl ightly be fore the in let
.

p ort i s clo sed t h e nece ssary g a s i s forced i n to t h e cyl i n de.r

I m mediately a fterward s the e x hau st por t i s clo sed and the

s com pre s sed , and at t h e t o p o f the stro k e the m i xture
g a

i s fi re d i n th e u sual man ner .

The novel ty o f th e e ngi n e con si st s i n the

met h od o f su pplying the fre sh air an d g a s and o f ti m ing
t h e ad mi ssion o f the g a s . Bo lted to the side o f the engi n e
i s a ca se con tain ing a serie s o f three rotary blow e rs o f t h e
gear type The two end one s su pply pu re ai r , the cen tre
.

one supplying the g a s Pa ssage s c a st i n the cr a n k c a se

.

con duct the ai r to th e in let port s, the g a s b e ing led through

a pipe to a rotating v al ve wh ich at the correct moment
open s port s allowing th e g a s to enter the cyl inder .

I t wil l be seen there are 11 0 tappet nor slide valve s, no

cam s, n o r sprin gs, and no val ve ge ar , the whole o f the
s an d air d i stri bution being per formed by the rota ry
g a

blowers and ro ta ry v a lv e s .

S i nce there are double the n u mber o f i mpul se s the

power i s approxi mately 75 per c e nt .gre a ter than that o f a
fou r cycle engi ne o f si mi lar di me n sion s
'

-
.

The port s are large , and there i s, t h ere fore , no

'

throttling o f the m i xture at h igh spee d s ; thu s the powe r

d eveloped i s in d irect prop o rtio n t o the rate o f engine
revol ution .
82 AE RO PL A N E S

and th a t they will requ ire 2 5 per cent le ss radiati n g sur face
.

than fou r cycle engine s o f the same power

-
.

Th e l ubricant i s i n each i n stance forced throu g h a

hol low cran k sha ft and th e ig n ition i s by high t e n sion
,

magn e to .
 DI M E N SI ON S O F L E A DI N G E NG I N E S

A sR o M o ro a s
-
AT TH E F I R S T 0121 1 1 9 14 S n o w, M A RC H 1 0
9 9 .

B R I TI S H .

T y re .

F o a mo N .

M e ta llurg iq ue

Pi pe

R e n a ul t

G o bro n
M ie sse
Duth i e l -
Ch me rs
al

Ri pa ult

A A i r co o le d B Vt a te r co o le d
’
. .

C y li n de r d i me n sio n s i n i n ch e s o r mi lli me tre s

.
 84 A E RO P L A NE S

Ar '
1 11 1-3 E N D or YE A R 1 0
9 9 TH E FO L L O WI NG E N G I N ES W E R E
ALS O NI A R K E T E D .

T v rs .

A n za n i

A n to i n e tte

T/ wla st th re e I V E . C e n g i m s g i ve { w i t c 111 1
t
r ' :
ra te d bo rsc po w cr
-

at { w i f e [lea sp ee d .

A : A i r co ole d . B = W a te r co o le d .

Cy li n d er di me n si o n s i n i n ch e s o r mi lli me t re s .
86 AE R O PLA N E S

the proportionate value o f the c o e ffi c i e n t o f friction d o e s

not hold B y thi s i s meant that a lthough the ma ss o f an
.

eq ual vol u me o f air and water is in the relation o f about

1 to 800 the friction o f the air upon the propel ler blade s
,

a s they cut through it i s m uch more than ai m o f the

a mou nt o f friction se t u p by water u po n

si mi larly shaped blade s .

A propel ler h a s two dutie s to perform , the

fi r st bei n g to propel a s large a vol u me o f air
a s po ssible i n a given time w hich mean s area
,

o f propeller , spe ed o f rotation and pitch th i s

mu st be done with the sma lle st po ssible con
su mption o f power . Second ly , the blades
them selve s, together with t h e bo ss m u st ,

move through the air with the smalle st

amount o f ski n friction an d head resi stance .

I t wil l be seen that when the area o f each

blade i s large , an d the moment o f thi s are a
about the centre o f the sha ft i s high , much .

more power wi ll be requ i red to overcome

skin re si stance at a given rate o f revolution s

i f t h e bl a de i s at all hum py than i f the blade

area wer e smaller and the same rate o f re v o lu
tion s maintained I n the fi rst place , the ski n
.

re si stance o f the larger blade i s greater a n d ,

i f the pitch o f the blade s i s the same i n each

ca se it may happen that the larger blades wi ll
give no more th ru st than the smaller on e s,
a n y ext ra gri p which the larger one s may
“

get u pon the air being n eutral i se d by t h e i n

crease d sk i n friction o f the blade s them se l ve s .

The e ffecti v e width o f the blade i s al so li mite d by the

amou nt o f ai r se t i n mo tion a s we h n d that wh e n the
,

maxi mu m vel o city i s i mpart e d t o any m o lecule o f ai r by

the velocity and sh a pe o f the face o f the bla d e a n y ,

addition o f blade bre a d th cannot increa se t h i s vel o city a n d

only re sult s i n t h e i n c re a se d sk i n friction alre ady re fe rre d to .
 VA R I A B L E S T O BE CO N S I D E R E D 87

W e may it down a s an axiom that there i s n o

se t

standard shape or type o f blade a s rega rd s norm a l pro j e c

tion which wi ll be equally e ffi ci e n t un der very diverse

condition s o f work in g I t is, however, possible to anticipate
.

by measurement the best condition s under which a n y par

ti cula r propel ler wi ll work I t i s al so po ssible to so arrange
.

th e de sign and n umber o f bl ade s that a colu mn o f ai r o f a

d iameter equal to the diameter o f the blades wi l l be acted
upo n al most a s tho ugh the ai r were a sol id med iu m , 112 ,
with a very smal l amou n t o f sli p M aj or Joh n Squ ire s, o f .

A merica , states i n sim ple langu age th e mean s o f show i ng

graphical ly when the correct nu mber o f bl a des i s arrived
at
I f i n pl o tti n g th e t h rust cu rve , th e th ru st u n i ts be co n si de re d
a s absci s sae a n d th e blade un its a s o rd inates, a s mo re blade s a re
adde d th e c urve be co me s h o ri z o n ta l, a n d
-

at thi s po i n t a suffi c i e n t
”
n u mbe r o f bla de s i s i n d ica te d .

T here are fi v e variable s to take into account i n pro

pel ler design .

1 T he speed o f the machi ne and the power available

. .

2 The spe ed o f revol ution o f the propel ler , d e termined

.

by the engi ne .

3 T.he area A (a s below ) which i s governed by N o 1 ,

except i t be li mited by practical cond ition s o f the design

o f the machi ne .

4 T.he pitch , whic h depend s on 1 and 2 , except i n

the ca se mentioned when the area A i s l i m ited , in which
case i t depend s on thi s area A a s wel l The pitch i s a s .

i mportan t a s the speed o f revolution , and be ar s a clo se

relation to it a s the pressure cau sed by movi ng air vari e s
“
as V .

5 T. he width o f the blade s governed by al l the above,

and by experi mental result s .

R e ferri ng now to the previou s four variables i n propel ler

de sign M r T W K Clarke point s out that there are two
, . . .

di stinct cla sse s in to which propel lers may be placed .

88 A E RO PLA NES

The se may be de sign at e d by th e fol lowi n g exam ple fo r

a 30 H P achine . . m
I f the speed o f flight i s to be 40 m ile s per hour max i
mu m a propel ler diameter o f sa y 7 ft 6 i n wou ld be
. . .

requ ired to give a high e ffi c ie n cy I n many case s, owing .

to fau lty de sign o f the machi ne , such a diameter m ight be

either not permi ssible or i nconven ient , a n d a 6 ft d iameter .

m ight be the max i mu m .

A t the correct speed o f the rearward ai r stream ejected

from the propel ler (wh ich i s equal to the spe ed o f the
machine plu s the sl ip ), the volume o f air dealt with by the
smal ler propel ler , even a ssu ming a total di sc area di splace

men t wo uld be i n suffi ci e n t to produce the necessary pro

,

pu l sive react ion a n d to ab sorb the engine power Thi s can .

on ly be prod uced by i ncre a si ng the pitch o f the propeller

and con sequently the velocity o f the rear ward air st ream ,
thu s a very large sl i p re su lt s and the thru st per horse power -

i s much reduced a s wil l be seen i n the next chapter Such

, .

a mo d i fica ti o n o f de sign gives ri se to the u sual ly accepted

fal lacy that air propel lers i nvolve a low e ffi c i e n cy and
great sl i p .

Variation s, there fore , o f e i t h e r rate o f revol utio n or pitch

varie s the work d one or ex pended a s the cube o f the
variation ,a s we have a second power variable to begi n with .

M aj o r Squ ire s ex pe ri ment s give bri e fly the followi n g ideal

’

re sult s fo r fi x e d propellers moving a colu mn o f air aw a y

,

from them .

P pi tc h ,
N ra te o f re vo l uti o n s
p e r m i n u te ,

A p ro j e c te d a rea o f th e a i r s t re a m ,

T th rust pe r h o rse po we r,
-

H P . . h o rse p o we r
-
.

1 . Do ubli n g N wh e n P and A a re c o n sta n t, i n c re a se s

by N 3
a nd d e c re a se s T by

2 . Do ubli n g N and ma k i n g f ‘
wi th P c o n sta n t, H P
. . i n c re a se s
2
90 AE R OPLA N E S
“ “
as N 3
a nd as P , H P . . i n cre a si n g as N ,and d e cre a si n g
1

1 3.Do ubli n g N an d d o ubli n g P, a n d ma k i n g f

z , H P . . i n cre a se s
I
as N 3
and P 3
, a n d de c re a se s as H P . . i n c re a si n g as

1
N 5
, nd
a d e crea smg T as '
_

N
°

Do u bli n g A a nd do ubli n g P wi th N co n sta n t, H . i n cre a se s

P .

as A and P 3
, H P . . i ncre asi n g *
as P , a n d de cre a si n g T
1

P
N
Do ubli n g A a nd do ub li n g P, a n d ma k i n g H P . . i n cre ases
2

as A and P 3
, a n d de cre a se s as H P . . i n cre a si n g as

A a nd T re mai n s th e same .

Do ubl i n g N a n d do ubli n g A a n d do ubli n g P , H P . . i n cre a se s

as N 3
, a s A, a nd as P 3
. H P . . i n c re a si n g 7
as N , o r P 7
,

I
and T de crea si n g as — °

2
N

P utt i ng the above resu lt s into a si m ple form w e fi nd

that
3 3 2
H P . .
as N P R ,

A c tua l th ru st as N 2
P 2 2
R ,
H P
T
. .

°r oe

N x P

Ca se 6ho ws that by doubl ing the area and halving

s

the pitch the po wer con sumed i s decrea sed to one qu arter ,

and the thru st pe r horse power i s doubled when the rate o f

-

revolu tion i s u nchanged , that i s to sa y , the engi ne spe ed

remain s con stant , and it i s the engine spe e d i n the
maj ority o f c a se s wh ich i s one o f the de te rmi n i n g fact o rs r
.

I ncrea se o f area increa se s the h o r se po we r re qui re d -

i n d irect propo rtion whil st it d o e s n o t i ncrea se th e t h r ust

me wh a t d i fle re n t fo rm in
'

T h e se re sult s, i n a so a re d
p pe a
 T H R U ST A GA I N ST A PI X E D P O I N T 9 1

per horse power,con sequently m ulti plyi ng the area by fou r

-

so that the original horse power i n the motor i s ab sorbed ,

-

and the thru st per horse power bei n g doubled a s above

-

owing to the pitch being halved , the re sul ti ng thru st

i s double what it wou ld have been with the original pit ch .

”
I t mu st be borne i n min d that are a re fers to the “

area o f the di sc through wh ic h the blade s revolve, a s the

air pressure cre ated by the blade s shou ld be over the whole
di sc and not merely u pon an area equal to the blade area .

I n practice , however no propel ler i n use does give the

,

e ffect over the whole di sc owing to edd ie s,and to the presenc e

o f the bo ss an d the root s o f the blade s which give no u se ful

propu l si ve e fle ct to the air M any propellers o n ly give the

'

work calcu lated on blade area , an d thu s the table shou ld be

u sed with due caution i t is g ive n so le ly a s i nd icati n g t h e
relative result s o f d i fle re n t v alue s o f the con stan ts and
'

variable s .

I t shou ld be noted , however that propel lers o f eq ual ,

e ffi ciencie s can del iver widely di fferent thru sts per horse
power , a s in ca se s 5 and 6 where the thru st per
horse power i s doubled by halvi n g the pitch and dou bling
-

the area .

The above data , it mu st be remembered , are fo r a

propeller thru sting again st a fi xed point , and a h igher
thru st per horse po wer doe s not actual ly signi fy that a
-

higher e ffi ci e n cy i s obtained I t i s al so to be borne i n

.

m i n d that cond ition s o f fi x e d poin t thru st are not the

same a s wh e n the propeller i s movi ng forward in to un

di sturbed ai r , an d it doe s not follow that a propeller

w ith a high thru st per hor se power wil l give greater -

spee d through the ai r than one d e veloping a lower thru st

v alue.

N o w con sideri n g a propell e r movi n g for w ard throu g h

the air a s i s the ca se i n actual fl ight i t i s ea sier to a ssu me ,

that thi s propeller h a s cen t per cent e ffi c i e n cy

. . .

The work done by t h e propeller con si st s i n mo v i n g r

a m a ss o f ai r o f k nown weight at a certain rate per m in ute ,

9 2 A E R O P LA N E S

and in th i s wa y can be compared to a pu m p rai sing water

through a vertical ri si ng mai n .

I f W = fo o t po un ds o f wo rk do n e pe r u n i t o f ti me ,
-

w = to ta l we i gh t o f air mo ve d ,
wl = we igh t o f a cubic fo o t o f air, sa y 00 73 lh , .

20 ml x (to ta l n u mbe r o f cu bic fe e t o f a i r mo ve d i n u n it

o f t i me ) sa y C,

20 ml x C .

11c
2
C1 01 )!
28 23

IfR re vo lu ti o n s pe r seco n d ,
A = a rea th ro ugh wh ic h pro pul si ve c fi e c t i s e xe rte d ,
P p itch o f pro pe ll e r i n fe e t,
g = ft p
. e r se c o n d p e r se c o n d ,

V = ve l o city o f a i r i n fe e t pe r se c o n d,
I t wil l be se e n th at C i s d e pe n de n t o n P x A x R ,
e q ua ti o n b e co me s

W
2g

V= P x R

W
2g
3 3
P AR 701

2g
3 3
P AR 70

2g “,

S ub stituti ng practical val ue s i n the above equ ation

Let a 40 H P engi n e d rive a pre p He r 8 ft diameter
. . .

(5 q
0 s f
.t area.swept ) at 2 0 revol utio n s per second = 1 2 00 ,

revol ution s pe r m in ute The correct pitch o f such a

.

propel ler i s requ ired to be found (W = 2 2 000 ft lb per , .

-
.

second ) .

3
P x 5 0 x x c c
'

73
x

T hu s we have the fou r val ue s fi x e d fo r thi s pr o pe l ler .

94 A E RO P L A N E S

As a re sult we fi nd t h at the propeller with the (2 ) lower

thru st value lh per H P ) give s a greater theoretical
. . .

fl ight velocity than that w ith the ( 1 ) h igher val ue ( 1 1 6 lh .

per
(The e calculation are ta k en from M aj or Squ ire ’
s s s

pape n )
R an k i n K e n nedy approache s the subject o f propel ler
calculation i n a some what si mpler form , taki n g the force
requ ire d to propel a gi v en v olume o f air a stern o f the
prope l ler per second — W as be fore that , i s, the total foot
V
pound s o f wor k done d ivid e d by the velocity o f th e ai r ,thu s
givi n g a u n it o f p o u1 1d s
“

W V x C V x (A V x c c
°

73)
V
C
w W .

a propel l e r drive s a c o l umn o f air o f 64sq ft i n area

If . .

at a velocity o f 2 0 ft pe r se cond , it acc e lera tes to that spe ed

.

a weight o f air per se con d

(C x 701 ) w :
20 x 6 4x °

o o 73
lh pe r . se c o n d .

The equ a l and opposit e force app e ari ng as thru st at the

pr o peller
W 20 x 93 s
'

8
5 5 lh th rust . .

V 32

w = th e fo o t p o un d s o f wo rk d o n e p e r se co n d
-

2 2
«N 70V
n

a nd H P
5
. .

x 55
wh e re x t h e e ffi c ie n cy c o e ffi c i e n t o f t h e pro pe ll e r .

W he n the m a ch in e move s forward through the a ir at

a sp e e d S i n fe e t per secon d , the colu m n o f air l e aves th e
:

wake o f the prope l ler at a v e l o city R an k in

K e nnedy here a ssu me s tha t the v e locity o f the wa k e
re latively to t h e surroundi n g ai r i s the sa me w he n th e
 E XA M P L E S OF P RO P E LL E R C A LC ULA T I ON S 95

machi ne i s i n motion a s when a t rest, but thi s is a

fallacy .

The thru st o f the propel ler i s the n proportion al to

(S V ”
,
E
7
11
o r in un ds
p o

0 07 S ( V )V A
°

3 x

32

s howing the advantage gained by adva n cing the propel ler

i n the ai r giving it a positive fe e d .

(S + V ) probably i ncrea s e s, but V decrea se s a s S i n

crease s and the product

, and there fore the thr ust ,
decrea se s a s the speed o f the mach ine i ncreases .

I f the theore tical e ffi c ie n cy were obtained it would

S

thu s i f S = 60 ft .
p er s econd and the sli p o f the propel ler
— 0 ft per second
4 .

S+V 1 00 ft p e r se c o n d , th i s be i n g th e sp e e d o f th e wa k e
.

o f th e pro pe l le r re l a ti ve l y to th e ma c h i n e .

6°
Th e e ffi ci e n cy 75 pe r ce n t .

No w as S + V = 1 00 ft per second and the p ropeller

.

re vol v e d at revolution s per min ute = 2 0 revolution s

1 00
per second , the pitch would hav e to be 5 ft .

20

W e may con sider the work to be done by the propeller

u pon the air i n a di fferent man ner The object o f a .

propel ler is to se t i n motion a gi v en weight o f air i n a

given ti me ; the ai r mu st be acc e lerated from a state o f
comparative re st un til i t h a s acqu ired a certai n velocity in
the same way that a body, havi ng potential energy , may
acqu ire a certain velocity whe n acted u po n by gravity fo r
a certain k n own ti me .
96 A E R O P LA N E S

Under the se con d itions

W h e re g = 32 ft pe r se co n d pe r se con d ,
.

b= th e h e igh t i n fe e t th ro ugh wh ic h th e bo dy fal ls,

m = th e ma ss o f th e bo dy ,
Th e e n e rg y i mpa rte d to th e bo dy
2g

If we take the ma ss a s u n ity we h n d that the foot

pou n d s o f air per second to be del ivered by a p ropel ler
2
are pro portional to V
Th e total weight o f air to be del ivered i n a second
i s th e pro d uct o f ( 1 ) the d i sc area in square feet (net
o

value ), the speed o f flight in feet per se cond , (3) t h e

weight o f a cubic foot o f air I f thi s i s m ulti plied by the.

energy i mparted to a pound o f air as obtained by

X }
we
have a s a product the foot pound s o f energy i m parted -

to th e a i r at any particular speed T h i s divid e d by the .

speed will gi ve the thru st obtai n ed i f the prope ller i s o f

a t pe r cen t e ffi c i e n cy
. . .

Say we have a prope l ler 7 ft diameter = 38 5 sq ft .

°

fly i n g speed = 4o m i les per hour = 5 8 ft per second ; speed .

o f air del ivered by propel ler = 85 ft per second weig h t o f .

a cu bic foot o f ai r i n roun d fi g ure s= 0 08 lb °

2
X = 1 1 3 ft .
-
lb . o f ene rgy i mpa rte d p e r po un d o f a ir .

26’

If we take the e ffective area o f the prope ller 0

3 qs . ft .

T h e to tal e n e rgy i n fo o t po un d s
x
-

x 8
s c n d i mpa rte d to th e a i r
3° 5 I 1 3 x
p e r e o

T h e h o rse po we r -
re qui re d 4 2 .

2 3 1 00
The th rust o f th e pro pe ll e r
2
55
2 72 lb .

W hen con sidering the work done by a screw propel ler ,

i t i s a common error to su ppose that the whole o fuchs

work i s per formed by the face o f the blades I t . i s a fact

9 8 AE R O P LA N E S

when the face o f the blade i s convex the motion i m parted

to th e air shou ld be a grad ua l a cceleration .

Thi s energy , it wil l be seen , i s i mpa rte d by th e trai ling

a s wel l a s by the leadi n g edge o f the blad e a n d i t i s stil l a ,

d i sp uted po i nt a s to the be st d i stribution o f ma terial to

resi st these stresse s .

Chauvi ere leave s the gre a test ma ss o f mat e rial in the

form o f thic k ne ss o f blade i n the vici n ity o f the t rail ing
edge , the max i mu m thic k ness occurring about o n e thi rd o f -

the width o f t h e blade from thi s edge .

O n the other hand T W K C larke adopts t h e aero foi l

, . . .

design and thicken s h i s blades the same d i stance from the

,

lead ing edge .

I n add ition to the stre sse s al re ady re ferred to , th e re is a

te n sion all over the sectional area due to the centri fugal
force acting u pon the m a ss o f the blades and tending to
bu rst th e m The magn itude o f t hi s stre ss at the root o f
.

t h e blade s i s fou n d from the formu la fo r centri fugal force ,

whe re
WV 2

g r

W = we i g h t o f bla de i n lbs .

T i
te n s o n i n lbs .

V l i i n fe e t pe r se co n d
ve o c ty o f th e c e ntre
o f gravity o f a blade .

r = ra d i us i n fe e t .

It w il l be seen that i n h igh spe ed propel lers t hi s force

-

may be o f con siderable magnitude and where the ti p ,

v e locity exceed s 2 5 0 fe et per second wooden blade s shou ld

be con structed o f waln ut or H ondura s mahogany rather
than o f the so fter timbers A n i mportant fe ature in blade
.

con struction i s u ni formity o f contou r, and t h i s m u st be

mai ntained by the st i ffn e ss o f the ma te rial o f which the
blad e i s con structe d A n y in vol untary de fo rmation o f
.

sha e due to i m p re sse d force s may re sul t seriou sly , and

p
i n vol un tary i ncrea se o f pitch sho uld be g uarded again st .

The shape o f t h e leading e dge o f the blades i s o f great

 SH APE O F C H A UV WER E B LADE S 99

i mportan ce T h is edge shou ld cu rve forward i nto the ai r

.

near the centre o f i ts e ffective length i t sho uld have an ea sy

a n d grad ual entry i n order to reduce the shock i m pressed

u pon the molecules o f ai r A high class propeller, such a s

.

the C hauvi ere , i s con structed with a we lI curved lead i n g -

edge , with a ve ry sl ight in itia l angle o f incidence , th i s angle

gradual ly i n crea se s owing to the concavity o f blade face ;
th i s concavity amou nts to about 3 m m at i ts max i mu m .

i n the 7 ft type at
. r p m fo r 2 5 H P engine s
. . . . . .

A note on a fe w particulars o f the Ch auvi ere blade s

may be o f i ntere st Look ing at the propel ler from the face
.

the trail ing edges o f the two blade s are in a d irect line ,
wh ich passes through the centre o f the axi s The trail ing .

edges are practical ly i n a straight l ine in a d irection normal

to the ax i s but swe ep forward about 3 m m a t the ti p . .

The t ip o f the bla de i s well rounded , an d the lead in g

edge sweeps wel l o utward s and forward s, attain ing i ts
max i mu m width at 07 o f the d i stance from the a x i s to the
‘

tip where in one partic ular ca se thi s projected width i s 2 20

,

m m , a n d the n ormal or perpend ic ular to the pitch angle i s

.

*
55 m m .

The blade h a s a con stan t pitch u ntil i t approaches the

th ird tenth o f blade length from the ax i s, where the pi tch
sl ightly decrease s The blade width al so gradual ly de
.

crea ses a s it appro ache s the root .

The blad e s are covered al l over with fi ne canvas,

painted a n d varni shed to a h igh d e gree o f fi n i sh in o rder
,

to prevent the blades spl itting , an d to reduce the sk in ‘

friction to a mi n i mu m The root s or a rm s o f the blade s

.

mu st be suffi ci e n tly strong to with stand the stresses to

which they are su bj ected , an d the boss m ust be o f a rn p le
'
’

si ze on account o f the ten sion on the two side s i n fron t o f ,

th e leadi ng edge o f each blade , cau sed by the tran smi ssion
o f power from the engi ne sha ft through the bo ss to th e

root s o f the blades .

T h i s pro pe lle r is fo r th e A n z a n i 2
5 H P . . e n gin e .
I OO A E RO P I A N E S
.

F lo .
53
. Gn o me C
E n g i n e fi t te d w i t h h a uv i ere P ro
pe lle r e re c te d in a

B i pla n e F usi la g e
.

The e ffect o f the bo ss a n d arm s o f the blade s together ,

with that o f the pre sence o f the e ngine or other driving

m e ch a n i sm , i s to cau se t h e st re a m l i n e s o f the w ak e to
 C H A PT E R VI I I .

E F F I CI E N C Y OF P R OP E L L E R S .

MR A E . . T
S E A ON,
i n calcul ating the thr ust o f a water
propel ler, doe s n o t agree that the thru st varie s a bsolutely
with the acting su r face , a s a square foot o f su r face at the
tips wil l natu ral ly be more e ffective t han a square foot near
the root o f the blades The statemen t that thr ust varie s
.

d irectly a s area i s, there fore , somewhat m i slead ing, a s the

sk ape o f the blade s m u st be ta k en into accou nt , neglecting
fo r a moment the q ue stion s o f d iameter and p i tch He .

there fore pre fers to t a ke the prod uct o f d iameter and square
root o f bl ade area a s one o f the control l ing factors, i n stead
o f the a rea , bu t he al so agrees that th e thru st varie s
i n versely with the pitch ratio .

A = th e r
a gg e ga te are a o f a c ti ve bl a de su rfa ce in sq uare
fe e t,
D th e d i a me te r o f th e p ro pe ll e r i n fe e t,
V = th e ve l o ci t
y o f t h e p p
ro e ll e r i n d i re c ti o n o f mo ti o n
o f th e ve sse l
i n fe e t pe r se c o n d,

i c h a i i p i tc h
P , = th e p t r t o , t e
d i a me te r
’
.

C ra ti o o f di sta n c e o f th e c e n tre o f gra v i ty o f th e bla de

fa ce fi o m flu bo ss to h a l f th e d i a me te r o f th e
'

p pro e ll e r .

W e have fo r an ord inary screw propel ler

Th ru st in lh .
 SE AT ON ’
S A N D 011 1 1 1 11 11 5 R UL E S 1 03

The fol lowing value s ~

fo r G may be taken fo r c ommon
shapes o f blade s

V AL UE S or G .

G ri ffi th blade , bro ad
’
s

G ri ffi th
’
s blade , n a rro w

O va l a n d l ea f sh a pe d -
ro un d ti p 1

C i rcula r bla d e
C ircula r bro ad ti ppe d
Squa re ti ppe d b la d e

fo r f t h is fo r
’
Seaton s example an appl ication o rule
water i s a s fol lows
.

Dia me te r 6 5 ft ,p
. i tc h 8 ft , re v o lu t i.o n s 36 0 pe r mi n ute ,
a re a o f bl a d es= 1 2 sq ft l ea f sh a pe d,
. .
-

- —
2
x 1 2 x 48
T h ru st x

lb .

In al l probabil ity thi s ru le wou ld hold fo r air propul sion

with the add ition o f a factor taking accou n t o f the masse s
o f the two bodie s, air and water .

G riffi th s rule s fo r blades gi ve

’

W i dth o f b la de at wi d e st part 1
dia me te r o f pro pe ll er .

W i d th o f blade a t ti p I,
Cu rva ture o f bl a de fo rward 5 ;
1
d i a me te r .

The re sult s o f experiments show that w ith al lowa n ce s

fo r the di fference i n the den sitie s o f air a n d water abou t
800 to 1 , the action s o f ai r propellers are si m ilar to tho se
o f water propel ler s .

T he problem i s not qu ite the same with ai r prop ul sion

a s in water propu l sion , owing to there bei ng no we tted

sur face factor to take i nto account in the former, and the

ai r doe s not adhe re to the su r face a s doe s the water The .

diameter o f an air propeller i s not , there fore l i m ited by .

ski n friction a s i s the ca se with a water propeller .

1 04 A E RO P L A NE S

I t has b e e n sho w n h o w that the thru st varies with

other variable s such a s t h e area o f the blades and the
,

sq uare o f the spee d and that the power varie s a s the cube
,

o f the spe e d . The power and thru st i nc rea se with the

d iameter of the propel le r , and the ge neral O pin ion i s that
a slo w spe ed propel l e r i s nece ssarily more e ffi c i e n t than a
high speed one .

Sir W i lliam W hite d i sputes th i s theory on the ground

that fo r the la st fi ft y years de sign e rs ha ve been e n gaged
on the produc t ion o f an e ffi c i e n t slo w speed prope ller and ,

t h a t mod e rn high sp e ed e n gine s hav e on ly re cen t ly de

ma n d e d pr o pellers to suit thei r speed s o f sha ft rotation .

H e stat e s that a s the n u mber o f variable s i s so gre a t, it i s

al most i mpo ssible to calcu late ou t the m o st e fli c ie n t type o f
‘

high spe ed pro pel ler fo r any parti c ular requ iremen t s— t h i s
can o n ly be settl e d by e xperi ment A l so wh e n a suitable
.
,

h igh spe e d propell e r i s prod uced to su it o n e particula r ca se ,

n o hard and fa st r ule can be form ulated to apply the data

ob tain e d to al l and e very ca se .

T h e high spe ed propeller i s a new probl e m and a s i n ,

the pa st i t h a s taken years o f i nve stigation to arri ve at an

e ffi c i e n t slow speed t y e there i s n o reaso n t o condemn
p
the high speed prop e l ler p e r se a s i n e ffi c ie n t .

There i s another d i fferenc e however , betwe e n water

,

and air propul sion , and that i s i n the feed or the man ner
in which the med iu m flow s through the vortex .

W he n th e propel ler revolv e s again st a fi x e d thru st poin t ,

i n ai r whic h w a s prev iou sly stationary , th e tendency i s fo r
the propel ler to be surrou nded by a vacuou s vortex , owi ng
to t h e smal l inertia o f the air , con sequently the thru st
rapid ly d i m in i she s .

W hen however the propeller move s for ward i nto fresh

, ,

zo n e s i ts feed i s more nearly assu red , and i f the propel ler

,

move s for ward through the air at a velocity equal to i ts

pitch mu ltipl i e d by i ts speed o f rotation , so that there i s
no sl ip i ts e Ffi c i e n c y i s a max i mu m
, .

P ro fe ssor H C h atley h a s ded uced t h e following form u la

.
1 06 AE R O PL A N E S

were obtai ned wi th a blade tip one third the wi d th o f the -

°
root , and a pitch a n gle o f 1 5 at the tip and 30 at the °

root , giving a mean pitch angle o f W ith a pro pel ler

o f th i s type 6 ft i n d iameter he obtai ned a maxi mu m
.

thru st o f 2 6 5 lh per horse power when smal l power wa s

.
-

appl ied , and nearly 2 0 lh per horse power at ma x imu m

.
-

w orking I oad Th ru sts a s high a s 75 lh per hor se powe r

. .
-

h a v e be en obt a ined a gai n st a fi x e d thru st po int by H err

K re ss a n d o thers .

Compari ng now the thru st obtained agai n st a fi x e d

thru st poin t with those in actual flight we may ta k e a s an ,

example the \V rig h t propel lers, which are u ndoub tedly

h i ghly suitable fo r the mach ine i n que stion I f we ta k e .

the horse power o f the e ngin e a s 2 9 to 30, and the spe e d

-

o f flight o f the machine at 5 6 ft p e r second we have 5 5 0 .

,

foot pound s o f wor k done per second per horse power

- -

2 95 lh to ta l th rust wi th
. an i de a l e ffi c i e n c y,

8 lh t h r ust i d ll —
h o rse po we r
9 . e a y pe r .

The a c tual thru st o f the two propellers i s combin e d , 2 00

to 2 20 lh , equal to
. lh per horse power Lanchester
.
-

take s the total thru st o f these propel lers at 1 5 5 lb per pair . .

I n many ca se s about 7 lb per horse power i s all that .

-

i s ob t ained The Chau vi ere propeller i s one o f the mo st

.

succe ssfu l that h a s been produced and it wil l be recogn i sed ,

i n some o f the photograph s in th i s book I ts detail s .

are in the po sse ssion o f the au thor , bu t it i s not con sidered

ex ped ient to publ i sh them here , but the se natu ral ly vary
i n ea ch di fferent in stance accord ing to req uirement s .

There shou ld be n o d i Ffi c ulty in de signing a prope ller

that wou ld give 80 per cen t e ffi c i e n cy i f Si r W i lliam .

W hite s rea so n ing i s correct an d he speak s with authority ;

’
,

at present 5 0 per ce n t i s m uch nearer the mark That i s

. .

to sa y , that o f al l the po wer su ppl ied by the engine o f a

flyi ng machine ,one hal f i s n o w wasted G e n erally spea k i n g,
-
.

it i s more economical to im part a small velocity to a large

 ’
MA X I M S EX P E R I M E N TS 1 07

mass o f air rather tha n a high veloc ity to a smal l mass, a n d

fo r thi s rea son large d iameter i s sought .

The le ss the theoretical slip o f a pro pel ler and the

greater the horse power to be tran sm it te d , the greater
-

shou ld be the d iameter .

R igidity o f blade shou ld be observed ,a s fli msy blades are

o ft e n a sou rce o f loss, o w i n g to c hange o f sh a pe u nder load .

I t i s u se ful to notic e t h a t th e pro d uc t o f t h e t hrust i n

pou nd s per horse power into the speed o f th e aeropla ne
-

could n o t exceed 5 5 0 ft lb per sec o nd , so that a t speed s o f

.
-
.

2 7 ft per secon d t h e max i m u m thru st woul d be 2 0 lh pe r

. .

horse power
-
.

M ax i m attache s very great i mportance to t h e smooth

ne ss o f t h e sur faces o f p r0pe lle rs I n one o f h i s early .

ex peri ment s he tried a wooden pro pel ler with no pi tch , and
found th a t he obtained n o read ing on h i s dynam o meter
tho ugh the propel ler wa s 1 8 i h d iameter The po wer . .

requ ired here wa s too smal l to give a read ing , but a

si mi lar propel ler made o f ti n prod uced a mea surable
read ing, n o doubt due to the unev e n sur face o f th e tin .

W ith bl a de s o f 1 8 i n d iameter and 2 4i n pitch , run n in g at

. .

revol ution s per mi n ute , a two bladed propel ler wi th -

flat faces gave a thru st o f 1 4 lh .

The foot pou nd s o f energy per m in ute im parted to the

-

a i r then eq ual the revolution s per m in u te by pitch i n feet

by thru st , a n d thi s val ue corre sponded exactly with the

dynamometer , showing that the sk in friction wa s pra cti
cally negligible .

Tak i ng a prope l ler with blade s o f the same di men sion s

but o f a concave section , and u nder t h e sa me cond it i on s,
the thru st produced wa s greater and more power wa s
req u ired to run i t, and compari son with th e dyn amometer
showed that ski n friction wa s beco min g apparen t .

A t h ird screw with a com pou nd i ncreasing pitch w a s

tried and a much grea ter thru st wa s obtained , bu t the
power expended wa s more than proportionately gre a ter .

though the mean piteh w a s the same i n each c a se .

1 08 A E RO P L A N E S

M axi m crew s were thi n , and although he tried thicken

’
s s

ing the blade s in the centre very l ittle extra energy wa s ,

ex pended The larger screws were made o f A merican

.

whit e pine varn i shed and sand papered a n d covered with

l i nen fabric , coated with glue and fi n a lly with pain t .

H e fou nd that very l ittle skin friction wa s measurable

with 1 6 ft pitch and 1 7 ft 1 0 i n d iamete r ; he there fore
. . .

d i sagree s that the ski n friction i s a s great a s i s generally

su ppo sed , and attribute s bad re sult s to roughne ss o f su r face

e ntirely The metal F rench propellers are notoriou sly

.

i n e ffi c ie n t owing to i rregularity o f bl a de sur face and to the

arm on the back o f the blade o fi e ri n g con siderable re si st
'

an ce to the air .

Fren ch ex perimente rs have produced some highly i n

t e re st i n g and u se ful re su lt s o f e ffi c ie n cy te st s upon pro peller s
thru sting agai n st a fi x e d poin t The foll o wi n g calcu lation s .

are worked i n C G S un its,and remembering that the F rench

. . .

horse power i s slightly lower than the Briti sh , we take the

-

value o f 1 H P = 75 k i lo g ra mme t re s per se con d

. . .

W hen P = t h e t h ru st in ki logram me s, M = th e mass o f

th e air to which i s i mparted a v e lo c i ty = V i n metre s per
second the k i netic e n e rg y
,
= T *
.

T= l mva
2

The con sumed horse o w = T l

p e r
-

l
= 5 MV 2
75 2 1 5 0

the thru st per horse power -

w i ll then be
P 1 5 0
I
T V

F rom the above formula it wi ll be seen that with a speed

1 5 0
o f wa k e o f 10 metre s per secon d the thru st per H P
. .

10
1 5 kilogram me s per H . P .

N T is th e th rust, an d th a t th e n o ta t io n i s d i fle re n t i n
'
o te not

th s e xa mple
i .
I IO A E RO P L A NES

be obtained , a n d wi l l wor k o ut t wo d i ffe ren t method s fo r

a rriving at the results .

A certai n amo unt o f slip i s necessary in order to obtain

th ru st , a s i t i s i nconceiv a bl e that when a machine i s in
motion through the air there shou ld be no wa k e I f the .

spe ed o f the poin t o f applic a tion w ere e q ual to the spe e d

o f wake there wou ld be no thru st , bu t i t m u st be und e rstood

th a t the condition s when t h e? poi n t o f ap pl ication i s i n

m o tion an d the pr0pe lle r maxing through the air are
di ffere n t from those prevai l ing wh en the th ru st po int i s
fix ed .

O ne propeller tested by M Boyer G u il lon i n Pari s had .

-

a d iamet e r o f 1 metre and gave a thru st o f 1 5 k g when

, .

c o n su m ing 2 71 3 H P . .

T ak ing the formu la

we hav e
x 2
1r 1
2
.
x V .

If V metres per second , 9

V : 14 and
: 12 4,

1 x x 1 2
x x
1 5 0 4
I
T H P . .

The act ual power co n sumed = 2 71 3 °

H P
. . E ffi c i e n cy

44 per cent by thi s.method .

Thi s velocity o f 1 2 metres per second wa s, however, not

the corre ct one , a s ob servatio n s with a P itot tube showed
that eddie s were pre sen t and that the stream lines diverged
from the ax ial direction W hen we work bac k ward s from
.

t h e hor se power formu la we fi n d

-

1 e
“ 2 A
1
5 ° 4 g
 T H R U ST E FF I C I E N CY I I I

we have
3 2 71 3 x I SO X 4
X 9 8 °
1
V
2
1r x 1 x

whence V = 1 5 8 metre s per second .

A t thi s speed the thru st wou ld be

2
7. x 1
X x k gs.

4 9 8 1

As the actual mea sured th ru st wa s 1 5 k g .

, thru st .

e ffi c i e n cy E ,

E
I S 8 t
5 3 pe r c e n .

W e will proceed to show how th i s method calculating o f

the e ffi ciency by mean s o f thru st, and devi sed by M H ector .

P o ule ur, i s a most accu rate one , and that by h i s method

the e ffi ci e n cy o f a propeller i s practical ly con stant The .

same propeller a s abov e worked out i n the same man ner -

gi ves an e ffi ci e n cy o f per c e nt when thru sting 1 0 k g . .

and con su m i n g H P , and the fol lowi ng table show s

. .

values fo r a propel ler metre s diame ter

Co l 1 .

Ca lcula t e d
O bse rved Efl
'

Th eo re t l ea l i c le n cy
E ri R e vs H p
s i;
) r
m g
x

t.
.

M in u
T h rust m ,

Co n sume d
.
Th ru“ m pe r C e n t ,
.

kg kg C o ls 3a n d 6
,
. . . .

Thi s table prove s that , al lowing fo r smal l ex peri men tal

errors, the e fli c i e n cy o f the propeller remain s con stan t
whatever the spe ed o f revolution , the horse power con su med , -

or the thru st developed .

However, the thru st per horse power d imi ni shes a s -

I I 2 A E ROP L A N E S

th e t h ru st i ncrease s a s wi l l be seen from the fol lowing

,

tables .

A s the thru st per horse po wer 1s i n ver sely propor tional

-

to the speed o f the ai r the product o f the two factor s is

con stant .

Co l 1.

“
S p
e ed Of ‘
Va k e
P ro d uc t o r
i Eg ; I
i n M e t re s
p e r S e co n d .
C0lS 4a n d 5
‘ '

wil l be se e n t h at the product s shown in the last

It
colu mn are approx i mately 82 a n d that t hi s value i s e x actly ,

54 6 per cen t o f t h.e theo retical v al ue o f 1 5 0 original l y

taken a s the co n stant Thi s val ue a gree s very wel l with
.

the exp e ri me n tal value s fo r thru st e ffi ci e n cy .

A s the thru st per horse po wer i s i nver sely propo rtional -

to the speed o f the wake and the total thru st i s proportional

,

to the square o f t h e spee d o f the wa k e t/ze th rust pe r [t o r re ,

o w e r w i ll be zn v e rse b i l / i
'

p y p p
ro o rt o n a to t ze sq u a re ro o t of t re

to ta l t/zrust .

Co l 1
.

T o ta l S qua re R 001 T h rust P ro d uct f

pg
er o
T h rust . 01 Co l 2 . H P in
. . s. C o ls 3a n d 4
. .
1 1 4 A E RO P L A NE S

The value s i n col u mn 1 repre se n t the wo rk give n out o f

each engin e per revol ution , colu mn 2 the feet th e mac h ine
traverse s per motor revol ution Colu mn 4 i s calcu lated
.

from colu m n s 1 , 2 an d 3 wh il st col u m n 5 give s the weigh ts

, ,

which wou ld absorb the whole th ru st in horizon tal flight at

the fly i n g speed s o f the re spective mach ine s, vi z , 40 m ile s
.

per hour , or 5 8 ft per second fo r the W right machine , and

'

.
,

45 m ile s per ho u r , or 66 ft per

. se cond , fo r the Voi sin
machi ne .I t doe s not n ece ssari ly follow that the se weight s
are actually li mitation s a s i m proved de sign and reduced
,

re si stance to flight en able th i s weight to be i ncreased , but

they apply to t h e pa rti cula r ma ch i n es u nder con sideratio n .

T h e mean pitc h o f t h e blade s i s o f cou r se , greater than

,

—
the e ffe cti ve pitch i n th e W right machi ne probably by
about 1 5 p e r ce n t a s mea sured from the blade s and i n t h e
.
, ,

—
Voi sin mac h ine probably 2 5 per cen t so that the mean
.

pitch o f each propell e r becomes ft fo r the Voi si n and

.

1 1 ft fo r the W right
. .
 C H A PT R E IX .

M A TE R I A L S OF C ON S TR UC TI ON

TH E principal material s u sed i n the con struction o f a flying

machine are wood , o f wh ich the framewor k con si st s fabric ,

o f sil k or cotton fi bre sui tably proo fed and stretched over the

fra me work and fi n a lly , steel guy wire s and thei r fa stener s
, .

The former material i s almo st un iversal ly adopted i n

place o f bamboo , which wa s at one ti me con sid ered to be
the ideal material Some ma k er s, however , pre fer to use
.

steel tubi n g fo r the frame wor k bu t wood h a s many

,

advantages over steel .

P rimarily , wood i s ea sy to work and to replace ;

brea k age s may be many e special ly i n the in itial st a ges o f
,

l a nding an d wherea s a steel tube w o uld probably b uc k le

,

under such a shock , ab sol ute fractu re wou ld general ly

re su l t i n a woode n spar .

Thi s i s real ly a poi nt i n favour o f w ood a s it i s un l ikely

,

that a steel tube cou ld be straightened an d repaired , and

i f thi s were done it wo uld on ly be with some d i ffi culty .

O n the other hand , a n e w wooden spar can ea si ly be

fi t te d and th e structu re made a s stro n g a s be fore .

W ood o fle rs an advantage on accou n t o f i ts com parative

'

sti ffne ss, and although somewhat more bul ky than steel

weight fo r weight the amount o f wood i n an aeroplane

,

framework i s not d i sp r0po rt i o n a te to the size o f the

machi ne W ood spars are frequently made hollo w : the
.

advan tage o f such a form o f con struction w a s appreciated

by H en son , who show s a hol low section o f a spar i n h i s
sp e ci fi c a t i o n i n 1 843 (P late
1 1 5
1 16 A E R O P LA N E S

H ollow wood par can be made o f o n e thi rd the weight

s s -

o f a solid spar , strength fo r strength , a s a strut , and their

manu factu re i s special i sed i n by one or two fi rms .

A merican spruce o f straight grai n i s be st su ited fo r the

pu rpose The ti mber i s cut le n gthwi se an d the centre cored
.

out the tw o hal ves are then glued together u n der pre ssu re
, .

E sn a ult Felteri c pin s h i s faith to steel tube s, and the

-

con struction o f the framework o f h i s machi ne i n thi s

materi a l i s a beauti ful piece o f work .

The tube s are welded together at thei r j oints and

triangulation is generou sly employed i n the de sign .

S uc h a structure i s some w hat heavy , and with the smal l

su stain ing area s u su al ly fi t te d to machine s o f thi s type on ly

h igh speed s can be i n d ulged i n I t w i l l be remembered

.

what l ittle succe ss attended the se mach ine s at R heim s thi s

w a s probably due to th e i r bei ng u nable to reach a sufl ‘
i c i e n tly
high starting velocity on the rough and heavy grou nd .

A speed i n the neighbourhood o f 40 to 45 m ile s per hou r

i s requ ired i n order to produce sufli c i e n t su stentation a t
‘

starti ng with a steel tu be machi ne o f the R E P type . . . .

T h e use o f wood extend s to the main spar s, ri b s, and

outriggers a s well a s to the cha ssi s o f an aeroplan e , and
each portion requ ire s attachment to the other W ood le n d s .

itsel f readi ly to th i s pu rpo se and may ea si ly be detached fo r

tran sport Thin wood panel s are someti me s fi x e d to the
.

body o f the machi ne to red uce ski n friction , and wood i s

generally the material from whic h propel lers are made .

I n thi s latter case a s many a s si x i ndepen den t ti mbers are

someti me s glued together and the blade s shaped from the
resu lt i ng block Canva s i s occa sional ly gl ued al l over the
.

ti ps o f the blades to bi nd the whole together i n the even t

o f a fracture occu rring .

The chie f requ i rement s o f the ti mber it sel f are that i t

should be l ight , st i fl
‘

, and s tro n g straight i n the grai n and

,

free fr o m knots I n add itio n certain portion s o f the frame

.
,

work requ ire to be ri gid an d others fle x i ble and the corre ct ,

ti mber mu st be selected fo r each re specti ve part .

1 18 A E RO P L A NES

The main plane s on thi s machi ne are made Upon

bamboo rib s attached to main spars o f a sh , 1i g h t bamboo
corner stay s are al so fi t te d .

A bamboo spar need s no shaping and co n versely it ,

can not be shaped a s de sire d i t i s al so un re liable a n d i s apt

,

to split necessi tating bi nd i n g wires between the n o de s ; it

,

i s very d i F
fi cult to con struct suitable joi nt s a n d fa sten ings
betwee n the variou s spars and strut s, wh ich facts neutrali se
any apparen t advan tage s o f bamboo a s a material o f con
struction .

I n addition to the main spars and strut s the rib s o f the ,

55 .
— M e th o d o f A tta ch i n g S truts a n d G uy W i re s to 11 Ba mbo o S pa r
.

main p lan e s a re c o n structed o f wood usual ly a sh The se rib s , .

may fi rst be bent u nd e r steam to the re q ui red shape and ,

stri p s o f a se ction o f g i n by g i n are r e ad i ly shaped fo r thi s

. .

pu rpose T h e exact or mo st probable cu rvatu re s fo r the se

.

rib s are di scu sse d in Chapt e r I I

m
.

Steel piano wi re s are largely u se d a s te n sion e mber s ,

and are o f v a riou s size s fo r with standing st re sses i n

d i ffere n t por tio n s o f the structu re W i re s are i nvariably .

much stronge r i n t e n sio n than the original mat e rial from

which they a re made th e act o f d rawi n g the metal th rough
,

t h e di e s im part s thi s e x tr a pr o p e rt y t o i t A s an i n st a nce .

,

a N o 2 6 st e e l wire havi ng a cro ss se ctio n al area o f 0002

.
,
 TH E US E OF W I RE 1 19

sq. in
, break
. s at about 800 lh in ten sion which.work s out ,

at abou t 1 2 5 to n s per square inch N o 2 8 gauge steel . .

piano wire brea k s at 5 2 0 lh and weigh s about . lh .

per 1 00 y d s The larger wi re weigh s abou t

. lh per .

1 00 y d s .

The end s o f such wi res requ i re care ful fi x i n g a s they ,

wil l d raw thro ugh the mo st elaborate eye rather than

break , even though the loo se end o f the wi re be tu rned
round the tau t en d many ti mes a s in the twi sted eye fi x i n g
(Fig . Stretching screw s m u st be fi rmly attached to
the wire s fo r the p urpo se o f k e eping them taut a s ex ,

plain e d later o n , an d great care mu st be taken i n the

method o f attach ment .

I n monoplane con struction stran ded wi re cable i s o ften

u se d in pl a ce o f single steel wi re s and i n the B leriot ,

machine cables o f th is type are u sed to brace the wings to

the su perstructure above , and to control the warping below
the su r face s .

The princi pal load i s carried by flat steel strip s, two

being attached to each wi n g, thei r lower end s are fi x e d to
th e fron t framework o f the machi ne j u st above the runn ing
wheel s (Fig .

The pla n e s or deck s o f an aeroplane are u sually double

su r faced the two su r face s having a di fferent c ur vatu re
, .

Thi s nece ssitate s t wo ri b stri p s separated by wood en

d i stance piece s or webs fo r each com po site ri b The ri b s .

are fi x e d to the mai n spars some 9 i n from th e ir le ading .

edge and 1 2 i n from their trai ling edge the le a d ing e dge
.
,

be i ng given a blu ff en try, an d the trail ing edge being sharp

an d u sual ly fle x i ble The spars pa ss betwee n the two
.

stri p s form ing one rib , and are thu s tota lly enclo sed
,

between the two sur face s .

I n some machi ne s, such a s t h e W right , the fron t mai n

spar i s carried at the lead ing edge o f the mai n plane s,

thu s enabl ing the fron t ro w o f stru ts to be fi x e d between

the leading edge s o f the se planes .

W hen thi s is the ca se , the plane s them selv e s h a ve a

1 20 AE R O P LA N E S

blu ff entry which con form s with stream l ine requ i rements, -

and th i s arrangemen t wi l l o fte n be found i n biplane

practice .

Single su r faced mach i ne s, a s the Farman , have the spars

abo ve the su r faces covered i n order to reduce sk i n friction .

The fron t main spar i s, there fore , contained i n a pocket

formed by return ing the fabric from the u nderside over the
top o f thi s spar , it being se wn back some fe w inche s behind

F lc .
5 6.
—M e th o d o f T ra n spo rt i n g a W rig h t G lide r fr o m th e W o rk s to th e
Fly i n g G ro un d . T h e A rra n g e me n t o f th e S truts i s clea rly sh o wn .

the leading edge The other spars are e n closed by stri p s

.

o f fabric sewn over them i n such a ma n ner a s to give an

ea sy e n try and trai l an ai r pocket o f triangular cro ss

,

section being le ft both i n front o f and b e hind each spar .

The E sn a ult Pe lte ri e mach ine i s al most e n tire ly

-

encl o sed with fabric , and there are no ex posed stay

wi re s, such gear being contai ned between the u ppe r and
lo wer sur face s o f the mai n p lanes Several method s are .

adopted fo r sec uring the fabric to the underside o f the ribs

I Z Z A E RO P L A NE S

o f the true shape o f the sur face s in actual worki n g con

d i t i o n s, and thi s can only be achieved ei ther by ample
S u pport a fforded by the rib s, or by utili sing a strong fabric

stre tched taut .The Con tine n tal Tyre and R ubber Co m
pa n y were the fi rst man u factu rers o f these fabric s upon a
large scal e , a n d their fabric s are made i n rol l s 42 i n wide . .

Their mark s 5 2 I I and 5 2 I I I have bee n l argely u sed

, .

i n the con struction o f al l the be st k nown French mach ine s,

an d have given the greatest sati sfaction owing to thei r
light we ight and extraord inary d u rabi lity .

I t mu st be borne in m i nd that fabric i s l iable to rot ,

particu larly when in contact with steel , on accou n t o f the
corrosion o f th a t metal M M Farman , Bl eriot , an d
. .

Delagrange use the qual itie s mentioned above , bu t those

marked l o o d and al though sl ightly more ex pen sive ,

are pre ferable to the 5 6 I I and 5 6 I I I , a s thei r d urabi lity

. .

i s greater and their exten sibil ity con sid e rably le ss, and
they are less a ffected by cl i matic con dition s .

CO NT I N E NT A L F A B R I C S 01
°
A E R O P LA N E S .

Te n si le S tre n gth i n Lb
Appro x i ma te W igh t i
.

e n
O un ce s pe r Sq Yd
. .

“l e ft .

T o ta l . Pe r I n .

S i n g le pro o fe d fi M
D
-

o ub le fi
- M
S i n g le é O
D o ub le fi
- O
S i n g le N O
D o ub le N O
S i n gle 0
0 M

Th eScotti sh A eroplane Fabric Company a s wel l a s ,

the M ichel in Company al so man u factu re fabric s fo r thi s

,

pu rpose ; the former term the i rs Vulcan i sed Si l k , and a

tabl e o f thei r fabric s, which are ma d e in width s o f 36 i n , i s .

given on the n ext page .

 E SS E N T I A L Q U A L I T I ES OF FA BR IC 1 23

Sc o r usa A E R OP L AN E F u me C O M P A N Y S ’
V ULCA N I S ED S I L K .

Te n sile S tre n gth i n L b pe r I n c h W id h t .

W ig h
.

e t i n Oun ces
pe r Sq Yd . .

W e ft.

DUN LOP (B a rusu ) FAE R I C .

Ap ro x i ma te T il
e ns e
Pro o te d
'

. W idt h .
P ri ce e r
sq y l p W igh
e i n Oz
t S gth
tre n o f
W p
.

Sq Yd
.

pe r . . ar .

The fol lowin g table s, prepared by M r W H Thorpe , . .

are o f great u ti l ity, a s they not on ly give the

direct stre sse s capable o f be i n g w i th stood by variou s ‘

material s but al so what he term s the proportionate “

resi lience and the re silience per pou nd weight o f the

material .

A fe w explanatory note s are needed a n d are here given ,

with d ue acknowledgmen t to M r Thorpe , an d by perm i s
sion o f the A e ro , i n wh ich paper they original ly appeared .

The specimen s are generally o f square section except

where other wi se stated .

B e n di ng —Co lmzm 2 give s the mod ul u s o f tran sver se

.

rupt ure or the re si stance to cross brea k ing be n d ing stresses ,

1 24 AE R O P LA N E S

con si sting o f ten sion on one side and compre ssion on the
other side o f th e cen tre o f gravi ty o f t h e section .

Column 3 i s the proportional stre ss where the el a stic

l i mit occurs to the ulti mate bre a k ing stress .

Co lumn 4 sho ws the mod ulu s o f ela sticity o f the

material or the stress requ ired to stretch a specimen to
twice i ts original length , a ssummg i t remained el astic the
whole ti me , in the same man ner a s i t behave s at stresse s
belo w the el a stic li m it
.

Co lumn 6 i s the span at wh ic h a speci men wil l be -

stre ssed up to i ts ela stic limit due to i ts o wn weight The .

section o f the beam i s given by M r T h orpe a s o f standard

”
proportion s, and we m u st a ssu me thi s to mean square, a s
that section i s general ly the basi s t aken .

Co lumn 7 gives the proportionate resil ience o f th e

variou s material s and i s the n u mber o f i nch pou nd s o f work
-

which may be stored u p i n a material without cau sing

permanent se t W hen f the sa fe stre ss al lowed , thi s value
.

2
fo r a rectangular beam loaded at the centre i s
f where
E i s the modu lu s o f elasticity.

Thi s colu mn give s comparati v e values fo r the re sil ie n ce

o f a speci men o f un it leng th at whatever si ze the specimen

may be to give a strength equal to that o f a sh The value .

of i s an exact fi g ure gi vi ng the nu mber o f i n ch pound s -

o f work which may be taken u p by 1 cub i n o f ash beam

. .

withou t i nj u ry .

Co lumn 8 gives the re si l ience per pou nd wei g ht o f the

m a terial .

Co lumn 9 the l i miti n g ci rcum fe rential whirl ing speed

fo r rod s o f un i form section , and i s a ten sile measu re
'

R e ferring to the te n sion an d com pre ssion table s the

fi rst fe w col umn s give the same propertie s a s be fore .

Co lumn 6 show s the length s o f material which wou ld

o f thei r own weight stre ss the material u p to the e la stic

l i m it
.

Co lumn s 7 and 8 give the sam e val ue s a s be fore .

1 26 A E RO P L A N E S

TAB L E I I — T EN S I ON
. .

m
r e t .
r
e . v a e e
p o .
n c c
u
t .

m
s h
F e s o n n b
e L h
t t
l
e e
g
M a te ria l h g

i
t

i i i i
i
r
s r l
.
g n l " 1
p 1

mL
x e

i
1 n e o s s r
e
1
a e p e e
a
W C MT o o
r R R
C P

I n dia rubbe r
S ilk
Ba mbo o
H o n dura s ma h o ga n y
G e o rg i a y e llo w pi n e
A sh
P i a n o wi re
S pruce fi r
M a g n a li um
M i ld ste e l
A lumi n i um a llo y

TA B L E I I L Co mp R E ssi o N
— .

A sh 9 5 00
, 80 1 47
H o n d ura s ma h o g a n y 80 35
S pruce fi r 80 39
G e o rg i a y e llo w pi n e 80 38 11 8
M i ld ste e l 95 490
 C H A PT E R X .

D E TA I L S OF M A N UF A CT UR E .

No matter what class o f

machine one may con sid e r , the
—
que stion o f the de sign o f t h e detail s i s al l i m portant i n fact
-

many mach ine sentirely o we their success to the good design

and per fect man ufactu re o f th e ir detail s, rather than to the
general princi ples embod i e d i n the apparatu s a s a whole .

The mach ine s wh ich are dealt w ith i n thi s book

e ssential ly depend u pon detail s a s thei r general principle s
,

have been k nown fo r many ye a rs Certain o f the detail s,.

too,were described accu rately by H en son i n h i s spe c i fi ca t i o n

o f AD 1 84
.
3, an d other s have been adapted from ki ndre d
appl iance s such a s sail ing yacht s (i f we may term them a s
such ). I n an aeroplane certai n rigid ity and form o f sur fac e
mu st be maintained in order to produce max imu m l i fting
e ffect with m in imu m sk in re si stance followed a s it i s with
,

the production o f edd ie s Th i s latter mean s ex penditu re

.

o f energy and con sequent wa ste o f power .

The head re si stance o f variou s type s o f machine s varies

somewhat con siderably , and thi s i s i n a gr e at mea sure

owing to the variou s angles o f incidence e mployed .

The nece ssity fo r increasing the angle o f incidence i n

certai n machi ne s become s apparen t i n order to increase the
su stentation pe r un it o f area when t h e s p eed remain s low .

I t wa s pointed out that in comparing two machine s,

a monoplane o f certai n sur face area with a bipl ane o f
double the area o f su st e ntation the weight s o f the two
, .

machine s being the same , the speed o f the monoplane

wou ld nece ssarily have to be greater than that o f the
bi plane in order that th e mach i n e should fly
,
.

1 27
1 28 A E RO P L A NE S

Th i s o f cou rse , i s on the a ssu mption that the angle o f

,

incidence o f the pla n es i s the same i n each ca se .

I f w e compare the W right machine, which su stain s on ly

2 0 lh per sq foot at a speed o f 34 m iles per hou r, with
. .

B l eriot X I I , wh ich machine su stain s

. lb per sq foot at . .

only 38 m iles per hou r, when the engi ne in the former case
i s o f 30 H P and i n the latter 35 H P , we can not fai l to be
. . .

‘
somewhat puzzled (See.page
Thi s en igm a i s further compl icated when we note that
the two machine s are so very d i fi e re n t both in con str uction
'

and angle o f incidence , and y e t we fi n d that the co e fli cie n t

o f tra ction i s practically the same , v i z , 1 76 per cent in the . .

former and 1 83 per cent i n the latter mach ine

. .

I n arrivi ng at these fi g ure s the W right mach i n e i s

reckoned a s carrying one passenger an d the Bl eriot two ,
that i s with the engine ru n ning at i ts maxi mu m o utput .

The head re si stance o f t h e mach ine a s a who le m u st be

reduced a s fa r a s po ssi ble , and here agai n it i s the detail s
which co un t F arman expended a great deal o f ti me wit h
.

h i s o riginal Voi sin mach ine s i n per fecting detail s and thi s ,

wor k wa s eventual ly re warded by succe ssfu l flight The .

strength o f an a e ro p la n e a s a mechan i cal structure depend s

'

on the detai l s o f fi x i n g the main spars, ribs and strut s and ,

to the method s em ployed fo r retain i ng the guy s taut .

W hen a n u m ber o f d i ffe ren t part s con si sting o f d i fferen t

material s, and even o f th e same m aterial s o f varying shape
and section , are employ e d , each par t m u st do i ts proper
share o f the work .

I n other word s, the stre sses throughou t the structure

mu st be capable o f adj u stment to su it each individual
member A com posite structu re such a s we have i n an
.

aeroplane depend s upon the e ffi c ie n cy o f each membe r o f

wh ich i t i s composed fo r i ts stabi lity a s a whole The .

fai lu re o f any member i n ten sion or compre ssion wil l throw

T h e d i ffe re n t a n g le o f i n ci d e n c e i n th e se two ma ch i n e s a cco un ts

fo r th e wi de ly d i ffe re n t suste n ta t i o n (se e T a b le i n th e A ppe n d i x ), but
o n e ma ch i n e i n th i s ca se i s un d o ub te dly mo re e ffi c i e n t th a n th e o th e r .
130 A E RO P L A NES

arranged that the se steel guy wires can ta k e a ll

t h e ten sion , and the strut s con se quently ta k e al l
t h e compre ssion stre sse s E xam ple s o f some o f
.

the se stretch ing screws frequently employed are

sho w n in F i g s 5 7 , 5 8 and
.
59 The
, end s o f
. t h e

strut s may be fi x e d i n alu m in i u m soc k et s a s

sho w n in Fig 60 The se sock e t s retai n the e n d s

. .

o f the stru ts i n their correct po sition s u po n the

mai n spars o f the mach i n e an d i n addition o ften

form termi n al s fo r at tach men t o f the st e e l guy
wi res a s shown in Fig 6 1 I n th e W right ma. .

E y B lt
e o chi ne owi n g to the fle x i bi li ty o f the rear o f the
,
F m f
or o
mai n plane s the strut s are fi x e d by hoo k s a n d
,
Wi re
e yele ts so that a s l ight
S t tch e r
re .

un iversal motion i s per

mi t te d ; the eyelet s a lso form a t
ta ch me n t poin t s fo r the guy s .

The detail s o f spar a t tach ment

i n t h e B leriot mono
'

l n e s i s mo st intere st
p a

ing W hen o n e stru t

.
Fm 58 — S i mple p m, . . o

meet s a main spar it o f W i e S t e tch e r r r .

butt s agai n st i t, an d a
long bolt o f smal l d iam e ter bent to U section is
in se rted through a hole near the e n d o f the abut
ting spar The end s o f the U bol t are passed
.

through two hole s i n the long main spar and

nut s are scr e wed on to the end s thu s drawing ,

t h e two spars togeth e r W hen a second str ut

.

abut s at right angl e s to the fi rst one , another

Ubolt i s fi tte d in the same man n er th e end s ,

o f the two are so arran g ed that they do not

fo u l o n e another The ten sion o f the guy wi res
.
,

w h ich are looped rou nd the Ustretch e r s, ac tually

retain s t h e strut s and spars i n contact a s the
b o lt s them se lve s a re free to move i n tenoned
Slot s .
 11 15 1 4t 0 1: SPA R A TT A CH ME NT 1 31

Perhaps the average read e r h a s not con sidered the

stre sse s which come i nto play in a monoplane o f the

Bl eriot X I type when i n flight Su ppo se the wings w ere

. .

un stayed by guys, they wou ld then act a s canti levers and ,

would be subjected to the greate st bending moment where

they are attached to
the fusi la g e N o a p
.

re c i a bl e bending
p ,

however occu rs h ere

,

i n practice , and no
prov i sion is made fo r
resi sting such stresse s,
practically the whole
o f the li ft o f the wings

being tran smitted to

the fusi la g e by two
flat steel ten sion
band s fi x e d between
the fron t m ain spar
o f either wi ng and
the lower part o f the
chassi s, the se band s
‘

being 1 5 m m broad .

by m m th ick , a s
.

shown i n the fi g ure s

o f the mach ine s T he .

li ft from the rear main

spar i s tran smitted by

t h e g a uc/z z sse me n t
'

F m 60 — Ty p s o f S o ck e ts f r R e ce i i n g
e
o v
fle x i ble cable s to the
. .

th e E n ds o f S truts .

lower steel A frame

attached to the cha ssi s below the aviator s seat ’
.

I n add ition , however , to the l i fting stre sse s we have a

certain proportion o f d irect li ft and d irect dri ft producing
a shearing stre ss i n the end o f the fron t main spars where
they fi t into their socke ts, an d the t wo rear main spars te n d
to close i n toward s one another d ue to the dri ft prod uced
1 32 A E RO P L A N E S

by th e i ncidence o f the mai n plan e s and th e ir head resi stance .

Such tendencie s are re si sted by placing a stru t be tween the

rear main spar o f ei ther wing , otherwi se the fusi la g e wou ld
collapse owi ng to the lateral pre ssure o f the wings u pon i t .

The lateral pressu re al l uded to i s increased o n accou n t

o f the obl iqu ity o f the guy wi re s and strip s .

The sy stem o f triangulation adopted i n modern aero

plane s i s that original ly de scribed by He n so n , and a l ight
and sti ff structural formation re su lt s From the end o f .

each vertical stru t i n a biplane th ree wi re s are taken , o n e

to the diagonal ly oppo site end o f e ach stru t alongsid e i t ,

F16 . 61 .
— Me th o d o f A tta ch in g a S trut to a Bo o m a n d o f
S ecuri n g th e E n ds o f th e G uy W i re s .

and one to the diagonally opposit e end o f th e str ut at the

rear or i n front o f it a s the case may be .

W here the se strut s are a t the rear o f a warping

eleme n t i n a bi plane the d iago n al s are not fi rmly se cured
but are the wires wh ich operate the warping movement .

I n stead o f the m being fi x e d fi rmly to an eye a piece

o f chai n i s i nterpo sed i n the length o f the wi re adj acen t

to the strut and th i s chain run s rou nd a pul ley or through

a tube attached to t h e framework , but a s the wi re i s
practically contin uou s from end to end o f the machi n e ,

the length o f reduction on one side o f the centre i s eq ually

134 A E RO P I A N E S
.

o f the section when that material i s d i stributed i n the

prope r direction .

Section s o f spars and strut s are show n i n Fig 6 2 . .

The se ma y be either o f wood or o f metal tu be s .

There a re other structu res u nder stress such a s the ,

outrigger s T he magn i tude o f the stre sse s here are d i fii c ult

.

to compute , a s they are

u su a l l y p r o d uc e d b y
landing shoc k s .

Con form ity o f the

su r faci ng material to
th e correct c urv e i s o f
g re a t i mportanc e , an d
t o o b t a i n t h i s, t h e
m a t e r i a l i s i n it i a l l y
stretched tight , occa
si o n a lly by lacing but ,

where ord i n ary pin s are

u sed , no provi sion i s
“

made fo r tighten ing up

the material The on ly .

alternative i s to em ploy
a su r fa c i n g m a t e r i a l
which wi ll not stretch
appreciably u nder vary
i n g cl imatic condition s,
an d to use a suffi c ie n t
n u mber O f rib s
F I G 6 3— T h e R ea r W h e e l S uspe n si n ,
'

. . o

Ty pe B lé i o t X I
r .
Detail s o f landing
and run n ing gear have
been described in con n ec tion with some o f the leading
mach i nes ; a favourite method o f spring su pport i s si m ilar
to that em ployed fo r the recoi l mechan i sm o f gu n s Such .

an arrangeme n t i s a dopted by M E sn a ult l e lte ri e amo n gst

.
-
’

others i n h i s monopl ane P neu matic su spen sion however,

.
,

i s rapid ly comi ng to the front fo r thi s work and probably ,

wi l l be adopted on accoun t o f i ts l ightn e ss and g reat

 S U S P E N S I ON 1 35

possib le range o f action . Spri ng su spen sion s are fi t te d

below the tai l o f some machin e s in a dd i tio h to those un der
the mai n planes and the device o f M Bl eriot i s shown i n
’

, .

Fig 6 3
. .

Thi s arrangement i s at the rear o f h i s mach in e , and

so mewhat resembles h i s mai n i n d i a rubb e r su spen sion with

the exception that coi l springs replace t h at material .

The que stion o f an e ffi cie n t su spen sion i s one o f great

importance owing to the rough n atu re o f the grou nd Usually
available fo r starting purpo se s The shoc k s due to irregu lar
.

i tie s o f the ground su r face shou ld on no accou nt be tran s

mi tte d t o suc h a de licate structure a s th at which u sually
,

compo ses the framework o f an aerop lane .

A large working range o f the wheel s i n a ve rti ca l

'

di rection i s there fore e ssen tial . The wheel s shou ld be

capable o f movement i n any d irection , a s i n the act o f
landing the machi ne i s l iable to be carried i n a lateral
d irection by a gu st o f wind , no ri sk o f putt i ng a side
strain on the whe el s shou ld h e there fore tak e n .

A nother i mportant detail i s the control gear , and thi s

should be suffi c i e n t ly keen and e ffec t ive , not only fo r fancy
‘

fly i n g , but to enable the aviator to recover h is stab i lity

rapid ly or to evade a n object which h e may encou nter
u nawares .
 C H A FT E R XI .

S UC CE S S F UL M ON OP L A N E S .

T 11 13 A N T O I N E TT E — E S N A UL T -
P E L T E RI E — B LE R I OT X I .

S A N T O S D UM ON T S ' “
D E M O I S E LL E .

H A V I N G con sidered the i ndividual featu re s which in com

bi nation may produce a succe ssfu l fl y i ng mach in e , we wil l
con sider in detail a fe w o f the better k nown machi n e s .

A n umbe i o f plate s a re given at the end o f thi s book ,

being reproduction s o f scale d rawings made by one o f the
’
author s d raught smen .

[ he a uthor i s i ndebted to the proprietor s o f F lzglzt

fo r thei r permi ssio n to util i se certain o f thei r d rawing s and
d i men sion s a s a ba si s upo n which to work .

A n to i n e tte I V (Fig.6 4) i.s c h i e fly notable a s bei ng the

machine u pon wh ich M Latham made h i s fi rst atte mpt
.

at cross Chan nel fli g h t and with which he made several

-

record flig h ts previou s to t hat attempt A nto i nette I V . .

w a s by fa r the large st monoplane i n exi stence at the time ,

a s wil l be se e n by i n spection o f P late V I at the end o f .

th i s book , wh ich represent s A n toin e tte V I I , a somewhat .

si mi lar machine The main su stain ing plane con si st s o f a

.

pai r o f wings o f trapezoidal form bu i lt u p on lattice girder s

o f the u sual a ero foil shape , and one notice s how the general

principle re semble s that o f Hen son s mach ine shown i n ’

P late s I to I V
. .

The mai n wi ng s a re d o uble su r fac e d , and the su stai n

ing area o f each wing i s 2 5 sq metre s, b e i n g 5 0 sq m e tres
. .

1 36
1 38 A E RO PLA NE S

t wo dipp i n g plane s A t th e rear extrem ities o f the two

.

main plane s smal l mo v a ble fi n s or a i lero n s a re fi tte d i n

'

order to obtain lateral stabi l ity and to a ssi st i n turn i n g .

The se are control led by one mechan i sm wh ich lowers o n e

when rai sing the other S uch a n arran gemen t o f a i le ro n s
.

produces a more pronou nced e ffect than warping the plane s

a s i n the E sn a ult F elteri c -
The action o f the se i s ex
.

”
plained in Chapter X V on The A rt o f F lyin g
. .

I n the con struction o f A n toinette V and the later .

model s the se a i le ro n s have been d i spen sed with and the

warping system adopted , a s wi l l be see n in Pla te V I at th e .

end .

The control o f the mach ine i s by mean s o f a lever on

the right wh ich operate s the d ipping plane s, whi l st two
other levers at the le ft hand o f the aviator control the
a i lero n s at the en ds o f th e ma i n w i n s a n d t h e ste e ri n g
g
rudder The se two latter levers can be either operat e d
.
‘

separately or together wit h one hand .

The mac h i ne whe n on th e gr0u n d i s supported by a

cen tre wheel a n d a pai r o f runners i n the front A s the .

speed o f the machine i ncrea se s along the ground , the

pre ssure upon the se decrease s u nti l t h e mac hi ne fi n a lly

ri se s The motor i s a 5 0 H P A ntoinette havi ng e ight
. . .

cyli nders and de scribed i n detai l on page 38 T h e motor

, .

i s carried i n front o f th e machine and i s very ea sily

removable , and i s d irect connected to a two bladed tractor -

propeller .

P ropelle r — The A ntoinette propel ler i s o f a special

. .

con struction composed o f two n i c k el steel arm s forged with

cl i ps o f the same meta l which embrace the sha ft .

A lu m iniu m blade s are fi x e d to the se arm s by a n u mber

o f copper rivet s .

A n y n u mber o f blade s may be u sed but t wo only are

u sually fi tte d The pitch o f th e blade s can be varied to suit
.

t h e a n gle o f i n cidence o f t h e mai n plane s ; i f th i s ang le i s

smal le r and the flyi ng speed con sequently h igher , the pitch

sh ould be g reater , a n d v i ce v ersa The propel le r i s cl ip ped

.
 A N T O I N E TT E R A D I A T I N G S YS T E M 1 39

d i rect to the motor sha ft without i ntermediat e geari n g or

clu tch The pitc h o f the propel ler fi t te d to A ntoinette I V
. .

i s 1 m 30 c m , and i t s diamet e r 2 m 2 0 cm and i ts normal

. . . .

rate o f revol ution i s per m inute .

The cool i ng sy stem adopted i n the A ntoinette mach i n e

i s a s origi nal a s it i s i ntere sting The object o f the
.

de signer being to red uce wei g h t to a m i ni mu m , on ly a

small qu antity o f 1 2 l itre s o f wat e r i s carried The water .

gra vitate s to the cyli n der j ac k et s where it i s converted into

steam , thu s carrying with it laten t heat o f evaporation , i n

add ition to t h e sen sible heat cau sing i ts ri se o f t e mperatu re

to boil i ng point The steam i s th e n conden sed i n a large
.

radio conden ser i n the form o f t wo ne st s o f tubes one

-

on either side o f th e body o f the mach i ne T h e se n e st s .

o f tube s form a thin panel o n e ither side , bei n g exten sion s

o f the cedar wood panel s form in g t h e bow s The to tal .

weight o f the tu be s i s only 1 2 k g , a n d they a fforded a

total cool ing sur face o f 1 2 sq metre s Their duty i s to
. .

conden se 1 l itre o f water per m i nute wh ich i s evap o rated

in the engine j acket s .

The overal l di men sion s o f A ntoine tte I V are : length .

1 1 m 5 0 c m , span 1 2 m 80 c m , and weight 2 5 0 k g

. . . . .

A n to i n e tt e V . a some what si mi lar machi ne but

is is
not fi tte d with a i le ro n s ; it h a s a propeller metre s in
diameter .

A n to i n e tt e V I I
F i
( g 5 6 and
. Plate V I ) i s the m achi ne . .

on which Latham made h i s second cross Channel attempt , -

and i s si m ilar to the one shown i n Plate V I at t he end The

’

. .

A n toinette aeroplane i s con spicuou s on accou nt o f the

d ihedral angle at wh ich the wi ngs are se t , and the thick n e ss
o f the wing s from u pper to lower su r face B e t we e n the top
.

and bottom ri b member a lattice wor k o f wood i s fi t te d i n

order to increa se the strength o f the con str uction E ach .

wi ng i s pointed at i ts entrant a s we ll a s at i ts trai ling edge .

The g reat spa n o f t h ese win gs, 46 ft , nec e ssitate s t h e .

 A E R O P LA N E S

use guy wire s attached to the u pper and lower end s o f

of

vertical hol low posts, two being fi tte d i n the cen t re o f each
wing The se wire s are al so attached to the top o f a ma st
.

stand ing u p i n the centre o f the cha ssi s at the front , tho se
'

wires fi xed to the front o f the wings be i ng rigid ly fastened

whil st the rear guy wire run s over a pu l ley A large .

amoun t o f ti mber bracing i s i n serted between the su rface s

F l t} . 65 .
—A n to i n e tte VI I .

o the wings the rib s being placed 1 8 i n apart , and

f , .

su pplemented by si mple ri bs o f an open form to S u pport

the fabric their spacing varie s from 2 i n to 4 i n

, The . .

body o f the N o V I I i s o f boat shaped form covered with

. .
-

cedar panel ling i n front and fabric at the rear, and two
smal l wheel s attached to an ax le form the nece ssary
su pport upon the ground The med iu m absorbing th e
.

land ing shock s i s an ai r compression cyl inder con si sti n g

$1
42 AE R O PLA N E S

E sn a ult F e lte ri c , N o
-
The de sig n er
. 2 (bi s) F
( gi .
-

and ma k er o f thi s machi ne a n d i ts engine h a s adopt ed

sou n d engi n e eri ng practice in many o f i ts i m portan t pri n

c i p le s A lthough he h a s bee n fo r many years engaged in

.

the problem o f flight the succe ss which he deserves can

,

scarcely be said to have been a w arded to hi m .

The R E P (Plate V I I ) i s e ssential ly a high speed

. . . .

machi n e , and altho ugh i ts con structio n a s fa r a s the cha ssi s ,

i s concern e d i s very rigid i t s main plane s are ex tremely

, ,

fle x i ble The cha ssi s a s h a s al ready been stated , i s o f

.
,

steel tubular con struction , a n d i s su pported on the ground

F 6 6 —
. E sn a uI t -
Pe lte 1 i e M o n o pla n e , Ty pe R E .
P. . 2 .

by o n e princi pal wheel fi x e d at the end o f a strong recoi l

mechan i sm .

Thi s con si st s o f an ol e o pneu matic brake capable o f -

ab sorbing ft lb o f wor k , tho ugh i t s weight i s u n der

.
-
.

1 3 lh T h e action o f a sy stem such a s th i s i s proportional

.

to the square o f the speed o f the fall , an d i s very rapid in

wor k i n g .

I n addition to the centre wh e el i n front a smal l wheel

i s fi tt e d be n eath the tai l , al so one smal l w h e e l u nder each
wing tip W he n at re st upo n the groun d thre e wheel s touch ,
.

that i s the two c e ntre one s which are i n a l ign m e nt , a n d ,

one wing wh eel fi tte d in a d i Ffe re n t plane Thi s nece ssitat e s .

canti ng ove r the flye r on o n e si d e or the other u nti l balance

 R E P
. . . M O N O P L AN E 1 43

i s secu red when runn ing along the grou n d The two wings .

forming the su pporti ng su r face s are very th ick from u pper

to lo wer sur face , and contai n between th e two layers o f
fabri c wo o den rib s fi x e d to compo site main spars con si sting
o f wood al u m ini um ,and steel
, A t th e i nner en d the se spar s
.

are attached to the cha ssi s, but one quarter o f the total -

l i fting e fle c t i s tran smitted from each wi ng tip by mean s

’

o f a shroud .

The two shroud s are fi x e d at their i nner end to the

lower end o f a vert ical controll ing rod pa ssi ng through the
c h assi s i n both d irection s, to the lower end o f which are
fi x e d the elevating and wa rping shroud s The wings have .

a total sur face o f 1 5 5 sq ft , and the weight of the machine

. .

which they support i s 92 4lh I t will be seen that a li ft o f .

lb per square foot m u st be produced , a n d thi s s ho uld

.

be accompli shed at a speed o f 3 m i l e s pe r hou r T h e sup .

p le me n t a ry su r face s consi st o f a d ippi n g rudder o r elevator

placed at th e rear o f th e tail , and a v e rt i ca l di rection ru d der

'
°
-

bene a th i t T wo la rg e v ertical fi n s are ca rri e d , one above

’

f
.
,

and t h e other be lo w t h e c hassi s, and t h e whole mach in e is

’
.

e n cased w i th fa bric T he engine i s placed i n front a n d

.

di re ctly con nected to a fo ur bladed metal propel ler o f -

6 ft 6 i n d iameter
. . .

The control i s by two vertical levers one at either hand o f

the aviator th at on the right control s the steering rudder ,
an d i s moved in the direction the aeroplane i s de sired to
ta k e The le ft hand lever h a s an u n iversal motion , an d is
.
-

a contin uation o f the control pil lar be fore re ferred to .

Forward and backward motion o f the lever operate the

elevator , an d tran sv erse motion warps the wings th e whole
motion i s arranged to a fford a subcon sciou s sy stem o f
control The aviator gra sps t h e le ft hand lever, and h is
.
-

body automatically sway s i n the d irection he wi she s the

machi ne to take .

A fo o t operated throt t le i s provided fo r controll ing

the engi ne speed , and a second pedal e n a bl e s the engi ne
to b started from the aviator s se at
e
’
.
1 46 A E RO P L A NE S

B leri o t S h o rt S p a n M o n o pla n e , N o X 1 (Figs 6 7 . . .

an d 6 8, and Pl ate — The special feature o f thi s

most successfu l and h i storical machine i s that , with the
”
exceptio n o f Santos D umont s De moi selle , it i s the ' “

smalle st succe ssfu l fly i ng machi ne made up to the end

o f the year 1 909 Th i s machi ne a fter flying the Channel

.

h a s now f ou nd a re sting place in the M u sée d e s A rt s e t

-

M ét ie rs l ari s
,
’
.

G rea t perseverance on the part o f M B l eriot re sulted .

i n h is produc i ng the fi rst real ly practical monoplane .

T h i s mach ine h a s bee n con siderably mo d i fi e d from ti me

to time , ch ic fly with regard to the shape o f i ts tail , and i n
the later machines thi s portio n d i ffers con siderably from
the earl ier type s The machine it sel f i s bui lt u pon a mai n
.

lat t ice framework made o f a sh and spruce o f box girder form ,

the members being strutted w ith a sh and stayed wit h piano
w i re s a n d co v ered with fabric The method o f fi x i n g the
.

strut s to the longitudi nal spar s i s noteworthy , and i s

carried out by mean s o f Ushaped bolt s, the centre passing

-

through a slot n e ar the end o f the stru t and the legs

through two hole s i n the spar The fron t section o f the
.

cha ssi s i s square, the rear portion tapering aw a y i n the

form o f a boat The piano w ire guy s are each separate , and
.
-

some are provided with a stretch ing screw (se e page

M a i n P la n eta — The se plane s are bui lt up about two

mai n spar s, the i nward end s o f the leading pai r fi t into
the two end s o f a cro ss steel bracin g tu be 42 m m internal , .

diameter, thi s tube i s att a ched to th e mai n frame T h e .

wings or pla n e s are very readily removable a s the front ,

main spars project i nwardly some 2 i a and are a sliding .

fi t i nto the soc k et s The rear main spars, wh ich are o f

.

rectangular section proj ect i nwardly a fe w i nche s only and

,

are bolted to two v e rtical stru t s by a si ngle bolt each , one

o n ei ther side o f the mai n frame The tai l i s carried by the
.

lo wer principal longitudi nal members o f the mai n frame,

and i s fa stened to the same with alu m in iu m c li ps o f chan n e l
section . The se cl ip s partial ly embrace the rectangular
a sh beam s, and nece ssitate , there fore on ly l ight bolts to ,
 B LE R I OT S US TA I N I N G SU R F A C E S 1 47

com ple te the attac h men t The bracket exten sion s o f the se
.

cl ip s carry the main tra n sverse bar o f t h e tai l which i s a

steel tu be , an d so arranged tha t the tu be work s a s the

fulcru m o f a hinge about which the tai l pivot s The trai l .

i ng edge o f the tail con si st s o f a metal strip held by a

nu m ber o f di stance tu bes, the sur face i s swept forward a s a
fi n on eit h er side o f the fusi la g e .

I n the 1 909 Bl eriot model the tai l i s d iv ided into three

section s, the centre portion or stabi l i ser i s about hal f the

total span , an d i ts angle o f incidence can be se t be fore the

mach ine leave s the grou nd .

For thi s purpo se a d ri l led metal quad rant i s a t tached

to the trai l ing edge o f the stabi li ser i ts upward end i s ,

located by mean s o f a smal l bo l t passi ng through th i s

quadrant and through a smal l l ug attached to the rear o f
the cha ssi s o f the machi ne A t either end o f the stabil i ser
.

a smal l elevating plane i s located , these two work in co n

j u nction , a n d are O perated by w ires attached to v ertical
levers on the elevator fu lcrum .

The mai n spars u pon wh ich the wi ngs are bui lt are o f
sol id rectangu lar section o f a sh 3 i n deep by t i n wide
i . . .

A t in terval s o f 1 3 i n apart these two spars a re j oined by

.

cu rved ribs, some o f which are on ly 1 i n thick w hi l st .

,

others are made o f stri ps o f alu m in i u m rein forced i n front

by a strip o f wood The mai n rib a t the i nner extrem ity
.

o f each wi n g i s o f wood o f a bu i lt up chan nel section

-

A .

cu rved strip o f a lu mi n iu m i s al so fi x e d along the lead ing

edge o f each wi ng below the sur facing fabric .

The wings are double sur faced with Continental fabric ,

and at the maxi mu m th ick ne ss are 35 i n deep , the front .

edge i s abo ut 1 5 i n th ick , but the traili ng edge , however i s

.
,

qu ite sharp T he maxi mu m amoun t o f camber on the

.

u nder or pressu re su r face i s at one third o f the d i stance

-

from the lead ing edge ; th i s amount s to 85 mms in the .

ordinary type an d 6 5 mms in the h igh speed type o f w i ngs

.
-
.

E ach wing i s se t at a dihedral angle o f 5 to the horizontal

°

,
°
the angle o f incidence i s 75 i n the ordinary type and 6 i n °

the h igh speed machine s fly i n g at 90 k ilometres an hou r

-
.
 1 48 A E RO P L A N E S

The extrem itie s o i the wings are rou nded o ff a s shown i n

Fig 6 7 T he li fting e ffect o f the planes i s tran sm itted to
. .

the cha ssi s by fou r flat stee l stri p s 1 5 mms broad by .

mms th i ck , two be ing attached to each fron t mai n spar,

.

i n position s show n i n Fig 69 The lower end s o f these

. ,

strip s are fi x e d to the lower part o f the front o f the chassi s .

The rear mai n spars are interconnected by two fle x i ble

cables, which form the g a uc/zzsse mm t con trol , the ou ter cable
'

actually operati ng the control whil st the in ner one ru n s

rou nd a pu l ley wheel freely The total span o f the wing s i s
.

2 8 ft the chord i s 6 ft 6i n ,and the a spect ratio i s on ly

. .

The area o f suppor t o f the mai n plane s i s 1 5 0 sq ft , . .

an d o f the tai l 33sq ft The weight o f the mach ine w ith

. .

aviator i s from 600 to 700 lb, accord i ng to the engine u sed

. .

The supplementary su r face s con si st o f a monoplane

ta i l with pivote d extrem ities and a rudder The to ta l span
.

o f t h e ta i l i s 1 1 ft 9 i a an d it i s 2 ft 1 0 i n wide i n a
'

. . . . .

fore an d a ft d i re cti o n , being about a third the span o f t h e

'

main wings and having an area ab0ut one quarter a s great -

.

T h e pivote d ti p s are nearly square , and at the rear o f th em

i s situated the ver t ical rud der w i th a n area o f 45 sq ft
°

. .

The con struction o f the tai l i s carried out i n the same

general man ner a s that o f the main wings, except that the
t ran sverse spa r i s a steel tube O nly the central portion
.

o f the tai l , a s previou sly explained , can be permanently

adj u sted be fore flight , the tip s being operated at w il l

du ring flig h t .

—
Ch a ssi s The fore part o f the mach ine i s supported
upon a pair o f large bicycle wh e el s mou nted u pon tele
scopic ca stors The se co n si st o f a pair o f steel tu be s braced
.

together by two wooden beam s, u pon one o f which the

front en d o f the mach ine re st s, the upper beam being
merely a strut between the two steel tubular colu mn s .

The wheel hub s are stayed i ndepen dently to loo se collars,

wh ich ride u p and dow n u pon the se steel colu mn s, and
are anchored to the lower end s o f the same by mean s o f
very strong ela stic band s wh ich form the su spen sio n at
1 50 A E RO P L A N E S

le ft hand leavi ng the right hand free to con t rol the ign ition
,

lever s o f the e n gi ne , and al so a s occa sion requ ire s to

i n crease the air pre ssu re u pon the lu bricating tan k by
mean s o f a hand pu mp .

T h e g a uc/zi sse me n t i s obtained by lateral d i splacement

o f the co n trol lever , wh il st the elevator s are operated by a

longitud inal movement thu s cau sing the angle o f i ncidence

,

o f the mac h i n e to the horizontal to be al tered .

The motor fi t te d to th i s mach ine i s a three cyl inder -

FI G .
70 .
— Mr C . G ra h a me W h i te
-
’
s M o n o pla n e , Ty pe B leri o t X I I .

1 00 m m by 1 5 0 m m stroke air cooled A nzan i rad ial type

. .
-

de scribed in Chapter V ; an E N V or a D a rra cq engi ne i s . . . .

now fi tted to many mach i n e s o f thi s type A fe w high .

speed type X I machi n e s have been fi t te d w ith 5 0 H P

. . .

G n ome engine s and D a rra c q e n gi ne s are n o w seldom fi t te d

,

by Bl eriot The prope l l e r i s a com po site wooden one by

.

C h auvi ere , and i s 6 ft 8 i h in d iameter with two blade s

. .
, .

Bl eriot I X d i fle re d sl ightly from thi s m achi ne having

'

.
,

a spa n o f 9 met re s and an a re a o f 2 6 sq metre s, and i ts .

lateral stabil ity wa s obtai n e d by a i le ro n s si tuat e d at the

 ’
SA N T O S D U M ON T S M O N O P LA N E “
D E M O I S E LL E . 1 5 1

extrem itie s o f the mai n plane s movable about their tran s

,

verse axe s Such a i le ro n s can be moved i n a contrary

.

di rection by mean s o f the control l ing lever i n order to

d i splace the machine l a teral ly a s when turning, or i n ,

level ling it agai n a fter a turn h a s been made , an d thi s

worked i n conj u nction with the vertical rudder The con .

troll ing lever fi tte d to the Bl eriot machine s i s the subject

o f a paten t o f M B lé ri o t s
’
. .

S a n to s Dumo n t s ’
De mo i se lle
(Plate I — T h i s

machine, otherwi se kn ow n a s San to s X X , i s the smalle st .

practical machine to have attained flig h t, a n d o n 1 6 th Se p

tember 1 909 i ts con structor made a remarkable cross
cou ntry flight from S t Cy r to B uc, a di stance o f about
1 7 k m , which he covered i n fi fte e n m inute s, and then
.

re turn e d H e rose from the ground i n the re markably

‘

short ti me o f si x an d one fi fth second s -

I t i s a notable . ,

fact , however t hat nobody except the inventor h a d at

,

the time o f wri ting succeeded in fly i n g thi s aeroplane .

The Cba sszlr i s con str ucted o f three mai n bamboo s abo ut
’

2 in . d iameter, t wo at the bottom and one at the top ,

braced together i n to a triangular cro ss sectional frame by
steel strut s o f oval section Thi s frame i s 1 6 ft 5 i n lon g
. . .

to the fron t , and carrie s the main planes on the h ighe r .

level an d the two smal l wheel s below The ma i n chassi s

, .

i s divided at the rear o f the ma i n p la n e s t h e bam boo s here

‘

fi t i nto brass socket s, so that the machine can read ily be

taken apart fo r tran sport I t wil l be notic e d that the
.

lower members o f the chassi s are quite close to the

ground , an d that the aviator s seat , which con si st s si mply
’

o f a piece o f canva s stretched between the two lower

bamboo s, i s be neath the mai n plane s and the engine , and

level with the axle o f the supporti n g wheel s .

’
Such an engi ne po sition above the aviator s head i n
volve s ri sk o f grave danger a s landing shock s are apt to
di slodge the engine it sel f from the chassi s, and i n fall ing
thi s would strike the aviator .
1 5 2 A E RO P L A N E S

bl a h: l
P a n es — The
pri n cipal spars upon which the se
.

are su pported are o f a sh but not o f an e v en section

thro ughout thei r length They are 2 i h wide by 1 i n. . .

dee p w here they a re con nected to the chassi s and tapered

to ward s their ex trem ities to a bare i nch i n depth and 2 i n .

i n width The se spars are se t at a d ihedral angle to o n e

.

another,the front spar be ing 9 i n be h ind the leading edge o f .

the pl a n e and the rear one 1 2 i n forward o f t h e trail ing edge . .

The body o f the plane s i s built u p with bam boo rib s

fi x e d beneath the two mai n spars, the su r face i s double
an d made o f sil k fabric .

The shape o f the plane s i s such that the angle o f

.

g reate st i n cidence i s toward s the centre o f th e mach ine ,

the angl e d im in i shing toward s the ti ps ; the max i mu m
camber o f 4 i n is more toward s the centre o f the pl a ne
.

than i s u sua l The span o f the mai n plane s i s 1 8 ft the

. .
,

chord 6 ft 5 i n , the total area o f mai n plane bei ng 1 1 5

. .

sq ft
. The a spect ra ti o o f
. i s abnormally smal l .

T h e lead i ng and trail ing edge s o f the ma in pla n e s a re

qu i te sharp o w i n g to t h e use o f wi re s attached to the e n d s
o f t h e rib s A ll the contr o l ling wire s are below t h e mai n
.

plan e s a n d t h e radiator tu be s, some h u nd red i n n u mbe r,

,

a re fi x e d i mmediately belo w th e plane s toward s the c e ntre

o f t h e m a chi n e and the se tu be s ru n the fu ll l e ngth o f the

'

chord A ll the wire d iagonal s are between the su r faces

.
,

a n d a l i n e o f sewing i s run between each o f th e n e ighb o u r

i n g ri bs Tubular rod s conn e ct the front main spar s to

.

t h e ch a ssi s n e ar th e i r c e n tre and form thei r chie f support .

Ta i b— The tai l m ov e s a s a w hole and i s pivoted on an

u n i v e rsa l j oi n t at th e re ar o f the cha ssi s A vertical .

m e mb e r fi tte d 3 ft from the re a r o f the cha ssi s carrie s the

.

w i re s wh ic h op e rate th e el e vator portion o f the tai l the ,

l o wer e n d o f thi s vertical member i s se t rou nd at right

a n gl e s to form a smal l rear ru n n er .

T h e arrang e ment o f the tai l i n one piece obviate s the

n e c e ssi ty fo r u sing d i v ided plane s a s i n some other
“

m a ch i n e s to al lo w o f i n d e pe n d e n t mo ve me n t .
 E
C H A PT R X I I .

TH E WR I G H T A N D VOI S I N M A CH I A YES
'

C OM P A R E D .

T OO much credit can not be given to the W right broth e rs

fo r thei r untiring wor k a n d origi nal i nve stigation s i nto the
problem o f fligh t They were sti mu lated by th e gl idi ng
.

experiment s o f Li l ienthal Pi lcher , Chanute a n d Herri n g ,

, ,

the latter two being a ssociated w i th t h e W right s i n their

work at one ti me The in ve stigation s o f M ax i m a n d
.

Langl ey al so provided da ta u pon which to w or k , but the se

data al l requ i red v e ri fi ca ti o n The length and detai l o f all
.

th e se earlier ex peri ment s wi l l n ot be deal t wi t h h e re nor ,

w i l l mention be made a s to the evol ut i on o f the presen t

ty pe o f m a chi ne W hether the W right type o f machine i s
.

i n a h a al and sati sfactory form or not , i s sti l l a matter o f

doubt to many m ind s, bu t the fact remain s that it can and
does fly i n spite o f i ts su ppo sed i n st a bil ity Stability i s
.

not everything , a s i n stance t h e bicyc le and the tricycle — the

former i s a n un stable mach ine , but who would not pre fer
rid ing the former to the latter ?
A compari son o f the W righ t and Voi sin m achine s wil l
be a conven ien t and i n structive method o f obtai n i n g a
clearer view u pon two apparently somewhat si milar type s .

M e ssr s Voi si n have con structed a large n u mber o f machi n e s

o f the rigid type , co n fi n i n g their early attention s to t h e

box kite form , wit h side cu rtain s .

Latterly the se curtain s h a v e been d i spe n sed with a n d ,

the machine which Farman h a s rede sig n ed h a s a some

what similar a ppearance to the W right machi n e with the
1 54
 W R I G H T B I PL A N E 155

exception that it h a s a tail and a i le ro n s attached to the

trailing edge s o f the mai n plan e s M r F W Lanche ster . . .

read an i nt e re sting pape r u pon th e se two machi ne s be fore

the A eronautical Society at the end o f the year 1 908, and
we c a n not do better than con sider some o f the poi nt s he
rai ses .

The later W right machine (F ig 71 ) weigh s complete

w ith an av iator o f av e rage weight lh , and h a s a .

total su pporting su r face o f abou t 6 5 0 sq ft I ts span i s . .

4 1 f
.t , and the chord 6 ft 6 i n , giving 0
53 qs ft in the
. . . .

mai n planes .

Lanche ster h a s taken an earl ier model fo r compa r ison

A e ro l
p ane
”
.

F 10 M r M Cle a n bt
0
’
.
71 .
-
‘
s a B i pla n e .

whose di me n sion s were 40 ft sp a n by 6 ft chord , an d he . .

al lowed 5 00 sq ft a s the total su stai n ing area

. . .

The ordinary velocity o f flight i s 40 m ile s per hou r

or 5 8 ft per second
. .

The plan o f the mai n plane s i s nearly rectangular ,

the leadi ng corners being sl ightly rounded and the trai l i ng ,

corners rather more so The mai n plane s are bui lt Up on.

two spars o f A merican spruce t h e front spar bei ng fi x e d ,

at the entran t ed g e a n d about 2 i n i n thickne ss Th i s

, . .

spar h a s a serie s o f al u min iu m socket s at tached to i t

which hold the strut s betwee n the u pper and low e r main
planes A ll the strut s exc e pt the three rear on e s at the
.
1 56 A E RO P L A NE S

extremitie s o f e a ch wi n g are attached by mea n s o f the se

soc k et s .

The second tra n sv e rse spar i s situated a t a di stance o f

4 3ft . i n to the. rear o f the fro n t spar i n each plane , and
th e n i neteen strut s are di stributed between the se two pai rs
o f spar s The outer thre e on each trai l ing end o f the
.

wing s are attached a s d e scribed in Chapter X by mean s .

o f hoo k s a n d eye s to perm it o f a smal l moveme n t .

The rib s h a ve a total length o f 6 ft 6 i n those forming . .

,

FI G .
72 . Vi e w o f th e W rig h t -
C l k e G lide
ar r.

th e i e sup port s at t h e c e n tre o f the machi n e b e i n g sti ff

e ng n

and sol i d T h e t rail ing end s o f the ri b s are connected

.

toge th e r by m e a n s o f a st e e l cabl e .

The p la n e s a re d o ub le sur faced t h e fa bric b e i n g nailed

,

to t h e fro n t spars and se w n to t h e rib s by m e a n s o f poc k et

,

strip s . D ia g o nal wi re braci n g i s al so fi t te d betwe e n th e

u ppe r and lo we r layers o f the c o veri n g fabric .

The au x il i a ry sur fa c e s con si st o f a d o u ble hori z o ntal

e l e v a to r o f t h e superi m p o se d t y p e 1 4 ft 10 i n from ti p
, . .
1 5 8 AE R O P LA N E S

Adouble vertical steering rudder i s fi x e d on an ou t

rigge r 8 ft 6 i n behi n d the main plan e s T h ese two
. . .

sur fa ce s are 5 ft 10 in in height , a n d 2 ft i n width , and

. . .

are si tuated 1 9 i n apart ; they are att a ched by cro ss strut s

.

a n d wi re s, and move i n u n i son .

The total area o f the se au x iliary su r face s i s about

1 5 0 sq . ft .

Th e W right machine i s propelled by two wooden screw

prope l lers (Fig 8 ft 3 i n diameter , which revolve at a
. . .

speed o f 4 5 0 revolution s per min ute i n oppo s ite direction s

large r propel lers u p to 9 ft 2 i n d iamet e r have ,however , been

. .

fi t te d T h e se are d riven by an open and a crossed chain

.

fro m the rear o f the engi ne cran k sha ft , and are geared
'

down in t h e rat io o f 9 to 33 i n the modern machine s ;

Lanchester took the se ratios a s 1 0 to 33 i n h i s calc ul a
tion s .

T he propeller sha ft s are held in bracket s supported

from the rear o f the main frame s and are 1 1 ft 6 i n , . .

apart a n d a n adj u stable stay i s fi x e d fo r t ighten i n g each

,

chain The gl i d ing angle o f the mach ine i s about 7

.

M e ssr s Voi sin had been ex peri menting fo r many years

be fore thei r fi rst machine became k nown through the
mediu m o f Farman and Delagrange .

The mach ine wa s mo d i fi e d i n many w ays by Farman ,

who took every precaution to reduce wind re si stance by
covering portion s with fabric .

The Voi si n machine 18 stated to weigh with the aviator

lb.
.

, and h a s a total S upporti ng sur face o f 5 35 q

s ft ,

thi s be i rig the combi ned area s o f the su pporting sur face s
. .

o f t h e main plane s and the tai l , bu t there are rea son s fo r

su ppo sing that the i nt e n sity o f pre ssure on the mai n plane s

i s greater than that on the tai l , probably owing to eddy

cu rrent s o f ai r i n which the tai l operates The ord inary .

max i mu m velocity o f flight i s 45 m ile s per hou r , or 6 6 ft .

per second .

T h e area o f the side c urtain s i s approx i mately 2 5 5 sq .

ft , and they are each nearly square , the mai n sur face s
.
 1 60 A E RO PL AN E S

are 1 0 metre s span by 2 m e tres chord , and have an a spect

ratio o f 5 .

The early Voi si n mach ine i s propelled by a single

screw propel ler 7 ft 6 i n d iameter with an e ecti v e pitch
. .
, ff
o f 3 ft , and i s keyed di rect to the motor sha ft
. The actual
.

pitch o f the propeller i s m uch greater than 3 ft the .

,

particu lar type u nder di scu ssion had a very great sl i p .

Several type s o f motors have b e en fi t te d to the

Voi si n machi ne , i ncl ud ing the l ta la , G nome , an d
A ntoinette , the latter being o f 49 H P at . revolutio n s
.

per m in ute , and wei g hing 2 6 5 lh The glid ing angle o f .

the machi ne wa s originally but i mprovement s i n

d e sign , such a s reductio n o f wind re si stance have enabl e d ,

th i s angle to be reduced to
—
W e dgbL W it h re g ard to the weight s o f the two
‘

machi ne s, the Voi si n i s about 40 per cen t the heavier ; .

th i s may be to a great exte n t due to the fact that the

, ,

Voi si n machi n e i s fi t te d with a chassi s having wheel s

attached to e nable i t to ru n along the grou nd and start
from any p o int wherea s t h e W righ t mach i ne h a s large
,

sk id s a n d two smal l cen tral whe e l s which e n able it to start

only from a ra il or occa sional ly from smooth gra ss The .

total wei g ht o f t h e cha ssi s o f t h e Voi sin mach ine i s abou t

1 cwt , and probably exceed s the w eight o f the u n d e r
.

carriage o f the W right mach i n e by 60 or 70 lh .

The weig h t o f the aviator a n d su n d ri e s i n each ca se is

about 2 00 lh .

L a n c h e ste r s theo ry wa s t h at fo r m a chine s o f equally

’

good de sign t h e re si stance to fli g h t o f two mach ine s o f

equal we ig h t i s practically i ndepend e n t o f the velocity o f
flight there fore the horse powe r re qui red wil l v a ry d i re ctly
,
-

a s the v e l o city o f flight .

The Voi si n machi ne should con sequ e n tly be fi t te d wi th

a more po wer ful engine both on accoun t o f i ts grea te r
,

weight an d i ts greater spe e d o f fl ight .

A ssu mi ng t h at there i s a me a n p re ssu re o f 72 lh per .

sq i n
. . i n t h e e n gi n e cyli n d e r s a s r e fe r re d to the output
1 62 .
AE R O P LA N E S

m a chine at a soa ri n g speed at le a st There i s another .

aspect o f th i s re serve o f power, an d t h a t i s th e ca p a bi li ty .

o f the machin e to a scend M r Lanchester d id not thi n k .

that the early W right mach ine showed much c a pabi l ity in
thi s re spect , but Count de Lambe rt and the W right
brothers at le a st have demon strated the fact that high
altitude s can soon be reached W ilbur W right state s that .

w ith h i s machi ne weighing lh , and having a gl id ing .

angle o f a thru st o f 1 40 lh i s required , and at 5 8 ft per . .

second velocity o f fl i g h t the thru st hor se power become s -

14 5 , t h e B H P o f the . motor
. . bei n g 2 4, and i f thi s i s a s

he state s 40 per cent i n exce ss o f the B H P a c tual l y

. . . . .

req ui red 1 71 B H P i s exerted by th e engine O u co n

, . . . .

t i n ui n g the arg u ment thi s show s a n e ffi c i e n cy o f the screw

propellers and t ran sm i ssion o f 85 pe r cen t , which i s
, . .

o bviou sly to o h igh P robably 70 per cent wou ld be. .

n earer t h e mark I t may , however be that the tbrust

.
,

horse power i s 1 5 to 1 6 , and that the re serv e o f 40 per

- .
.

cent includ e s lo sse s i n propu l sion

. .

T he co mp a rative e ffi c i e n ci e s o f the propellers are deal t

.

with i n Chapters V I I and V I I I on Propel ler s . . .

The principal point s o f di fferenc e i n the m a in plan e s

:

o f the two machine s are the fl e x i bi li ty o f tho s e o f the

W right m a chi ne, which form s the subj ect o f one o f their
pate n t s, and the rigidity o f the Voi si n plane s
-
The .

mechan i sm wh ich control s th i s fle x i bi li ty i s directly con

trol led by the right hand lever mov ing either to le ft or -

right , i ts fo re and a ft movement operating t h e steering

rud d er The two movement s are i nti mately con nected ,
.

and fo r thi s rea son a si ngle lever controll ing device i s -

de sirable .

Suppo sing, fo r in stance , the rudder be turned in any

one di rection , the o uter wing i n per formi ng i ts flight rou nd
an arc wil l travel fa st e r than th e i n ner wing and tend to ,

ri se .

A cert a in amou n t o f ri se or ban k ing i s nece ssary i n

order to co un teract ce n tri fugal force ten d i n g to make th e
 C ON T RO L OF A B I PL A N E 1 63

centre o f gravity o f the machine con tin ue in a straight

path . Thi s ba n king may be carried to excess i n an
e xtended turn i ng , and it become s nece ssa ry , there fore , to

red uce the li ft o f the outer wi ng and increase that o f the

”
i n ner one a n d in ci d entally to put a sl ight d rag on the
,
“

—
in ner wi ng the action i s explained in Chapter X V .

I n the W right machine thi s i s accompl i shed by re

d uci n g the a n gle o f incidence o f the outer end s o f the
upper and lower plane s, an d i ncr e a sing that angle on the
inner end s The method o f con struction can be seen i n
.

the fi g ure s and con si st s o f wi re con nection s diagonally

,

attached in such a manner that the ten sion on one side

d raw s the rear outer stru t downward s on that side , a n d a
cross con n e cti ng wi re to the other wing rai se s the rear
outer stru t o f that wi ng a corre sponding amo unt .

T h e fle x ure o f wing tip s i s al so em ployed to re sto re

lateral stabi lity a fter unequal pre ssure on t h e t wo wing s
h a s ti lted the machine from the hori zontal in straight
flight . Thi s g a zrc/zzlsse me rzt can clearly be seen i n action
‘

in Fig 87o f M r O gi lvie s gl ider The elevator i s ma n i pu

.
’
.

lated by a lever at the le ft hand o f the aviator .

The Voi si n m a ch ine i s provided with side curtain s to

provide lateral th rust sur face s wh ich on ly come into play
when re si stin g c e ntri fugal force A steerin g rudde r i s
.

placed in side the box tail , whi l st a single e levating plane

i s fi tte d in fron t o f the machine on an outrigger .

Th e V o i si n B i p la n e ,
type , h a s al ready bee n
1 909

re ferred to , and a de scription o f i ts more essential d e tai l s,

together with a study o f P late X , fou nded u po n the original
.

dimen sioned drawi ng appeari ng in F lzg/zt, wil l be both

u se ful and in structive .

The Voi sin machine wa s one o f the very fi rst E u rope an

machi n e s to demon strate the possibil ity o f a fl y i ng machine ,
and i ts leading characteri stic s are a s fo llo ws z— The main
fea t ure o f the machi ne i s a box form tai l carried on a l ight
outrigger about 1 3 ft at the rear o f the mai n planes The
. .
 16 4 AE R OPLA N E S

Bird o f Passage original ly the property o f M r M oore

,

Brabazon , wa s fi tte d w ith a single propel ler d i rectly con

n e c te d to the engi ne sha ft , and an elevator i n front
separated by a d i stance o f 4 ft 4 i n from the lead ing edge . .

o f the main pla n e s, th i s d i stance being m uch le ss t h an that

fo und i n the W ri g ht machine I t wi ll be noticed that .

neither the wings warp nor are a ile ro n s fi t te d , so that the

lateral stabil ity m u st be acquired by other mean s ex plained
i n Chapter X V .

A nother i mportant d i fle re n ce i s the cha ssi s, which

'

su pport s the wheel s an d the engine i n a steel framewor k .

M a i n P la n es — The se are o f the superpo sed type ,

.

having a span o f 32 ft 1 1 i n and a chord o f 6 ft 9 i n . . . .

,

giving a to tal area o f 445 sq ft an d an a sp e ct ratio o f 49 . . .

The su r facing i s single , a n d Continental fabric i s u sed an d

fi x e d be n eath the rib s, the mai n spars and rib s being
enca se d i n pocket s T h e mai n spars, 1 5 i n wide by i h
. . .

thic k are fi x e d , one on the leading edge and the other

,

about 5 ft at the rear I t wi ll be seen that a trai l ing edge

. .

o f 1 ft 9 i n th us overhang s the rear main spar

. . .

A sh rib s o f i n by i n section l ie acro ss the mai n

. .

plane s 1 ft 3 i n apart i n order to d e fi n e their true shape,

. .

and they have a camber a s follo ws, mea su r ing from the
leading edge

D i st
a n ce 1 11
m
.

Ca mbe r 35 .
4 ia
1
.

The t wo mai n plane s are separate d by eight pairs o f

stru t s 6 ft 8 i h
. long and 1 5 i n by 2 i n section , those at the
. . .

extremitie s o f the wings being placed farther apart than

t h o se at the centre , and the rib s over the strut s are stronger
than the i ntermed iate rib s D iagonal wire bracing i s .

stretched acro ss the vario us pa n el s, both lateral and long i

t ud i n a l, thu s giving a sti ffne ss to the whole mach ine .

The amou nt o f thi s w ire bracing i s very con siderable

i n the Voi sin machine perhaps more so than in any other , .
1 66 AE R OP LA N E S

con si st s i s c h i c fly made o f 1 5 i n out si de d ia m e ter tube s

.
,

and hold s two swivel s to which t he run n ing whee l s are

attached The se a re o f the wire spo k e d type and are fi t te d
.

with pneumatic tyre s Ten si on spri n gs are attached to

.

the swiv e ll ing arrangeme nt to retain the wheel s normal ly

i n a strai g ht path T h e t0ps o f the swivel s re st on the end s
.

o f hel ical spring s 3 ft long by 2 i n out side d iameter , made

. .

o f i i n d iameter steel , proj ectin g u p beyond the lower mai n

i .

plane , the object o f the spring s be i n g to m in i mi se the

shock s received by the wheel s i n run n ing over rou gh
ground from being tran smitted to the mach ine a s a w hole .

The question o f suitable spring su spen sion i s a very i m

portan t one and i nventors are at work devi sing a pneu matic
,

sy stem wi th a large wor k i ng rang e to repla ce spri ngs o f

th i s type .

R adiu s rod s are provided , one to each swivel so t h at ,

when t h e spring i s com pre ssed the wheel increa ses i ts

“
trai l and the wheel su pporti n g framework i s d e °

fle cte d out o f the vertical The outward end s o f the

.

rad i us rod s are pin ned to the forward ex ten sion o f the
cha ssi s .

S i de curta i n s are fi t te d both to the main plane s a n d to

the tai l , i n the fo rmer in sta n ce they are fou r in nu m ber ,

an d in the latter, two .

The se curtai n s are made o f the ord inary fabric st i fTe n e d

by ribs a n d by the d iago n al wi re braci ngs Farman .

eventual ly di spen se d with th e se curtain s, but their ori g i n a l

object i s d e scri bed on page 1 6 3 The probability i s that.

thei r prese n ce a ffect s the air cu rren t s, par ticul arly in the
vicin ity o f the rudder , but they may preve n t the ai r u nde r
t h e u pper pla n e leavi n g it sid e w a y s at the ti p s and th u s ,

there fore in crea se t h e e ffi c i e n cy o f li ft .

P ropulszo rz — T h e si ng le prope ll e r r un n in g at a hi g h
’

speed i s drive n by an en g i n e o f 5 0 H P fi n a lly an E N V . .

, . . .

o f the eight cyl i n der V type being decid e d u p o n

-
.

T h e t wo blad e d steel propelle r i s o f the cl ip or adj u stable

-

pitch type wi th large square e n de d blade s Some ob se r v a

, .
 SU SPE NSION OF V OI SI N MA C H I N E 167

tion s on th i s propel ler are made i n the compari son with the
W r ig ht machi ne .

W 2 1 0111 3 01 1 11 11
“
B u m 01 °
P ASSA G E .

wa te r

T o ta l
 E
C H A PT R X I I I .

TH E F A R A/ A N AI A CH I N E .

P LA T E XI .

H E N R Y F A R M A N S n ame h a s been prom inen t amongst

’

those o f succe ssfu l aviators, and pa rticul a rly a s having been

a ssoc iated wi t h Voi si n I ré re s, and a s the win ner o f the
’

Deut sch A rchd e acon prize fo r the fi rst circu lar k i lometre
-

flig h t
.

Thi s wa s ach ieved o n a Voi sin bi plane , but Farman

ca rried out from time to ti me n u merou s mo d i fi ca t io n s wi t h
thi s type o f machi ne u n ti l eventually he h a s designed a
m a ch in e o f h is own somewhat on Voi sin l ines H i s .

machine h a s been p a rticularly successfu l at the latter end

o f 1 909 both i n h i s hand s a n d those o f M Paul h a n and
, .
,

fi t te d with a G nome engi ne some bea uti fu l and remar k able

fl ight s have been mad e . I n general appeara n ce thi s
mach in e i s l i g ht and stabl e i ts mo st noticeable d i fference
,

from the Voi sin machi n e i s t h e ab sence o f sid e curtain s

b o th i n the mai n plane s and the tai l The provi sion o f .

sk i d s i n addition to fo ur supporti ng wheel s beneath the

main plan e s i s an i n nova t ion and the great advan tage o f

,

such a n a rra n gem e n t i n landing i s obviou s Paulhan h a s,

.

h o wev e r such remarkable control over the mach ine that

,

al though de scend in g from a h e ight t hro ugh a dangerou s

l o o k i n g a n g le , h i s fi n a l i mpact wi th th e grou nd i s so slight
a s to sc a rc e ly warran t th e use o f the term at all .

Ai m } : P bmes.
— The se are o f the superpo sed type, havi n g
a spa n o f 32 ft 6 i n an d a c h ord o f 6 ft 4 i n , their a spe ct
. .
, . .

1 68
170 AER O P LA N E S

trian gulation i s fo rme ds Th e se wires are a lso carried across

from the rear t wo cor n e rs o f one rudd e r pla n e to tho se o f
the other .

The co ntrol wire s wh ich operate the se r ud d er plane s are

carried acro ss a short lever fi x e d normal ly to the sur face o f
each plane at the centre o f i ts h inged edge , and pa ss across
the centre stru t s fi x e d to the rudder plane s, and rou nd the
rear edge s, to which they are attached , the con nection being
al so carried across between the two rudd e rs .

The elevator plane h a s a span o f 1 5 ft and i s hi n ged a s

.
,

be fore stated and con structed i n th ree section s to clear t h e

,

members form ing the outrigge r ; the forward portion h o w ,

ever, i s conti n uou s The con trol li n g w i re s are attached to

.

a normal strut att a ched to the rear tran sverse mem ber o f
th e framework one at the u pper an d one a t the low e r end
,

o f the strut . The w ire s a re co n nected at their oth e r end to

a lever placed at the aviator s right hand wh ich lever a lso
’

actuates th e wire s control li ng th e balanci ng a i le ro n s The .

co n n e cti o n s are arranged to al low o f subcon sciou s control

-

a backward p ul l o f the lever i ncrea se s the angle o f incidence

o f the elevator .The l a te ra l stabil ity i s e ffected by move
—
ment o f the sa me lever to right or l e ft th us movi ng to the
right lowers the a ile ro n s on the le ft cau sing that side o f the
,

mach i n e to ri se I t wi ll be noticed that although the same

.

idea i s carried out a s i n the W right ma c h i ne , the connection

o f elevator and a i le ro n s to one l e ver i s adopted wherea s in ,

the W right mach ine it i s the rudder that i s connected to

thi s u niversal lever Perhap s in many re spects the rudder
.

and the a i le ro n s are more i nti mately a ssociated , a s the

movement o f the rudder i s bound t o a fTe ct the lateral
stability and a su itable motion o f the control l ing lever i n
,

a d iagona l or el liptical path actuate s both si mu ltaneou sly .

The F arman machine h a s foot operated rudders, a pivoted

-

foot re st b e i n g so con nected up that a d e pre ssion o f the

right foot steers the machine to the right , and v i ce v e rsa .

The sk id s al re ady re ferred to are each su spended from

a short ax l e carryi n g a pai r o f whee ls The su spen sion i s
.
 F A R M A N CON T RO L 1 71

by a stout rubber band , and the sk id s are located at right

angle s to the ax le s by d i stance rod s N ormally , the weight
.

o f the mach ine , which i s supported u pon the sk id s, i s tran s

mi tte d through the rubbe r band s to the ax l e s and wheel s

and thence to the grou nd A n excess o f load or shoc k
.

stretche s the se band s, and the skid s them selve s come i to

h
d irect contact with the grou nd .

The propeller i s by C h a uv i ere o f the two bla de d type

,
-

8 ft 6 i n d iameter
. . .

A e ro p h o to
— Curt1ss B 1 la n e
.

75.
p .

C urt i ss B i p la n e —
Thi s machine wa s somewhat o f a
.

dark hor se at the R hei m s meeting, but i t s great suc ce ss

in speed conte st s both there and lat e r in A merica , at once
,

arre st attenti o n The machine much re semble s the W right

.
.

The main plane s are fi t te d with twenty two rib s, each -

made o f three ply wood both u pper and lower plane s a re

-

detachable at abo ut ha lf the length from the ti p to the

centre and the plan e s them selve s are si ngle su r faced
, .

T h e fabric i s attach e d to the rib s by fla t cord s and

fa stened with bra ss n a il s ; th e su r face s a re d ivided each
into seven se ction s th re e in th e c e ntre and two on e ither
,
172 A E ROP LA N E S

side The woodwor k i s o f A merican spruce and braced

.
,

together with steel stranded cable The cable s are soldered .

together wherev er they cross one another ; the su pport s

fo r the elevator and th e rudder are fi x e d to bamboo
stay s fi tte d with cable braci n gs The lateral stability i s
.

obtained by the use o f a i le ro n s sit uated about hal f wa y -

b e tween the u pper and lower plane s, and at t h ei r ou tward

extrem iti e s, and are O perated by th e back o f th e aviator s ’

seat by mean s o f n atu ral movemen t o f h i s body .

‘
The Cu rti ss engine h a s fou r cyl inder s 35 i n by 35 i n . .

stroke giving 35 H P at
, . .revolution s per min ute , and
a maxi mu m o f about 5 0 H P , and weigh s about 200 lb
. . .

M a uri ce F a rma n h a s produced a mach ine to h is o wn

de sig n a n d w ith which he h a s had con siderable succe ss .

Th i s ce ll u lar bi plane re semble s Fig 76 and i s somewhat

.
.
,

si milar to two other w e l l k n own type s

‘

-
.

The span o f the mai n pla n e s i s 32 ft; 6 i n , an d i ts .

tot a l su pporting are a 5 40 sq ft A cha ssi s somewhat

‘

. .

si milar t o th a t o f the V o i si n mach i n e i s fi tte d and covered

with fabric form i ng a coc k pit in which the a vi ator si t s .

The e leva tor i s placed wel l forward a n d i s control led by ,

circu lar motion o f the steeri n g wheel w hich al so act s

u po n the rudder the latter be ing betw e en the box tai l
,

cu rtai n s .

A lateral mov ement o f the whee l O perate s the ru dder

by mean s o f a cable The main wings a re warped at
.

their rear tip s i n the man ner o f the W right mach ine, a
'

lever at the aviator s l e ft hand performing the n ecessary

’

c o ntrol Bot h the con trol mechan i sm s are arranged so

.

that i n the case o f g a uc/zzlrse men t, or elevatin g, the gear

remai n s a s pl aced by the aviator u ntil he move s i t at wil l .

The n e w M auri c e Farman machi ne wil l be fi tte d with

an u nd e r carri a ge embod y i n g t h e use o f skid s in con
j u n ction with the whe e l s ; i t wi ll be no t iced that t h e
su spen si o n contain s spri ng b uffer s and al so pr o vi sion fo r
,

lat e ral di splacemen t o f the wh e e l s to some extent .

174 A E R O PL A N E S

be a move i n t h e right di rection The weight o f th i s .

machi ne i s attrib utable to the very substanti a l co n stru ction

o f th e fra me wo rk ti mber s, o f large size are u sed and well
'

triangu lated .

T/ze s a ssi s project s wel l in fron t o f th e lea di n g

-

edge o f the mai n plane s and c a rrie s th ree wheel s in

,

tricy cle form T h e machi ne i s properly carried u pon the

.

two rear wh e el s, t h e leadi n g o n e bei n g fo r emergencie s,

and to re tain the mach ine i n a le v el po sition w hen .

stationary . O ne o f Cody s in novation s i s a stout wooden

’

tai l formed li k e a large h o c k ey stick to take the shoc k s ,

when al ighti ng a n d he attri bute s great i m portance to

,

thi s adj unct .

The mac h i ne i s so me wh at o f the W rig h t form in that

it h a s n o tai l, but i s fi t te d wi th an elevator in front held
on a bam bo o outrigg e r .

M a i n P la n e s — The se are arra n g ed i n the u sual biplane

.

superp o se d fa sh ion but they are sl ightly arched Th e

, .

span o f t h e plane s i s 5 2 ft and they have a chord o f

.
,

7 ft
. 6 g i vi n g an a spec t ratio o f 6 94 The a
g p betwe e n .

the plan e s a t the centre i s 9 ft and they are separated by .

,

str ut s and diagonal s i n t h e usual way The aviator s seat ’

.

i s qu ite i n fro n t o f the leadi ng edge o f the mai n plane s,

an d i n front o f the engi n e .

The pl ane s are double su r faced , bu t thei r archi ng i s not

u n i form throughout , bei ng fla t te r at the ti p s .

Tlze E le v a to r, whi ch i s i n front , i s o f con siderable length ,

an d divided i nto two at the centre E ach hal f can be .

separa tely ma n ipu lated , thu s forming a i le ro n s to control

the lateral stability o f the mach i n e .

The se elev a tor s are o f the si ngl e plane type , a n d arch ed

i n the same man ner a s the main plane s I n addition to .

the elevators, su pplementary su r face s may be fi tte d in a

vertical plane at the rear o f the mai n pl ane s to i mprove
the steering qualitie s o f the machine , a n d to act i n con
j u nction with the
R ua a
’ ’
e r —Th i s i s at the rear o f the machi n e and o f the
.
,
 co n v D E TA I LS 1 75

s ingle vertical type held between a pair o f rear spars 9 ft

,
.

apart , and sti ffened by diago n al bracing .

The control o f the r udder a s wel l a s the elevators i s

obtained by mov emen t o f a steeri ng wheel wi th a pivoted
M ovement o f the av iator s
’
j oint and a lever attached .

body i s natu ral ly tran smit ted to the wh e e l , which th u s per

form s the nece ssa ry op e ration s Control rod s are attached
.

to the elevator mechani sm in front , one to either plane .

T h e machi ne h a s a very large area , there bei ng 780 sq ft . .

i n the main plane s alon e A n eight cyli n der E N V engine

.
-
. . .

o f 80 H P. .wa s fi tte d , driving two propeller s by m e an s

o f chai n s
.

The propel lers are placed between the plane s and near
to the lead ing edge T h ey revo lve i n opposite d ire ction s,
.

and are geare d down from the engine sha ft .

M r Cody pre fers a shape o f blade which i s broad

toward s the root and narro w a t the tip , si m i lar to tho se
he designed fo r the W a r O ffi ce di rigible ; he i s n o t very
keen about chain dri v e s owing to the su pposed l iabil ity
o f the chain s to break . W ith slow speed propellers the
aut h or doe s not th in k the ri sk great , a s should the engi n e
sudden ly stop , the inertia , a slow speed prop el l e r , wou ld

n ot general ly be suffi c ie n t to ca use the modern we ll made -

chain s to su ffer any such ri sk .

176 A E RO P L A NES

E X H I B I TS OF M O N O PL A N E S AT TH E F I R ST A E R O N A UT I CA L
SA L O N , P A R I S, DE C E M B E R 1 908 .

SP “ S urfa ce ,
M a ch i n e . E x h i bi to r . ?
1 Sq .
‘
VC i sh t ’
Kg
E n g i ne , H . P .

M e t re s M e t re s
.

A rts c l M éti e rs
'

A de r s A v io n
(N o 3) . M use um
R E P (N o 2
. . . . R E sn a ult
.

bi s) l e lte ri e
’

B leri o t (N o I X . .
) S o ci été B léri o t 9 2 4 41 0

(N o X I ) . .
7 13

A n to i n e tte S té A n to i n e tte
. 12 40 5 00

La D
e mo i se lle Sa n to s umo n t D
Pi sch o fl l i sc h o fl
' '

K o e ch li n
Ve n d fi me (N O ) R V e n dt i me
‘

. 2 .

Cl e me n t B a y a rd C le m n t B e a y a rd 12
°

5 23 400

E x mmrs '
o r B I PLA N E S AT TH E F I R S T A E R O N A UT I C A L S A L O N ,
P A R I S, 1 g o 8 .

S n Surfa ce ,
lg h t ,
M a ch i n e . E xh i bi t o r
. Sq
l E n gi ne , H P . .

M e t re s M e t re e gs

W ri gh t Ci e . N a v iga t i o n

A éri e n n e
Fa rma n (N o . I ) V o i si n rere s F

Del a g ra n g e S té .
’
d E n co ur 40
l
a ge me n t

B lerio t (N o . x .
) B léri o t

L e j un c (N o . l ) L e
j une
178 A E RO PL AN E S

u
c 2 2
o 5 5

S 2
« w m o
3 m
F o u
z fl u u
h
.

x m k m v ? h . m

F 9 N
F b F P
m 4 e m
3 ? m 8 n f » . ?

0 0 0 m
3 o
~
0 2 ? ? N 3
N

0 c
m m

m
:
 C H A PT E R X IV .

P R OG RE S S I V E M O N OP L A NE R E CO R D S UP TO E N D OF 1 90 8 .

D a te . A v ia to r. P la ce . D ista n ce o r T i me

km .

6 km 5 m i.n 47 c
se . .

8 mi n 45 se c .

k m = l m1n 3o se c
. . .

1 4k m .

R H E I M S M E E T I N G , A UG US T 1 0
9 9 .

D a te . A v i a to r . A ch i e ve me n t .

2 6th A ugust 1 909 La th a m (A n t o i n e tte ) 1 5 4k m .

27th B leri o t 40 n

z gth La th a m (N o . 29 ) 30 km . in 25 mi n . se c .

z g th n (N 0 1 3) 3 0 k m . in mi n 32 3se c
26 . .

z Sth Bleri o t (spe e d re co rd ) 10 k m . in 7 m i n 473 se c .

k .

2 6 th L m
a th a 10 k m . in 8 mi n 32 5} se e . .

G o rdo n B e n n e tt ra ce Bleri o t (z ud pla ce ) I 5 mi n .

5 6 } se c .

n u La th a m (3rd pla ce ) 1 7mi n .

32 se c .

A lti tude pri z e (I st pla ce ) I 55 m e t re s (5 08 fe e t ) .

I 1 5 0 me t re spe e d re co rd (N o 2 9) . 2 h rs 1 3 mi n 95} se c
. . .
 1 80 A ER O P LA N ES

P R O G R E SS I V E B I P L A N E R E CO R DS UP TO E N D OF 1 908 .

D a te . A v ia to r
. P la ce . D ist a n ce o r Ti m e .

1 906 .

1 4h
tS e pt . Sa n to s D umo n t B a g a te lle
1 3th N o v .

1 907.

3o th Ma r . De la g ra n g e
1sth O ct . Fa rma n
2 6 th 1 . n

17th Nov . D
S a n to s umo n t
17th De c .
’
Pi sch o i f

km .

3 5 ft
1 .

km .

9 k m .

125 km .

1 7k m .

y ds .

km .

1 mi n 4 5 sc
.
-

3 mi n 43 se c .

2 5 6 me tre s .

1 0 mi n 4 0 se c . .

1 9 mi n 4 8 se c . .

2 47 k m .

1 h r 2 mi n 3
. 0 sec . .

1 h r 1 5 mi n 2 0 se c
. . .

1 h r 31 mi n 2 5 se c
. . .

3 m
9 k .

41 k m
W i lb
.

ur W rig h t Le Ma n s 1 h r 5 4mi n 2 2 sec

. . .

T h e W rig h t bro th e rs h a d ma de a v e ry la rg e nu mbe r o f fligh ts i n A me ri ca

re v i o us to t h e i r a p pea ra n ce i n F ra n ce , but th e a ut h o r is n o t in
po sse ssi o n o f
p
th e de ta i ls o f th e se .
1 82 A E RO P L A NES

A mongst Briti sh aviators fou r at least have already

attained succe ss not inc luding M r Cody First by a fe w
, .

days, M r J T C M oore Brabazon succeeded i n w in n ing

. . .
-

the D a i ly M a i l prize fo r a flig h t o f a ci rcu lar m ile

on 3o th O ctober on an al l B riti sh bu ilt machine M r -
.

M oore Brabazon had al ready had con siderable ex perience

-

with h is Voi sin machi ne , shown at the fi rst O lym pia a e ro

show , i n add i t ion to other mach ine s in France ; h e , however ,

Flo .
77— . T un i n g up a Bleri o t T y pe XI I . at R h e i ms .

wa s an xiou s to fly a Briti sh mach ine , a n d h i s opportu n itie s

had b e en delayed wh il st the machine wa s in cou rse o f
con struction M e ssrs Short Brothers, who are the con
.

st ruc t o rs in thi s coun try o f the W right bi plane s, bu i lt the

aeroplane , the e n gine being a 5 0 60 H P; G reen with -

.

cyli nders 1 40 m m bore by 1 40 mm stro k e , weighing

. .

without fly wh e e l and magneto about 2 5 0 lb C lo sely .

fol l o wing Upon thi s achi e vement the H on C: S R ol l s . .

made some excelle n t flight s on h i s W right machine al so ,

 SO M E B R I TI S H A V I AT O RS 1 83

at S h e llbe a ch , covering a double ci rcle o f a m i le a n d a

hal f altogether two days a fter the previou sly recorded
per formance .

The same week end M e ssrs O gi lvie and Searigh t took

-

delive ry o f their W right mach ine at the S h e llbe a c h factory,

and the author had the plea su re o f a ssi sting in the tran s
port o f thi s mach ine by road to their hangar near R ye .

W ith in a fortn ight o f that date the mach i ne had been

assembled and tested , and M r A lec O gilvie had made

A e ro f bo to .

FIG .
78
.
— Re na rd A i rsh i p a nd Fa rma n Bi pla n e at R h e i ms
, 1 909.

several flig h ts, in a ci rc ular cou rse o f ten m inut e s d uration , ’

over the be a c h .

M r Clau de G rahame W h ite , at the Bl eriot school Pau ,

-

soon achieved succe ss a s an aviator , and made some ex

tended flight s on a Bl eriot X I I model , an d subsequen tly .

both at Brooklan d s and H endon demon strated with a

Bl eriot X I that he wa s a ma ster o f the monoplane H e
. .

obtai ned the pi lot aviator s ce rti fi ca te o f the F renc h A ero

’

Clu b a s a re su l t o f h i s per formance s .

 184 A E RO P L AN E S

R E C O R DS E
AN D PRO GR SS 0 1? 1 909 .

j u st previo u s to the N e w Y ear o f 1 0

9 9 W il bur W right
m ade h i s o ffi ci a l record fo r the M ichelin cu p in F rance .

Ou Dece mbe r 1 908 he flew a total d i stan ce o f 99 8

k m , a world s record to that ti me , i n 1 ho ur 5 4 mi n 5 3§ se c
.
’
. .

A t the beg i nni ng o f j a n ua ry , Herr G rade o n h i s mono

plane fle w short d i stan ces up to 400 metre s at spe ed s o f
from 30 to 40 k m per hour . .

M r M oore Brabazon al so made a fli g h t o f 5 k m on a

-
.

Voi si n machine .

M r Cody al so mad e short fli g h ts, the greate st d i stan ce

covered being 2 5 0 y d s , the flight endi ng i n d i sa ster to h i s
.

machi ne .

B leriot made a flig h t o f 200 met re s on h i s short span

monoplane .

F ebrua ry — O n the 1 4l /z Farman fle w a d i stance o f

5 k m w i
. th a pa sseng e r .

Two day s a fterward s G ufi ro y on an R E P monoplane

'

, . . .

at B uc fle w 800 me tre s at a spee d o f 80 km a n hou r

, . .

On al so, Bl eriot i ncrea sed h i s flight to 600

metre s on Bl eriot X I , the short span machi ne , at I ssy , and
.

D e ma n e st fle w 400 me tre s at Chalon s on an A ntoinette

monoplane .

The sa w W ilbur W rig h t , accom pan ied by Count

de Lambert a s a passenger , fly at a n average speed o f 70

km a n hou r fo r fou r attem pt s at the mea sured k ilometre
. .

O u the M r M oore Brabazon covered a ci rcular

-

ki lometre at I ssy on a Voi si n bi p lane , and al so in A merica

the Si lver D art bi plane fle w i mile i n a straight line
i .

j lf a rc/z — O n th i s day the

. S ilver D art flew 8
mil e s i n 1 1 min 1 5 se c , and o n the fol lowing day Santo s
. .

D umont made a trip on h i s D emoi sel le o f 5 00 metres .

G o upy , on a biplane con structed by Bl eriot , fle w 200

m e tre s at B uc, a n d B l eriot hi m sel f fle w 1 5 k m on h i s N o . .

X I machine
. .

The Silver Dart contin ued to make progress, and on

the 1 1 t h fle w 1 9 mil e s at Badd e c k N o v a Sco t ia , .
1 86 AE R O PL A N E S

Chalon s camp remained i n the ai r fo r 1 hou r

. He
7 min 37
. s e c at a height
. o f between 1 5 and 4 0 metre s .

The wind wa s blowing at the rate o f 1 5 k m an hou r the .

whole t i me , and th e rai n poured down du ring the last

twen ty mi nutes .

O u the following even ing M Latham made another .

splendid flight , havi n g ent e r e d fo r th e A mbroi se C oupy

prize fo r a c ro ss count ry fli g h t o f 5 k m Starti ng from

'

-
.

Chalo n s c a mp at P M , h e flew straight over the

. .

country fo r 5 9 k m i n 4 mi n 32 se c at a speed o f a bout

. . .

5 0 km per hou r H then turned i un d without comi g ‘

'
. e . o n

to earth , an d retu r n ed to h i s starti n g poi nt , another record

up to that ti me .

Ou zme 1 909 Latham made h i s fi rst fl ight wi h

j t
a pa ssenger, whom he carried 700 metres, and fi n a lly
carried M r H e wa rtso n fo r 1 1 m in 5 7 se c , coveri ng abou t . .

6 m i le s, although the wi nd wa s blo wing in strong gu st s

most o f t h e ti me .

The l ate Captain Ferber w o n th e A rchdeacon cu p on

th e fo r h i s flight o f 6 5 k m on a Voi si n mac h ine , and .

on the followi ng day B l eriot wa s ou t with h i s large machine

N o X I I , and carried a pa s e n ger fo r 600 metre s at I ssy
. .
s
.

P au lh a n made h i s fi rst noteworthy flig h t on the at

Bar sur A u be o n a Voi sin machi ne, when he flew fo r 1 k m
- -
.

The 1 2 171 w a s a notable day , a s Bl eriot succeeded i n

carrying two pa ssengers on a straight fligh t i n h i s large
ma c hi n e , a n d Lath a m made a lo n g fligh t o f 49 k m in .

39 m in .

M r Cockburn appeared a s an aviator on the 1 5 111 , wh e n

he fle w fo r 5 00 y ds o n a Hen ri Farman machi ne at C halon s
. .

C u rti ss h a s a recorded fli g h t on the in A merica ,

whe re he i s credited w i t h a hal f m i le flight at a speed o f -

45 mile s per hou r .

O n the 1 911: Cou n t de Lambert made a cro ss country -

flight at J u vi sy , w hen he flew fo r 1 2 mi n 5 2 se c . .

Bl eriot , Co dy , Paul han , a n d Farman were al l in activ e

practice abou t t h i s ti me .
 TH E F I RST ( ?RO S S C H A N N E L A TT E M P T
-
1 87

A new comer i n M Jean G o bro n made notable fl i ght s

-
.

at I ssy on the 2 6 t/z on a B re g ue t bipl a ne, h i s pri nci pal

achievements bei ng flight s o f 1 0 an d 1 5 km at a speed .

of 7 0 k m an hou r
. .

j b
u c— G obro u conti n ued h i s s u cce sse s , and on the z a d
carried two passengers fo r 5 mi n in h is machi ne . .

O n the Bl eriot flew the longe st d i stance on that

day at J uv i sy when he wa s in the air fo r 5 0 m in 8 se c , . .

and thu s won M me A rchdeacon s prize o f . franc s

’
.

Captain Fe rber al so won a prize o f franc s by

beati ng B léri o t s t i me fo r a 3 k m flight by 1 2 se c
’
. .

M R oger Sommer a succe ssful n e w comer , made h i s

.
,
-

fi rst flight k m on h is n e w H Farman biplane, an d on

. .

the following day he fle w fo r hal f an hou r .

The 1 2 th wa s notable a s the day B l eriot m a de a

splendid cro ss country fl -
i g h t from M onde sir to La C roi x
Biquet , k m i n 44m i n .
.
.

Two days later Sommer mad e a cross cou ntry fli g h t -

from Chalon s to Savenay and back .

O n the 1 711: Cu rti ss fle w fo r 6 75 m in i n A merica ,

’

and Paul han i n h is Voi si n bi plane fle w 1 2 km at D ou ai ; .

al so O rvi lle wright h e w fo r 1 2 m in i n A meric a , and

'

agai n on the 2017: h e fle w fo r 1 hour 2 1 min , covering .

during that ti me about 5 0 mi les .

.

The 1 8171 wa s a da y o f com petitive flying at Douai , and

'

Pau lh a n wen t fo r height and speed record s I n the former .

he wa s successfu l i n beatin g W i lbur W ri g h t s record o f

.
.
’

3 60 ft by
. attain i ng a height o f 49 0 f t I n the s peed .

conte st with Bl eriot he wa s beaten i n the k i lo metre h i s ,

ti me being 1 mi n 37se c to B léri o t s 1 min 9 se c

’

. . . .

Latham made h i s fi rst cro ss Chan nel attem pt on the -

1 9t/z, when he traver sed 6 to 8 m ile s, starting from San gatte .

The same day Paulhan fle w from Douai to A rra s, 1 3 m iles,

and then on another 6 k m .

Cody wa s out on L a ffa n s Plai n on the and fle w

’

4 mile s and, the next d a y Pau l h an covered 7 0 km i n .

1 hou r 1 7 m in 1 9 se c , with a Voi si n bip lane at D ouai ,

. .
 1 88 A E RO P L AN E S

and O rvi lle W right i s al so cre dit e d with a speed o f

m ile s per ho ur , at Fort M e ye r , a ttained on the

2 2n d .

B l eriot mad e h i s hi storical cro ss Chan nel flight on -

2 5 th j uly from L e s Baraq ue s to D over a d i stance o f ,

3 1 m i le s i n 37 m in and thu s w o n the D a i l

y M. a i l
prize and many other a w ard s T w o day s later Latham
, .

made h i s seco n d Chan nel attempt , wh e n he failed j u st

-

be fore reachi n g D over .

Th e 2 71/1 w a s t h e d a te o f t h e Vichy aviati o n m e e ting

'

'

whe n th e fo llowi n g we re wi n n e rs o f eve n t s :

’

Ti ssa n d ier c o vere d 2 0 k m i n 2 2 m in 5 5 se c in h i s . . .

,

W righ t machi ne ; he al so did t h e ci rc uit o f 1 3 } k m i n the .

b e st ti me o f 1 mi n 5 2 se c a n d total le d t h e gre a test tim e

. .
,

i n the a i r d uring the me e ti n g o f 1 h o u r 2 3 mi n .

P a ulhan won a pri ze fo r h i s flight o f 2 5 k m i n 5 m in . .

1 se c i i ncludi n g t w ic e cro ssi n g t h e R i v e r A lli e r

,
-

O h t h e 2 811; Som mer put u p a n e w record fo r time ,

rem a i n i n g i n flig h t fo r 1 ho u r 2 3 mi n 30 se c on a F a r ma n
'

. .
,

ma chi ne th i s be a ti ng H F a rma n s o w n rec o rd by h al f a

, .
’

m i n ut e :
l st A n
g us t —S o m mer i mpro v ed u pon th i s by fl i n g fo r
.
y
1 hou r 5 0 m i n o n h i s F ar m an mac hi n e a n d h e mad e a
-

cro ss cou ntry j our n ey o f 9 mil e s i n 1 2 m in on the next

-
.

day A g a i n o h the
.
'
h i s d uration o f flight i ncrea sed to
2 hou rs 1 0 mi n .

T h e l a te M : Le febvr e mad e a fli g h t o f 1 8 m in du ration

' '

i n Hol land o n h i s W righ t m a ch in e o n t h e 4th .

D e Cat e rs and Bu n au Vari l la al so fle w o n the fol lowing

day fo r abou t a quarter o f an hour , e a ch o n Voi sin machi ne s .

O n the 7t/z Pau lha n w a s at D u n k ir k , a n d made a flight

o f 1 hour 32 mi n 4 5 se c . .

Som mer on the same day m ade a n un o ffi c i a l du ratio n

record o f 2 hou rs 2 7 mi n 1 5 se c , thu s beating W i lbu r . .

W right s record o f 2 hour s 20 m in 2 3 se c

’
. .

M Jean G o bro n re main e d i n the ai r fo r 30 mi n on

. .

that day .
1 90 A E RO P L A N E S
‘

Demoi selle from S t Cy r to B uc, 5 m ile s in 5 m in , a n d

’

returned the next day .

—O rv i lle W right c a rried a pa ssenger i n h i s mach ine

fo r 1 hou r 35 min 47se c; .

Paulhan w a s at O st e n d on that d a y ,t a n d won a prize ,

of franc s fo r the hou r flight .

Santos D u mon t beat Curti ss record fo r ri sing i n the ’

short e st d i sta n ce , when he got o ff the grou nd a fter 7 0

metre s run beating the previou s di stance o f 80 metre s
’

, .

Captai n Ferber wa s fatally i nj u red on the 2 2 n d by a

fal l i n h i s Voi si n mach ine at Boulogne H e wa s one o f .

th e e a rl ie st ex peri me n ter s, and h a d spent many years i n

i n v e stigation o f aeronautical matters H e fle w u nder the .

”
name o f de R ue .

2n d Octo ée r — The Crown Pri nce o f G ermany wa s

.

t a k en fo r a short flight by O rvi ll e W right at Berl i n M r .

W ri g h t a fte riv a i d s r e ached a n altitude o f ft i n .

h is mac h i n e .

T h e Do n ca ster meeti n g wa s h e ld from 10 2 3rd

'

O cto b er a n d the Blac k pool m e e ti n g fro m 1 811: 10 2 3rd

, .
.
‘

October T h e l att e r me e ti n g 1 s ch i c fly marked by the

‘
"

.
.

dari n g flight o f Latham i n a gale o f wind The se two , .

the fi rst aviation m e eting s in E ngla n d , were much marre d

by bad weather .

The 1 8111 w a s marked by a splendid flight by Cou nt

de Lamb e rt in h i s W right machin e , when he started from
J uvi sy , a n d flew over Pa ri s enci rcl ing the E i fle l Tower ,
'

and return i ng to the starting b

point .

O n the 2 0//z M aurice F a rma n made a flight on a

new mach ine bu ilt to h i s own d e sign , wh e n he covered
a 1 2 m ile ci rcu it i n the vici n ity o f B uc , remain i n g in the
-

ai r fo r 5 5 min .

T h e fi rst lady aviator Baro n e ss La R oche , made a ,

flight at Ch a l o n s i n a Voi si n mac h ine on the 2 2 n d .

O n the H Farman made a d u ratio n flight o f 4hour s

.

1 7 min 35 se c. a t C h alo n s c o v.e ri n g a d i stance o,f 1 37

m il e s .
 TH E
“
DA I LY MA I L
"
PRIZ E 19 1

— The D a i ly M a zl pri ze fo r the fi rst

'

30t/z . .

circ ul ar m ile flight by a Briti sh subject on an al l B riti sh -

machine wa s won by M r M oore B rabazon at S h e llbe a ch -

O n the same day Pa ul han made some splend id fli g h ts

’
at B rooklan d s, one o f an hou r s d uration , when he attained
height s o f 6 00 and 72 0 ft The following M onday he .

flew 9 5 mi le s i n 2 hour s 49 m in 2 0 se c . .

I st N o v e mbe r — The H on C 5 R ol l s won the

. . . .

Salomon s 1 00 gui nea cu p fo r a ci rcular flight at

S h e llbe a ch .

Paulha n made a high flig h t o f 977 ft . at Sa n do wn

Park on the

A ( n : p /w t u .

F 80 — C mte de La mbe W rig h t B i pla n e afte r a n

’
10 . . o rt s be fo re and

A cc i d e n t .

Henry Farman made a new Fre n ch pa ssenger record

on 1 st N ov e mbe r at Chal o n s, h i s flight la sti n g 1 ho ur
16 min 35 se
. c an d follo w ed u.p thi
, s achievement t wo
day s later by a d uration record o f 4 ho ur s 1 7 mi n 35 se c . .
,

covering 1 5 0 mi le s i n al l w hich remained un beat e n at th e

,

end o f the year, thu s entitl ing hi m to receive the M ichel i n

cup .

M au ric e Farman made a cro ss cou n try flight o n h i s -

machi ne on the same day and wa s i n the ai r three quarter s ,

-

o f an hour i n the vicin ity o f B uc .

Herr G ra d e w a s re warded w ith succ e ss and inci d e n ,

1 92 A E RO P L A N ES

tal ly the Lan z prize o f a fter a long spell o f patient

work 3o th Octo be r wa s the actual date o f the flight, when
.

h e covered a fi g ure o f 8 cour se round t wo po st s placed

’
- -

1 k m apart
. H i s monoplane i s o f enti rely G erm an make ,
.

and on the Octo be r he made several flig h ts lasting

j u st u nder 5 mi n each . .

Hon C S R oll s, on 4th N ov e mber, won the fi rst A ero

. . .

Cl ub £ 5 0 prize fo r a circular m i le flight at S h e llbe a ch on

h i s W right mach ine .

M r A O gi lvie , on h i s W right machi ne , made h i s fi rst

.

succe ssful fli g ht on the l o th N o v e mb e r, at Camber, near

R ye .

Li eu t E ngel hard t, one o f t h e G erman pilot s o f a

.

W right machine , made a tri p lasting 1 hou r 5 3 min at .

Born stedt on the st/t , and on ly came down on accou nt

o f h i s pe trol su pply being fi n i sh e d .

M m e r de la R oche mad e a flight on a Voi si n biplane

'
'

f i tted with a \Vo lse le y engi ne , taking a s a pa sse n ger the

V o isi n fln stt uc to r, M Ch a teau She made se ve ral circu it s
. .

éf th e C h a l o n s cam p , a n d wa s in the ai r fo r 35 mi n
'
’

The H o h C S R ol l s made some long flight s on h i s

. . .

W right ma ch i ne at the end o f N o vember O n the z o t/z .

he m ai d e §a t i i p from S h e llbe a c h to E a stchurc h , a di stance

‘

o f 55 m
i le s, and fo i lo we d th i s flight by one o f 7 miles on
the 2 6111 .

Lat h am made a bid fo r the altitude record on

-

D ece mbe r, i n spite o f a wi nd o f 30 m ile s an hou r blowing .

H e wa s i n the ai r fo r 32 m in , an d attai ned a height o f .

ft , o fii ci a lly ob served a s a world s record

’
P a ulh a n s
’
. .

600 metre height wa s not o ffi c i a lly observed .

M Chateau, the Vo i sin i n structor, h a s made several

.

good flight s with the W ol seley engined Voi si n machi ne

i n which he accom pan ied M me de la R oche O n 2 711: . .

N o v e mbe r h i s l o nge st flight w a s 49 m i n 35 se c . .

H err G rade i m prov e d h i s per formances by flight s on

2 3rd N o v e mb e r, la sting u p to 5 m i n each , an d at one .

ti me he ro se to a heig h t o f 1 40 metre s .
194 A E RO P L A NE S

power to con trol the mach ine from the fi rst H e flew
,

ro un d the track fi v e ti mes on the 1 3111 , ri sing to a

height o f 30 metre s The next day he made an o ffi ci a lly
.

ob served flight twice roun d the cou rse at a height o f 70

.

metre s .

M J de Le ssep s made a remarkable flight fo r a be gin ner

. .

at I ssy on 1 6 111 D ece mbe r, la sti ng 1 hou r 30 m i n 2 8 se c , i t . .

be ing only h i s fo urteent h ti me out with h i s Bl eriot mon o .

pl a ne ; thi s w a s a record flight fo r a ma chine o f th i s type at

I ssy. H e covered 7 km i n 1 2 min the previo us day . On . .

the he attem pted a cro ss country flight o f 1 00 k m , -

.

but a fter coverin g 6 2 ; k m he had trou ble with h i s engine

.

and made a rapid de scent .

Paul h an , on the 1 5 111 , made a remarkable weight l i fting

per formance wit h a n e w Henri Farman bi plane A lth ough .

the machine i s smaller than h i s older machine he carried

two pa ssenger s weigh i ng together 330 lb, al so 1 0 gal lon s
, .

o f petrol .

M olo n , on the 1 9 111 near H avre made a nu mber o f

, ,

flight s o n a Bl eriot monopla n e totalli ng a di stance o f ,

6 0 k m acro ss country
. .

K o e c h li n , at J u vi sy , showed mar k e d i mp rovemen t w ith

a monopla n e o f h i s own de sign on t h e 1 6 111 , w hen he fle w
rou nd the cou r se ten time s .

M dl le M a rv i n g t i s the fi rst woma n to pi lot a monoplane

. .

O n a H a n ri o t mach in e at R hei m s sh e made a succe ssful

fli g h t on the 1 4111 .

M M e tro t , a n e w comer , h a s h a d much succe ss with a

.
-

V o i sin bi plane at A lgiers H e mad e a cross cou nt ry trip on

.
-

th e 1 5 111 a s fa r a s H i lda 3 k m d i stan t , and making a wide

, .

sweep at a height o f 1 5 0 metre s r e tu rned to h i s shed a fter ,

a total flight o f 2 0 k m H e had previou sly raced and .

beaten a n ex pre ss train fo r a d i stance o f 7 k m .

Hon C S R oll s made h i s best fli g h t d uri n g the year on

. . .

the 30111 when he started from E a stchu rch , K e nt ,and

with one stoppa ge covered i n all abou t 48 m iles H e wa s .

fly i n g fo r a bout a n hou r Lat e r i n the day he made a .

 M I CH E LI N CUP W O N 1 95

s econd fli g h t o n h i s W right machine , carrying a pa ssenger ,

fo r about 2 0 min .

M r M clean made h is fi rst cross cou ntry flig h t o f abo ut

‘ -

m ile on the ame day A i ll u tratio n o f h i s W r i ght

4 s s n . s

machin e i s shown in Fig 71 . .

Several aviators made a ttem pt s to wrest the M ichel i n

cup chances from Farman du ri n g the last week o f the
year , a n d though several notable per formance s were made ,
’
Farman s di stance record remained unbea ten , and thu s le ft
h i m entitled to receive the cu p he so wel l deserves The .

late M Delagrange made the bo ldest cha llenge on a B l eriot

.

monoplane when he covered 1 2 5 miles in 2 hours 32 m i n , .

repre senting a n avera ge spee d o f 5 0 m i les per hour, a tru ly

noble per formance and a sight wel l wo rth seeing .

The world o f sport su ffered a severe loss by th e fatal

acciden t which term i nated the bril liant per formance s o f
thi s dari n g aviator a fe w day s later— h e had fi tte d a 5 0
H P G nome en g ine to h i s Bl eriot machine a n d wa s thu s
. .

able to attain a high spe ed o f flight During one o f h i s .

per formances the sides o f the fusi la g e col lap sed owing to
the absence o f the cro ss stru t between the rear main spars
o f h i s l i fti ng plane s, the mach i ne fel l to the ground w ith

fatal resu lt .

The fatal accident to L e Blon at S t Sebastian on

2 n d A pri l 1 9 1 0 wa s occasioned by a fal l o f the same

mach ine on which Delagrange wa s k i lled L e Blon s

.
'

flight s at the Doncaster meeting in O ctober 1 909 were

h i s chie f public per for mance s .

O n the la st da y o f the year M au rice Farman made a

cross country fli gh t from C h atre s to O rle an s (47mile s) i n 5 0
-

min ; thu s ended a series o f the mo st remarkable conque sts

.

ever made by man over N ature , a n d it ma y be t hat the

year 1 909 wil l g o dow n to po sterity a s the begin ning o f a
new era i n the art o f aviation .
 CH AI ’
TE R XV .

TH E A R T O F F L YI N G .

IF flight i s ever the h e ight o f impo ssibility at the pre sen t

ti me it i s simply be cau se the correct method o f att a c k in g
,

the probl e m i s not reali sed O ne can n ot learn to ri d e a

.

bicycle on land , or to swi m i n the water si m ply by a th e o ,

re t ica l stu d y o f the la ws of balancin g o r o f strea m li n e ,

-

form .
.

Practice i s the only roa d to succe ss and mor e i s th i s ,

t rue i n the ca se o f fli g ht than i n ma n y o ther sport s .

'

Ta k e bo x ing , fo r i n stance , or wre stli ng G re a t k no w .

ledge is req u ire d a s to the e fli ca c y o f ce rt a i n g rips o r stre sse s

‘
'
’

u pon the h u man syste m prod uc e d by spe c i fi c act s on t h e

ar o f the athl e te Some k owledg e o f th e hu man anatom y
‘

p t . n -

i s r eq u i re d a n d the wea k po i n t s o f th e sam e so th a t a d v a n

, ,

t a g e may be ta k en o f any po sition in o r der to sc o r e a po i nt .

I n th e sport o f a vi a t io n , however although mast e ry o f

o

the ai r i s on ly att a ined by very fe w, several o f the se suc

ce ssful aviators d o not clai m any special knowledge o f t h e

science o f a eronautic s and it i s practice and per se verance

,

which h a v e led th e m on to obtain thi s ma stery o f t h e art

o f a e rial n avigation .

Practice ho wever i s more u nattainable i n th i s art th a n

, ,

i n any other be cau se it ca n not re al ly be accom pl i sh e d u nti l

,

the machi n e i s actual ly i n the air The period s o f e a rly .

practice are l i mited , there fore to a second or two at a tim e

, ,

and i n th e early stage s a flight o f o n e m in ute a s th e ,

’
reward o f a mo n th s hard work a n d endea v o ur w o ul d ,

appear to be somew h ere about an avera g e attain men t .

W h e n we loo k bac k to th e e a rly w or k o f th e ri g h t ’

-

1
96
1 98 A E RO P L A NES

I t is di ffi c ult to j ma g i n e t h e extraord i nary lo ss o f on e s ’

sen se o f wi ll po we r d uring the early atte mpt s at fl ight Mr .

R oll s h a s de scribed the i n iti al sen sation s a s tho se rec e ived

i n d riving a motor ca r which i s skidd ing i n al l d i rection s at
once I n addition , h owever , to the ord inary ten dencies to
.

move ment , there are the th ird and fou rt h di rectio n s,

u p ward s an d downw a rd s, an d the hum a n brain i s not
normally made to thi n k i n these extra two d irectio n s .

F m 83 — S pe cia l
. . Te mpo ra ry H a n ga r fo r B i pla n e G lide r
. T h i s Ma ch i n e
h as a S pa n of 33 (1 .

Th in ki n g , there fore , i s too slow ; the tran smi ssio n o f idea s

from the brai n to the li mb s h a s n o t been tu ned u p to the
great pitch requ i red fo r man ipu lating an aeroplane W hat .

i s i t, there fore , that im pel s the l i mb s to per fo rm their

prop e r fu n ction s i n order to keep the machi ne on an even
a n d straight cou r se ? W e h ave on ly one word which de
”
scribe s that power , and that i s i n sti nct , or put i n another
”
form , it i s subcon scio us movement
“
W e now se e why
.

the contro l o f so many mach ines i s arranged so t h at thi s

 SO M E D I FF I CU L T I E S or T I I E LE A RN E R 1 99

s ub co n sciou s movement on the par t o f th e aviator d ire c tly

opera tes the balanci ng mecha n i sm There i s no time to .

t h i n k ,e sp e c i a lly i n the early stage s N o t on ly i s th e re no

.

ti me to th in k but memory d i sap pears Yo u may a sk

,
'

.
,
”
W h at did y o u do then ? The aviator doe s not k n ow ,
and un less the ob server notice s the movement o f the hand s,
or take s photograph s no record i s obtai n ed a s to w h a t wa s
,

the fal se movemen t w h ich cau se d the mach i n e t o slew

F 1 11 . 84— B i pla n e
. G li d e r a nd S ta rti n g Ra i l
‘
.

ro u n d or come to the grou nd The co n trol o f th e han d s

.
,

to o , i s a d i fii c ult m a tt e r a s a spar may u ncon sciou sly be

,

cl utched i n mi stake fo r an operati n g lever or the elevator ,

be rai sed to such a degree that the mach i ne cl i mb s u p i n

the air l o se s i ts v e locit y and fall s back on i ts tai l
, , .

Th i s i s a very u sua l per formanc e in the e a rly stage s and

one to be care fu lly guarded agai n st it i s anal o gou s to ,

p utting a motor car at a sti ff hil l when in the to p ge a r

be fo re th e driver h a s lear n ed t o change gea r do w nward s ,
 200 A E RO P L A NES

I t i s worse than that , becau se a flyin g machine can n o t fly

back ward s .

W hen a machi ne ri se s from the ground , pre ferably

. .

toward s the wind , whether it be from a rail or not , i ts path

o f flight shou ld be a gradual upward incli nation , but th i s i s

mo st d i ffi c ult to accom pl i sh owing to the keen ne ss o f the

eleva to r, the tendency alway s being to give th e e levator
too great an angle o f i nciden ce .

Take the ca se o f a monoplane fi rst , the machine perhap s

h a s two wheel s belo w the main plane s and one be low the
tai l A s soon a s velocity along the g rou n d i s acqu ired the
.

tai l fi rst ri ses ; when soaring velocity i s reached the elevator s ,

are rai sed at their rear edge , thu s depre ssi ng the tail th e
action o f rai sing the trail ing edge o f the elevator s cau se s
the wind pre ssu re to come on th e top o f them or to be so
sl ight be n eat h them that they fai l to su stain t h e weight

o f the tail .

T he e fTe ct o f th i s i s to i ncrea se the angle o f i ncidence

o f the main pla n e s, wh ich in turn ri se i n the air , the tai l

contin uing to run on i ts wheel fo r a short di stance u ntil

the whole mach ine i s supported by the a i r I n the W right
.
.

type o f biplane the elevator bein g in fro n t i s k e pt leve l, thu s

k eeping the fo re part o f the machine down un til the critical
v e locity i s reached , when the mach ine le a v e s the end
o f the rail
(w hen a s tar t i n g weight i s u sed ) or j u st b e for e

that poi n t when starti ng by the propellers alo n e A t thi s .

momen t the front ed ge o f the elevator i s rai sed and the

tra il i n g edge co n sequently lowered a very smal l amo unt,
thu s cau sing t h e machine to mount in the ai r .

N o w the d i ffi c ult poin t come s i n A t thi s stage perhap s

.

t h e max im u m velocity o f fli g h t h a s not yet been reached ,

and care should be take n that the ri sing angle i s small ,
other w i se the power o f th e engine , which may not have yet
reached i ts max i mu m wou ld not be suffi cie n t to cau se the
,

machine to a scend an incl ined pat h a t the soari n g speed .

I f the sp e ed o ffli g h t i s reduced by the increa sed re si stance

the whol e mach i n e wil l sl i d e back i n th e air Su ppo se .
2 02 A E RO P LA NE S

that the machine h a s j u st le ft the rai l and the elevator i s

pu t u p at too great a n angle , t h e rear e n d o f t h e sk id s
might drag along the ground , and i f they do not brea k 0 6,
wou ld cau se so muc h re si stance that the mach i ne coul d n o t
attai n i ts normal soaring spe ed W hen starti n g the Voi si n
.

machi ne , whic h h a s a large tai l , anot h er con sideration

come s i n T h e tail being comparatively l ight tend s to l i ft
.

be fore the main p la n e s, a n d i f allowed to do so th e whole

,

machine may tu rn up on i ts nose I n order to counteract

.

thi s tendency the elevator m u st be rai sed so a s to k eep

suffi c i e n t pre ssure u n derneath it the moment o f th i s pre ssure

about th e centre o f gravity o f the machine mu st be at lea st

equal to that o f the pre ssu re u nder the tai l pla n e s abou t t h e
centre o f gravity o f the m achine , o r the tai l wi ll ri se u nd uly
i n the ai r .

M r M oore Brabazon d e scribe s the fe e l i n g wh e n the

-

machine leave s t h e groun d a s bei n g al mo st i mpercep ti bl e ,

and that where a s a speed o f 30 m ile s a n hour along t h e
ground app e ars to be very great that same spee d , w h en
,

clear o f th e grou nd , seem s q uite a gentle motion , and that

when no object s are near to i nd icate th e spe ed , the se n se
o f motion i s al mo st lo st
.

The d i ffi c ulty a s to approx i m a ti n g the degree o f

relati ve motion i s a very real o n e , and a persevering aviat o r
re sorted to the precaution o f attach in g a ha n ging ribbon
from h i s elevator so that he m i g ht ascertai n readily h i s
d ire ction o f motion relatively to that o f the wi n d H e .

found thi s a mo st u se ful ind icator .

A nother con sideration m ust be borne i n m i n d when

l e arn i ng to pilot a monoplane o f the B l eriot type , and that
‘

i s the c h e e t o f engine torque . A s the engi ne rotate s i n

a right handed d irection from the point o f view o f the
pilot , the le ft wing te n d s to ri se i n the air owing to
the depre ssion o f the right side o f the machi ne . The
aeroplane when i n motio n tend s to turn to the right , and
thi s mu st be count e racte d by putting the rudder hard over
to the le ft .
 R E G U LA T I O N OF CON T R O L GE AR 2 03

The aeropl ane an swers comparati vely slo w ly to i ts

control with the exception perhaps o f the W right mach ine
,

wh ich h a s no tail , al l control movement s m u st , there fore be ,

very gentle a s t h e behavio ur o f an aeroplane i s more li ke

that o f a boat than o f a motor car The action o f the .

elevator h a s been de scribed an d i s p e rhaps the mo st

d i ffi c ult o f the control s to man i pu late , in that i t requi re s the
exerci se o f a new sen se The rudder , however , i s a more
.

fa mi liar type o f con trol , and i n action i s si milar to the

rudder o f a boat .

R egu lation o f the ce n tre o f pre ssu re i s obtai ned , a s fa r

a s longitud in al d irection i s concerned , by use o f the elevator,

but laterally by a i le ro n s or warping o f the pla n e s I n the .

Voi si n mach ine s, where neither o f the se provi sion s is made ,

the rudder h a s to be uti l i sed so that the v elocity o f the air
u nder the fall ing side c a n be i n crea sed by turni ng the
machin e .

T h e static balance o f the m a chine sho uld be care fully

tried be fo re com mencing to fly , and particularly that o f the
bi pl a ne o f the W right type , i n w h ich the engine i s placed
be side th e aviator W h e n provi sion i s made fo r carrying a
.

pa ssenger , h i s seat i s placed on the centre line o f the

machine , so that h i s pre sence or ab sence doe s not materially
a fi e c t the que stion o f lateral balance
'

A s men are not al l

.

o f the same weight , in ca se s where the aviator on ly partly

balance s the engine about the centre l ine i f h i s weight i s ,

i n suffi c i e n t fo r the pu rpo se weight s should be placed on the

,

wi ng ti p at the l ighte st end u ntil true ba lance i s secu red ,

otherwi se a perman e nt g a ud usse me n t i s requ ired at that sid e

’

in order to keep the machine on an even k eel .

CE NTRE OF G R A VI T Y AN D CE NTRE OF PR E SS U R E .

Inaeropl ane s fi tte d with tail s the centre o f gravity i s

u sually i n t h e vicin ity o f th e trai l i n g e dge o f the mai n
plan e s, a n d, o f cour se , shou ld be o n the centre line o f t h e
machi n e The centre o f gravi ty o f the aviator on a m o n o
.
2 04 A E R O PL A NE S

pl a n e should approx imat e ly coinc ide w it h th a t o f the

machi ne i f thi s i s not the ca se the stabil i ser or elevator
,

mu st be permanently se t to produce lo n gitudinal balance .

M uch downward se t or increa se o f angle o f i ncidence o f

th i s tai l member wi l l create undu e re si stance to fli g ht , and
should be av o ided where po ssible by pu tting the w eight

fur ther for ward T h e c e ntre o f pre ssure should coincide

.

with the centre o f gravity , and bal a nce wi ll re sul t (se e p .

F m 86 — B i pla n e G lid e r sh o wi n g Ga uc/ usse mcuf T h e A uth o r a n d M r

’

. . .

A . Ogi l
vi e te sti n g th e B a la n ce .

No w altho ug h the ce n tre o f gra vity re mai n s a p p rox i

ma t e ly con stan t th e ce n tre o f pre ssure i s conti n u a l ly vary
,

i ug a n d i s n e ver c o n stant fo r many se cond s Th e c e ntre

r
.

’
o f p r e ssure upon an a e rocu r v e c o n structe d t o Phi l l ip s
d e si gn i s abou t o n e third o f the l e n gt h o f t h e chord from
-

t h e le a d i n g e d g e o f t h e pla n e u n d e r nor mal condition s ,

”
w h e n t h e a n gl e o f i n cid e nc e i s about 8 b e t we en t h e
d ire c t i o n o f m o ti o n o f th e p l a n e a n d th at o f th e a i r .

I mme d i a t e ly t hi s a n g l e i s i n cre a se d th e c e n t r e o f
206 A E RO P L A NE S

and the centre o i pre ssu re mu st be man ipu lated to re store

’

stability Th i s man ipu latio n i s much more rapid a n d

.

positive tha n the al teration o f the centre o f gravity by

movemen t o f the a viator s body re sorted to i n the e a rlv
'

gl idi n g experi ment s o f pio n ee r a v iators .

—
T urn i n g W hen t urni ng i s de sired the same
. trai n o f
thought mu st be fol lowed , but it i s obviou s that when a
tur n is actual ly commenced by mean s o f th e rudder, the

FIG . 87 — M r
. Og il i in
v e F G
lig h t o n h i s lid e r, n o ti ce t h e Ga m / usse me n t
'

Th e P
S ta rti n g y lo n i s se e n i n th e D i sta n ce
.

outer win g move s at a gr e ater velocity rel a tive to the ai r

than the inner w ing O wi ng to thi s i ncrea sed velocity the
.
,

l i ft o f the outer wing becom e s gre ater than that o f the

i n n er wing the former, there fo re tend s to ri se and the latter
, ,

to fall I f thi s i s not corr e cted , the mach ine a s a whole

.

wil l ban k u p exc e ssively and in the li m it wi ll sl ide down

on the air in a d iagonal d irection Thi s is a very perilo us .

cond ition fo r the aviator, and mu st be guarded agai n st by ,

man i pulati n g the g a uc/zzssm zcn f so a s to i n crea se the l i ft

'

o n t h e in ner wing o f a biplane N — G reat care mu t

( O T E . s .
 LA T E RA L STA B I L I T Y CON T RO L 2 07

be exerci sed wi th a monoplane , a s warpi n g the in ner wi ng

tend s to drag the whole machi ne downward s, and not to
rai se the inner wi ng Several bad acciden ts hav e occu rred
.

owing to monoplanes re fu sing to respon d to the warping o f

the i nner wing when ma k ing a tu rn I n such machines the
.

rudder mu st be j ud iciou sly u sed to bring the machine up

on an even k eel i f such a condition i s required ) .

O wing to the absence o f side curtai n s or fi n s in many

i n stances, lateral resi stan ce mu st be o btained , otherwi se
i n the act o f tu rn ing , the machin e , i f kept on an e ven keel ,
wil l tend to skid through the air and tu rn about i ts centre
o f gravity , and to em pha si se th i s, we w i ll ta k e a n analogy .

I n a boat the re si stance to latera l di splacemen t i s

great , a s com pared with that i n a longitu di nal di rection ,
and so wi th a motor car , though on a grea sy su rface the
lateral re si stance may be smal l, a s wh e n th e wheel s sk id
.

sideway s . A su i table bank ing o f the road sur face wi ll

preven t th i s skidd i ng .

There i s a great deal o f m i sconception a s to turn i n g

with a mach i ne i n wh ich there are no vertical su r face s or
fi n s, a n d ma ny au thoritie s main tain t hat bank i n g o i th e ,

mac h ine i s o n ly the d irect e ffect o f the turn I t i s o bv iou s

.

that i n order to ma k e a turn so me force mu st be i mparted

,

to the machi ne to co u nteract th e effect o f the c e ntri fug al

forc e upon the machi ne a s a w hole , and a s the sidewi se
projection o f the machi n e i s on ly o f small area a com
ponen t force mu st be introduced Thi s can on ly be done
.

by previou sly ban k ing u p the mach ine on the outer wing ,
so that t h e pre ssure o f ai r un der the mai n planes can
counterac t the tendency to lateral di splacement The
.

force now acting u nder the plane s i s i n a d iagonal

direction , and the angle at wh ich i t i s in cli ned to the
vertical depe n d s on the ban k ing o f the planes, i t bei n g
normal to their greater di men sion .

N o w thi s force can be re solved i nto two force s, one

perpendicu lar a n d one hori zont a l the magn itude o f each
, ,

bei ng depe n dent u po n the degree o f the ban k ing W hen

.
2 08 AE R OPLA N E S

the speed o f the machine i s h igher, the amount o f ban king

mu st be greater i n order to i ncre ase the val ue o f the
hori zontal componen t i n proportion to the i ncrease o f the
value o f the centri fugal force at the higher speed , i n spite
o f the fact that t h e force s acti ng un de r the plane are al so

greater due to t h e higher speed .

A s the cu rve commence s, the rudder being put over ,

the d i fference s o f the pre ssure s on t h e two wings o w i n g to r

their d i fferent flying speed s come s i nto acc o u n t a s h a s

been al ready ex plai ned , and care mu st be taken that the

An 0 pba t o .

FIG . 88
.
—N a va l G li d e r.

ba n king d o e s not increase abn o rmal ly W hen the turn i s .

com pleted th e r udder i s straightened and t h e machine

,

again brought to an even k eel by mean s o f g a uck zsse mm t

'

or the a i le ro n s
.

The e ffect o f a reverse o f g a ucl nlrse me n t to prevent

exce ssive ban king , lo we rin g the i n side w i n g tip , i ncidentally
r

put s a sl ight drag o n that wing and a ssi st s the action o f

tur n ing, a s does al so the provi sion o f small vertical plane s
between the front elevator s o f a W right machi ne .

I n ma k i n g a turn sa y , to the l e ft , the following i s the

,
2 10 A E RO PLA NE S

sh e wil l mak e con siderable leeway, a small a mount o f

wh ich mu st be deduct e d to cou n teract the centri fugal force
o f the machine .

Turn ing in the co n trary d irection req u ire s con siderable

skill , a s when flying at 5 0 m ile s an hou r the t e n dency on

rou nding t h e corner i n to a 20 m ile an hou r wind would

be fo r the machine to ri se u p rapidly i n the air The .

centri fugal force , too at these speed s i s con siderable ,cau sing
,

the mach i n e to make much leeway with the win d du ri ng

F 10 . 89 — M r
. Og i l vi e ma k e s a Fi n e G li de .

the t urn . Tu r n i ng u nder th e se ci rc um stanc e s should be

com menced early particu larly i f there are objects i n the
,

vicin ity and c o n siderable sk ill sho uld be acq ui red be fore
,

a n attempt i s made to fl y i n such a win d .

E arly fligh t s should be com menced wh e n the ai r i s

practical ly still a s i t will be seen th a t d i ffi c ult problem s
,

p re sent them se lv e s when a wind i s blowing particul a rly ,

with heavy machi n e s a n d in ca ses where the engi n e power

,

i s c o mp a ratively smal l .
 C H A PT E R XVI .

F UT UR E D E VE L OP M E N T .

H E w o u l d be a wi se man ind e e d who c o uld pre d ict wi t h

a n y de g r e e o f a ccu racy on what l in e s the futur e d e velop

m e n t o f a erial navigation w il l exte nd S uch e normou s .

strid e s hav e b e e n made in the year 1 909, that d uring th e

n e xt fi v e or te n years, at the sam e rate o f pro gre ss, per

fo rma n c e s which a re a l mo st i n co n c e ivable at t h e pre sent
ti m e ma y be everyday occurrences then
, A uthors o f
.

i ma gin a tive gen iu s have gi ve n us food fo r tho ught and . .

,

som e o f th e i r c o nception s wh ich app e are d to be total ly

i m po ssibl e a t the time they were writt e n hav e a lre ady

b e c o me a cc o m pl i shed fa ct s E ven th e comparatively
.

sm a l l pr a ctical e x perience o f fl y i ng which we now hav e

mu st have in st i l l e d idea s i nto ou r m ind s a s to wh a t

d ire cti o n sh o u ld be so ugh t in t h e futu re T h e po ssi bi li t i e s
.

o f a e rial navigat i o n , too , b e come g re ater t h e mo re w e study

th e que stion .

A s regard s the development o f the flyi n g machin e

i tse l f the O pin ion s a bo ut to be ex pre sse d are on ly tho se
,

o f the author , and are qu i te open to contradiction o r

arg u m e n t , an d a re , more over, i n no wa y given a s dogmat i c
or i rre vocable .

P o we r .
—The fi rst con sideratio n i s o ne o f pow e r , and
I i ncere ly advocate the adoption o f pri me movers o f
s

con sid e r a bly higher power tha n tho se u sual ly i n vogu e

to ( lay th e se wi ll probably be i n d uplicate
-

, The gre at .

d i ffi c ulty w hich the l e arn e r ex perie n ce s i s the lack o f

2I 2 A E R O PLA N E S

power, which ma k es i tsel f man i fest in the i nabi lity

suffi ci e n t

o f the machine to ri se from te rm

fi rm a W e fi n d that .

when a machi ne attem pts to ri se too q uickl y a s when

i ts angle o f flight i s too great owing probably to a fal se
,

man i pu latio n o f the elevator , the engine power i s i n suffi

cient to mai ntain a flyi ng spee d The machi ne , there fore ,
.

fal l s to the ground , or a second man ipul ation o f the

elevator , in ti me , preven ts an actual fal l , an d reduces the
per forma n ce to a rapid glide to earth .

Had suffi cie n t power been available at the com mand

o f the aviator, thi s would not have occurred , a n d a con

tin n ed flight wou ld have been po ssible .

M any modern flyi ng machi ne s are fi tte d with engine s

so sma ll that they cannot ri se from the earth u nle ss the

engine i s tu ned u p to give i ts max im u m output As .

th e i nternal combu stio n engine i s so mewhat fi c k le in thi s

re spect , it become s appare n t why an engine o f ample
di me n sion s shou ld be fi tte d .

S o urce o f P o we r
.
— ou rce o f power wi ll be , a s
The s

a t pre sent a petroleu m d i sti l late , probably petrol , a s we

,

now know i t .

Ben zol or alcohol , may be u sed i n a fe w i n stance s, or

,

perhaps com pou nded fuel s with the se ba se s Petrol , how .

ever, i s the most conven ient , i t h a s a large expl osive

range , and i s clean i n handli ng .

G reater precaution s again st fi re ri sk s w il l have to be

ta k en , and more attention paid to the economy o f worki n g .

The con su mption o f fuel wi l l probably be red uced

to belo w 04 pin t per B H P per hou r, and a s the weight
. . .

o f fuel to be carried fo r exten ded flight s would be con

si d e ra ble , the prob a bility i s that arrangement s wi l l be

made fo r picking u p suppl ie s o f fuel i n can s without

alighti ng bu t more on th i s poi nt anon
, .

M ore a tte n tion w i l l be paid to carbu ration in order

to economi se fuel , n ot on the score o f ex pen se so much ,
but on account o f the weig h t o f the fuel ; devices wi ll
2 14 AE R O PLA N E S

such a s that u sed fo r the county i ndex mark s o f motor

cars wi ll be come ge n erally ad o pted .

Flyi ng at h igh altitudes w i l l have to be faci litated

by so me such mean s a s the se i n order tha t the aviat o r ,

can locate h is po sition Ballooni st s have repeat e d ly

.

fou nd great d i ffi c ulty in a scertain i ng thei r where a bou t s,

particularly a fter descend ing th rough a cloud ban k .

F l t} .
90 . C e n ti me tr e ( i e rma n ( i un fur A tta c i n g A e ro pla n e s
k .

—
A v i a to rs W e . how e sse n tial it wi ll be fo r at
no w se e

lea st two aviators to be accommodated on each machi ne ,

e spe cial ly fo r cross cou ntry wor k I t wil l be the duty o f

-
.

one to manipulate the mac h i n e , and that o f th e o th e r to

navigate T h e former wil l have so le c o m mand o f the con
.

tro l ling mechan i sm and the latte r wi l l a ttend to th e e n g i n e

, ,

i n add ition to h i s other d uti e s o f o b se rv ation .

 HI GH -
SPE E D F LY I N G DE V E LO P M E N T 21 5

I thin k that more than two men wi ll form the crew o f

the future flyer, and that passengers wi l l be carried , i n the
fi rst i n stance i n order to per form special work , such a s
location o f troop s and de fe n ce s, and al so to ma k e rough
sk etche s an d take photograph s o f the coun try .

I t i s probable that some form o f wirele ss telegraphy w i l l

F lo .
9 1 .
— G e rma n M i li ta ry M o to r Ca r fo r fig h ti n g A i rsh i ps a n d A e ro pla n e s
.

be adopted fo r m il it a ry work i n conj unction with flyi ng

mach ines, and it wo uld be the d uty o f a thi rd man to
operat e the se i n stru ment s H e may al so be requ i red at
.

time s to act on the o fi e n si v e , such a s to al ight at a n y

desi red spot a n d cut telegraph wi res or de stroy a bridge , .

I t i s dou bt fu l wheth e r a e ria l bo m bard me n t s co uld be sat i s

2 16 4 1311 09 14 11 2 3

carried out a s th e e x plosive range o f a bomb such

fa c to ri ly ,

a s could be dropped from a flying machi ne i s u sual ly very

sma ll , and con fi ned , th e re fore, to a smal l local ity T h e d i th .

cu lty o f aim ing the bomb would be v ery great when dropped
from such a h eight that t h e flyi ng machine would be out
o f danger from eit h e r the explo sion o f the bomb it sel f or

from the gun s o f the enemy .

The use o f the fly i n g machi ne i n war fa re h a s already

been anti cipated i n G ermany i n a practical man ner , and
a n u mber o f a e ro g un s hav e be e n con structed which have
an enormou s range ; se veral ex am ples are shown in
F i g s 90 to 94
. .

F ut ure use s flyers, i n addition to tho se o f war fare ,

o f
wi l l be i n the exploration of u n known land s \Vh e re no .

road s ex i st , and den se j u ngle s an d swamp s separat e the

ex plorer f ro m h i s goal , the flying machi ne o ffer s great
possibi litie s D i ffi c ult mountaine e rin g country ca n be suc
.

c e ssfully ex plored from the region o f the a t mo sph e 1 e , and

the rate o f progre ss will be beyond ou r pre sent c o nception .

\Vork t h at h a s i n the pa st ta k en years to accom pl i sh “ ill

be a matter o f a fe w day s by the h e lp o f the flyi ng machi ne .

The motor car h a s been o f enormou s be n e fi t i n spreading

civi li sation and b ri nging colon i st s i n ou t o i th e way part s
- - -

o f the world i n to to uch w ith one another W hat the motor

.

car h a s done the flyi ng machi ne w i l l al so do , bu t i n a some

what d i fi e ren t manner I can not fore see the time when the
'

ordi nary ma n wil l keep h i s flyi ng mach i ne a s he doe s h i s

hor se , but in certain part s o f the world where the weather
i s mo re se tt le d than it i s i n thi s E ngland o f ou rs, an d where
‘

the wind blow s ste a d ily and n o t in g ust s flyi ng wi l l become

,

a much si m pler matt e r than it i s here to day -

.

—
E n g i n e s The d e preciation
. f
the 1 909 flying mach ine
o

i s enormou s, the l i fe o f the engi ne i s seldom mor e tha n

2 00 mi le s, in some ca se s i t i s a very fe w m i le s indeed , and

brea k down s or seizu re s are a con stant evi l The se are a .

218 A E RO P L A NE S

be very greatly i m proved a more po sitive system wi l l be

,

adopted than at pre sent I foresee an e ntirely di fferent

.

type o f engine , which wil l be rotary and i f not o f the pi ston

,

type , we shal l se e the i nternal combu stion turbine pre

dominating .

I kn ow that the d i ffi c ult ie s are very great , but do not

thi n k them in surmoun table M any inventor s have been
.

engaged fo r years u pon thi s subject , and I ful ly believe

that the day i s not fa r di stan t when the i nternal co mbus
tion turbine wil l be a n accompl i shed fact .

I ts adva n tages wil l at once be apparent , and partic ularly

a s fa r a s the lu bricat i o n d i ffi c ult i e s are concerned .

I on ly wi sh I cou l d a n tici pate the advent o f a con

ce n t ra te d fuel fo r use wi th such a turbine , but the pro

ba bi li ty o f such a u se ful , de si rable adj unct seem s remote .

.
—
Co n clusi o n s From the foregoing
peeps i nto the
futu re one th ing i s certai n , an d that i s that the futur e
,

flyer wi ll be a larger and heavier mach ine th a n it i s at

—
pre ent i t wil l probably weigh at le a st three ton s, and
s

w il l be o f the form o f a flyi ng yacht I t wil l probably

.

have a boat body , dec k ed i n , and proper accom modation

wi ll be provided fo r l iv i ng and sleepi ng A crew o f
.

se veral p e r son s wil l be carried w h o w il l be able to move

,

a bout qu ite c o nven ien tly

. The machine wil l fly at a very
h igh speed , such a s 1 5 0 to 2 00 mi le s an hou r , a s previou s
rea son i n g h a s shown that t he se speed s are the mo st
practical and econom ical F o r thi s rea son the su stain ing
.

sur face s, w h en i n fu l l fli g ht wil l be small , but the area o f

,

su stain in g sur face s w il l be variable , so that d i fferen t fl i

y gn

spee d s can be accompl i shed .

A large ar e a wi l l be u sed fo r starting and special ,

starting and al i g hti ng grou n d s wi ll be prepared through

o ut the civi l i sed cou n trie s o f the w orld The se ground s

.

wil l be fi tte d u p w ith large starti n g mach ine s si mi l a r t o

e n orm o u s catap ult s which wi l l rapidly project the m a chin e
,

i nto th e a i r w ith ree fe d sur fac e s The body o f a fu tu re

.
 P O SSI B I L I T I E S OF F U T UR E D E S I G N 2 19

fly e r wil l be provided with wheel s and sk

id s attached to
pneu matic su spen si o n gear , so that a machi n e can be
started from a level grou nd I n add ition to starting
.

g rou nd s, depot s or tower s wi l l be erect e d fo r storage o f

fuel and oi l and the m e mbers o f aerial league s w il l be
,

able to obtai n store s by previou sly signal l ing A trai ling .

l ine wil l be lowered from the mach ine and special apparatu s
will be devi se d fo r pic k ing u p store s 011 the same line s a s
tho se adopted i n railway practice fo r pickin g u p mail s by
a pa ssing train .

I t may be n ece ssa ry fo r the mach ine to enci rcle the

d e pot a fe w ti me s fo r th i s purpo se , but such man oe uvrin g
wil l be a n ea sy matter w hen the ful l a rea o f su st e ntation
i s u se d Thi s idea ca n be carried ou t i n a practical mann e r,
.

and i s not a merely mad anticipation .

The su staini ng planes wil l n ot be mad e o f proo fe d

fa bric but probably o f sh e et m e tal , a lu m i n iu m a lloy or
.

ste e l specially treated to prevent ox idatio n The se are a s

.

wil l be in the form o f sl id i ng panel s a rranged i n t h e

monoplane for m A second sur fac e may be employed ,
.

which can be un fu rled or u n roll e d from the dec k , and

attached to a movable framework o f sp a rs i n a si m ilar
—
mann e r to the setting o f fre sh sail s i n a sh i p t h e sail s ,

howe ver , w il l be i n a horizontal i n stead o f a v e rtic a l

I fla n c .

i re g ard to d irect l i ft from the grou nd , t h i s wou l d

th
be a very desirable fe ature i f it could be r e a sonably a e com
p l i sh e d , and i t may be po ssible to fi t vertical l i fting pro
p e lle r s who s e action w o u ld be to rai se the machine to such

a height that the machi ne cou ld then be started to gl id e

bac k to earth , an d th u s attai n suffi c ie n t momentu m to
e nable it to conti nue i n straight flight by mean s o f i ts

o rd inary h o rizontal prop e l lers I f t h i s static control i n

.

t h e air bec a me a n accompli shed fact , many o f the pre sen t

d i ffi c ult i e s b e fore a l luded to would di sappear For i n stance
.
,

i t i s d i ffi c ult to ma k e o b se rvatio n s or t a k e one s beari n g s ’

at hi g h S p e e d s the br a i n doe s n o t a c t qu ic k ly e n o ugh ;

,
2 20 A E RO P L A NE S

if the spe ed cou ld be reduced by the addition o f li ftin g

sc rew s m uch more favourable cond ition s could be obtai ned
, .

S a fe tyl ie s i n high speed s a s long a s we are at the

,

mercy o f the element s we mu st i n or d er to be sa fe from,

their i nter fere n ce , ma k e ou r condi t ion s superior to t h eirs .

A h igh w ind can on ly be sa fely n e gotiated by a stil l

hi g her speed o f flight .

F 1 0 93 —
. . Ge ma n M i li ta ry M o to r Ca r fo r A tta ck i n g
r Tr
o o
ps a n d A i rsh i ps
.

Then there i s the e ffect o f lightn i n g the danger i s not ,

great o n accoun t o f the smal l capacity o f the mach i ne and

i ts occu p a nt s A n electrical d i scha rge wi l l i n al l proba
.

bi li ty pa ss to a much larger object Th e re i s ho wever

. , ,

the d a nger o f setting fi re to t h e pe trol if t h e re happen s to

be a leak a g e but natu ral ly thi s wo uld be av o ided i n any
,

even t .

Sa fety in flig h t o f the future machi n e wil l be practical ly

222 A E RO I L A N E S
’

Use s i n wa r have be en brie fly touched u po n but t h e

,

chie f im portance wil l be attached to the fly i n g machin e

fo r reco n nai ssanc e s and ra id s, and carrying di spatc h e s .

The se machines w i ll fly at any altitud e , b e low the cloud s

wh e n o btain ing i n format i o n , and a bov e t h em wh e n e sc a ping
fro m th e o b se rvation s o f t h e enemy I n ca se o f fo g t h e
.

flying machine can sk i m over th e su r face o f th e earth

withou t much ri sk , and by mea n s o f i ts i n strument s can
penetrate through a fo g when the contou r o f t h e country
i s appro x imately know n A scout m o unt e d on a n
.

a e roplane i s i n a fa r su p e rior po sition to when m o u n ted

o n a h or se h e h a s a b tter point o f ob se rv a tion , a n d c a n
e

more rapidly app ro a ch or re treat fr o m the e n e my w ith l e ss

danger o f being hit A n o Ffi ce r com m a ndin g tro ops wil l
.

be abl e t o a scertain n o t o n ly where th e en e my l i e s but al so

'

h is st re ngth , and w hat i s a t h i s r e a r H e cou ld a l so l o c a t e

.

h i s fo rt i fica ti o n s, and sig n a l to h i s own ba se by m e an s o f

wi rel e ss tel e graphy I n n a val work the fly i n g m a chin e
.

w il l be u n su rpa ssabl e owi n g to i t s port a bil ity it c a n be

,

c a rri e d on board ship , and shoul d any a ccid e n t h a ppe n

it wi ll float o n th e sur fa ce o f t h e wa t e r until pic k ed up
by a boat .

I ts spe e d o f fli g h t wil l ma k e i t a n extr e me ly d i ffi c ult

targ et a n d when carrying se v e ral me n , con siderabl e damage
,

co uld be d o n e by such a machine d r0p p i 11 g e xpl o sive s

w hen flyi n g ov e r a ho stile fle e t .

T h e starti n g o f a high spee d flyi ng mach i n e from the

-

d e c k o f a sh ip may appe ar to be a d i Ffic ult probl e m , but

co uld be accompli sh e d e ith e r by th e d irec t l i ft method o r
by proj e c t io n from a pn e u matic tube ,th e tai l o f th e machin e
b e i n g pro vid e d wit h a pi ston fo r th i s pur po se .
 C H A PT E R XV I I .

G L OS S A R Y OF TE R M S EX P L A I NED .

IN a ny new indu stry the qu e stion o f te rm s and the settl e

m e nt o f de fi n i te names fo r certain articl e s or id e as i s o f
gre at i mportance Con fu sion only re su lts from w a n t o f
.

u n i formity i n de scri ption o f the same article by di ffe rent

workers who choose to give di fferent n a me s to the same
thing F rom the earl i e st a ge s every obj ect h a s had a
.

nam e , so a s n e w specie s a re di scovered or n e w inventio n s

mad e , names are appl ied .

Flight being a science o f modern gen e ral i nt e re st ,

though o f ancien t origin , req u ires standard term s fo r
application to i ts recogni sed conc e ption s and arra ngement s .

Throughout th i s l ittle work the author h a s endeavoured ,

where po ssible , to uti li se the fol lowi ng term s, which a re
ba se d i n many i n stance s 011 nautical term s when the part s
be ar some si mi litude .

M a i n P la n e s, being the su pporti ng su r face s o f the mai n

weight o f the mach i n e These are called deck s by some
.

authorities, th i s latter term being the nautical si mi larity .

”
M ai n plane i s perhap s a more u sual ly recog n i sed term
and fi t s i n well w ith the popular cla ssi fi c a t io n o f type s
such a s monoplane and bi plan e Su perposed planes
“ "
.

signi fy an arrangement o f one plane over the other a s i n

the \Vri g h t, Voi si n , and Farman machine s, thi s being the

arrangement adopted i n bi plan e practice M o n opla n e s.

u sually have their mai n plane i n fron t , thi s arrangement ,

however , cau se s th e smal ler govern i ng sur face s to operate

2 23
2 24 A E RO P LA N es

in turb ulen t ai r T W K Clarke rever se s the order o f

. . . .

these planes i n h i s monoplanes, the leading plane be ing

the subsidiary plane and the mai n plane being at the rear .

I t i s clai med that the e ffect o f the t urbulence o f the ai r

i s on ly sl ight on the larger mai n plane .

S upp le me n ta ry plane s or sur face s sign i fy al l the addi

t i o n a l sur face s wh ich are u til i sed fo r stabili sation The se .

generally con si st o f the elevator the rudder, the cu r tai n s,

the fi n , and the a i le ro n s or ba la n cmg plan es .

A e ro fo i l i s
a more sati sfacto ry term to use than plane
fo r i nd icati ng a l i fting su r face M ai n su r faces are not
.

”
sci e n ti fi c a lly plane , an d a s mode rn practice employ s the
arched aero foil s, which are m uch more e ffi c ie n t, mai n
.

plane s are , strictly speaki n g , aero foil s .

E le v a t o r i s
a principal suppleme n tary sur fa ce , usually
o f a m i niature form o f the mai n plane s The elevator, a s .

i ts n ame i mpl ie s, i s fo r the pu rpo se o f alter i ng the vertical

-

d i re ct i o n o f the mach i ne
. For t h i s purpo se the elevator
.

a s a whole i s either h inged at one edge or about some ax i s

at right angle s to the d irection o f flight

.
.

.
The el e vator i s placed u sual ly in fron t o f the main
plane s a s i n the W right a n d Farman mach ine s o f the
bi plane type , but monoplane de sign u sual ly place s the
elevator at the rear, either com bin ing i ts motion with that
o f the tai l , abou t an u n iver sal j oi n t , or allowing it to ha v e

an i ndepe n dent motion .

The elevator su ppor ts part o f the weight o f the machine ,

though it i s n o t a d e fi n i te poin t whether the w e ight it bears
i s i n proporti o n to i ts area a s part o f the t otal su stain i n g
area W hen the elevator i s i n front o f the mai n plan es
.

and i ts angle o f incidence i s the same a s that o f the main

planes, the probabil ity i s that the l i fti ng power o f the
el e vator i s i n proportion to i ts a re a , a n d the i nten sity o f
'

l i fting e ffect e qual to that u pon the main plane s W hen , .

2 26 AE R O PL A N E S

M a i n S p a rs are th e latera l
pars u pon which the main s

plane s are bu ilt These are u sual ly two i n n u mber per

.

plane or deck , and they act a s cantilevers su pported at

thei r in mo st end s, where they are attached to the chassi s
ei ther di rectly in monoplanes and su pported by guys,
”
or by mean s o f vertical stru t s and guy s i n the case “

o f a biplane The se main spars tran sm it the l i fti ng

.

e ffort o f the main plane s to the body or chassi s o f

the machine W hen the spars are long, a s i n case s o f
.

machi ne s o f wide span , the bending stresse s i n the se spars

are relieved by t e n sion wires attached to several poi nt s on
them and carried down to either the axle caps or to some
,

lower members o f the cha ssi s Thi s practice i s al mo st .

u n ive rsal i n wide span monoplanes, where a s i n bipl ane s

it i s u nnece ssary , a s the con struction o f the two planes i n
box gi rder form allow s the ten sion bracing to be ca rri e d
out between the mai n spars which su pport the u pper and
.

lower pl anes The bracing i s triangu lated and th u s great

.
,

rigidity i s obtai ned , a s it i s i mportan t i n bi plane con

stru ction t hat t h e main spar s i n both u ppe r and lower

plan es should alway s remai n parallel to one a n other *

The .

mai n spa rs are u sual ly made o f wood the for ward spar i n ,

biplanes i s g eneral ly at the front or entrant edge , and the

rear spar some 2 ft from the trai ling edge Some con
. .

st ruc to rs pre fer steel tube s to wood but t h e latter material ,

i s th e most suitable fo r attachment to the

R i bs
which su pport the fabric The se are made o f a sh .

or spruce an d bent to the correct curve s the lower rib

, ,

having a smaller camber than th e upper one I n a ll double .

sur faced plan e s, and i n some single sur faced type s, one rib

i s laid a bove and the other below the main spars to which
they are secu rely attach e d Two or more .

W e bs are placed betwe e n th e rib s, the se being sm a ll

block s o f wood which act as di stance piece s I n order to .

A fe w b i p la n e s a re a rra n g e d w i th a rc h e d pla n e s, no ta b ly th e
”
C o dy a n d th e C urti ss .
 T E R MS A P PL I E D T O T I M B E R S 2 27

secu re l ightness these webs are dri lled ou t i n the c entre

a n d are fi xed at thei r edges to the m a i n rib s by gl ue .

T h e Ca mbe r f th e
ribs i s the amou nt o f curvature
o

which i s imparted to them i n the same way that a motor

car S pring or a road h a s camber or cu rvatu re .

The amou nt o f camber o f the ribs i s obtained by

measu ring th e d ista n ce o f the rib at any poin t from a
'

straighte dge, he ld to touch i ts two end s T he camber i s .

not u n i form and wil l be fou nd to be a max im u m abou t

one th ird o f the d i stance from the lead ing edge
-
.

S truts are
u sed i n biplane con str uction to mai n tai n a n
eq ual d i stance be tween the two plane s The length o f .

the stru ts should not be le ss than the w idth or chord o f

one o f the planes T he strut s are o f oval section wood ,
.

and act ei ther i n conju nction with or i n oppo sition to the

stay w ire s in tran sm itti ng the l i ft o f the uppe r plane to

the lower one and thence to the cha ssi s Probably the .

strut s near t h e centre o f the machine are real ly in ten sion ,

d epending o f course u pon the tautne ss o f the wire guys .

The end s o f the str ut s are attached to the mai n spars in

several way s : i n the W righ t mach ine some o f them are fi tted

with steel eyes and are booked to the spa rs they generally ,
however, fi t i nto socket s screwed to the mai n spars .

O utri g g e rs are u sed to support both the elevator and

tail. The se are ti mber con struction s con si sti ng o f e i th e r two ,

three , or fou r spars with wooden d i stance pieces, and guy

wi res fi x e d between them R igid ity i s secured by the
.

use o f the steel wire d iagonal s fi tte d with stretch ing screw s .

W hen a machine h a s i ts elevator placed in front and a

tai l or ru dder behi nd , the mai n outrigger spars may be
co n tinuou s t h roughou t , being paral lel or nearly so i n plan ,
bu t tapering together i n elevation both fore and a ft .

The fron t outrigger may al so be a continuation o f the

skid s, when the se are fi tte d , or bu i lt up from them .

G reat i mportance sh o uld be attached to the rigidity o f

a fro nt outrigger su p portin g an elev a tor , a s great stre sse s
2 28 A E R O P LA NE S

are l iable to come u pon it at ti me s, and fai l ure wou ld at on ce

spell di saster A front outrigger when part o f a sk id may
.

su stain great shock s from l a ndi ng and a hidden flaw may

at any ti me develop Fra ctu re m igh t , there fore, result at a

.

m o st unexpected momen t ; tai l outriggers are not liable to

such great stre sses, an d may , the re fore , be made l ighter .

S k i d s, a sthei r n ame i mplie s, a re i n the form o f long

skate s on which th e m ach i ne can land in sa fety I n the .

W right mach ine the se are the on ly provi sion s fo r landing

u pon , but in other machine s these are su pplementary to
wheel s They are be i ng somewhat general ly adopted i n
.

m o dern practice on accoun t o f thei r obviou s utility and

, ,

rel ieve the wheel s o f some o f the grea ter shock s .

A skid i s someti me s fi t te d u nder the tail o f a mono

pl a ne ei ther alone or a s a su pplementary precaution .

C h a ssi s o r F usi la g e .
— Th i s i s an e ssen tial part i n some
aeroplane s,but i n other case s it i s d i spen sed with ,dependi ng
u pon the arrangemen t fo r starting the machine from re st .

The cha ssi s i s so mewhat d i ffi cult to de h ne, a s i n mono

plan e con struction we may designate the cha ssi s a s that
part o f the m ai n framewor k to w hich the mai n plane s and
tail planes are fi tte d and which contain s the engine and
’
the a v iator s seat The cha ssi s o f a monoplane, therefore ,
.

compri ses the frame work to wh ich the plane s an d mechan

i sm are fi t te d and the outrigger B iplanes are bui lt u po n
.

a c h a ssi s when wheel s are em ploy ed fo r starti ng purpose s,

it bei n g a short framewor k supporting the axle s an d
spri ng s the Uppe r part form ing a su pport fo r the engine
, .

The W right machi ne h a s, properly speakin g, n o c h a ssi s ,

a s the engine i s su pported on heavy ti mbers attached to

the main spars o f the lower plane, the skid s al so bei ng fi x e d

to the same spars .

The cha ssi s may eith e r be o f wood or steel wor k th e ,

latter material i s u sed by M E sn ault P e lte ri e and a

.
-

beauti fu l piece o f con struction i s turned ou t o f h i s factory .

T ube s are used with dia g onal cro ss tu be s, all welded

230 AE R OP LA N E S

W hen project beyon d the rear tip s o f the

th e a i lero n s
m a in plane s, and al so when they are fi x e d between the
'

plane s, the se connecting wi re s are fairly ta ut , i n contra st

to the Farman system I n th i s latter the a i le ro n s are
.

really loo se section s o f the mai n planes, and hang down

vertical ly w hen the machi ne i s at rest The con necting .

w i re s a t once become slac k Thi s slackness i s only ta k en

.

up when the mach ine i s i n flight , and the a i le ro n s con form

to the stream line s o f the air .

S i de are seldom n o w fi tte d They were a d i s

curt a i n s .

t i n g uish i n g feature o f the Voi sin machi n e s The se con si st .

o f vert i cal cu rtai n s fi t te d between the main plane s, a n d were

fou r in nu mber , one being situated at e a ch ex t remity , and

one on eith e r side , a di stance from the extremities a ppro x i
mately equal to the d i stance bet ween the two mai n pla n e s .

The object o f the se curtain s i s to give resi stance to

lateral motion , and to m in i mi se there fore , ri sk o f sl iding,

d own through the ai r e dge wi se The se curtain s are a .

fi x t ure and no control or motion i s req uired

, S ide curtain s .

are someti mes fi tte d to a bi p lan e tai l , thu s producing a box

for mation .

K eel — Thi s additional sur face i s sometime s fi tte d to a

'

m
.

monoplane the most noteworthy exa ple being i n the

, ,

E sn a ult F elteri c
-
I ts fu nction i s si m ilar to that o f the side
.

curt ain s The keel i s o f the form o f a lo n g vertical fi n

.

placed i n a fore and a ft d irection along the rear exte n sion

o f the framewor k The A n toinette mac h ine h a s a smal ler
.

k eel , bu t some o f the monoplane s di spen se with thi s su r face

altogether The ke e l i s al so a fi x ture , but i ts latter e x
.

t re mi ty in some ca se s form s the vertical or steeri ng rudder .

S p a n i s thedi stance from ti p to tip o f the mai n pla n e s

i n a tran sver se direction to that o f flight The span o f a .

mach i ne i s l i mited i n i ts maxi mu m d i men sion on ly by

conven ience o f de sign an d practical con sideration s o f ea se
 DI M E NS I O N A L T E R M S 2 31

o f handling and strength A mach i ne with a large span

.

be come s very cu mbersome , al so the e ffect o f gu sts or edd ies

at the end o f a long wing produces a greater moment or
turn ing e ffect than on a short wing i n d i rect proportion to
i ts li near dimen sion s .W hen a machine h a s to be designed
i n such a ma n ner that i t s su sten tation per un i t o f area is
smal l the que stion o f span come s into a ccount , and rat h er
,

than i ncrease thi s di men sion beyond practical li m it s, the

span i s d ivided by t wo , and a biplane de sign re su l t s .

The question o f span i s al so one o f entering edge

di me n sion , an d thi s i s mo st i mporta n t , a s the length o f the
entering edge determ ine s to a great exten t the e ffi ci e n cy
o f the l i fting sur face Thi s length o f edge mu st bear a
.

d ir e ct relation to the load l i fted fo r good de sign , a n d at

least 1 ft shou ld be provided fo r every 4 lb o f weight
. .

li fted at speed s o f 40 m i le s per hou r or le ss A t higher.

2
speed s thi s length may be reduc e d a s V increases .
0

The length o f the e n tra n t e dg e loses part o f i ts

e ffi c ie n cy at the end s owi ng to a portion o f the air leaving

the two end s i n a lateral d i rection I f, there fore , a certa in

.

length o f edge i s provided fo r and i t i s found tha t t h i s

mu st be d ivi d ed into t wo , extra le n gth mu st be given to
’

compen sate fo r the re su lting loss o f e ffi ci e n cy from thi s

cau se I t i s probable tha t a more e ffi c ie n t for m o f en tra n t
.

edge wou ld be obtained by maki ng each wing sweep

forward to w ard s i ts centre i n the man ner that nature h a s
designed the entrant edge o f the w ings o f fa st fl y i ng bird s .

length o f the plane from leading to tra il

Ch o rd i s th e
ing edge i n a straight l ine Thi s d imen sion i s u sually
.

li mited i n i ts max imu m d i men sion I n the Chauvi ere .

machi ne we fi n d the c h ord exceed s that u su ally found , but

thi s i s a special desi gn i n wh ich the trailing edge is con
t ro lla ble by mean s o f cord s A variable value i s given to
.

the chord i n th i s case , a s the angle o f i ncidence o f th e

trail ing edge can be varied .

Su ppo sing we have a machine w ith a chord o f 2 ft .

 A E R O PL A NES

on ly , and an a n gle o f incidence equal to a 1 i n 1 0 slope ,

at 40 mi le s per hour the l i ft wil l be 2 5 lb per sq uare foot , .

the thru st requ ired w il l then be equal to one tenth o f the -

weight su pported .

I f we fi x a second and then a th i rd plane at the rear o f

th i s with increasing angle s o f i ncidence the e fle cts wil l be
'

increa sed up to a l i mit , bu t beyond thi s l i mit noth i n g i s

gai ned , a s the stratu m o f ai r belo w t h e plane wi ll not be
a ffected by any fu rther i ncrea se The on ly re sult o f stil l
.

add i n g sur face at the rear wil l be to i ncrea se the ski n

frictio n and head re si stance .

S urfa ci n g may be either single or double W hen the .

former i s em ployed the fabric i s brought rou nd over the

leading main spar and sewn back on to it sel f agai n The .

”
spar i s ther e fore held in a pocket O ther spars and rib s
.

are covere d with stri p s o f fabric laid over them and sewn
on to the main su r faci ng be lo w, and are thu s enca sed in
poc k et s to reduce the air resi stance .

Double su r facing co n si sts i n se w ing and nail ing a fabric

sur face both above and below the whole o f the main plane s,

an air space being le ft bet ween them I n some monoplane s

.

the petrol tan k s are placed between th i s sur facing and in ,

o th e r s the wi re guys are thu s protected .

Thi s arrangemen t make s the mai n plane s buoyan t

should the machi ne fal l i nto the water .

Sur facing fabr i c s have been dealt wit h in another

chapter , but care shoul d be taken to preven t the material
from coming in contact with iron or steel , a s ox idation wil l
sooner or later re sul t .

A spe ct the ratio o f the length o f span to that

ra t i o is
o f chord , an d may vary con sid e rably I n al l modern .

machine s th i s i smore tha n u n ity meani ng that the span

,

i s greater than the chord The val ues o f a spect ratio s fo r

.

variou s machine s are given in deal i n g w ith the se machine s

i n detai l Lanch e st e r t e rm s a n a spect ratio g re ater than
.
234 A E RO P L A Nes

T ra i li n g A n g le i s the a n gle
betwee n the tangent to the
trai ling edge o f the plane and the chord or a l ine drawn
from the lead ing to the trail ing edge Thi s angle is, o f
.

c o urse , 1e ss than the a n gle o f entry owi n g to the pecul iar

shape o f an aerocu rve w ho se camber i s not the arc o f a

circle .

The fle x i ble trail ing edge u sual ly designed al low s o f

thi s trai l ing a n gle being varied and it some t imes varies
,

automatically owing to i ncrease o f wind pressure cau sed

by gu st s .

G a uch i sse me n t or warping i s appl ied to the mai n

plane s, and produce s the same u lti mat e c fle ct a s the use
'

o f a i le ro n s.G a ud zzkse me ut may be o f two k ind s it may ,

a ffect only the trail ing edge or the wi ng a s a whole I n .

some mach ine s even a further step i s ta k en i n pivoting

the wings so that they move bodily The W right machine.

i s arranged so that the three outer strut s at the rear o f

either wing m ove vertically and carry the planes wi th them ,
the front remain ing stationary The E sn a ult F elteri c
.
-

monoplane i s de signed so that the greater part o f the rear

o f each wing flexe s, an upward movement o f one cau sing

a downward movement o f the other The Bl eriot machine .

i s arra n ged so that on ly a small portion o f the wing tip s

flex . Flex ibil ity o f thi s k ind i s on ly really practicable i n
monoplane con struction , and to a smaller degree i n the
W right type o f machine The Voi si n machine , however ,
.

i s rigid , and in order to attai n lateral stabi lity steeri ng h a s

to be employed .

S uppo sing fo r i n stance the right side o f the machine

, ,

lowers, steering to the le ft wil l increase the velocity o f the

right wing through the air relatively to that o f the le ft
wi ng Th i s increa se o f velocity will be fol lowed by an
.

increa se o f pre ssure under the right wing, and cause it

to level up to the le ft wi ng Thi s man i pulation i s natu ral ly
.

not a s se n sitive a s where g a uc/zzlsse me tzt i s provided

‘

.
 A P P E N DI X .

N OT A T I O N .

F = a rea o f an r urfa c e i n squa re me tre s

ae o p a ne sl .

c = a n l e mad e b th e sur fa c e wi th th e d i re c ti o n o f h i h t
g y g .

3
[ th e a n
g l e m a d e b y th e d i re c t i o n o f fl i g h t w i th t h e h o ri z o n t a l .

7 t h e: a n g l e m a d e by th e s u r fa c e w i t h t h e d ir e c ti o n o f t h e

r
p po e lli n g fo rc e .

8 th e an gl e ma de by th e d i re c ti o n o f th e pro pe lli n g fo rc e wi th
th e h o ri z o n .

Th e a B 7 8 .

11 : a spe ci a l co e ffi c i e n t cfo r a n
h e d (car
o n c a v e ) s ur fa c e .

( = a spe ci a l
co e ffi c i e n t fo r a c o n v e x sur fa ce .

R l =
th e h e a d re si sta n c e i n k il o gra mme s o n a pl a n e surfa c e mo v e d
e
p p r e n d ic ul a rl y ga a i n st t h e a i r .

R th e h e a d re si sta nce i n k il o gra mme s o n a pl a n e su rfac e mo v e d

o bliq ue l y a ga i n st th e a i r .

g = a cce l e ra ti o n o f ra v i t
g y m e t re s p e r se c o n d p e r se c o n d .

v = th e ve l o ci ty o f th e ma ch i n e re l a ti ve l y to th e a i r i n me tre s

e r se c o n d
p .

11 th e ve l o ci ty o f t h e wi n d re l a ti ve l y to th e e a rth .

C th e ve l o ci ty o f th e ma c h i n e re l a ti ve l y to th e e a rth .

a th e atmo sph e ric pre ssure .

P th e l o a d .

= th e we i h t o f th e ma c h i n e i n k il o ra mme s
Q g g .

G = th e li fti n g po we r o f a surfa ce i n k i lo gra mme s .

T = th e li fti n g po we r o f a ma c h i n e , G Q .

efl ec ti ve h o rse po we r
'

N -
.

1
) th e e ffi ci e n cy .

n = th e n u mbe r o f re vo lu ti o n s pe r mi n ute o f th e p ro pe lle r .

2 35
 236 AE R OPLA N E S

L AW OF R E S I ST A N C E OF TH E AI R

(V ON L O E S S L) .

Fo r l i t i e s be twe e n z e ro a n d 5 0 me tre s pe r se co n d, th e
ve o c

h e a d re si sta n c e o ppo si n g a surfa ce mo ve d p e rpe n d i c ula rly a ga i n st

a n un li mi te d a i r me d i um, o r me t pe rpe n d i c ul a rl y b y un i fo rm l y
mo v i n g a ir i s gi ve n by

T h e pre ssure o n a surfa c e mo ve d o blique l y a ga i n st un li mi te d a i r

R
3
'
s si n a
, ( )
2

wh i c h ma y be i n to i ts h o ri z o n ta l c o mpo n e n t (suffi x
re so lv e d x
)
a nd i ts v e rt i ca l c o mpo n e n t (suffi x y ) .

§ si n
2
Ry = Fv 11 co s a

711 2 2 si n
Rx = a
(4)
£
T h e se fo ur fo rmulae a re v e ry a cc ura te be twe e n fo r l
a ll a n g e s

d u m i m t
°

d d d d f L l
’
9 0 a n a n a re e c e r o v o n o e ss s e x pe r e n s,

wh ic h sh o we d th a t th e re si sta n c e s o f sma ll a n d l a rge surfa ce s

we re p ro po rti o n a l to th e i r li n e a r d i me n si o n s .

I f a surfa c e mo ve s fo rwa rd wi th a n un i fo rm ve l o ci ty a , i t
d i sp la ce s pe r se c o n d a ma ss o f a i r Fv = q, a n d a s th i s a i r i s fo rc e d
o ut si de wa y s a n e q ua l q ua n ti ty o f a i r i s d i spl a c e d a t th e si d e s .

T h e to ta l we i gh t o f a i r se t i n mo ti o n i s th e re fo re
G q q z v .

Th e e n e rgy n e c e ssa ry is
2 2
111 21 6 1 1
71“v3
g
’
2 25

Si n c e L R 1
7
},

R = Z Fa
1
.

g
R re
p re se n ts th e no r ma l p re ssure i
a ct ng on th e s u rfa ce p p
e r en

di c ula rly t o th e fa c e .

Th e va lue o f y , th e d e n si ty o f th e a i r, de pe n ds 011 th e h e i g h t
abo ve th e se a -
le ve l, a lso th e te mpe ra t ure a n d to a sli gh t e x te n t
th e h u mi d i ty o f th e at mo sph e re .
238 A E RO P L A NES

p erpe n d icul a r to th e surfa ce , a n d wh e n th e e dge s o f th e surfa c e

a re ra i se d , o r wh e n th e fo rwa rd si d e o f th e sur fac e i s c o n ca v e .

T h e a re a F must be mul ti pli e d by th e fa c to r d e pe n d i n g o n

th e sh a pe o f th e su rfa c e .

V A LUE S 01
°

1 if surfac e i s co n ca ve , o r i f pro vi de d wi th e dge s so th a t

th e co n cave si de mo ve s fo rwa rd .

fo r pla n e circ ula r su rfa ce .

sq ua re surfa c e .

e q uil a te ral tri a n gle .

i so sce l e s ri gh t a n gl e d tri a n g l e .

ri g h t a n le d tri a n gle wh o se si de s a re a s 1 4
g .

CO N V ER I OS N 01
°
L E N GT H S .

M i le s K i lo me tre s M i le s. M e tre s
.
 A P PE NDI X 239

CO N VER I OS N 01
°
W E I G HTS AN D M E A SUR E S .

K i lo g ra mme s . Po un ds . G a llo ns L i tre s

. G a llo n s.

T A B L E 01 W mo °
P R E SS UR E S ON N OR M A L SUR F A C E S .

S pe e d o fWi dn , Pre ssure of W i nd , Spe ed o f Wi d

n , Pre ssure of Wi nd ,
H u
M i le s pe r o r. L b pe r
. Sq ua re Fo o t . M 1 le s pe rH uo r. L b pe r Sq ua re Fo o t
. .
 4
2 0 A E RO P L A NE S

TA B L E 01
°
F L YI N G S P EE DS ( pp
A ro x i ma te V a l ues) .

M i les per H o ur. F e et pe r Se co n d . M i les per H o ur. F e e t pe r S eco n d .

P R O P E R T I E S 01 A N G L E S °

IN F u o mn

I nc li n e be t we e n Lin es Si n e Of An g le T g e n t Of An g le
fo rmi n g t h e An g le . an .
242 A E RO P L A NE S

In a c tua l ma c h i n e s th e ra t o i o f li ft to d ri ft va r e si be twe e n
1
5 a nd 9 ; i f we ta k e a va l ue o f sa y th e th ust r must be

th e to ta l we i gh t o f th e ma c h i n e .

B l eri o t ty pe X I th e a n gl e o f inci de n c e i s
In a . i n th e -

o rdi n a ry ma c h i n e s, a n d 6 i n th e h i g h spe e d mac h i n e s a t 90

°
-

k m a n h o ur
. Ta k i n g th e fo rme r va lu e , th e th rust sh o uld be
.

atl ea st 80 lh wh e n . i n fli gh t, a n d th i s i s usua l ly 1 80 to 2 00 lb .

aga i n st a fi xe d po i n t .

TH E L A M PL OUG H T W O C YC L E E N GI N E .

P LA T E X I I .

Th i s i
eng ne d i ffe rs fro m cl e e n gi n e s i n th e fa c t
o th e r t wo c y -

th a t th e c h a rge i s p u mpe d i n to th e wo rk i n g c h a mbe r by me a n s

o f an i n ge n i o us a n d n o ve l type o f re ci p ro ca ti n g pump .

T he wo rk i n g c h a mbe r un i t c o n si sts o f a pa i r o f cy li n de rs .

h a vi n g a co mmo n c o mbu sti o n c h a mbe r, th e two p isto n s wo rk

i n un i so n a n d a re pro pe ll e d o utwards by th e si n gle c h arge a t
ea ch re vo l uti o n , th e a rra n ge me n t o f t h e c y li n d e rs be i n g si mil a r

to th a t a d o pte d i n th e we l l lmo wn L uca s va l ve l e ss e n g i n e

-
By .

suc h a n a rra n ge me n t th e fre sh c h a rge e n te ri n g o n e c y li n de r a t

th e e n d o f th e o utwa rd stro k e swe e ps o ut th e b urn t gase s

efl e c tua lly , a n d th e l e n g th o f th e pa ssa ge fro m t h e i n l e t po rts
'

to th e e x h a ust o rts a t t h e o utwa rd e n d o f th e n e i gh bo uri n

p g
c y li n d e r i s suffi ci e n t to pre v e n t th e fre sh c h a rge fro m be i n g
e x pe ll e d i n to th e e xh a ust p i pe .

I n th e L a mpl o ug h e n g i n e a n y n umbe r o f c h a rgi n g a n d wo rk

i n g u n i ts a re e mplo y e d, e a c h un i t c o mpri si n g a c o mpre sso r
u m a d a twi n c y li n d e r, a ll ma de i n o n e c a sti n B th i s
p p n g y .

a rra n ge me n t l e n gth s o f pi pi n g a n d pa ssa ge s a re a vo i d e d, a s i t

i s o wi n g to th e pre se n ce o f th e se i n so me two c y c le mo to rs wi th -

a se pa ra te pump th a t t h e rma l lo ss re sults .

I t w i ll be n o tic e d fro m Pla te X I I t h a t th e c ra n k sh a ft i s h e l d

.

i n ba ll be a ri n gs, a n d th a t th e re a re n o va l ve s o f th e o rd i n a r)
°
 A PP E N D I X 243

ty pe , t h us t h e en g ne i i s h i gh l y e ffi ci e n t me c h a n i ca lly an d si le n t

i n wo rk i n g . Th el me th o d o f wo rk i n g th e sli d i n g sl e e ve
n o ve

o f th e co mpre sso r c a n b e be st u n d e rsto o d fro m a n i n spe c ti o n

o f th
e gfi u re T
. h e sm a ll e n d o f th e p u m p c o n n e c t i n g r o d h a s

t h re e o r fo ur te e th o f c o a rse p i tch c ut u p o n i t o n e i th e r si de ,
wh i ch e n ga g e wi th two ra c k s, o n e fo rme d a s a n e x te n si o n o f ea ch
sli d i n g sl ee ve .

O wi n g to th e o bliq ui ty o f th e ro d o n e o r o th e r sl e e ve i s dra wn
d o wn wa rd s re l a ti ve l y to th e p i sto n o f th e pump, wh il e th e o th e r
mo v e s i n th e o ppo si te d i re c ti o n T h u s a ve ry ra pi d po rt o pe n
.

i n g i s o b ta i n e d , th e c h a rge i s dra wn fro m th e ca rbu re tto r a n d

e x pe lle d th ro ugh th e d i a ph ra gm va lve a t th e to p o f th e c y li n d e r

i n to th e re ce i ve r D 2 , re a dy to ch a rge th e wo rk i n g c h a mbe r
wh e n th e p i sto n d e sce n ds a n d un co ve rs th e po rt A 2 .

T h e l ubri ca t i o n o f th e sli d i n g sl e e ve s a n d c y li n de r wal ls i s

e ffe c te d b t h e i n tro d uc ti o n o f lub ic a t i n g o i l d i ec t ly i n t o t h
y r r e

ca rbure tto r mi x ing ch a mbe r, a sigh t fe e d wi th a re gul a ti n g scre w

i s a tta c h e d so th a t th e flo w o f o i l wh ic h i s fo rc e d th ro u gh i t ca n
be a dj uste d e xa c tl y .

O i l 15 a lso pumpe d to th e wo rk i n g pa rts o f th e mo to r a n d fa l ls

to th e bo tto m of th e c ra n k case , i s fi lte re d a n d pumpe d ba c k
a ga i n.

T h e a d o pti o n o f sma ll cy li n d e rs suc h a s 2 i n c h d i a me te r, -

fi tte d i n fo u r gro ups to th e 30 H P e n g i n e, i s a wi se o n e fo r

. .

ma n y re a so n s A 2 i n c h c y l i n de r i s probabl y mo re e ffi c i e n t
.

th a n a n y o th e r si z e , a l so th e twi n a rra n ge me n t pe rmi ts o f ampl e

ra d ia ti o n surfa c e .

T h e c yli n d e rs a n d a ll wo rk i n g pa rts a re gro un d to th e true

sh a pe wi th t h e gre a te st ca re , a n d a ll th e ma te ri a ls a re o f th e be st

o f th e i r k i n d .

T h i s e n gi n e sh o ul d h a v e gre a t po ssi bili ti e s, a n d fo r a vi a ti o n

wo rk a si mpl e a i r c o o l e d e n g i n e i s muc h to be d e si red
-
Th e .

c o mpa c t a rra n ge me n t a n d fre e d o m fro m pi pe s a n d wa te r j o i n ts -

a re po i n ts i n i t s fa v o ur, e spe ciall y fo r t h e use o f n o v ice s A bd

a.

la n d i n g o n th e gro un d wil l n o t se ri o usl y d e ra n ge a n a i r co o l e d -

e n gi n e , wh il st i t mi gh t pl a c e a wa te r c o o l e d o n e o ut o f a c ti o n
-
.
246 I N DE X

B leri o t, flig h ts by , 2 7,
. 1 46, 179 . C h o rd , le n g th o i, 10 (
se e va r oi us
1 84, 1 86 1 87 -
a e ro p la n e s )
fusi la g e , co n structi o n o f, 1 30, 1 46 T e rm e x pla in e d , 2 31
M a ch i n e X l , h o rse p o we r re
.
-
C la rke , T . W . K . a
, rra n g e me n t o f
q u i re d, 2 8 p l a n e s, 2 24
T h rust re qui re d, 2 8 G li d e r, 1 6 , 1 20, 1 5 9 , 1 98, 1 99, 204,
O th e r d e ta i ls, 1 46, 1 76 1 77 -
2 10
M a i n p la n e s, 1 46 , 1 76 1 77 -
on p ro p e lle rs 8
, 7
M e th o d o f a tta c h i n g spa rs, 1 30 o n sh a
pe o f b la de s, 98
S upple me n ta ry surfa ce s, 1 47 C o dy ch a ss s, 1 7 i 4
S usp e n si o n o f, 1 48 co n t ro l, 1 75
”
B o o ms, see S pa rs, ma i n , a lso F li g h ts by , 1 84 , 1 87, 1 89
pa g e 132 ma ch i n e , 1 73
Bo ye r -
G ui llo n , pro pe lle r e xp e ri ma i n pla n e s, 1 74
me n ts, 1 1 0, 1 1 1
, p p
ro e l le r s , 7
1 5
B ra ci n g -
w i re , 2 4 (see a lso “
G uy s S up ple me n ta ry surfa c e s, 1 74
”
and W i re ) Co e fl i c i e n t o f tra c ti o n 2 8
’
.

B re a k in glo a d s o f fa bri c, 1 22 1 23
-
C o mpre ssi o n , pro pe rtie s o f ma te
o f ma te ri a ls, 1 2 6 ri a ls i n , 1 2 6
st re sse s, 1 33
C o n n e cti n g ro d s, A n z a n , i 54
G n o me , 47
C AMB E R of wi n g s, 1 47, 1 5 2, 1 5 7, 5 2
C o n structi o n , ma te ria ls o f, 1 1 5
C a rbo n i sa t i o n , e ffe ct o f, 33 C o n tro l, A n to i n e tte , 1 38, 1 41
C a rbura ti o n , e ffi ci e n cy o f, 2 1 2 A rra n g e me n t o f, 1 99, 2 2 5 , 2 2 9

L
fo r a e ri a l e n g i n e s, 3 4 B ler o t, 1 48 1 49
i -

ac k o f h ea t supp ly , 36 H F a rma n , 1 70
i
.

o f e n g i n e s, see v a r o us e n g i n e s M F a rma n , 1 72
C a rb ure t to r, A n z a n i, 5 5
.

i
M a n i pula t o n o f, 202 2 1 0 -

72 43 1
G n o me , 46 S a n to s D umo n t, 1 5 2 -
1 53
G o bro n B ri lli e , 64
-

V o i si n , 1 6 5
G re e n , 76 W rig h t, 1 6 2
N e c e ssi ty fo r, 36 C o n ti n e n ta l fa bri c, 1 23, 1 47
i
P pe, 6 1 C o o li n g sy ste m, A n to i n e tte , 139
53 C urta i n s,sid e 2 30 (see a lso ,
“
i i
Vo s n
S i mms, 77 ”
ma ch i n e )
C a y le y , S i r G e o rg e , a n d a v i a t i o n , 2 C urt iss a i le ro n s 1 72 ,
C e n t re o f g ra v i ty , 1 5 , 2 3, 2 02 204 -

e n g in e , 1 72, 1 78
o f p re ssure , 1 5 , 2 03 209
F lig h ts by , 1 86 1 87
-

C e n t ri fug a l fo rce i n t urn i n g , 207, ma ch i n e , 1 71 , 1 78

2 09
p l a n e s, 1 7, 7
1 1 8
C h a ssi s, B leri o t, 1 48 C y li n d e rs, a rra n g e me n t o i, 2 9, 4,
0
E sn a ult F e lte ri c , 1 1 6, 1 42 , 2 2 9
43. 5 1 . 5 4
. 57 76 . 2 42
-

.
T e rm e x pla i n e d , 2 2 8
Lb
D i sto rt i o n o f, 33
V o i si n , 1 65 u i
ri ca t o n o f, 24
33 , 3
C h a t le y , P ro fe sso r H , fo rmula fo r .
S te e l. 31 . 43 6 5 . 6 6 . 6 7. 73.

p p
r o e lle r, 1 0 5

C h a uv iere pro pe lle rs, 99, 1 00, 1 06 ,

1 5 0 D A R R ACQ en g i n e , 6 5
”
D e ta i ls o f, 99 l D e ck s, see “
P la n e s, a lso pa g e 223
 I N DE X 2 47
D e fle cti o n o f a i r st ra tum, 1 3 E n g in e , v a r o i us ma ke s o f
D e la g ra n g e a e ro pla n e , 1 76 A n to i n e tte , 38, 84 , 1 6 1
F a ta l a cci d e n t to , 1 95 A n z a n i, 5 4 8
, 4
F li g h ts by , 1 80, 1 85 A ste r, 6 5 , 84
D e si g n o f a n a e ro pla n e , 2 6 C urti ss, 1 72
D e v e lo pme n t, future , 2 1 1 Da rra cq, 6 5 , 84
D i a me te r o f a p ro pe lle r, 87, D uth i e l C h a lme rs, 31 , 83
-

D i fli culti e s o f th e le a rn e r, 1 98 1 99,
‘ -
6 8, 83, 84
211 E sn a ult F e lte ric. 5 1 , 83
-

D i h e d ra l a n g le o f A n to i n e t te , 1 39 G nom e. 29. 43. 83

o f B leri o t, 1 4 7 G o bro n B ri lli o , 6 2 , 83
-

L
o f S a n to s D umo n t, 1 5 2 G re e n , 73, 83
D i me n si o n s o f a e ro pla n e s, see a mp lo ug h , 2 4 2
P la n e s, a lso see th e N E C o r M o rt, 79, 84
. . .

v a ri o us ma ch i n e s 82
O 1rce t h ft, 2 1 9 P a n h a rd, 6 5 , 84
D i re cti o n o f flig h t, 202 P i pe , 5 6, 83
D isc a re a o f pro pe lle r, 89 9 1 -
S i mms, 76, 83
D i sta n ce to h e tra v e lle d a t sta rt i n g , W ri g h t, 6 6, 84, 1 6 2
27 E n g i n e s,ta b le o f di me n si o n s,83, 84
D un lo p fa b ri c, 1 2 3 E n tra n t e d g e , 2 31
D uth i e l C h a lme rs e n g i n e , 31
-
E n try , a n g le o f, te rm e x pla i n e d,
D y n a mi c re si sta n ce o f a mo v i n g 22 42 2 5
-

p la n e , 1 4 P h i lli ps, 1 0
’

L a n ch e ste r s v a lue , 1 5
’
E sn a ult F e lte ri c a e ro p la n e , 1 42
D y n a mi c suppo rt, 1 2 14 .
3 6 4 77 ” ,

co n struc h o n o f fusda g e , 1 6, 1 1 6 ,
2 28
E CO N O M Y o f fue l, 35 co n t ro l, 1 4 3
f o i l, 33
o
co v e ri n g o f fusi la g e , 1 2 0
E dd y c urre n ts,p ro duce d by a pla n e , engin e, 5 1
l 4. 127
O rd i n a ry ma n ce uv ri n g , 2 09
P ro pe lle r, 1 10
S urfa ce , a re a o f, 1 43, 1 76 1 77 -

R e la t i o n be twe e n , a n d v e lo c i ty , S uspe n si o n , 1 42
1 4 W e ig h t o f ma ch i n e , 1 43, 1 76 1 77 -

E ffi c i e n cy ofh i g h a n d lo w spe e d E x pe ri me n t s w i th p ro pe lle rs, 1 03

p p
ro e lle r s, 1 04 4
1
-
1 , 1 6 1
1 14
1 62
E i
x plo ra t o n by a e ro pla n e , 2 1 6
T h rust, 1 1 1
E le v a to r, po si ti o n o f, 8 (see a lso
v a ri o us ma ch i n e s)

T e rm e x pla i n e d, 2 2 42 2 5 F A B R I C , C o n t i n e n ta l, 1 2 2
E n g i n e , e sse n t i a l fe a ture s o f, 38, D unlop , 12 3
f H e n so n s ma ch in e , 2 4
’
o
P o sit io n o f, 8 M e th o d o f fi x i n g , 1 2 1 , 1 34, 1 71
P o we r o f, 2 7, 83, 84 R e qui re me n ts o f, 1 2 1 , 1 34
P ro b le ms, 31 S co tt i sh , 1 2 3
R e li a b i li ty o f, 30, 2 1 6 F a rma n , H , a e ro pla n e , 1 20, 1 6 8,
.

T a b le s o f le a d i n g dime n si o n s, 17 6 1 77 -

a i le ro n s a n d co n tro l, 1 7 0, 2 30
T y pe s o f, 2 9 D i re ct co n n e cti o n o f e n g i n e a n d
V i b ra ti o n , ca use s o f, 39 p p
ro e lle r, 8
2 48 I N DE X

F a rma n , H . fli
, g h ts by, 2 7, 1 8
5 , 1 68, G ra d e , h ig h ts by , 1 9 1 , 1 92
1 90 1 9 1 -
G ra h a me W h i te ,flig h ts by , 1 83, 1 93
-

P la n e s, di me n si o n s o f, 1 69, 1 70, G ra v i ty , ce n tre o f, 1 5 , 2 3, 202 204 -

176 1 77 -
G re e n e n g i n e , 73
P o si t i o n i
o f a v a to r, 8 C y li n de r bo lts, 32
F a rma n , M a uri ce , a e ro pla n e , 1 72 G ri ffi th s rule fo r pro pe lle rs, 1 03
’

F li g h ts by , 1 90 1 9 1 , 1 95 -
G un s, a e ro , 2 1 42 2 1 -

S pa n o f ma ch i n e , 1 72 G uy s, 5 , 1 1 9, 1 2 9, 1 31 1 32 , 1 4 0, -

F e e d o f th e me d i um to a pro pe lle r, 1 64 , 1 69, 2 26

10 4
F e rbe r, C a pta i n , fa ta l a cci de n t to , H E AD re si sta n ce , o f an a e ro p la n e ,
8, 1 90 93. 1 274 29
F li g h ts by , 1 85 1 86 -
stre ss pro d uce d by , 1 2 9
R ule fo r la te ra l sta b i li ty , 1 7 H e n so n co n structi o n ,tri a n g ula tio n ,
F i x e d po i n t th rust, 9 1 , 1 04 1 1 4 -
1 32
F li g h t, pa th o f, 200, 2 1 2 Da te o f pa te n ts, 3, 2 1
F ly i n g spe e d s, ta ble o f, 2 4 0 M a ch i n e , 2 1 2 4 -

F o rce , c e n tri fuga l, i n t urn i n g , 206 M o d e l d i me n si o n s, 3

2 09 S h a pe o f wi n g s, 9
un de r t h e w n g s, 207 i H o lla n d s, S , e x pe ri me n ts w i th
.

F r ct o n o f a n a e ro fo l, 1 4
i i i o e lle rs 1 0
p p
r , 5
o f a p ro pe lle r, 99, 1 03 o rse po we r o f e n i n e , 2 6, 2 8 1 6 2
, 1 07, 1 08 g
-

,
a t sta rti n g , 2 7 re ui re d fo r a n o pla n e , 2 8,
q a e r

F ue l fo r a e ro pla n e s, 2 1 2 .

C o n sumpti o n o f E N V e n g i n e , . . . a n d th rust, re la t o n i be t we e n , 1 9,
72 1 08 1 1 2
-

E co n o my , 35 and we ig h t, re la ti o n be t we e n ,
F c cd by pump in g , 35 , 66 1 9. 76
F usi la g e , see C h a ssi s
F ut ure de ve lo pme n t, 2 1 1 2 1 6 -
I G N I T I ON o f A n to i n e tte e n g i n e , 41
o f A n z a n i en g in e , 5 4,55 5, 6
D upli ca te , 2 1 3
C A P, te rm e x pla i n e d , 2 33
72
G a uc h i sse me n t, a c ti o n o f, 2 03, 2 05 , E sn a ult F e lte ri c, 5 2 , 5 3
-

2 06, 2 3 4 .

I n ci d e n ce , a n g le o f, 5 , 1 5 , 1 1 3, 1 2 7,
A t ta ch me n t o f wi re s, 1 32 6 8 6
1 37 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 5 ,
2 1 1 0,
B lerio t sy ste m, 1 48 1 49, 2 34 -

200, 20 4 5 , 2 33, 2 41
20 -

E sn a ult F e lte ri c, 1 43, 2 34

-

I n d i ca ti o n o f la n d ma rk s, 2 1 3
M F a rma n , 1 72 I n e rt i a o f ma ch i n e , 7, 2 06 2 09 -

M e th o d o f a ctua ti n g , 1 41 (see I n strume n ts to be ca rri e d , 2 1 3

a lso C o n tro l
S a n to s D umo n t, 1 5 3 K E E L, te rm e x pla i n e d, 2 30
T e rm e x pla i n e d, 2 34 K re ss, e x pe ri me n ts w i th p ro pe lle rs,
W ri g h t , 1 6 2 , 2 34 1 06
G i rde r, fo rms o f co n struc ti o n , 1 2 9
G li de r, C la rke , 1 20, 1 5 9, 1 97, 1 99, LA M B E RT, C o un t d e , fli g h ts by ,

L
1 6 2 , 1 81 , 1 86 , 1 9o
N a va l, 208 a mplo ug h e n g i n e , 2 4 2
i i
G l d n g a n g le , 2 33 a n c h e ste r o n a i r st ra ta un d e r
i
fo r b e g n n e rs, 1 97 p la n e s, 3
1
G n o me e n g n e , 2 9, 43 5 0, 1 00
i o n a spe c t ra ti o , 2 32
( i o bro n B ri llie e n g i n e , 6 2
-

o n d y n a mi c re si sta n ce , 1 5
2 50 I N DEX

P roblem s , b alanci ng o f G nome R A D I A L engin e s , 2 9, 30, 5 1 , 5 4

valves , 46 R adiation ,me th o d s o f,see C00li n g
“ "’

C arburation, 34 problem s 30 ,

C ylind e r di s t ortion , 45 R ecord s, biplane, 1 80 1 81 -

E ngin e , 1 M onoplan e , 1 79
3
L ubri ca uo n , 31 , 32 a t R h e i m s m ee ting 179
P ropell e r, 85 1 1 4 -
R e lia b ili t y o f e n g ine s,30
P roj e cte d area of propeller blade s, se e E sn a ult F e l te r i c
1 03 R e s i s t anc e o f curv e d s ur fac e s , 1 5
offl a t s urface s, 1 5 , 2 2 5
P ropell e r ,air mo v e d by ,
s 1 08
B la de o f, 9799, 1 03
s -
H ea d , o f a m a chin e , 93 1 2 8, 200 ,

B o , t re e i a , 99
ss s ss s Lat e ral , o f a machin e, 207
R i b s o f a mai n pla n e , 1 1 9 1 4 0, 1 5 6
C al culation , 9396 , 1 08 1 1 4
s - - ,

Ch a uv iére , 99, 1 00, 1 06 , 1 78

C la e o f, 87, 1 03
ss s R o e , A V , flig h t s by , 1 93
. .

R oll s, H o n C S , fli g h ts by , 1 82 ,
D es ign , v ariab le s t o be con . . .

191 1 9 2 , 1 94
si de re d , 87
-

D i s c are a , 89 9 1 -
011 g liding , 1 98
E ffi ci e n cy o f, 1 02, 1 06 , 1 1 1 , 1 6 2 Rot a r y air co mpre ss o r s fo r t wo
F f ic t ion , s kin , o f,99, 1 03, 1 07 1 08 -
cycl e engine s, 80
H or s e power require d, 6 1 08,
e n g ine s 30, 43, 2 1 8
,
9 ,
-

R udd e r, t erm e x plai n ed , 2 2 5

1 10
I n cre a s e o f pi t ch , 98, 1 08
L i m i t o f t hru s t , 1 07
L i m itin g di am e te r o f, 88
t
S A F E TY, c o ndi t ion s o f, 4 2 20
S a n os D umo n t aeropl a n e ,
,

1 5 1,
176 1 78 -

N umber o f blade s , 85 , 87 ch a ss i s, 1 5 1
P i t ch , con s t an t , 99, 1 08 con t rol , 1 5 3
H o w to fi n d , 92 , 1 1 3 e n g ine d e tail s, 66
,
R e l a ti v e e ffi ci e n cy o f h i gh and H or s e po w er 2 8
-

,
lo w s p e ed, 1 04, 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 P o s i t ion , 1 5 1
R e s i s t a nc e o f, 34 86
0

, F ligh t s by , 1 5 1 , 1 85 1 89 ,
S h a pe o f blad e s , 87, 99, 1 03 M ain plane s , 1 5 1 , 1 76 1 77 -

S li p o f, 88, 1 0 , 1 09 4 P ro pe ll e r, 1 5 3, 1 78
S tre ss produc e d by , 1 2 9 S earigh t , T glid e r, 1 6, 1 7
.

Thr u t again s t a fi x e d poin t, 9 1 ,

s Sea t on ,A E ,application o f fo rmula,
. .

1 03
How t o fi n d, 93, 96 , 1 0 5 Calcula t ion fo r prop e ller s , 1 02
Vari at ion o f s lip pi tch ,a n d s p ee d ,
, Se i z ure due t o dis to r t ion o f cy li n
de rs , 33
Variou s type s E limina t i on o f,in G nome pi s t on s,
A ntoi n e t t e, 1 38, 1 78
47
C ody , 1 7s 1 78 , L i ab ili t y in conc e ntri c valve s ,
E sn a ult Fe lte ri c 1 43 6
5 3
-

, , 1
F a rman , 1 69, 1 78 S h o r t B roth e r s , t i mbe r u s ed , 1 1 7
Voi s in , 1 1 3, 1 60, 1 78 S im m s en g in e , 76
’

W ri g ht , 1 06 , 1 1 3, 1 5 8, 1 78 S in e o f an an g l e , 1 9, 2 40
V o o d e n , 1 1 6, 1 7
V
8 Skid s, t e rm e x plain ed , 2 2 8
W ork d o n e by ,9 1 ,9 2, 96 , 1 05 , 1 09 S k i n friction ,o f an air prope ller, 1 07
P ump i n g ai r and g a s in t o e ngi n e , limi t s d i a m e t e r o f wa te r pro
80, 2 42 pell e r, 1 03
fue l in t o en g in e , 35 , 6 7 and produ c tion o f eddie s , 1 4, 2 7
 I N DEX 5 1

S li p and t hru s t, rel at ion b e t ween , S u rfa ce, S up p m n t a ry le e

1 09, 1 1 0 S a n to s D umon t , 1 5 2
S mi t h ,H olroyd ,fa n ex pe r imen t s,97 Te rm e x plained , 2 24
Soaring, v e loc ity o f, 6 , 2 00 Voi s in , 1 64 1 6 5 -

t
Sock e t s , aluminium , 1 30, 1 31 , 2 2 7 W ri gh t, 1 5 6 1 5 7 -

Somm er, fl ig h ts by , 1 87, 1 88 S urfa cmg , me h od s o f, 1 1 9, 1 20,

S pa n o f A ntoine t t e, 1 39, 1 76 -
177
o f B lé ri o t, 148, 1 76 1 77 -
S uspe n swn o f mach i ne s , 13 4 1 35 ,
-

o f F a rman , 1 6 8, 1 77 1 40, 1 42, 1 48, 172

L imitin g o f material s, 1 2 5 of wing s, 2 4
o f S a n to s D umon t , 1 5 2 , 1 77 S u s ten t ation , area A n t oine tt e, o f,
Term e x plain e d , 2 30 13 6, 1 41 , 1 77 1 78 -

o f V oi s in , 1 60, 1 6 4, 7
1 7 B lé rio t, 1 4 8, 1 5 0
of W ri g ht, 1 5 5 , 1 77 Cod y , 1 75 , 1 78
Spars main 1 1 8, 1 1 9 1 33 2 26
, , ,
F arman , H , 1 6 5 , 1 77 1 78 .
-

,
S peed, see Ve loc i ty F arman , M , 1 72 .

Splas h lubrication , 5 3 San t o s Dumont, 1 5 2 , 1 77 1 78 -

Sp ru ce use o f, 1 1 7 1 5 5 1 72
, , ,
Table s o f vario us ma chines,
S tabili ty co ndition s o f la t eral , 1 5 ,
,
17 6 1 78
-

2 05 Voi s in , 1 5 8, 1 64 1 6 5 , 1 77 1 78 - -

E arly me th o d s o f ob t aining, 1 6 W righ t , 1 5 5 , 1 77 1 78 -

L on g itudinal , co ndi t i o n s o f, 1 7, Ve l o c i t y o f, 6, 1 1 6, 2 32
157 in re lation to w eigh t , 1 8,2 5 , 1 78
M e an s of ob t aining , 1 6, 1 6 3, 1 69,

R eg ul at io n o f, 202 , 2 03 20
TA B LE S of air, volume,a n d wei g h t,
5, 5
2 2
-

2 37
S tee l fo r c rank s haft s, s tre ng t h o f, of angl e s , 2 40, 241
60 B iplane s at R heim s , 1 81
C ylinders , 31 , 43, 6 5 6 7, 73
-

E n g in e s at O lympi a 83 84 ,
P i s ton s , 31 , 46 F abri c, 1 2 2 1 2 3 -

S tre sse s in a fusi la g e ,

e
1 2 8 1 29,
-

F lyin g s ee d s 2 4 0 ,
2 28 F r n ch y e rs 177
D ue 10 a pro pe ller, 1 2 9 L eng th s, con ve rsi o n o f, 2 38
in a prop e ll e r bl a d e, 97, 98 M ode rn engin e s, 84
in a w ing 1 31 , 2 26, M o n o pla n e r e cord s, 1 79
S tret ching; s c re ws, 1 1 9 1 2 9, , 130, M onoplan e s a n d biplan e s , P aris
2 27
176
S t ruc t ure, g ird e r form 1 2 9 P ro mme n t ma c h me s, 1 78
t t
,

St ru t s, po s ition o f, 1 1 9 1 30, , 1 32 , S re n g h o f material s, 1 2 5 -

1 26
1 5 5, 16 , 4 1 69, x7 , 2 2 6
4 W ei g ht s and mea s ure s, 2 39
22 7 W i nd pre ss ures , 2 39
S upe rpo se d plane s , 2 2 3 T ail o f B e n s on s ma chin e, 2 2
’

S u rfac e , are a o f, H e n s on s , 2 5
’
o f machin e s , 1 2 1
S uppl e m e n tary T a n g e n t o f an angle , 20
A ntoin e tt e , 1 37, 1 41 T en s ion , prope r t i e s o f m a t eri a l s in ,
B lé ri o t, 1 47 1 26
C od y , 1 74
t t
T e rms in fli g h t, 2 2 3 2 34 -

F arm a n , H , 1 69 . T h o rpe s
’
ta ble s of s re n g h o f
F arman , M , 1 72 . ma t e rial s 1 2 5 1 2 6 ,
-

F uture aeroplan e s, 2 1 9 T hru s t ag ain s t a fi x e d poin t,9 1 ,1 04

1 43 1 06, 1 1 4
25 2 I N DEX

T h rus t beari ng s fo r propeller s , 34, V oisin ae ro pla n e, po we r o f en gin e ,

s o ,5 ,
2 6 0 .
6 9
C h a tle y s fo rmula, 1 05
’
P ropell e r, 1 1 3, 1 60, 1 66
E ffi ci e n cy , 1 1 1 , 1 6 2 S pan o f, 1 64, 1 77
a n d h o rse power, re lati o n be T 1mbe r used by , 1 1 7
t ween ,1 9, 1 06, 1 07,1 1 0, 1 6 2 W e i g ht o f machin e , 1 5 8, 1 67, I 77
H ors e pow e r re quired ,2 8,1 6 1 1 6 2
- -
V o r t e x b e hi nd a prope ller, 1 00, 1 04
L i m it o f, in a propeller, 1 07
and s lip, re la t i o n be t w ee n , 1 09,
1 10
W AL K E R , W . G .
, propell e r e x pe ri

of W ri gh t prope llers, 1 06 1 6 2 men t s , 1 05

e
W arp i n g
,
T i ss andier, fll g h ts o f, 1 81 , 1 88 wing s, see G auchi ss e
of

Trac t ion, co e ffi ci e n t o f, 28 m nt
T rai li n g angle, t e rm e x plained 2 34 W a t e r circul a ti o n o f A ntoine tt e ,41
,
T ube s fo r framework , 1 1 6, 2 2 8 2 2 9 -
of B ri lli e , 64
G o bro n -

co o led e n g ines, 31 , 83
e
T u r nin g in flig h t 2 06 2 1 0 ,
-

M om n t du e t o s hi fting cen t re o f j ack e t s o f A n t o inette , 40

p re ss ure, 1 5 E liminati o n o f, 30
of 72
T wo cycl e engine, 79, 2 4
-
2
o f G reen , 7 4
o f S imm s , 7 6
Um -
s t re t ch e r s in B léri o t o f W ri g ht e n gine, 6 7
machine s , 1 30 W ebs, 2 26
We i g h t o f a e mpla n e s, A n toin e tte,
VALV E S, 70 1 4
1
E sn a ult F el t eri c , 5 3 8
x
-
B lé n o t, 1 4
b
(

h om e , 47 1 43
G o bro n B ri lli e , 6 3
-
S a n t o s Dumon t, 1 5 3
G ree n , 75 Va ri o u s tabulat ed , 1 76 1 77 -

e limina t i o n o f, 80 Voi si n , 1 5 8, 1 60, 1 6 7

P ipe , 60 W ri g h t , 1 5 5 , 1 60
Simm s, 78 o f e ngine s , 81 , 1 7 2 , 1 82

ell l
\Vrig h t, 6 7 F alling, fo r s tar t ing, 2 7, 1 5 9, 2 00
Variab l es in p ro p e r de s ign , 87 o f fue carried , 35
W in g area, 2 4, 2 1 8 and h o rse po we r, re latio n be
V c c engine s , 30, 69, 24 2 t ween , 1 9, 76, 1 78
Ve lo ci t y critical , 5 , 1 43 1 47, 200,
,
-
o f machine , 2 6, 1 7 6 1 78 -

2 09 o f magne t o , 81
offlig h t, t a ble s o f, 2 40 o f material s , 1 2 5 1 2 6 -

t
offli g h t, 4, 2 6 1 43, 1 5 5 , 1 5 8, 1 78,
. and m e a s ure s ,c o n ve rs i o n o f, 2 39
2 09, 2 1 8 M e h od o f s upportin g , 1 1 9
P ow e r r e qu i re d fo r, 35 , 1 78 o f radiator, 8 1

o f s u s t e nta t ion , 6, 1 43, 1 47, 178, s ust ain ed by a plane, 1 3, 1 8, 2 5 ,

2 09, 2 32 178
W hirling, li mi t ing , 1 2 5 W heel s , 1 34 1 35 , 1 42 , 1 48, 1 5 1 , 1 60,
-

Ve rt i cal e n g in e s , 30, 6 7, 75 , 80 1 66 , 1 70
V i b rat i o n o f en g in e s , 39, 81 W hit e , S i r W . H . on hi g h and low
,
V oi s i n ae roplan e and F a rman ’
s spe e d pro pellers , 1 04, 1 06
fli g h ts, 1 68 W i n d v e loci t y o f, 209, 2 39
,
M an i pulat ion o f W in g s , se e Plan e s
'

2 02 , 2 34
M achi n e, 1 5 4, 1 5 8 o f H e n s o n s machin e , 2 3
’

P ass eng e r carry i n g , 1 6 1 S u s p e n s i on o f, see W i re