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  

 
 

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   


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5169111-3  5168514     
     365
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E-mail: tehreek@minhaj.org

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   
   
   

      
  
   
  
  

  
   
 
  

 
   
   
  
      
 2001   
   
1100   

  225  

              


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   
5


21  

27         


29     
   
32 

 1

33 
  2

53      



57  
   3

59   4

60  
    5

61   
 -i
63    -ii

63      -iii

66   6

66    
 7

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   
6
70    
  8

73    


   
 
79    
     9

81 (Qur'anic Sciences)      10

84  11
(Astronomy)  

88  
(Math, Algebra, Geometry)      12
89 (Physics, Mechanics, Dynamics)       
  13

90 (Optics) 
 14
91 
(Botany)   15
94 (M edical Sciences)  16

98 (Pharmacology)    
 17
100 (Surgery)   18
  
102 (Ophthalmology) 
 19
103 (Anaesth esia)     20

104  21
(Chemistry)  

106 (Fine Arts)  22

106 (Law & Jurisprudence)  


 23

111 (Historiography & Sociology)   
 24
(Geogr aphy & Communication)  
111  25

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   
7
115       26

123      


    
126  
 27

126 

129  
130 
132 
134   
135 
137   28

150      29

153   30

155 (M edical Sciences) 

158 (Astronomy)  



161 
(Botany)  

164        31

170  
   
172       32

173 (Paper industry)   33

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   
8
176   34
(Textile engineering) 

179 (Watches) 


 35

180 (Kinetic energy) 


  36
181 (Chemical technology)   37

183 (Ordnance)  38

184 (Aeroplane )   39

186   40
(Civil engineering) 

186 

188   
 
191  
192     41

197    
       
199     
   
207 
    42

207   
     43

210   
 
211  

217     
       44

219  
       45

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   
9
221       46
222    
   47
229 The Conquest of Space 48

235         


  
238    
   49

241       50

242   51

242   -1
   

243     -2
243   (Ptolemy) -3
244  (Arzac hel)   -4


246  (Copernicus)   -5
246  (Tycho Brahe)   -6
247  (Galileo)  -7
248  -8
 (Kepler ) 

248  (Newton)  -9
249  (Einste in)   -10
249     
  52

251     


   

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   
 10 
256     53

256 (Physical science s)    -1

257 (B iological science s)    -2

258 (Psychological science s)   -3

258 
 
 54

261  
 
 55

262  
  
 56

264   
 57

265  
    58

269 
     
271 
       
 
276 (Stars)   59

279 (Black holes)    60

282 
(Come ts)   61
285 (The Sun)  62

286    

287 (Solar calendar) 

289 (Plane ts)   63

294 (The Earth)   64

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   
 11 
303  65
(The M oon) 

304 (Lunar calendar) 

309   
313   
        
317 (Big Bang theory)  66

322   


    67

326       68

329   69

330  70
(Theory of Relativity)     

  
335            
  
339 
      71

339  
-1

340  
-2

341  
-3

342   -4
343   -5
344    -6
348      72

349      


  

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   
 12 


352    
353  
      
355      (Spa ce-time)   -    
360    73

361 
362     74

365    
   75

366   
   76

369    
   77

372   
    78

376    


  79

379    
       80

382  
     81


385          

389    
   82

391     


    83

393   
    84

397   85

397   86

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   
 13 
 

401         
407      87

408  
   
 88

409   89

410 (Proterozoic Era) 


   -1
410 (Palaeozoic Era)   -2

411 (M esozoic Era)    -3

412 
(Cainozoic Era)   -4

414     
   90

419 (Darwinism)               
422          91

425       92

426   -1
427    -2
   
428      -3
  
429     -4
429 
   -5

430 
  -6
431  (Survi val of the fi ttest)   -7

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   
 14 
431  -i

432 
  -ii
432 
     -iii

433    -8
434  -9
434  
(Physics)    -i

435 (M athematics) 
 -ii
435 (Biolo gy)   -iii

437  
  93


439     
  (Expanding
    universe)
441   94

443   


      95

444   (Doppler Effect)  


     96

445  
     97

449        (Black
 Hole)       
451   (Black Hole)    98

452     (Black


 Hole)    99

455   
   (Black Hole)    100

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   
 15 
    (Bl ack H o le )    101
456   

457    


  102

458       


 103

460 
  
      
 104

461           

464      
   105

470  
   106

473   (Big Crunch)   


  107

476      108


(Gaseous state) 

479 (Black Hole)     109

486      


 110

489   
       
491  
         
493      111

494 -1
(Inorganic matter)  

495 (Water)   -2

496 (Clay)  -3

497 (Adsorbable clay)   -4

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   
 16 
498    -5
(Old physically & c hemica lly a ltered mud)

502  
  -6
(Dried & highly purified c lay)
504 (Ext ract of purified clay)    -7

505      


  112

507    
   
 
 113

511          


 
513 (M itotic division in uterus)   
  114
515  (M ingled fluid) 
 115
515 (Spe rm)     -i
515 (A liquid poured out)    -ii
517 (A despised liquid)    -iii
517 (Mingled fluid)     -iv

518 (M itotic division)  116

519    (Single  117


life cell)   

520 (Uterus)      118


520    (Hanging mass) 
 119
521     
   
 120

526   (Emb ryo )  121


   
534     
   122

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   
 17 
536    
   123
541   
    124

541 (Nourishment)  -i

542 (Protection)  -ii

542   -iii


(M ovement) 

 

  -iv
542 (Control of temperature) 

543   
     
 
546   
  
 125
547     
 
   -1

548   -2


549   -3


549   -4


550  
 
   -5


550   -i

 
552   -ii

 
553   -iii

 
555  
 126
556   -1

557   
  


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   
 18 
557   

   
558 

559  
  
561  -2


561 
 
561 
562  
562   
562   

563  

566  -3
 
568 
    
 127
571 
      

576  
 128

576   
    129

578  130

580      131

582  132

584    
   133

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   
 19 
585    134

587    
 135

589 
590 
590 
590 
591 

591 
591       136

594  137

595 
(M eat) 

596    
(Beef) 

597   
(M utton)  
598  
(White meat) 

599 (Fig & Olive) 

601 (Honey) 

603 

604 (Grape s) 

605 (Gar lic) 

605 (Onion)  

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   
 20 
606  138

606 
(Pork) 
608 (Drin king) 

610         139

612     140

613    141

614   
  142

     143


617 (Genetic engineering) 

623   

683  

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   
 21 

 

                
    
         
    
       
          

         
 
   
       
      
   
             
  
      
          

              
 
  
  

           
     
     
        
      
          
    
                 
                  
  
   
       (experiment)
   
 (scientific method) 
    

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   
 22 
             
   


 

   
 
       
    
 
 
       
               

     
            
              
     
     
    
    
  
            
    
           
     
     
     


          
                  
    
        

   

           
  
           
       
          
    
                   
   
         1492  2
 

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   
 23 
      
      
              
  
             
 
     
       
              
              
              
                 
 
            
   
    
        

                
            
    
 

             


                
          
              
                   
      
     
         
      
    

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 24 
        
     

      
            

 
   
  
  
 
         
                  
               
        
   
       
          
             
            
      
   

             
 
  
              
          
 
          
     
          

   
       
 
          
 

 
             
 
           
  
  

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    
     
   
                
                 
           
   
     
 
       
      
         
  
         
    
               
  
      
             

    
       
              
     
        
         
  

   

 
 
    
 
th
Fri. 25 M ay 2001

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  

 
     

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  

 
    

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 
   
   
   

   
          
 
   
         
  
     
          
 
        
      
      
       
 
        
                 
    
     
     
          
     
  
 
     
    
       
(human   (un iverse)         

 
       
    life)



   
         
 

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  
 32 
  
          
    
   
          
  

  
                
           
 
  
            
  


      
    

         
   
     
     
 
   




            
     
       

    
    
 
                
   
               
   

o   O    
  

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  
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  
    
        
       
               
O    
o     

   
   O           
o      
         O      
        
o   
 
 
       O           
   
     
o    
  
   
                
o    O    
   


   
                   
     
             

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  
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               
             

  
                   
                      
               
  
                
        
           
          O    
   
         
         

       
    
 
o 

                   


      
             
            O    
      o  
                 
 
      
          
               
              

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  
 35 
            O     
    
        
     
      
 
      
        

     

       
 
     
o  

    
            
               
        
 O        
   
   
       
  
o 

                     


                    

      
             
                  
       O            

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  
 36 

                
             

    o             
      
       
  

                 
               
      
    O    
   
          
       
  
    

      
 
    
o

                   


     
  
              
   
              O    
                   
   
              
       O          
  
   o  
     

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       


   
      
     
 
o  

                  


                      
      
          
          
     
   
   

                      
    
           
   
                
       O    
        

o 

      
           
                    
   
                  

                 

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 38 
     
  
 O    
   
       

o 

     
              

                   
     
              
                

     O   
          
   
     

   
     
o    

                    



 
                
                     
   
       
      
                  
          O   
   
  
        


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  
 39 

   
       
 
   
     

o

  
                 
     
   O           
           

   
         
         
o   

                


 
                   
          O             
                  
         
                 
      o            
            O     
 
                  

                    

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  
 40 
            O        
               
      
            
                    
     o             
       
 O    
      -   
    

       
  
     

   o  

      
  
       
    
 
    
 
  
    
o  
  
          
         
      
          
     
             

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  
 41 
  
o         O   
                     
     
   
 O        
o     
                     
      
 O  
o    
        
        
         O    
o     
 
     O         
o     
         
           
       
  O          
    
    
o  

 

 
          
  
          
    
                
              

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  
 42 
   
       O         
    o                
 
     
            
       O            
  
     
          
       

      

 
o  

                     


      
            
    
      O           
  
                  
                 
    
            
    o            

 
                  
  
                  
                      
                  

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  
 43 

    
  O             
           
   
     
 
    
    
    
    
 
          
       
     

o 

                  



                
         
       


                   
      
   
            
   
   
           
            
             

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  
 44 
   
 O         
         

    
o  
     
             
 
     
             
   
      O  
   
      

      
     
  
  
o 
                 
 
               

                   
    
   O         
     
   
o

                      


   
              
    
            
   
     
               

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  
 45 
         O         
         
      
  
       
     
  
       
     
   
    
    

       
o 

                 


                
       
     O       

      
 O       
          
   
  
   o 
  
      
       
o  
   

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  
 46 
    
                 
        
            
   
             
      
   O             

         
           
  
                  
                O         
  o               
           O          
                  

      
          
       O     
     
  
 -   
   o    
 
  
       
  
   
 
        
  
    
        
  o  
  
 

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  
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        
      

         
  
   
   
o  

    
             
                   
         



              
                    
     
          O    
                      
        
  O          
     
       
     o


   
    
     
     


   
  
 
      

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  
 48 
 
o 

                    


                    
                  
       
O   
  
     
  
        
 
        
o    
        
          
     
            
    
     O      
     
    
   

o  

      
            
                   
   
              
o   O   
  
                        
     
                 

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  
 49 

       
           
    
           
      
  
       O    
          

o 

                    


                 
                   
                 

 
                
    
   O            
          
 
     
o   

                 


                
      
              
   
  O      
    
o      

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  
 50 
 
    
                 
         
 O      
             
o 

         
        
  
            
    
  
 
  

o      
       

            
      
   O     
        
 
o

   
  
              

         O       O  


       o
         
                 O 
   o               O  
       O       O   
          O         

        o -    

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 51 

       

      



       
    o  
      
           
    
  o 
       
      
   o 
 
    
  
     
  o

    
 

o   

     
      O     
         O     
 o    
         O   
 
       O 
          -   

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  
 52 

       
      o

      o 

o

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  
 53 

   


      

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   
 55 

      
    
 
    
           
         
     

   
      
    
   
  
    
     


        
        
    
            
            
  
         
         
       

               
 
  
 (Cosmology)
     
               
 


                  

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   
 56 
     
             
           O    

      o                   
       
 
           
                   
             
        O     
           
 
       
         
      
  
         
  
     
    
 
     

      
o 

              
 
      
          
  
  
    
     
 

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   
 57 
  
 
           
                 
 
   

          
   
   
              
                
                

 

           
   


          

      
 
  
  (cosmology)       
 
 

 
   
            
    
  (contemporary knowledge) 
    
 
   
       
               
 
     
        
 
          
   
 
    
              

       
   

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          
  (Creator)   
 
        (creation)  
 

 
 
     
       
 
                
  

          
   
  
        
       
      
    
 

         
 
       
 

              
       
         
      
      
        
       
        

  
     (internal    
 
signs) 

   (external 
signs)      
       
        

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  

   
 
              

 
         
       
    
     
        
              
         
         
     (conflict & contradiction) 
  


        
   
        
      

          
  
  
 
         
 
            
  
        
      
         
           
           
  
  
    
  
                 
    
 
        

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            
  

          
      
    
  
           
    
  
   
     
      
    
  
    
         
  

               

             
   
           
    

           
 
    
    

 
     
       
 
            
   
    
(conflict)   
    
          
    
        
               
   

 
           

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          
 

    
           
         
 
           
    

  
    
        
        
          

        

  
 -1
 
                 
                  
 
 
 
    
         
        
(trial & error)     

      
        
        
        
 
              
   

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               
  
 
              
               
         
   
       
   
    
  
           
                   
(human       
    

     
   ac q u i r e d wis d o m)


 
        (God-gifted wisdom)

       
   
     

   
 (certainty & finality)       
         
     
   
   

(degree of       (hypothesis)
 
   
        probability)

    
      (law)    
 
           
        
      
        
       
 
   
              
 

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   
 63 

     -2

 
             
 
             
   
  
               

                 
   
        
     
         
       
             
                 
         
       
             

 
(meta  
     (physical
     
 world)

     
   physical world)
      (nature)   
 
         (supernature)  
         

      -3

          
   
                 

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   
 64 
     
        
            
  
      
            
                 
 
                 
 
      
(functions)    

        
       
 
            


 
   (trial & error)          
        
   
    

      
   
      
 
    
      
       
    
      
   
   
   
    
   
 
 
   
          
  
  (ab so lut e )   (u n c han geab le )
          
   
  
  
 
               

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   
 65 
     
           
         
     

     
         (trial & error)

 
          
   
             
   

            
 
     (trial & error)    
     
 
     (metaphysical)     

   
 
            
 
               


      
 
                     
       
       
 
   
 
              
 
              

   
       
        

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   
 66 
                
    
  

   
   
   
            
     
 
      
       
 
           
 
  
    

  
       
    
      
        
    
            
 
          
    
         
     
     

  

 
            
 
       
        
 

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   
 67 
         
 
  
   
     
      
       
      
               
 
       
   
  
 
              
  
  
 
 
          
   
   
           
    
              
         
     

       
 
  

      
     
    
           

             
   
        

  
  
   1609      
   
         

    
                
 
    
     
     

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   
 68 
 
    
        
  
         
       

 
             
 
 
        
    
               
 
      
  (r e ac t io n )          

                
                
           

             
       
          
          

    
            
          
     
        
   
  
      
    
          
   


                 
          
     

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   
 69 
  (B a g h d a d )    (S p a i n ) 
    
        
 (Damascu s)
 (Asian 
section)        
           
    
             
  
      
  
      
            
    
    
        
             
     
         
 (dark ages)   

     


           
     
           
 
             
          
           
     
       
        
   
             
 
 

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   
 70 

 
         
           
    

               
 
            
       
     
         
  
              
       
       
        
   

             
  (Theory of Relativity)     

       
   
"S c ie n c e wit h o ut re ligio n is lame an d r e ligion

without science is blind".



          
    

          


   
   
            

 
         

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   
 71 
        
   
    
   
         
               
       
   
      

 

            
   
           
              
  
   
  
            

      
           
       
      
  
       
    

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 

     


  

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
       
    
 

                
    

         

   

  
            
   
              
         
                  
                  
    
    
        
 
               
  
          
       

     
     
 

  
  
         
        
     
     
    
   

                 
           
  
 
  ( P l a t o )   (S o c r at e s )    
   

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     
 
     (Aristotle)
    (Ale xand ria)    (Greece)
  
  
            
      
         
        
       
      
     
          
                   
 
               
             
    
 
    
   
 
   
    O           
            O        
 o   
     O      
    
             O 
o        
 O  
              
       o
 o 
   
         


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   
o     

         
   
 

   
          
     
  
         
         
         
           
      
        
            

     
  
           
                 
  
          
  
           
  
     
         
  
       
    
                

  
   
    
    
       
       
      

      
       

   
                
(u n i ve r s al             

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    ph e n o me n o n )   
(human world)      
      
 
      
   
       

  
      
      
 
        
    
   
   
          
 
           
(sciences)  

   

         
           
        
 
  
   
             
      
       

                 
           
     150   
        
        
     
Catalogue of A rabic Manuscripts (xxi) Fasciule 2 by J.
J. Witkam, (Leiden University Press, Leiden, 1984)

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   
 79 

    
     
       
        
 
    (education & literacy)     
 
600   
  (Sic ily)   

                

   
        3,000 
  (B agh d ad )    ( Hal ab )   (Damas c u s) 
  
   (Jerusalem)   
   (Egypt)   (Mosul)

  (Central Asia) 
 
 (Cordoba)
          
  
         
  
  6,000
(law       
       
 63           and jurisprudence)
    
   4     11   52   
      
   (medical sciences)  

  631       
 
    
             
   

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   
 80 
            

   
      
      62  62
  

     
     
 86  
            96 
 
(mobile   
  (dispensar ies) 
  
(medical aid centres) 
    medical units)

     
        
 
 indoor patients           
  
                 

            

 
1- Department of Systematic Diseases
2- Ophthalmic department
3- Surgical department
4- Orthopaedic department
5- Department of mental diseases

(medical    


  
medical     ,     colleges)
(N o o rie           
 sc ie n c e

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   
 81 
 (Ibn-i-Tulun Hospital)   
     Hospit al)
 
    
       
     medical sciences  
   
      
         
 
           
  
      

    371  (Azdi           
Hospital)  
     (N o o r ie Ho s p it a l)      

(M o ro cc an      (M an su r i
 H o sp it al)

           Hospit al)


   
 
     

 
      
         
              

   
       
    
 
   
  ( Co r d o b a )        


  (Tarabulus)    (Baghdad )    (Granada)

    


      



(Quranic Sciences)    
  
  
      
    
 

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   
 82 
             
   
                 
          
     
              

     
   
            77,450
     
      
  
(th eology)  

(pro nun ciation )     


  

(grammer & syntax)

(mor pho logy)  


(exe gesis)  
(linguistic s)  
(science of fundamentals)  
(science of branches)  
(the olo gy)  
(law & jurisprudence)     
  
(law of inheritance)  

(crimin olo gy)  


(science of war)  
(histor y)   
(th eosoph y)  

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   
 83 

(oneiromancy)  
(literature)   
  
(rhetoric)       

(algebra)   


(polemics)   
(philosophy)  
 

(psychology)  

(ethics)   
(political science)  
 
(sociology)  

(culture)  
 
  

(calligraphy)

(economics)  

(chemistry)  
(physics)   

(biology)  
(botany)  
 
(agronomy)  
(zoology)    
 
(medical science)  
(pharmacology)   

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   
 84 
(embryology)   

 
(cosmology)   
 
(cosmogony) 
(astronomy)   

(geography) 
 
(geology)   
(archaeology)    
 (timekeeping)   
   
      
      

       
     
  
           
 
    

        

(Astronomy) 
   
  
        
 
      
    
     
         
       
  
          
  
  Prof Hitt i   
Not only are most of the star  names in

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   
 85 
Eu ro p ean langu ages of Ar abic o rigin s  b ut a
nu mb e rs o f t e ch nic al t e rms  are like wise o f
Arabic etymology and testify to the rich legacy of
Islam to Christian Europe."

(History of the A rabs, pp.568-573)

  
       
    
              
   
 
 
 
   
            
  
           Averroes
 
        Gregorian 
 (sun spots) 

 
            
              

   (timekeeping)        
 
  
  
           
  
(timekeeping)             
           
  
               

              
  

    
   
(History of the Arabs, pp.373-378)

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   
 86 
     
          

                    
 
           
              
    
   
             
      
   
    
 
    
 
(o b se r vat i o n al      
  

    almanac      astronomy)
             
           
  

        

 (figures of the stars) 
  
       
      
  

 
   
  Alhazen  
 
 (astrology)      
   (astronomy)    
 
          
    
           
 
 
      (Cordoba)  
    
(Planetarium)     
      
   
   
        
     


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 87 
                 

 (al-Biruni)      
          

  equatorial instruments   (Azarquiel)  
 
         
   
   
      (lunar & solar eclipses)
 
    
            
To le d an          
        
 Astronomical Tables
        
"M uslim astr ologers also disco vere d (arou nd
the t hirt een th ce ntu ry) t he syste m for giving t he
ep h eme rid s o f t h e sun an d th e mo on --- lat er
extended to the other planets --- as a function of
concrete annual dates. Such was the origin of the
almanacs whic h we re t o b e so wid ely use d wh en
trans-oceanic navigation began."

(The Legacy of Is lam , pp. 474-482)

        

    
  
      
            

        
   
                

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   
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     
       

(Mathematics, Algebra, Geometry)    



      
    
  
    algo r it h m   
a lgo r ism     


              
 (al-Khwarizimi)
       
  
   
    
     
   
            (textbook)
  (integration)  
      
             (equation)
        trigonometrical functions

(zero)            tangents
 
   250       
 
                
 
     
                 
trigonometry 
 geometry algebra  arithmetic  
              
    
  
   mechanics optics   

70  
 
 mathematics      
 

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   
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          ,  

      
         
  

  
 mathematics

(Physics, Mechanics, Dynamics)    




               
               
  

  
        
         
 
          

  (cosmology )    
        (Aristotole)     
   
 
           
       

          (velocity)    (motion)

     
  
         
 weight  measurements  atmosphere  density  
c ap illar y  gr avit at io n  ve lo c it ie s  t ime  sp ac e

       
   attraction
     (physics)  
 mechanics     
 
  
           
 dynamics
 
  (optical  
thesaurus)   
    

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   
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 
 dynamics       

  
                 
  
  galileo        
    
         gravitational force

 
    momentum     
 
   lever         

 
 
     
 liber karatonis   
mechanical        
    
      godgets  devices

(Optic s)  

  
    (optics)   
      (Arnold) 
     
         
         
"On     
          
   
   
           Optics"
 
      magnifying power  lenses 

   
      
   magnifying lenses

       (nature of vision)    


   (rays)         
   

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   
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     (external objects)     

     (retina)   


   
  (brain)     optic
    nerve    

  
   
Euclid          

              Kepler  


  
   (optics) 
     

 Peckham  Witelo Roger Bacon     

  Newton  Kepler  


      
 light  velocities  
   
      
 mete oro lo gy  ast ron omical ob se rvations  lenses
       
  
        camera
      
     

(Botany )  
 
        
    
Encyclopaedia Botanica     

     




    


  Strassburg  

"Anyho w it is asto nish in g e no ugh th at th e

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   
 92 
entire botanical literature of antiquity furnishes us
only two parallels to our book (of Dinawari). How
was it that the M uslim people could, during so early
a period of its literacy life, attain the level of the
people of such a genius as the Hellenic one, and
even surpassed it in this respect."

(Zeits chrift fuer As s yriologie, Stras s burg, vols. 25,44)

          


    
        
   
        
     
                  


    
            
  
 biological science      
  
  

   (Spain) 


      
     

       


 

 
       585    

   
    
 
 (botany) 
 
 Hitt i 
"In th e fie ld o f natu r al h isto r y espe cially
botany, pure and applied, as in that of astronomy

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   
 93 
and mathematics, th e western M uslims (o f Spain)
enriched the world by their researches. They made
accurate observations on the sexual difference (of
various plants)."

(Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Is lam. pp. 385-387)

         


    
     
    
   
           

               
 
  
   
 
 
      
(Cordoba)     

  
         
     

        
  (botany)  
         (medical sciences) 

        
    
 
                    
           
         
     
              


            
             
    

    
     (botanist) 
     


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               
                
  

    
    
     
   

(Medical Science) 
 
     
       
    
     
           
   
    
          
       (medical colleges)     
 
      (p harmacy)
   
(surgery) 

(Islamic Science, S.H. Nasr, pp.156)


 

        
      
  200 (medical
      
science)  


    
           
  1866
40      
  1498    

   
 measles  smallpox 

 
     
    (Avicenna)      
     
      (Canon of M edicine)

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         
   
 1650     
        
  

  pharmacology        
            
  
        ophthalmology

 textbooks   medical colleges     
 
 
   E. G. Browne    
           
 

     
          
     
         
  
The practice of medicine was r egulated in
the M uslim world from the tenth century onwards.
At one time, Sinan ibn Thabit was Chairman of the
Board of Examiners in Baghdad. Pharmacists were
also regulat ed an d t he Ar ab s p ro du ce d t he first
phar amc opia dru g sto res. Barb er sh ops were also
sub je ct to insp ec tion . Trave llin g h ospitals we re
kn o wn in t h e e le ve n t h c e n t u r y Th e gr e at
hospital of al-M ansur, founded at Damascus around
1284 AD, was open to all sick persons, rich or poor,
male or female, and had separate wards for men
and wo me n. One ward was set apart fo r fevers,

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another for ophthalmic cases, one for surgical cases
an d o n e fo r d yse n t r y an d kin d r e d in t e st in al
ailme n t s. Th e r e we r e in ad d it io n , kit c h e n s,
lecture-rooms, a dispensary and so on.

(E. G. Br owne, Arabian M edicine, pp.101)

  
            
      
  
        
         
  
           

            
   (mobile)           
 
  
        1284   

        
        
             
 (fever
    ward)   
      
(surgical 
    
 (eye ward)    
      (d y s e n t r y )  
   war d )

           (intestinal ailments)


    
           
  
        
  
         

             
   

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    
             
    
"Their medical studies, later translated into
Latin and th e Euro pean langu ages, reve ale d t heir
advan ce d kno wled ge of b lo od circ ulat ion in t he
human body. The work of Abu`l-Qasim al-Zahrawi,
Ki tab al-Tasri f, on sur ge r y, was t ran slat ed in to
Latin by Gerard of Cremona and into Hebrew about
a c en tur y later b y S he m-tob b en Isaac. An oth er
important work in this field was the Kitab al-Maliki
of al-M ajusi (died 982 AD), which shows according
to B r own e t hat t h e M u slim p h ysic ian s h ad an
elemen t ar y c on ce p tion of t h e cap illar y syst e m
(o pt ic) an d in t he wo krs of M ax M eye rh o f, Ib n
al-Nafis (died 1288 AD) was the first in time and
rank of the precursors of William Harvery. In fact,
he propounded the theory of pulmonary circulation
th r e e c e n tu r ies b e fo r e M ic h ae l S er ve tu s. Th e
blood, after having been refined must rise in the
arterious veins to the lung in order to expand its
volume, and to be mixed with air so that its finest
par t may b e c lar ifie d an d may r each the ve nou s
artery in which it is transmitted to the left cavity of
the heart.

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(Ibn al-Nafis and his Theory of the Lasser Circulation,
Islamic Science, 23:166, June, 1935)

                


   
    
      

 
            
   Gerard  Cremona       
 
 
   Shem-tob ben Isaac        

       
    982         
  
     
            
                   

   1288    
       
   
                  
   
       
     
  
            
       
           
  
    
  

  
             

    
    

(Pharmacology)    
       Gulick   Seirton
 
 
 (collection of simple      
drugs)   

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 (b otany) 
          
 
          
(Spain)  
    
       
 (Syria)  
    
         1,400   

 150        

    
Ibn al-Baytr wrote the Collection of Simple
Dru gs, wh ic h is r egar de d as t he gr eate st Ar ab ic
boo k o n bo tany of t he age. He c ollec te d plan ts,
her bs an d d ru gs aro un d t he M e dit er rane an fro m
Sp ain t o S yria an d d e sc rib e d mo r e t han 1400
medicinal drugs, comparing them with the records
of over 150 writers before him.

 (pharmacologists)       


          
    
            Albucasis  
  
    
    
  Aben Bethar 

    (Ibn Rushd)     medicine  
              
 
            (textbook)   
          colliget  

(Islamic Science , p.181)   

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(Surgery)  
  
         
   
  Hitti 
Albucasis (1013 AD) was not only a physician
but a surgeon of the first rank. He performed the
most difficult surgical operations in his own and the
obstetrical departments. The ample description he
has left o f the surgical instru men ts emplo yed h is
time gives an idea of the development of surgery
among the Arabs in lithotomy, he was equal to the
fo r emo st su r ge o n s o f mo d er n time s. His wor k
al-Tasrif li -Man Ajaz an al-Ta'ali f (an aid t o him
who is not equal to the large treatises) introduces
or emp hasise s n ew id eas. It was t ranslated in to
Lat in b y Ge rar d of Cre mon a an d vario us e dit io ns
were published at Venice in 1497 AD, at Basle in
1541 AD and at Oxford in 1778 AD. It held its own
for centuries as the manual of surgery in Salerono,
M ontpellier and other early schools of medicine."

(Hitti, History of A rabs, pp.576-577)

 
              
     
           

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            
   
       
   
  
Lithotomy     
         
                  

            
   

  1497        Gerard  (Cremona)
      1778  
     1541   
   
       
       

        
 
    
       
Al-Zah rawi's ran k in the art of surgery was
paralle led by t hat o f Ib n Zuh r (Aven -Zo ar) in th e
sc ie nc e of me dic in e (1091-1162 AD). O f th e six
medical works written by them three are extent.
Th e mo st valu a b le is al-Tay sir fil-M u d awat
al-Tadbir (the Facilitation of Therapy and Diet). Ibn
Zuhr is hailed as the greatest physician since Galen.
At least he was the greatest clinician in Islam after
al-Razi. Ib n Z u h r wr o t e an ot h e r b o o k, Ki tab
al-Aghdh iyah (the Boo k of Diet s) whic h is amo ng
the best of its kind dealing with the subject.

(Islamic Science, p.181)

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   
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      (medicine)     
   
   
             (surgery) 

    
 
      
    

       
          
              
   
        
         (clinic)

          

(Ophthalmology)   

             
 Tadhkirat al-Kahhalin      
     
   
       
  
Tractus de Oculis Jesu 
      
 
     
        
 ben Hali

   
       
       
         
     
      
 
M u slim p h ysic ian s also ad d e d valu ab le
knowledge to another branch of medicine, Ali ibn
Isa wrote the famous work, Tadhkirat al-Kahhalin
(Tr e asu r y o f O p h t h almo lo gist s) an d Abu Ru h

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   
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M u h ammad al-Ju r an i en t it le d Z ar rin d ast (t h e
Golden Hand) wro te Nur al-A in (the Light o f th e
Eye). The last book has served practitioners of the
art for cen tur ies. Ali ib n Isa's wo rks wer e taugh t
eve rywh er e an d eve n t r an slat e d in t o Latin as
Tractu s de Oc uli s J esu b en Hali . M any o f t h e
te ch nical te rms pe rt ainin g t o op ht halmo lo gy in
Lat in as we l l a s in so me mo d e r n Eu r o p e a n
languages, are of Arabic origin, and attest to the
influence of Islamic sources on this subject.

(Is lamic Scien ce , pp.166-167)

(Anaesthesia)    

    
           
         
  
 
  
            
 
     
               
       
       
  
 
Ali ib n Isa was also t h e fir st p e rso n t o
propose the use of anaesthesia for surgery. Another
per so n ap pe are d at th is time in Tunis, Ish aq ibn
Sulaiman al-Isr aili, who p ractised oph th almolo gy

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   
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and his works were also translated into Latin and
Hebrew languages.

(Is lamic Scien ce , p.178)

(Chemistry) 
 
    

        
  
     
      

           

             
   
       (hypothesis & speculation)

       
   (objective experimentation)

        (A l c h e my )    


  crystallization  sublimation  evaporation
            
   
 
 
              
 
        The Jabirean Corpus  
   (The Seventy Books ) 
(The Book of  



 
         
     Balance)
          
   
 
   
     
       
           
   

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   
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  
       Abucasis    Avicenna   
  Rhazes
             Alhazen

     
  
     
            
 
  (Arabic      
origin)  

  
        
1. Pro f. Hitt i, History of th e A rab s, pp .578-579
(London, 1974).
2. A and R. Kah an e, The Krater and the Grai l,
Herm eti c S ou rc es of the P arz i val, Ur b an a
(Illinois, 1965).
3. Cor bin , En Islam irani en vo l.2, c hap.4 (P ar is,
1971).
4. F.a.Yate s, Giordana Bru no and the Hermetic
Tradition (London, 1964).
5. Syed Hu sain N asir , Islami c S ci en ce (Lon do n,
1976).
6. George Sorton, An Introduction to the History
of Science.
7. Briffault, The Making of Humanity.
8. Sc haclt. J and Bo swo rt h C.E. Th e Legac y of
Islam (Oxford, 1947).
9. Watt-W.M . and Cachina P, A History of Islamic

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   
 106 
Spain (Edinlwrgh).
10. Ro b e r t Gu lic k L.J u n io r , Mu h am m ad , Th e
Educator (Lahore, 1969).

(Fine Arts)  
       
      

    
     (calligraphy)     
      (architecture)
 (decorative art) 
        
  
   
    

       
        
     
 
  

               

 (music)
(architecture   (calligraphy)  
 & decorative
      (painting)  art)

  
    
   
      
     
  
     

(Law & Jurisprudence) 


   
      
        

       
         
     
    

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   
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  
        
    
    -1

  
private  public international law      
      
       international law
     
     
             
     oppeheim  strake      
   
 
      (law)     
       30

   
          
      
                  
    
         
        
 
     
     
 dark ages      
              
 

          
 
          -2

     
        
      
      
 

         
     

       
 
     
   comparative case law -3

         


  

  
       
      
  
   (c o n st it u t io n al
  law)   -4

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   
 108 
(The 
  
      
     
    (articals)  63   Pact of M adina)

 
    
   
      
     
    
    
   
     
     

   King John   
        1215
  
    593      (M agna Carta)
         
    
   622 
 

  
              
   (written constitution)   
  
  
    
    

     
   
   
   
    
        
     
       
 
      500  
    322      300  
         
      
 (Athenian
 Constitution )         
   1891     
             
   
        
     
     
  
       
 
 
  
    
              
  
           
  
       
  
       
  

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   
 109 
    
   
 
                  

     
           
      
               
      
  

                 
   
     
          

  (judiciary)  (executive)   (legislature)

     
   
           
  
  
         
     

     

      
    
(juristic &      Common law -5

           legal codes)



 
  (parts & chapters)    
 (family laws)    (r e ligiou s laws)   

(penal 
 (civil & contractual laws)   
(procedural &       (fiscal laws)   laws)
  
       
  evidence laws)
        
          
  
  
    
    
       
           
  

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   
 110 
 
   
  
      
  
    
        
 
      
         
                
  
   
            
    
         
  
      
   
          
                    
    
    
                            


                
 
          
 
                       
  
                      
 Case law     
  
   
  
       (judicial
   decisions)  

    
        
  
   

 
 administrative law  fiscal & taxation law -6

                


     
    
   

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   
 111 

(Historiog raphy & Sociology)    



 
        
        
   
   
  
             
 
 
   5           
    
          
      
             
       

 
        
     
 
              
    
    
   
      
     
     
   
      
     
       
    
   
      socio logy political thought  
            
  
   
    
    
    

   

(Geography & Communications)    


     
    
     
         
     
    

 (Egypt)    (Central
 Asia) 
  
   
   topo grap hy geogr aphy       

            

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   
 112 
            

 
    (alphabetic
      order)

 
             
          cartography  
      (circular shape)   

     
     (mediterranian sea)

        
 9             
 (Nile)  
           
  
 6,670          
  (sources)  
   
      
 
    
  

 

       
        
 (dictionary) 
           
   (alphabetic   
order) 

 
 (Image of the Earth)      
  

     
     
      
      
   
     
       Prof.
  Hitti  


       

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   
 113 
"The bulk of this scientific material, whether
ast r o n o mic al, ast r o lo g ic al o r ge o gr a p h ic al,
pene trated t he we st th rough Spanish and S icilian
channels."

(History of the A rabs , pp.383-387)

 
 
          
      
    
       
  

         (S p ai n ) 

         (Sicily)
  (geography)  
      
           
   1331     
       (official map)    (China)
    
(Islamic Culture, 8:514, Oct.1934)

 (Scandinavia)  
    
    
      (Russia)   (Kazan)    (Finland)  
      
         
Vasco de      
         
 
              G a ma

            (compass)
 
          

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   
 114 
    tariff  monsoon  cable admiral  arsenal
       
 
        
         
   
 
    
   
    
           
       
 
          
      
  
   
     
      
  15  10   
           
    

               
    

    
            
 
              


           
    
 
     


             
        
   
    
                  

      
    
     
    
        
   
              

      


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   
 115 

       

         

       
       

          
     
            
  
   
         
       

The coming of Islam six hundred years after
Christ, was the new, powerful impulse. It started
as a local event, uncertain in its outcome; but once
M uh ammad c onq uer ed M akkah in 630 AD, it too k
the southern world by storm. In a hundred years,
Islam conquered Alexandria, established a fabulous
city of learning in Baghdad and thrust its frontier to
the east beyond Isfahan in Persia. By 730 AD the
M uslim Empir e re ac hed fro m S pain an d So ut her n
Fr an ce t o t h e bo r d e rs o f Ch in a an d In d ia. An
emp ir e of sp ec tacu lar str en gt h and grace wh ile
Europe lapsed into the Dark Age  M uhammad had
bee n fir m th at Islam was n ot t o b e a re ligio n o f
mir acle s, it b ec ame in int e lle c t u al c o nt e n t a
pattern of contemplation and analysis.

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   
 116 
(J Br onowski, The Ascent of M an, London 1973, pp.165-166)


         
  
       
         
      630      
  
            

   
 
            
  
     
  730           
       
     
 
   
 
              
    
 
 
      
         
     
         
           
    Robert L. Gulick 
It sho uld be bo rne in mind, ho wever , t hat
the se aph orisms (maxims fou nd in ahad it h) h ave
been widely accepted as authentic and it cannot be
do u b t e d t h at t h ey h ave e xe r t e d a wid e an d
salu t ar y in flu e n c e . Th e wo rd s at t r ib u t e d t o
M uh ammad mu st assu re dly have st imulat ed an d
encouraged the great thinkers of the Golden Age of
Islamic civilisation.

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   
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(Muhammad, The Educator )

               
     
     
        
    
         
   

     


       Robert 

       
  
These statements must not be construed as
idle and useless words. The results have been very
substantial. The strength of Islamic science was its
devotion to p rac tical matte rs r at her than t o th e
vague notions of the Byzantine Greeks.

(Muhammad, The Educator )

          Robert L. Gulick

           


 
 
             

  
  
   

Robert Briffault   
 
    
It is highly probable that but for the Arabs,
moder n Euro pean civilisation neve r h ave assume d

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   
 118 
t h at  c h ar ac t e r wh ic h h as e n a b le d it t o
tr an sc en d all pr eviou s ph ases o f evolut ion . Fo r
although there is not a single aspect of European
growth in whic h the d ecisive influe nce o f Islamic
culture is not traceable, nowhere is it so clear and
momentous as in the genesis of that power which
constitutes the paramount distinctive force of the
mo d e r n wor ld an d th e su p r eme so u r ce o f it s
vic tor y, n atu ral scienc e an d th e sc ie ntific spirit .
What we call science arose in Europe as a result of
a n e w sp ir it o f e n q u ir y, o f n e w me t h o d s o f
in ve st igat io n , e xp e r ime n t , o b se r vatio n an d
measurement of the development of mathematics
in a form unknown to the Greeks. That spirit and
those methods were introduced into the European
world by the Arabs.
(The Making of Humanity, pp.190-191)

        


      
     
       

  
      
     
  
   
  
      
        
    
   
            
       
   
     
   
  

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        
    
    
   
        
  
There is no doubt that the Islamic sciences
exerted a great influence on the rise of European
scienc e; an d in this Re naissance o f kn owledge in
the west there was no single influence, but diverse
on e s; th e main in flu en c e was o f c o ur se , fro m
Spain, the n fr om Italy an d Pale stine t hro ugh th e
crusaders, who had mixed with M uslims and seen
the effect of sciences in M uslim culture.

(Joseph Schacht & C.E.Bosw or th, The Legacy of Is lam, pp.426-427)

          


       

  
     
      
  (Spain)     
    
      
  
  

      
          

Islam, impingin g c ultu rally u po n ad jace nt
Christian countries, was the virtual creator of the

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   
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Renaissance in Europe.

(Stanwood Cobb, Islam's Contribution to World Culture)

   Stanwood Cobb


    
 

       
          
 
     
          


       Robert L. Gulick

 
Th at imp o r t an t c o n t r ib u t io n s t o wo r ld
intellectual progress were made by the Arabs is not
open to question. But were these development the
result of the influence of M uhammad?

(Muhammad, The Educator )

 
      
   
 
   
          
         
  

     
 
             
    
    
       
            
 
  
     
  

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  
   Reverend George Bush
No r evo lut io n in h istor y, if we acc ept that
affe c t e d b y t h e r e ligio n o f t h e Go sp e l, h as
int rod uce d gr eat er c hange s in to t he st at e of t he
civilised world than that which has grown out of the
rise, progress and permanence of M uhammadanism.

(The Life of Muhammad )

             


             
   
     
  

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   
 123 

  

 

      

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 
         
   (Pyrenees) 
     (Iberian Peninsula)

  (Spain)         
    
     
800      
(Portugal)

   
   
          
     
          

  
( N a r b o n n e )     

  (Perpignan )
 (Toulouse)   (Carcassonne) 
           
     
 
    
 (Gr anada)  
     
 
         
 
           
   
                 
    
            
            

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      
       
           
   
 
   
        

  

       
 
 773   711  19  
    -1

 1008   773   -2

 1091   1008  


   -3

 1145   1091  -4

 1214   1147   -5

 1232   1214    


  -6

 1492 2   1232  


 -7

 
 705     
   715 
 
           
   
  
         
   
 
          
  
     
     

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           

   
 
               
    

 
  
             
       
     
 
     
       
     

           
   
100  710       
 
   
            400   
      
      
  
 
          
      
        
      

 92   711      


        7,000   
    
       
 13      

    (Gib ralt ar)    



           
  
   
   
           

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          
    
  
     
         
             
      
        
       
   
    
            
       
  
    
          

   
       711  19  
 
    
      
         
          
     
             
    
    (Cordoba)  
      711
 
               
    712   
   18,000   
 
   (M erida)   (Se ville) 
      
         (Tledo) 
    
     

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    
     
    
       

                
  (Bay of Biscay)        
    

 

 
             (Gijo n) 
 
   
     
           
        
       
                 
 
        
(Cordoba)          
       
     
  
   
   
      

  

 756   714         
   
                 43 

          
 
 22 

                


 
    
     
       
  
    
 

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 
      
   132   40
   
      
        
    
        
     
         
   20     
   
  
       
         
       
  5          
 
        
        
         

 
               
     

                  
       
            

 
  

     
    
  
 32 
           788   756 
  
  
       
     
   
              

    
          

  
     
 
 

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 131 
  30            822

               
        
         
    
          
   
 
       
      
               
  
          
   
  
 
               
 
    (Iberian Peninsula)

     
  
 
      912   21 
     
     
  
       
      
  
  
     
       
     
      
           
   49 
        961   912
  
          
     
 
            
    

   
          
   

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      
      1010    
  1031   1010  
   21        
              9
        
      
   1031
   
       
     
           
   
   
  
  
 


   

          

      
 
        
 1 0 9 1 )   
      
     (  1106
      
               
       
   
 
  
  
            
     
             
 
        
      
 
            
   
         
  
           
       

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     
  12      100   1086
       
         

20,000         8,000  (Se ville)
 (Leon)   (Zar agoza)  

    
 
   80,000       

     
            
 
        
   
 
      
         
  
     
   
 
    

  
           
   
 (Se ville)    3,000             
    
     
    
        
           
   
 
                  
  1091       
    
          
      
  

 
     
      
            
 54  

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     
   
  1145 
  
    
       


   1120     
 

          
   
  
            
 
        
  
        
         
    
    
      
  
    1145            
 
  

           
    (Cordoba) 
  (Se ville) 
   
  
         
      
          
 
   
 
    
   
  
      
         
                 
    
     

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     
       1 2 1 4


               
  
 

               

               
 
            
    

   
 1232  
    

 

     
           
          

  
      
   
 
   
       700 
 (Cadiz)   (M alaga)   (Alme ria)   (Granada)
  (Jaen)    (Baza)  
 
 1492   1232   
 260   

    
       
     
   
 
          
 
    
        
  
     1423   
     
  1492 2
    (Granada) 
    
          
       

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  
     
         
       
 

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   

       
  
   ( B a g h d a d )           
    
      (Damascu s)

 
         
    

  
 
     
       (Cordoba)
            
   
 
      

   
   
  
      
   
      
      
          

       

               
       
         
        
       
 
  
    

        
             
   
  

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       
 
 
                 
          
        
               
  
            
     
 
      
   
   
  
     
Alr eady whe n th e fo rt un es o f th e M u slims
were in the ascendant, their learning had attracted
sch olars of all faith s. Sp anish Je ws in particu lar
were -- including the great M aimonides (1135-1204)
-- sat at the feet of Arabic-speaking teachers and
wrote their books in Arabic.
(W. Montgomery Watt A History of Islamic Spain P.157 )


            
 
         
       
             

    
        
      



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    
    
     
   
       
   
     
  

    #
   

       1

  
   2
 
     3

       


  4


       5

     6

    

      
     7

   
       
    8


         9

 

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    #
          
  10

  
    11

   12

     13

 

    14

    
   
  15

       

 16

   

   
    17

           


  18

   
    19

     20

   21


  22

  
  23

  24

    
  25

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    #

  

  
    26

      
      27

   


  

   
      28

         
     29



         30

    31

   


     32

 
 
      33

      


 34

      
  35

 

    
        36

 

    37

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    #
     38

   
  39

     


    
  
    40

       

      
           
  41

   
       
  42

     43

      44

     
      
  45

   


      
 46

       
   47


     48
   
 
 
         
    
 49

   
 
   
  50

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   
 143 
    #
       51


  
  
     52


    
  53

   
 54

      


 55

       
  56

   57

    58

 
         59



   
        
 60

    
 
   
 61

    62

     63

     64

   65

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   
 144 
    #
    66

      67

    
 68


              
 69





     70

   71

 
 72

      
     73


    74

    75

 
     76

 
   
  
   77


       78



   79

   80

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 145 
    #
  
  81

    
 82

         


    83

       


     84

    85

    86

 
     87

      88


    89

       90

      
  91


   92

        
      93

   


 94

      95

      96



       97

     98

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    99

  100

      101




       102
    103

      
       104

 
 
     105

   
 106

   
     
   107

       108

      
      109


   
  110

            111

  
 
       112

     


   

 113

          114

    115

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 147 
    #

 
      116


    117

   118

 
 
 
   
 119

        
   
  
 120

 
      
        121

  
 122

    123

  
        
 124


      125


     126

   127

      


  128


        
 129

      130

    131

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 148 
    #

  
       132

  
    133

      134

      135

       136


 

   137

  
        138

      
     139
 
  
    140

  141

     142


            143
   

     144

     145

  
        146

     147

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 149 
    #
 
               148

  
 
       
  149

 
  
         150

      151

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   
 150 

     
          
      
       
        961       
 912   
  200    
  
               
          
       
      
        
 
   
         
      
      

   
             
            
    

            

          
  
 (a s t r o n o my )          
    
 
 (me d ic a l sc ie n c e )    (mat h e mat ic s )
  (botany) 
    (chemistr y)  
  (astrolo gy)

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  
     
        (geography)
 
           
  
         
    
        
         
             
    
            
 
      
       
   976 
 961     
    
       
     
   
 
       20   
  
          
   

    
       
  
     170   
   
    
 
 (M alaga)   (Gr anad a)  
 (Cor do b a)  

  (Jaen)   (Se ville)   (Zar agoza)  

       
  
         
    27 
   
         

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         
     
          
  

       

   976       
 961  
       
     
       
  (mat hematics) 
  (astrono my)     
 (c he mist ry)   (ast ro lo gy)   (me dical scie nc es)

 (lo gic )  (p h ilo so p h y)   (p h ysic s)   




4       (geography)    (history)

       6       
  


          44 
             
   
    
    
    
     

            
 
    
   
          
   
    
  
  
              
               
        
          
         
 (Cordoba)    

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    
  10,000       
  800
 
   
 
  (Granada) 
   
   
           

       
   
         
         
 
                 

   

 70        
     
         
  

    
               
                
 
     
         
 
      
        
    

             
  
                
 
          
  

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          
  
 
   
          

       
 
     
   
 
    
          
    
   
      
 
   
                 
         1155  1065     

           
     
 
      

      
              
       
    

       
 
           
   
              
  (astrono my)    (medical sciences) 
 
              
   (botany)
  
   
 
      
  

      

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(Medical sciences)  
            

   (M edical sciences) 

    
         
   
 
          (translated)

  
       
               
              
          
           
   
               
 
              
          
  
   
    

 
         
  
        
    
    
 
            
   
    
   

           
 
    
      

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            
       
        
    
 (surgery)   
  

            
 
    

    
      
   24   
 
               
       
     
     
  
 
          
 
   
           
   
(clinic)             
                
             
 
            100  
 
               
 
      
   
      
 
      
     

  
 

  
    
        
      Frederich  
  Pare 
         
    
                  (anaest hesia)
   


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           (tonsils)  
             
       
 
         
  
         
  
 
               
   
       (surgery) 
     
 
     
            
         
        
    
           
  
       
    

 
          
     
 
  
 
   
          
        
    
              10   
      
 (expert)       
 
   
         
        
             
   
 (ophthalmologist) 
    
   
  

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       
    
 


              
              
   
                  
            
 
 
          
  
          
   
      
   
     
   
        
          
         

(Astronomy)  

      961 
 912     

            

          
     
               
       (time keeping)     
 

           
       
           
   

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           
 
 
    
   (astrono my) 
   
        
    
  
 
   (a s t r o n o my )        
            
    (astrolo gy)
     
           
    

              

           
     
   
 
          
 

 
           
    
  

(medical sciences)  
      

     (astrono my) 
   
 
        
              

             
  
    
  (mat h e mat i c s )         
(medical science)    (astrono my)   (astrolo gy)

     
             
  
        
 

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    
 
        
     
   
            
    
  
   
      
   


         (Se ville)    
 
             
     
             (Arzac hel)
    

    
           
    
 
   (elliptic orbits)   
    
         


   1514              
             
    
          
                
   
 
                  

 
    
            
      (planetarium)    
    
        
     
 
     
  
   
     
  

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            
   
    
 (astronomical table)    

          


        
        (astronomical tables) 
 
  
            
 
 
              
       

             

        
      



              
  
              

   

(Bot any)  


 
          
 
  
   
          
  
 
           
 
  

 (botanists)        
     
 
          
    

       
(botany)  
     

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    
         

  
              
    
          

   

  
     
  (G u a d i x )        
(M ulhacen)  
 
   (Granada)   (Alme ria)
           

         (botanists)     
 
     (B e y asa )    (Ve le n c ia) 
 

  (To le d o )
    
         (Hijara
  Valley)

        
    
         
      
      
  
 (botanists)   

        
       
   
    
       

     
      
   
      
        
  
      

        
                
       

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        
     
 
    
   
             
     
 
    (Se ville)   (Guadix)   
               
 

cotton     alagodon        
 

 
    
       
  
               

  
          

   (sugar)      
                    
                  
      
     (botanists)   
   
         
       

  
          
    
        
        
   
    

      
         
            
   



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      
  
       

               
   
          

    
              
             
  
             
   
              

          
   
       
    
     
   
        
             

   
  
         
       
 
  
    
    
       
       
  
              

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          
    
         
     
    
         
  
     
  
          
        
         
            

   
 
(Cordoba)       
            
  
     
 
      
   
           
        

        
       
  
               
   
          

   
    
    
             
  
     
        
          
    
      
         
    

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             
     

        
       
 
           
  
                 

            
     
 
   
               
              

     
           

   
          
    
          
   (Vale ncia)
   
          
      
  (Genil River)   
   (Guadalimor River)
 
  
   
      
     
               
   

           
   
     
 
           
 
          
        
          
     
  


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 
 
         
     

        
         
   
   
      
   
   
         
  
          
     
      
        
     

  
  
            
         
      
     
  
  
  
    
      
    
  

         



     
          
   
  
 
      

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      
  
    
   
   
     
              
   
             
  
        
   
 
               


 
            
   

  
          
   
     
  
          
 
   
             
            
   
         
      
         
     
       
                
   
(decorative art)          

        
     
        
              
      
       
 

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 
    (cook)            
       
         
               
            
  


         

          
            
   

          
   
    
             
                 
                 
  
         

       
         
    
            
  
      

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 
   
     
   
  
   
 
   
    
 12         
 
  
         
 (Cordoba)  
     (Bagh dad)        
 
      
 2,00,000      10,00,000  
 
       
      
  
 
        
        

  20,000      80,400    
     
     
     
         
    (dark ages)

        700  50   80 
 3,000
    
       4,300

 
      
        
               
  
          
         
  
    
 
      
 12    

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      (Pyrenees) 
   
 
     
       
  
    
 
     
               
   
      
   
    
  

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       

    
       
 

           

   
  
       
       
   


           
  
 
     
      

   
   
     
     
           

       
    
     
 

 
    


  
 
          
        
    
        
 
 

          

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  
          

        
         
   
  
     
 
 
    
           
   
 
           
   
  
               
     
    
                

        
         
        
      
  
   
         
               
  
  
      
     

             
  
     
 

        


   

           


(Paper industry)    

       

      

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          

 
   
                 
     
         
     

  

              
  
   
              
 
              
 
  
           
  
            
 
         
     
         
        
  

      704 
      

     
        
         
    
 
      
   
     
     706   
 
         
       
      
          

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
         
  

    794             

  
    
             
       
   (papyrus)  
              

   
        

     

       


Harun ar-Rashid's vizier, Yahya the Barmakid,
built the first paper-mill in Baghdad about the year
800. Th e man u fac t u r e o f p ap e r t h e n sp r e ad
westwards through Syria and North Africa to Spain,
an d it came in t o c ommo n u se. In t h e t we lfth
cent ury p ilgrims from Fr anc e to Compostela took
back pieces of paper as a great curiosity, though
Roger II of Sicily had used paper for a document in
1090. From Spain and Sicily the use of paper spread
in to weste rn Eur o pe , b u t p ap e r-mills we r e n ot
e st ab lish e d in It aly an d Ge r man y u n t il t h e
fourteenth century.
(W. Montgomery Wa tt, The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe, p. 25 )

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             
 1085        
 
          (Xat iua)  
         
       
    
 (Xat iua)   
    
               
 
   (Xat iua) 
           

 (Vale ncia)       (Granada) 
  (Cordoba)
      

(Textile engineering)  



   
 
  
     
 
             
 
            

           
       
        
                  
          
     
   
     

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  
 


    
                      
  
           
  
   
            

              
 
   (newly conquered)     
             
         
      
   (leade r)      
 

          


           (garments) 
              
             
  
      
          


    (Alme ria)      


   4,500   
       

                


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  


          
  
           
   

      (botanists)     
    
             
 
   
Cotton was in India and ancient Egypt but it
became an important textile only after the advent
of Islam. Indeed, one of the results of the M uslim
agricultural revolution was that cotton plantations
spread throughout all Islamic lands, in the east as
well as t he west . Fine c ott on was manu factu red
and exported to various countries, including China
and the Far East.

(Ahmed Y. Al-Hassan, Islamic Technology, p.181)

       


 
               
 
          
    
     

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(Watches) 

(t i me     
 (a st r o n o my )  
        
     keeping)
          
       
           
      
   
          
             
  
  
          
   
           
   
       
     
 
 
  

 
               
             

         


    
                  
    
         
     
       
      
      
    
(Velenc ia)   

            

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     
    

     

           
       
 
         

  (timekeeping)      

           

(Kinetic energy) 


 
            
     
          
   

     
        
   
 

  
   
         

      (wind mills)         
 
      
          
   
         (water mills)

     
     
    
             

(Genil      
  (Guadalimar River) 
   
      
       Rive r)

             


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         
    

 
    

 (kinetic       


energy) 

                


              
 


                
 

     (wind mills)

(Chemical technology)  
         
             
 

             



           
        
      


          
      
 

           
    
              

  
         (Cordoba)

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  
               
         
    
              
       

     
      
    
      
           
  
        
     
 (Alme ria)       
 
          
 (M urcia)           
  (Gr an a d a) 
  (Co r d o b a)     (M a lag a) 
    (Beja) 
     (Lorca)
       
        



          
               
    (Beja)   
 (Cordoba)   

  
     
   
        
  cordovan   
        
  

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  
 cordonniers    
 

     (Zar agoza)       
 
     (Bay
        
of Biscay)   

         

     
       
          
       
   (M urcia)     
 
        
     

(Ordnance)  
 
           
   

     
      
    
           

            
 

         
    
    
        
  

             
     
         
              
  


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   (Toledo)      
          
     
  (Cordoba)             (Se ville)

  (A l me r i a)   (M u r c ia)   (G r a n a d a)
        (Zar agoza)
    
      
 

         


   

        
     
  692            
              
  

   
           
    
  1346          
  
 

(A eroplane)   
        
      
       
        
         
   
        
 
 
   
            
 
                 
 

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   
 185 

       

 
      
  
 
              
               
 
    
         
   
       
     
                 
  1903 17    
      
          
   
  
      1903 12  
 

                

              
   
 
 
     

  
         
 
               

     
         
       
        
  
                  

      
      
     
   
  

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 186 
     
      
     
       
       
    
     
      
             
  
            
    
 


(Civil engineering)   



        
 
   
               
         
  
        
   
 
       
        
       
           
            

      
      
 

 

  
           

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    
           959   
  
         
     
             
       4,700        70
     
      
24,000  

       
 
     1,093
 
      
      
   
               
 

          
      
 
     
       
     
     
      
  
  
     
      
         

  
         

Whatever the human eye has witnessed this
is t h e mo st c h ar mi n g o f t h e m all , an d it s
craftsmanship and splendour are not to be found in
any of the ancient or modern monuments.

      
          

           
 
 

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 

      
    
     
          
        
         
    

        

  
     
         
       
 

     
    
           
 
    
         
           

  
  
           400   
 
          
        
 
    
 
     
        
      
    

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


               
 
      
   
    
              
  
          
   
   
       
         
             

     
        
          
     
       
 
   


  
       
  
 
          
   
   
  
        
      
 
   
This palace is su ch a wo nd er o f th e wo rld
that a concept of the design of this type could not
oc c u r t o an y h u man be in g fr om t h e d awn of
cr e at io n t o t h is d ay an d h u man int e lle ct h as
thr ou gh t he ages faile d to p ro duc e a parallel or
even approaching it in beauty of design.
(Dr. Musta fa Siba', Some Glittering Aspects of the Isla mic Civ iliz ation)

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 
              
    
     
    
 
   
      
    
   



 (Guadalimar     
River)   
            
  
            400

  
  
         
 
    
           
 
 10,000     
    
 
   
   
    4
  
       4,316   
                
    
             


 

    
     
           

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 
 
           
  
 
2,200         
  
     
   
    
     
   
      
       

      
      
  
  
   
          

        
         
                 

                   


                

      
          
           
    
          
  (calligraphy)
           
     

            
  
       
        
              

 

     
  
 

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        
           
      
             
   
    
  
        
  
        (calligraphy)   
          
   


    


              
 
            
    


    
        
   
 
        
          

    
        

 
 E. Rosenthal
In M u slim days, Cord ova was t he c ent re o f
European civilisation and one of the greatest seats
of learning in the world. After the expulsion of the

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M oo rs fr om Sp ain , however, Cord ova san k t o the
le vel o f a pr o vin c ial to wn. Yet h er wo n d er ful
mo sq u e is a sup e r b legac y o f t h e d ays wh e n
Co rd ova was th e c ap it al of t h e Ar ab Emp ir e in
Spain. "Traces of Arabic Influence in Spain"
(Islamic Culture 11:336 July, 1937)
    
    
        
    
              
   
          


     


     Sir Thomas W. Arnold 

      


       
 
          
        

 
           
       
       900   

 70      
 (Leon)      
  (Navarre )     

    
       
 
(Barcelona)  

  (Architect)  
 (Dressmake r)  
        
      (Singer)

        
(The legacy of Islam)

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    C. H. 
Haskins 
Th e b ro ad fact re main s t hat t he Ar ab s o f
Spain were the principal source of the new learning
for Western Europe.
(Studies in the History of Medical Science)
        
   
 
 
    
 
       H. E. Barnes  

   
In many ways, the most advanced civilisation
of the M iddle Ages was not a Christian culture at
all, but rather the civilisation of the people of the
faith of Islam.
(H.E. Barnes, A History of Historical Writings)
   
      
    
             
 

 


  
"Ye t it was the c ultur e of th e Arabs whic h
became the matrix of the new Islamic civilisation,
an d all t h at was b est in th e old er and h igh e r
culture was assimilated into the new culture."
(W. Montgomer y Watt, A History of Islamic Spain , p.166)

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         G. R. Gibb

       
      
 

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  


      
 

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   


     

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 
        
    
         
         
 
         
     
  
   
      

        
        
    
           

                  
 
  
      
    

                   
    
         
      
  
         
        
              
 
  
      

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
   
  
   
              
 
     
   
                 
     
 
     

  

               
   
  
          
               
     
  O    

   
    
  
           

  
 
                 
                   
 
                 

              
     
                  
   
                 

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    
           
 

    

   
      

    
        O     
      
    
    
  
  
      
  
               

      
    
    
         
      
  
        
      
 
       
      
    
 
   

          
 
                 
 
   
         

            
             

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       
      
        
       
   
   

   
        
    
    
          
 
   
    
    
               
     

 
  
 
            

            
  
      
    
   

 

        
      
     
 
         
    

           
              

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  
          
  
  
            

  
       
           
 
  
             

              
   

        
 
      
               
      
     
      
       
      
 

   
           
      
     
   
       
 
   
        
     
                 
  
 
             
    

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  
 206 
             
     
     
               

    
          
        


  
             
    
         
     
         
      
   
  
     
     
       
 
   
     
     
      
    
         
     
    
    
      

     
         
 
             
       
       
        
  

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  
 207 
    
           
 
         
    

 
       
    
   
         
     
      
     
       
       
        
         
        
  
               
   

  
    
      
 
       
            
   

              


  
  
      
   
   
 
  

         


   
  
  
    
  
 
   
             
    (substantive laws)       


        (procedural laws)    

  

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  
 208 

    
 
          
  
       
  
 
   
   
            
         
      
  
             
         
       
        

    77,450       


                
                

        
   
  
      
   
    
  
  
    
  
      
 

     
   
         

   
         
    
              
             3,09,800
     
     
    
       
 
                     

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  
 209 
                
 


                 
  
          
      
    
      
      
        
     
             
    

    
            
     (philosophy) 
 
       (biolo gy)   
  (physics)  


  
        

    
     (philosophy) 
                
 
         
       
  
           (physics)  
  


              
     
   
           (biolo gy) 
         
          
  

   
        
         
       

 

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  
 210 
  
              

  (trial &
        error)      

               

        
          
 
  
           
  

        
      
  9  9   
          

                  

    
    

 

    
     

  
   
    
          
          
     
  
 
        O            
       
     O        
 o    
       O      
    
  
            O   

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  
 211 
o       O  
             
     o 
  o
     
       
  
     
     
o

            

   

                  
    
          
  
             
    

     
          
    
          
    
      
    
               
      
  

   

           
      

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  
 212 
Cr e at io n of U niv er se a nd i ts  1
     
str uctural system 
Per iods of cr eation and er as of           2
euolution   
Physical and chemical basis of       3
the for mation of univer se  
Ear th and appear ance of life      4
Physi cal and ch emical pr ocess        5
of evolution of Life  
Na t u r e a n d p h e n o m e n a o f   6
       
heavenly bodies 
Or ig in of h um an li fe a nd i ts 
          7
 
development   
Th e v e g e t a b le a nd an i m a l   
  
 8
kingdoms

Sys te m of h um an p r o ducti on  


     9
 
and self-per petuation

   
       
    
            

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  
 213 
  

  
   
             

  
            
   
  
               
(u n i t of    O        
   creation)           
    

             
     
 
       O         
   o             
     
    O        
              
               
     
         O     
           


          
        O           
         

 
 -   
      

       o 
       
  
 
    


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  
 214 
        o
       

        

     o  
 
       
         
 
  
     
    
       
o 

          O      



                
     
       O   
   o   
         
              O  
  
           O      
      o
     O     
      
 O        
      
  o O          
     -    

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  
 215 
  (g e nea lo g ica l tr e e)

      o


      
  
 
   o  
  
      
      o


o 

                


                    
                    
          
            
     
            O     
                     
                  
      o       O         
    
            
     
       O    
                   
                 O  
      
       O      

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  
 216 
(o n e  
               
  era of evolution)         
      O             

  o  


   -   
          
   o  
 
         
    
    
  
   
 
     
      
 (ino rganic mat t e r)

         
(d esp ised fluid ) 

    o
   
       
      
      
 
(physical 
     
& mental faculties)

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  
 217 
  
    
      
o    

       


  
 (biolo gy)    (physics)       

       
        
    
  
   
 

 
     
      

      
            

                 
   
         
    
 
        
          
 
               
    
              
               
     
   
        
             
   
              
            
 
     
      
          

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  
 218 
            
     
     

               
                
     
                
             
 

  
                

    

          
   
                 

                    

                  


   
                 
                
 
         

         
 
              
 
 
           
     
              
       
       
           
 
         
      
   
  
          
  
               

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  
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


    
      
 
         

                   
   
       
   
   
      
       
               
             
 
     
       
     

          
 

 
    

    
     
 
   
      
 
  

     
  
       
           
  
 
   
  

      
         
 
    
      
        

     
    
     
         

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  
 220 
           
    
 
 
                

           
        
           
   
  
            
 
         
           
 
  
     
          
   
          
         
         
    

         
      
          
 
              
   

     
        
 
    
        
 
    
      
  

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  
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      
   
 
     
     
   
        
       

   
     
   
     
              
  

             
   
 
            
     
       
         

         O          
    
     
o 

     
  
            

            
     
          
        
          
          
     
       

   
 
  
        
     

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  
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         
          
                   
        
         
  
     
          
  

 
      
    


        
  
(N at io n a l 
        19 6 9 
       Aeronautic Space Agency)
        
     
    
  
 
         
 
   
 
        O      
    o       O     
 o        O     
  
      

  
   
  
o  

            
 
   
 
       
       

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  
 223 
        
        
   

               
        
   
   
  
   
 
   
  
  
   
  
   
 
   O     
o      

  
       O          
o       

  
  
     O          
    
   
   
o  

 
           
    
          
      
            

     
   
     
          

 
         
 

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  
 224 
            
     
   
           

   
            
 
        
   
    
       
           
 
           
 
          
            
   

   
        



          

    
    
      
 
 
   
     
    
           
     

      
  
  
            


            


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  
 225 
    
   
         
  
       
                
 
  
              
              
          
      
                
 
   
           
     
  Apolo -11        
   
(Neil          
     
  (Collins)   (Edwin Buzz)    Armstrong)
  

     
 
     
 
    
       
   
    
             
             

  
    
     
       
 
   
   
  
     
      
  
        
      

    
                

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 226 
     
 
            
             
    
     
     
       
 
  
        
     

             
   
              
      
     

   

               
      
          

     
            
 

        
    
    
           

         
  

  
       
  
      
       
       
    
        
      
               
   
         

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  
 227 
           
     
        
     
    
  
  
           
      
          
      
        
    
          
 
           
    
 
 
       
     
       Apolo -11   
       
   
  

              
    
              (lunar model)
 
             
    
              

                    
    
       
      

     
         
    (Collins)
   (soil surface)     
 
        
   

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  
 228 
  
 (gravitational     
force)   
    
 
          
             

            
     
  
         
            
     
            
   
      
     
   

                    
     
             
 
    


    
   
   
   
  
     O          
    
   
   
o  

         
         

           
  
     
       
   
      
       

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  
 229 
       

   
            
  
  
            
    
    
       
 
The Bible, the 
   M aurice Bucaille  
The Qur'an and 169 167  Qur'an and Science
 "The Conquest of Space"  
 Modern Science

 

The Conquest of Space


From this point of view, three verses of the
Qu r'an sh ou ld c o mman d o ur full att en tio n. O ne
exp resses, with out any t race o f ambiguit y, what
man sh ou ld and will ac hieve in th is field. In the
o t h e r t wo , Go d r e fe r s fo r t h e s ake o f t h e
unb elie ver s in M akka to th e su rpr ise the y wo uld
have if they were able to raise themselves up to
the Heavens; He alludes to a hypothesis which will
not be realized for the latter.
Th e r e c an b e n o d o u b t t h at t h is ve r se
indicates the possibility men will one day achieve
what we to day c all (pe rhaps rath er impr op er ly)
"th e co nqu est of spac e." One must no te t hat the
text of t he He ave ns, but also the Ear th, i.e . the

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  
 230 
exploration of its depths.
1. The first of these verses is sura 55, verse 33:
"O assembly of jinns and men, if you can penetrate
r e gio n s o f t h e h e ave n s an d t h e e ar t h , t h e n
penetrate them! You will not penetrate them save
with a power."
2. The other two verses are taken from sura 15,
verses 14-15. God is speaking of the unbelievers in
M akka as t he co nte xt of t his p assage in the sura
sho ws: "Even if We op en ed unt o t he m a gat e to
He aven an d t he y we re t o c on t in ue asc en d ing
therein, they would say: our sight is confused as in
drunkenness. Nay, we are people bewitched."
Th e abo ve e xp r e sse s ast o nish me nt at a
remarkable spectacle, different from anything man
could imagine.
Wh e n t alkin g of th e c o n qu e st o f sp ac e,
therefore, we have two passages in the text of the
Qur 'an: o ne o f th em r efe rs t o wh at will on e day
b e c o me a r e alit y t h an ks t o t h e p o we r s o f
int elligenc e and in ge nuity Go d will give t o man,
an d t h e o t h e r d e sc r i b e s an e ve n t t h at t h e
unbelievers in M akka will never witness, hence its
character of a condition never to be realized. The
event will however, be seen by others as intimated
in the first verse quoted above.

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  
 231 
It d esc r ib e s t h e hu man r e ac t ion s to t he
unexpected spectacle that travellers in space will
se e: th e ir co n fu se d sigh t as in d ru nken ne ss t he
feeling of being bewitched . . . . . .
Th i s i s e xac t ly h o w a st r o n au t s h ave
expe rie nce d th is r emar kab le adve ntu re since the
first human spaceflight around the world in 1961. It
is a co mplet e ly n ew spe c tac le t he r efo re , th at
presents itself to men in space and the photographs
of th is spe ctacle ar e well kn own to p resen t-day
man.

       


   
       
    
    
        
         
         
 
 
        
           
     
           
        
         
    
  
         
 
 
             


            
    
     
  
  

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  
 232 
   
 
               
   
   
           
        O          
       
    
        
     
o  

                
   

     
        
   
                 
              
 
      
          
 

            
    
     
            
   
       
          

 
             
  
           
 
  
        
 

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  
 233 
      
            O        
  o      O    
 
o       
     
    
            
 
                     
      

     

   
    
     
              
      
 
             
                   
              
        O   
          
   
  
o

      
 
          
  
       
             

             

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  
 234 
 
      
        
             
      
                


  
 

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  
 235 

   

    
      

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  
 237 

  
       
      

               
  
        
           
     
          
      
           
         
      
               
   

  
   
              
 
   
                
        
     
   
     
  
       

          
  
     
               

     
    
  

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  
 238 
    
          
       
   
  
 
           
      
          
     
         
  
 
              

        (Ptolemy) 
   
 
             
  

       
  
              
  
       
    
   
      
             
    
       
    
 
          
   
                 
 
     
              


      
        
   
            
  

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  
 239 
        
         
  
     
     
       
      
  
           
    
  
 
           
           
 
    
    
          

        
         
(experience)          
    
   (experime nt) 
            
    
       

         
    
 
                  

           
        
      
  
     
  
        
     

  
          
 
      
           
          
        

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  
 240 
     
 
experiment  -1
observation    -2
inference  -3
systemization of inference    -4
 
        
  
             

          
      
   
    
 
 
 
   
     
            
    
            
  
   
             
    
   
     

         
   
 
 
  
       
         
 

    
  
         
      
        
    
         
  
      

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  
 241 
   
 
     
   
    
    
   
 
             
   
 
             
      
     

        
 (trial &    
error)        
       
           
       (rejected) 
     
  (unchanging)           
             
             
 
            
   
   
                   
 

        
        
       
    

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  
       
        

  
            
   
   
   
      
      
    
           
 
  
             

 
         
   


   -1
   
     
      
 
  
 
    (Egypt)   (Mesopotamia)   
 
    
          
   (S u me r ian s ) 
  (B ab ylo n ian s) 
            (Egyp tian s)
 
             
   
            
        

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      
           
  
            
 


             

   -2

           

    (Greece)   
        
    
    
       
     
   
  
   

     
   


 (Ptolemy)  -3

  (Ptolemy)    
     
        
    
    
          
   
            
   
   (Aristotle)
 
        
    
          
 
       
     

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  (Almagest)       
   

           
  
             
  

            (orbits)
 
    
        


          
        

  
            

 
           
 
          

   
        
  
         
    
    
       

 
      
     
      
     

  (Arzachel)  -4
    
        
 

         
   
  
      
          
  
              
     

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  
 245 
     
          
 
     
           

 

       


      
 
    
    (Arzach el) 
 
   
           
        
    
                
  
        1080        


            
  
            



 (Copernicus) 
          
            
  
  
 (elliptic   
orbits)  

     


       

             
 
        
     
             
    
   
      
 
  
          
  
 

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  
 246 

 

 (Copernicus)   -5



    1543  1473  (Copernicus)  
               
    
         
    

                 



             
  

              
  
        
     
                

  
         
 
       
       
  
    
 

 (Tycho Brahe)  -6


 (Tycho  
Brahe)     


 
  
      
  
  
    
       
           
  
            


 
        
       

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  
 247 
       
        
   
    
      
    
        (Tycho 
Brahe) 


 (Copernicus) 
        (Pto lemy)
                    
    
  (Kep ler )     
     
           
 

 (Galileo)  -7

              
    
             
   
        1609  (Galileo )     
                 
   
         
     
 

 

       

     

 
   
 
        
  
 
   
        

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  
 248 
 -8

  (Kepler) 
 (Johannes Kepler)


      
   (observatory)         


   
       


           
    
        
   (circular)  
 

          (alliptic)     

 

      
             
       
       
 

     ( Co r do b a )   1 0 8 0

     (Arzachel)

 (Newton)  -9
    
        

(Sir Isaac   
           
             Newton)

  
             
 (unchanging)
  


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 (Einstein)     -10



     
       
 
        
       
(Albert Einstein)           

(Theory of        
   
       
        Relativity)
      
     

               
                


                     
    
   
   
    
 
       
      

             
 
 

      
 
              
(trial &               

  
    error)
          
   
         

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              

    
              
       
     
   
     
      
             

    
       
    
    
         
    
        
        
     
        
   
 
  
           
  
 

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

  
 

  
 
 

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     
         
  
   
    
     
          
  
      
         

             
 
 
            
  
  
         
      

       
       
     
          
          
    
  
         
    
 
      
    
           
     
           
   
   
       

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    
          
              

       


          
                 


             
 
     
 

 
     
             

    
 
       
    

       
     
   
  
    
    
    
    
         
 
          
        

   
    
    
        
  
      
      
    
 
           
    
           
          
       
     
    
    (boilo gy)
                   

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            
   
 
     
           
  
        
     
               

 
               
Big    M in u t e Cosmic Egg  (c o smo lo gy)

   
         
   Crunch

  
   
    
 
      
            
          
     
  
           
  
      
     
       
  
     
      
              
 
        
      
 
               
   
        
  
 
    
        
      
  
        
 
       
       
        
      
   

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   
 256 
          
   
          

  
1 0 6 5         
                  1155

  
      
  
  

        
    
  
   
       
            
               
 
   
      
     
   
physical sciences    -i
biological science s   -ii
psychological sciences   -iii

(Physical sciences)   
                   

             

     
           

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   ( p h y s i c s )  

          
   
 
     ( a s t r o n o m y )
  ( c o s m o l o g y )  
 
 
 (chemistr y)  
  (geography) 
 (cosmogony)
   (archaeology) 
  (geology)     
   ( g e o m e t r y )    ( m e t e o r o l o g y )
      (electronics)    (architectonics)
       
        
 
   
   

(Biological sciences)   
         
           
      
     
            
      
  (biolo gy)  
           

   
 
 (zo o lo g y) 
 
  (e mb r yo lo gy )  
 
   (me d ic al
    sc i e n c e )   (a n a t o my )
 
        (botany) 
  (surgery)

           
      

     
           
             
  
           

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(P sychological sciences)   
      
        
   
         
  
 
             
    
   (philosophy)    
   (jo u rn alism)   (p sych ology) (et hics)
   (lit e rat u r e)     
 (e d uc atio n) (law)
  (e c o n o mi c s)    (p o li t ic a l sc i e n c e )

(fine    (soc iolo gy)  (h ist io gr ap hy)


           arts)
  
 
      
   
     
        
         
     
          
  


  
        
       
  
      
        
 
           
    

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              
             
 
                
  
                
 

       
 
    
       
      
              
   
        
        
 
         
    
   
 
 
       
     
    
         
  
  
               
      
         
          
 
       
    
 
   
      
           
         
     
             
            
    

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 260 
             
         
             
                 

         
   
 
           
      
    
        
   
         
  
            


      
         

               

          
     

     
           
  
           
   

      
   
        
      
        
             
   
   
 
          
       

          
 

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   
 261 
           
  
           
 
    
        
   
      
  
      
 
  
 

  
   

  
          
 
               
 
      
      
            
  
    
   
        
   
        
  
              
 
                
 
      
         
 
  
           
     
        
          
               
   

          
        
  
              

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   
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  
    

           
     
       
   
 
             
          
   
  
           
       
      
     
              
 
           
      
  

 
    

              

  
       
      
    
        
  
 
                 

               
             
  
  
           
     

 
 
       
     

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         
   
      
           
          
     
     
      
          
  
  

 
 
         

            
  
         
      
     
       
      
   
      
       
     

        
       

      
            
 
   
                 
          
      
    
             

      
        
  
             
      
  
         
         
   
   
     
         
 

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                
   
  
    
         
 
     
       

   
 
      
        
   
          
 
                
   
 
  
        
   
  
               


             
       
   
    
        
             
  
        
           
  
        
    
  
    
   
    
    
          
  
    
    
   
  


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   
 265 
    
           
                  
 
           
     
             
 
    
  
         
 

                
    
        
             
  
         
          
    
                  
       
    
 
     
             
 
  
          
   
   

   
     
     
     
       
     
 
           
 
      
            
          
    
                 
    

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              
  
              
     
        
                    
      
  
  
      
 
           
 
      
         
    
          

     
          
 

         
    
   
        

   
             
   
        
  
      
            
     
         
     
             
   
                  
         
  
  
      
    
   

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  
 
        
 
           
  
      
          

  
             
   
  
               
     
             
                
    
        
   
      
       
  
         
 
  
 
    
        
               
  

      
       
   
              
      
          
                
 
     
      
    
  

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   
 269 



 

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   
 271 

    


  
 

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   
 273 

  
             

              
    
    
   
         
   ( ma t t e r )    
         
(clusters)          
(antimatte r)
    
    
 
 
    
             
                

 
      
     
  
       
  

 
          
     

   15          15    

           (Big Bang)  
  
  
       
          
             
     

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   
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
           
      
      
     
   
             

             
 

           
  
        
       
     
       
      


                      


  
   
           
             O     

      o                   
       

             
                 
      O         
             
        
 
      
        

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   
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      
  
              
  
     
      
 
    

      
o 
 
    
     
   

         
   
  

         
              

  
  
              
        
          
     
           
 
            
     
              
               

             
         
  


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           
   
/  
          
   

               

  
        
 
    

   
     
        
  

              
    
            (astrono my) 
  
     
   

(St ars)  

 (He liu m)   (Hydrogen)    
             
 
        
        

          
      

        
         
            
  
            

 
  
    
         
             

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        
        
   
      
          

    
   

  
  
   
    
     
  
     

                  

     

   


             
      

     
 
     
      

         


  
  
  
   
     

      
         
     
      
      


   
           
  
          
      

     
          
   (annihilat e)      
 


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 278 
     
    
    
           
   

      
  O       
 
o       
  

          


 

             
   

   

      
  O    

o      

    
  
     
     
     
      
 
          
    
         
         
         

  
  (nebula)   

 

  
      (gaseous stage) 
  
           
   
          
   
    
         
 

        
          


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    
 


          
   
               

            
 
      
      

 
                

                   

 
                 
  
          
     
(red            
        
            
  giant )

        


       

   

     
    
(black             
 
    
 
   hole)

(Black hole)   
     
       
        (black hole)    
  

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                 
              
      
          
        
  
  (black           
hole) 

                 
        
  

        
   

(dense core)            
      
 
        
                   


 
          
    
  
 
           (cosmologist s)
               
      
         
    
   

     (Oppenheimer)   

  -                 
           
       

  
         
  
    


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                 



          
  
    
   
      
   
 
      

     
   
          
  
      
  
    
  
          
    
                
      

              
(Theory of      
       
            Relativity)
                
         

          

   

           


                    

      
               
              


              
       


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   
 282 
          O      
   
  o 
 O          


o         

             


      (quasars)   
      
                   
 
        
        
            
     
          
         
       - 

       
             
    
               
   
                
   
     
         
      
       

     
        
       
 
      

(Co met s) 


 
     9 
     

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   
 283 
      
        
     
            
       
          

        
       
   (comets)
  
             

   
   
        
  
            
   
           
   
 
   
 
     
 
      
     


    
         
O

   
     O  


    o     
  
      
  
o   


        
  
   
 (Oort Cloud)  
   

       
     

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       
76        
     
  
  
   

Halley) 
     

   (Edmund   

   1758   76     
      1682

6        1758          
  
              1986 

 
             (probs)

              Giotto   (ES A)

  
      
     
         
       
 
        2061 
 
 29  

             


       
      
    
    
   

 
     

       
         
  
             

     comet       
   
     

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   
 285 

(The Sun) 


   
         
  
     
      
          
    
        
  
      
                    

      

  

    
   
     
    

                      


 
   

    


 


 
 
         
O  

o     

   
  
      
   

            
              
    

     2,50,00,000   1,40,00,000     

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   
 286 
         
      

              
   
             
 



              
     
     

        O       

  
o  
        

   


 40,00,000     
   
      
    

  


 
   
       
 

          
      

      
     
 
      1080   

   
 
   
      
  
       
                
 
         
    

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   
 287 

                
  
   
     
 
 
  
    

   
  (M ilky Way)     


         
    

           


   (Orion Arm)  
         30,000 
    22,00,00,000 
    
    
 

     
          
 


            


     
 O          
  
o         

(Solar calendar) 


          
    
  
       
   
      47.4624   48   5   365

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   
 288 
    
   365       
 
     
            
 
         366      
   
            
      
   
     
  4,000  
           
    
       
        
 
          
  
     
    

 
          
    
               
 
  

   
   

   
      O         
     
     

o  

          
  
             

         
(red giant)    

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   
 289 
  
           
         
  
 
      9        
   
             
    
                
              

    
  
       
   
      

       
  O    
    

o    
  

   
       
    
      
        
  
   
     
         
   
     

(Planet s)  
  (Big  
Bang)        
 
  
        
      
                  
 

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   
 290 
 
   
 
  
         
 
        
  
 

     
         

            
     
   
                
      
      
 (prot ostar s)
             
   
      
       
         
    
            

      
      
  

            
       
       
        
   
   
  9    
   
   
           
     
         9    

 61   9   
          
           

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   
 291 
            
   
     
     
  
    
         
  -2
(Ve nus) (M erc ury)   -1

(M ar s)  -4 (Earth)   -3

(Jupite r) -5
(Satur n) -6


(Nep tune ) -8 (Ur an us) -7

(Plu to)  -9

        


       
      
 
 

                   





o    O  

   

  
    
       

   
             

      
      

 
My V ery E ducat ed M ot her J ust S ent U s N ine P izzas.

 
        
     
 
    

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   
 292 
  
        
         
  

  
            
 
       
  

  
       
O       
   
     
o

                


        
          
         
   
        
   
 
      
           

         
       
      
     
    

 
 
  

      
         
          
   

            


     
 

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   
 293 
   
      
    
        
   
     
   
 
                 
 (Big Crunch) 
  
   
       65,00,00,00,000       
      
    

     
            
                   


     
            
 

       
      
   
                 

  


     
  O      

o   

 
            
       
     

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   
 294 

(The Earth) 
    
          
     
         
      
          
           
  
    
   
     
 
     
            

     
  
 
      
 

             


   


             
        
        

      
           
 
             


        
      
              
      
         
               
         
      
 

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   
 295 
 
 (Viking)        
    1976 
  
     
   (pro bes)   
                
  
 
                
               

   (Viking)       
          
                
     
        
   
            
               
 
  
  
   
        

         
 




  
              
   
      
  
        
          


       
      
               
  
              
      

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   
 296 
       
        
    
              


          
      
      
            

     


         
   
           
   
      
      

            



 
      

                     


 
                   
  
          O   
                  
 
           O        
                   
                      
       
        O   
     o 
   O       
          - 

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   
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
     
      

    o 
       

        

     
          

      
    
  
o          

      


o   

          
 
   
 
         
      
  
             

 (ozone )            
  
 
            
                  
  
 
    
       
        

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   
 298 
    

     
     
     
            
                
        
     
    

        
      
 
       
      

   

     O        

          


   

      
         
     
 

                     

        O       

        
     
        

        
     
o

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   
 299 
      
        
              

                 

                 
      
      
 

     
        
             
   
    
  
     

 
        
                
                 
   
            O    
    o
       
      
      
  O        
         -  
   
   
o    

             
      
       

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12,742  12,714       
   
      
    
 12,756 
             
      
    
        
    


       
 O             
o     

  
     
     

           
  


             

 
             
  
 
         
      




          
  
       
        9

    9          


  
               
  

    
        
  
 
      
       

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   
           
    
      
          
        
   
  
   

         


   
 
       
   
    
           
   
             
        
      
       
        
    

          


              
 
                
               

            


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      

        
     

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      
  15        
 
     
         
     
     
       
 
 
       
        
  
 

   
      
 
 
    
  
    
             
 
            
   
   O          
             
    
  
       
         
 
o 

            


 
            
      

 
                
        
       

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          
           
     
      
  
 
     

  
         
      
            
        

 
            
 
 

(The Moon) 

         
     
     
     
           
 


   
o O    
   


   
        
             

    
    
   
   
 
    
         

  
      
            
      
      
 4,00,000  

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   27.321661  
     
  
      
      

 
       
      
 
   
    
         
               
  
          
    
    
     

(Lunar calendar) 


       
   
   
          
    
              
 
     
          
    
           
     1582       
   

  
       15        
 4  
        
      
     

      
      

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   
 305 
      
    29 
    30   29       30
  
       
      

  7  27  
  360    
  

    11.6/11.5  43
       
  
       
   

             
     
 
 
    27             27
         
     

 
      
     360
    
  
        27 
     
    27        387    

 
  
               
 29     11.6/11.5   43  7   27 
    12   29    2.8   44  12
 
  2.8  44 
      30 
  
29 

          30     
  
     
         

 



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   
 306 
       
       
         
    
      
        
      
        
 
      
          
    
             

    

  
             

 


  
                  
               

                    
        O     

  
   
     
        


      
    
  
      

o   


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   
 307 
  
      
   
    
  
 
        
   
         
  

      

  
    
     
      
              

       
   
               
  
       
    
        
    
   
       
 
   
        


    
  

  
                 
     
   O        
          

o    

  
         
   

   
            

         
    
        
   
  

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   
 308 

         
    
   
      
    
         
    

          

             



        
       
  
    
 
  
     
 
 
               
            
   

        
   

   


                   


      
        
    

    




    
                   
  
      O      
   
o     

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   
 309 
 
         

                


       
  O   

    
      
o

 

     
          
 
  
                  
   
              
   
                
           
 
  
         
  
 
             
  
   
                
     
     

  
     
      
               
  
 
    
 

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   
 310 
   
 


  
   
           
                   
  
 
             
 
       O       

     
       
  
o

 
           
   
    1969   
    
         
   

         
     

   (N at io n al Ae ro n au t ic S p ace Age n c y)


 
 (Neil Armstrong) 
       
  20        
    (Collins)  (Edwin Buzz)

     
   Apollo-11  
 1969
   
  KSC 
    
 
 
  
            
 
               

         
       

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   
 311 
 
           
 
     
   
         
 
 
     

       
  
    
 
        O      
    o  O        O   

 o       -      
  
    
   
   
o  

     
          

     

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   
 313 

  

   
   

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   
 315 

      


      
        
            
    
      
       1,400
  
         
   
    
     
 
            

  
       

   
                 
       
           

 (singularity)       
     
  
  
 
    

             


  

           

 

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   
 316 
          
      
 
      
 14        
             

          
 
  (astr onomy)  
 (cosmology)    

  
  
          (astro physics)   


   
         
   
   (Big 
Bang Theory)

  
       

            

            
   
   


        
   
  
     
             
    (infinite
  
density)  
 
  
    (zero volume singularity)  

   

(Friedmann M odel)  -1
   

(Big Bang Model)      -2

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(Edwin Hubble's Model)  -3
    

(Penzia s & Wils on's Model) 


        -4


(New Inflationary Model)       -5

(Chaotic Inflationary Model)      


-6



(Singularit y Theorem Model)    


   

(Big Bang theory)  


(minute         
        
             cosmic egg)

    
                
 
     
    
     

 
    

(Isaac   
         1687 
      Newton)
        

       
    
    

  

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   
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    (Albert   
Einstein)    1915 
    (General Theory  
of Relativity) 

  
         
    
    
      
     
   
       

   
     

   
 (Edwin   
Hubble)    1929 
  
     

      
(Big Bang           

      
   Th e o r y )
  (Allan R. Sandage)    (M artin Ryle)




 (Arno  
Penzias)          1965 

    
   (Robert   
Wilson)  
(cosmic background radiation)  
     
         
       
   
 
 (minute  
cosmic egg)   
  
      
            
      
        
    

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  
  

   


   
 
            
(gravity) 
(elec tromagnet ism)  
(strong nuclear forces)     
(weak nuclear forces)   

     
  
 
  15   
  15      
 
           
        
            
          
  

       
            
        O 


o      

        


      
     

       
   
  
     
    
   

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       
   
      
  
    
          (curvatur e)
      
      
(zero volume)     

 

       
          
 
(sin gu lar it y)     
 
   
   

      
      
   
             


  
           

 
  

   
       (Big
 Bang)  

      
(hundredth part)  

 (primordial fireball)         
    
 
 
 80       

      
          


   
 18   10     
 
 
    
  
     

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     
          
   
 
        


   
  
       
   1948    
(George Gamow)

  (Big   
Bang)  
       
(thermo nuclear     
  
 
 
           radiations)

 
        (short-wave)    

  
       
   
 
     
(radiation)       
 
      -273 o       
  
    
 
    1965        


                
    -270           
o

   -273.16     3   
o

  
   
   

 
  1931  (George    
Lawaitre)

     
      
       
  
 
        
       

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   
 322 
                  
      
 
   
 (primeval atom)

       (cosmic egg) 


      


 
  
   
          
   
             
 
              


                  

          
        
       

              


         

             


 
(singula rity )            
     
 
 
  
  
     

  
  
   
        
   
   
         



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   
 323 
             
 
 
          

         
       
        
 
  

       
      O        
       O 

         
    
 o    
   
        

o 

     


    
    
          
       
            
    
 
         
     
     
  

     
    
 
    
 
 
   
  
   
           
  

         
      
  


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   
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         
      


          

      


    


           

  

       

    
     
    

    

      


  

  
  

               


 
         
    
   
 
  

            

  
 
              


  
                 
  
     
 
    
     
     

        
           

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   
 325 
        

  (ph ysi c s) 
  1 4 
       
   
 (astro physics)
   


           



(Big Bang theory)      
  
 
      

            1950


 
 (Hans Bethe)   

 
   (Ralph Alpher)  

    
  (George 
Gamow)   
   
 
     
    
     
   

 (cosmic red shift)      


  
    (spe ctru m)        

3    1965 
     
  
    
         

         
   

      


      


   
    


            
       
  

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   
 326 
 
 

     
   
  
        


 

    
 
  
 (Heise nberg)      
 
       (uncertainty principle) 

  
          
 
               

        
(z e r o - p o i n t        
   
       flu ctu ations)
       
          
         
  

  

  1948           


        (Hendrick Casimir)     

 


     1948        
    
  (Willis Lamb) 
  


 (Paul Davies) 


  
      
 
                 
    
  
 
         
    
       (Big  
Bang Theory) 

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 
          
       
        
   
     
       

         
    
(one billionth         
     
        
    
  
  secon d)
  
(one thousandth     
    


 secon d)

      


  

 
   
  

 
     
       
     O        
       O 

       


    
 o    
  
       

o 

            


         
      
                  
     
         
    

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        
      
   
         
 
     
  (10 billionth second)      
 
   
   
(10,00,00,00,00,00,00,00,000)
         
       

                 



  
                
 
   

         
       
               
 


                

        

      
     

   
 
   
      
    
      
    
 
      
  
    
           
  

           
   
  
             
           
     

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   
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   

          
 
  

  

     
  
 (Stephen Hawking)      

            

  
           

        
      

  (nuc lei)    
      
 
 
  
          
 

  1942   300           

  
  
     
           
 
           
    
           
    (motor neur one)

             



     
     
     
   
A Brief History of        
     

           Time
  
  -               

 

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    
     
  
  
 

       


  
               

     
           
  

       
        
 
      
        

                 
              

              
 
            
    

 (spiral galaxies)         
  
    
        
 
   
              
 
  (elliptical galaxies)

(Theory of Relativity) 
    
             

             
   

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             
   
            
               
 
   
 
 (cosmology)  

(astro physics)   
   
 

  
      
         -1

                 


   
   
    (time & space)     

       
        

        
       
    

         
      (sin gularit y)
         
       
 
 

     
           -2

 
              
     (Big    
Bang)    
 
 
            
 
            

    
          

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(cen trifugal)
  
 (cent ripe tal)    
     
 
    
         

   
 
 
    
 
     
  
      
       
              
  
   
   
   
               


    
      
   
 
    
  
 
 
  
      
    
        
  
    
   

(Special Theory of   


    -3

   
       
   Re la t ivit y )
    
         
      
   E=mc    2

      (velocity)   

   
               

      
          
 

      
     
  

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  
    
   
     
        

          (E=mc ) 
   
 2


     

               


       
   O    

 
          

o

     
    O              

          
  
        
 
 
   
    
o 

      
      
    
 
 
 
  
     


    
  
   O        
      o  O           

              

o

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   
 334 
       
     
              
    

         
  

       
       -4

    


        
                 
  
         

  
             
 

  
            

      
       
 
  
                


   
           
    

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   
 335 

 

  
  

 
   

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   
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              


       )          
           (         

 
    
             
 
       

         


    

              
   
            
           
 
        
        
  
                  
            
   
    
     
  
        


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  310            
   
         
      
  
             
  

     
   

   
  

    
                 

              
      
    

      
       

        
        

   
       
     
        
             
 
              
    
      
 
  

  
       
   

    
         
               
          
(cluste rs) 

                   




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    
          
 
 


      
                

   

  -4  
-1

  -5    
-2

   -6  
-3

 
-1

             


            
 
 

        
     
      
    

         


                    


             
     
  (:   )

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   
       

 
           
           

      
                  
 
      
  

   
-2

               


    
     

       




 
                      
       
                
                   
         
          
         
     
 (: )

       


     
     
 


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   
 341 
      
   
    

    
       (atmosphe re)
          
    

              
       
           

    
             

      (meteorology) 

       
       


                  


                   
         
   (:  )


-3

   
  
          
        
       


  
  

 
                 

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   
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                  

      
 (:  )
   

    
     

  
    
        
    
    
    
     
 
       
  

        
    
 

   
               

(    )

  


    


  -4

       
       

              
  
      
            

   

   
 

  
                

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   
 343 
         
            


        ( :   )
         
      



  
         

   
   

  -5
   
         
      

   
 
  
              

    
  (  :   )

     
      
  


                 
                  

 

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   -6
             
  
              
 
         
      
        (gaseous state) 


                   


       
              
        (   :   )



     
      

 
     
         
    
      
            
   
  
           

       

         


       
     



                
                    

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       O   

         ( :    )


    

        

o



     
           
            
  
      
       

   


                   


       
            
  
                  
         
            

           
   
     ( -  :    )
    

              


 
  

  (cloud of hot gases)      


 -1

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   
 346 
     
           -2

      


           
 
        ( )
 

   
       
      

            


     -3

                   
         
          
  
   
         
   
  

     
             
   
          

      (  :    )

 
      
 

     
      
O     
     
  )
( :   
o

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   
 347 
    
     
        -4

  
 
    
   
     
 
 

             
    

 

     
       

     
            
               
      
           
        O       

      
   
( :     )
  
o

    
        
  

      
    
 
  
         
  

    
            
         
     
 
                

 


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     

                 
    
  
  


      

        
  
      
 

                  


               
 
          O  
       
   
o   

                  


       O   
 
o        

  
               

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 349 

       O          
            


    
        
      
o   

           



   
        
                 
          

    
         

     

       


  
          
      
   
        200 
          
       (decades)    

 

        

   
     
            

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 350 
         
   
   
       
   

    
       
 
     
      
    

     
    
   
    (quasars)       
       
        

  
            
      

 
              

               
 

    
                


    

   

            
  
  
             
     
            

 
       
     
(Milky            
    
   
   
   
   Way)

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     
         
 
   

 
            
       
       
   
              
   


     
           -1

 

       
     
  -2
  
   

    
              -3


        


          -4
 
 
   

  (quasars)           


-5



         
        -6
        

         


     -7

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   
 352 
 



            
 14        
  
          
   
 
   


  

   
     
     
     
 
       
     


    
           



    65      -1

 30  
              -2
   

    20  
          -3
  

          -4
       
    10   


     
       -5

     20      -6

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 353 
 
             -7
      


             


    
 
    
              
 
     

            
        
  
        
                 
  
       
             
             
 
    
 

   
   

     
    
  
    
              
  

              

  
 
     
   
         
       
  
 

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  

(Space-time)   -


   

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              

             
  
                      
      
         
    
            

      (red giant)     
     
   
         
          
   
                   

              
  
 
     
       

   
      
      
             
      
    
            



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      

    
          
       
            
        
       
    
   
       
     
   
   

             


 
       
    
 (space -time ) 



  
       
      
      - 
       
 
    
          

     

A Brief         

          History of Time
  
                 
   
    -      (space -time ) 
   
           
   
      

  
   

          
  
     
      
  
   

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  
 359 
              

     -  
        

     - 
     (space -time ) 
 
                  
       
        

    65         15 
     80          
    
 
            
     

       
     
  
             
    

               
       
   
       
              
 
      

 

        
    
           
    
 
   
( S p e c i al Th e o r y o f     19 0 5 

          Relativity)
      
 (time & space)      
      

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  
 360 
      
   
           

 (matter)      
  (space)   (time)    (gravity)  (energy)

              
  
         
     
  
   
  
         
     (relative)         

     
           
             
  
    
            
             

  
   
        
 
 
              
 

         

  

    
    
        
      
        
 0.5              10  

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  
 361 
       90       

            
      
                  

      
   
      
           
     
          
       


   
  90      1,67,000  
         10  
    
 
         5 
  
        5          10

            
    

 
                  
      

        90    
    
               
   
   
               

   
          
   
   100         
   

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  
 362 
    
             
 
             
    
                
         
     
             
          

    
     
    
        
 
     
         



 
   
   

 (space-time)  - 
           
        
 

    -     

      
  -            
       
(General       
       -    Theory of
  Relativity)


           
    
       
 -           

      
       

  
 

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  
 363 
     
  
 (space-time)  - 
 
         -      
      

     

         

      
        
  
      
   

   
       
 
            

    
      
 
       
       
  
      
         
 
  
 
  

          


       
 
               
                
   
   
           
       
           
 
   
      
     5 
       
    
  
  

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  
 364 
       
          
 
       
   
   
    
      
        
                
 (space-time)  -            

  
        (resttrictions)  
     
 
       
  


      
     
 -                
             (space-time)

         
            
  (Big Crunch)  
         
  

    
   
         
   
     

       

                   
                
 
    
 

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  
 365 


     
  
         
    
               
          
  

      
         
              
  
   
          
               
 
     
  
        
        
 


               
   

    
            
    
   
         
  
     
     
    
  
           
     
        
      
   
     
        
 
 

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  
 366 

    


    
         
               
  
                   
                   
    

          
     309     
 309           
  
          



 
         

   
                

              


 
            
      


        
   309
   
     
   
      
 
         


    
   
 
         
      

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  
 367 
             
    
      
  309     

         
          
     
        
                
      

          300   309
  
    300     
    
          

   
      
          
          


    
 

       
            
        
          
 
     
              
 
              
            
     
      
  

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  
 368 
           
      
     
  
           
     
   309    
        
               
  
   
   
300  
      

 
        
    
   (General Theory      
of Relativity)

      
         
 

                
      
           
 
             
     

     
               

       
              

      
  
    
  
                 
   
     
   (space -time ) 
  - 
  
         
       
 

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  
 369 
            
     
              

         

   
 

     

    
 

   
      
    

                  
          
  
  
             
              
    

               100  
 
            
     
  


 
 
     
    

                 


    

       
     
         
      

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  
 370 

   

           
    

     
          
   
     


   
  
             
      

            
 

 
          

             

                       
                   
      
            
                
    
        
       
      
         

     

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  
 371 
        
       



    
        

           
  
    

      
           

          
 
     


  
   
      
  

    
    
       
   
            
   

            
 
            
    
               
     
             
    
  
       


        

     
        
   100     
            


 
    
 
         
   
           
     

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  
 372 

    
 
        
  
    
   
            
    100         
          
 
 
      

      

            
      

  

            
 
           100    
   
   
   
   - 
 (space -time ) 
         
    
     
          
    
  
                
       
  
       
 

          (space -time ) 
  - 

        


    
      
       
   
     
     
   

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  
 373 
       
     
   
 
         900    

     
         
  
            
          
     
  

     
         

    
 
                  
       O           
     

 
o   


900       


   

       
     

               
  
   
   

    
      
           
                      

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  
 374 
        O       
            
o   
      

     
   
        
 

        
   
     900    
     
  
          
      
         
   
   
    

        
  
 
  
               
                  
   
                   

 
              
        
  
     
 
      
       

  

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      


    
 
        900      
  

            
      
    
       

        
 
       
        

              

            
    

          
      
        
  
   
             
             
   
   
           


  
       
         

          
  
    

                 

          


               
         
        

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  
 376 
  
        
     
 
                 

 
         
   

 
          
               
           900  
  
                

    

         (atmosphe re)    
                  
 (asteroids)        
   
     
(meteors)         
                 
   
             

 
                  
    
  
        

    
   
 
         
   

 
      
        
 
       
        

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  
 377 
          
        
  
           
  

      
        

                    
    
                
 
      
  

  
       
    
  

                 
    
      
      
 
               
   
    
        
    
  
       
  
 
  

  
          
             
   
          
  

              
     
        
        
 
     
         
    
    

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  
 378 
              
   
            
      
 
        
            
       
 

    
    -    
     
      
     
              
       
      

  
    
   
 
               
            
     
    
          
   
            
              

      

     
               
             
    
 

           
 
 

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  
 379 
              

  


     (space -time )  - 
   
     
   
    
    

       
        

             
 
             
     
             
  
  
           
    
   
                  
 
           
    
 

  
    
        

   
      
     
    
       
           
  
 
  
 
  
          


             
 

      
   
     
                 
  

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  
 380 
              
   
  
   
          
 
 



            

      
          
 
     
         

     
  


          
    
 
  


         
    
    
 
        
       
 
                   
       
             
        
 O   
o   

  

    


   
       
      

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  
 381 
       
 O  

o      

 
             

 
         

   

    
                    
     
   O    
 
        
  
       
o

    


 
                      

       O          
 
o      
   

      
    
    
  
          
      
    
               
             
   

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  
 382 
 
               
  
      
          

 
   
   
  
                 

               
         O 
      
         

o  

 
 
          
     
          
          
   
 
    


   70  60         
          
    
  
               
 
 


 
   

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  
 383 
                    

   
                 
     
 
  
     

     
  
    

           
     
       
    

 
  
                    
        O          
       
   
o  

       
         


       
        
     
                
   
    

 
         


       
  
     

     
   
 
              

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  
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              O   
 
      o       O       
       O           
       
 -   
   o  
      
    
      
o 

     
        
   
         1727 
 1642       
     
        
            
        
            
          
    
       
 
  
         
     
 
                  
   
     
             

                
    
      
              

           

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 385 



  

    

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   
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    
       
 
    
 
               
  
  
 
      
        

          
   
    
   (six  
periods of creation)

   
 

        
 
          - 1
                    
 
      
  

  
    

                    - 2


                       
       
         
        
               

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   
 388 
  
  
                     
        O         
 
    
         
 
          

o  

                   -3


         O           
  
 
    o    
           
        
               
                     O   
      o  

              
     
   
        O  
   o           
           
 -  
  

    
          
   
          
     
  

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 389 
          
   -1

              


    
              

      

 6             -2

    

          
     -3

           
   
              
 
      

             24    


 -4

    
  
    


     
          
 
       
            
  
   
     
     
  
        
 
             

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   
 390 
(variable  

           
   
         length of time)

 
  

 
                    
      
                 
     
   O           
     
   

 
o

 50       
     
  
      

   
 
                 
    
                  
          O  

 50     
        
o  

    
             

         
   
               
    
        
    
    
  

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   
 391 
          
 

  
  
  


     
    
 
   
         


        


    -1

   (accide ntal)        


  

     (Creator)
   

  
     
   -2

  
      
i. Earthly Creation
ii. Heavenly Creation
iii. Intermediary Creation

                


                   )    
:     (
  :   :   :        

  :   :   :  :      :   :   
              
 cosmic extra galactic world  


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   
 392 
           
 


)       
          -3

    (plurality)      ( 


             
 
        
    
             

  
       
      
   
 
    

                   


 ( )          
  ( :      )


           
 -4

  
(evalutionery process of  -5

      
 the creation)

  
     
        
 -6

        

     (divine


 planning) 
   -7

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           

      
     

       
             -8

        
       
        
    
    
  


      


   
  
  
               
     
         

        
                 

     
        
              
    
              

         
        
           
      
      
         
   
              

         
 
 

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   
          
 24
               
  
(a long span of     (period/era)
   
(six periods of       
    
time )
  creation)


              
 

 
   

 
                    

       
              

      
    O             

        
 ( :  )


   
o  

 
      
      

            
   
        
 

   
 

   
  
                

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   
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    
              
          O  

 50      
    ( :   )

o  


    
       
        
         
  
   
            

      (period)   
    

    
           
   
  
      
 
   
  
      
        
(six periods of  
         
   
  creation)

           


     
   
   

                  


                   
                
                

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   
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 
     
         

        (  :    )

             


  
                
   

     
            

 
                

             

         

 (   : )

        


:        

              

             

              

                  

  
 )             

 (      ( :     )

        
      
     
        

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   
 397 
  
       
         
  

 

  
  
         

        
   
  

 
   -2  
    -1

     


   2      6  

         



                         


  
                     
         
             
        O           
  

          
 
     
  
o       

     
      8      

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    
   
        




          
        
 


 
    
     

 
 
           
    

   
          
      
      

 
 
             

  
        
     


            
           
        

           
   
         
           

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 
               

 2,99,792.458   1,86,282.397  
 
     
   (velocity)   

    
      
     
           
  

     
       

               

    
    
         
     
            
              
 

              

 
       
    
 
                   
  
        
    
     
            
                   
               
 
            
    

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 86  
      282       
  
              

         
    
 
      
  (M ilky Way)  

  
  

     
          

             
 
   
      
         
      
  

 (quasar)       


    

   PKS2000-300      
     
        
  18        
 10            
  
       10,00,00,00,00,00,000 
                

     
  
 (cosmo logist s)     
      
     
     
 
   
            
 
       
 

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 

  

     

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   
 
     
            
       


         



    
  
        
 
 (1,50,00,000)
      
    
 100    

 3           

  

       


    
     

(supernova)        6   4 
          
     
 

              
    
 
                
  
 
               
  

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   
 404 

          
      
         

  
 
         

     

        
    
      
     
 
          
 
      
        

   

      


      

   
                   - 1
       
          
    
                
       
 O        

        
   
   
  
 
    
         
         
o 

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   
 405 

                    -2


                  
       O         

        
 
 
         
      
     
 
o

                  - 3

  
       

      
            O   

        


 

 
          
    
 
o 


                     -4
        
            

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   
 406 
          
  O    
    
    
 
o    

        
               -5

                  
       O                 

        




        
  
 
o 

                     -6


       
       
     

          
      
  
    O   

        
      
      
o  

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   
 407 
                 - 7
     
                
                  
    
               
  
        O      

 
          
o  


        
       
       -1

          


      

    
             
   
      
             

      
  

    
  
          -2

              
  
 
               

       (macr omole cules)    


     
 
           
  

     
              

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   
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       
     

          
      -3

 
              
    
                 
   

  
          
  
        
      
 
        


 
   
         
  
     
  
     

                     



                     
        O  
      

          
o 
    

       
    

   
  
    60  4  
 
               

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                 
       
  (geology)

    
           
(asoic era) 
              5  4   
       
     
   


              


    (alge e)    (bacte ria) 
   

         
 

 
    
           

 
 
   
 

        
              

      O                

          


         

    

      
 
o 


   
   
        

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              
   
 
  

        
Proterozoic Era     
 -1
Palaeozoic Era    -2
M esozoic Era   
 -3
Cainozoic Era 
 
  -4

  
 
 -1
Pr ec amb r ian    Pr o te r o zo ic Er a  

       stone 
age       Time
 
     
   

i. First Life Cells iii. Protista
ii. M oner a iv. M etazoa

   -2
       
(ancient life)     
           55,00,00,000 
   
   
        
    
   
         


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  

 (period s)   


     

i. Cambrian Period
ii. Ordovician Period
iii. Silurian Period
iv. Devonian Period
v. Carboniferous Period
vi. Permian Period

   
 -3
      midd le life       

         
     
  
  24,80,00,000         
 
         
  18,30,00,000   
     

 3     
  

i. Triassic Period
ii. Jurassic Period
iii. Cretaceous Period

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
   -4


            


      "mode rn life"     

      
  6,50,00,000 
          


    (period s)  


  

i. Palaeocene Period
ii. Eocene Period
iii. Oligocene Period
iv. M iocene Period
v. Pliocene Period
vi. Pleistocene Period
vii. Holocene Period

          


      


 (Algae)   (Bacteria) 
     
   
        
   
           
             
       

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       
          

     
  
          20,000 
  
          

         
   
      
 
 (special   
 
creation)   
  
               

       (fossils)
      
   
             
        
     
             
                
           
 
         
   
  
  
                
                 
           
    

            (fossils)
 
 
   
         
 
     
   

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   
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      
        
    
     

     
  

 
            
   
  
 
        
     
  
  
  
   
 
                   
        
            

       
        
  : 
   
         
  

               
 


 
      



        
 
           

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 
      O     

        


 :   
o   

(scientific fact)   


     
 
       
 
    

"Azoic Era"           


   
   (two      
period s)          
      ( w at e r )   
    
      (mountains
       & rocks)

   
  
         
 
         

   
          
 

         
   
(Pr e-Cambrian  
           
   
 
         
    Era)
 Palaeozoic Era          
 
      
         
 

Palaeozoic 
Era       
  Ordovician Period Camb rian Period

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                
     
      
  
 
       
         
   
     Silurian
 Period   
  
             C o o k s o n i a
           43,80,00,000

     
    
  
  
             
          
Devonian     3       
     Per iod
      
         
     
      (spide rs) 
  (wingless insects) 


 

            



           
        

    
 29       
 
  
     
   
  
             

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      

                   
     
 

          
       

        


   

               
   
     
      
 


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 

      


(Darwinism)

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  
    
    

  
          
 
 
          
    
    
         

    

            
    

           (Cenozoic Era)  
 
      
            
 
          
   
       
    

Ph ylum................................Cho r data
Sub -P hylu m.........................Vert eb rata
Class..................................M ammalia
Ord er ....................................Pr imate
Sup er family...........................Ho mino id
Family.................................Homin o id
Gen us......................................Ho mo
Spe cies.............................Ho mo sapie n

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          
 (ape)    
          
  
    
             
       
     (  )         
    

 (  )      
         
              
     


     
  
  

      
 
   

     
                

                 
     
        
      
   
   
  

       




 (M an dle )   (M althas)    (Lamarck) 
  (M o n o d )   (O p a r i n ) 
   (D ar wi n )  

            ( W i l s o n)

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   
 423 
(N e o 
    (Dar win ism) 
   (Lamar c h is m)
               Darwin ism)

                 
 

                

       

(biological similarities)   -1

(anatomical similarities)     -2
 
   -3
(biochemical similarities) 
(genetic similarities)  
   -4

      
     
        
 38  
14        
    
           


          

        

                    
        
             

                
           
             
    (missing links) 
       

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     
   
  
     
    

         


 
        
      
     
        
         
     
      
         

 
           

      
              
              
  
   

(Charles Darwin)       


   
(Christ's     
    
     
         Collage )
      (medical science)   (biology)

  
                  
 
  (ape)         (unicellular
 organism)

       
          

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                   
          
    
            
  

  (Duane Gish)    
  

             
 
      
 (R. B. Goldschmid t)   
     
        
 
             
          
      
  
 

     
 
         
  
              
  
   
            
               
           

               
 
           (Jeremy
 Rifkin)

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   
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     (zoology)     (biology)  
 
 (C.
 H. Waddington)    
 
(Stephen J.   (Pierre-Paul Grasse)
Gold)  

      


     
  
  


  (P r o f.
 
Go ld sch mid t )   

     
    
    (Prof. M acbeth)

         
  
      
      
             
           
    
          
  
  
  
            

               
 

        

      -1
     
       

            
   
        1955     

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   
 427 
  DNA      
    99  
    
     
 100       

   
 
 
      
   
      
       
             
      
     
      

   
          
        
           
     
      
  
       

 
                
        
 

    -2
  
            
            
     
         
    
 



 
                1965

    
        (Surtsey)   
 
      
         
           
        

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   
 428 
    
    
       


       

  -3
   
 
     
       
         
  
          
        
      
      
   
 (M uller )
      
   
   
         
    
          
  
                
           
  
           
    
   
    
           

            
   

              



 

               
 
    
  

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   
 429 

    -4
                  
                

       (Piltdown Man)      
  
      
       
   

    
       
       
      
           
1350      
        
130    
                
 
 
                10

(ape)       


           

   
       
   
      
 
    10   


   -5

      
      
     
   
       (appen dix)  
   
        
  
          (tonsils)   
  

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   
 430 
   
             
         
 
      
    
  
 
           


    -6

     
 
      
    
      
    
                   

                   
         
      
           
                

 
            
    
  
     
            
 
             
  
         
    
       
           
   

         
       
         

    100    
  
   
   
            

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   
 431 
  
  
          
            (ape)    
  
  
   
    


 (Survival of the fittest)   -7


      
     
     (survival of the fittest)    
 

         (dinosaur)      

    
         
  
  15    
     
 
     100    
     
             
            
    
  
       

         

 -i

      
       
         
     

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   
 432 
           
         
     
       
   

             

     
         
          


 
  -ii
       
    
            
    
   
              
   
        
 
  

     -iii

      

    
    

    
           

              

                  

      

         
         

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   
 433 
          
       

                   

       
     
    


            
             

    -8
  
            

   (amo eba)       
 
               
   
 
       
       
  
         
       
     
 
          
 3   

  
     
           

           
  
 10,000      
   
           
      
 

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   
 434 
 ..........  ............ 

 ...........  ............. 


..........  ........  

   
    
        

 
             
 
             

   -9
   
        
   
  

(Physics)   -i
 
        
     
 
     
         

 (he lium)     4 
           2

      (thermonuclear
  
bomb)

        (mushroo m)    


  

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   
 435 
(Mathema tics) 
 -ii

             
  
        39 10      

20

       
    100    
   (ape)  
      
      500

      3 10    
520

      
        
     

              
10    
         

124

        
     
       

   

(Biolog y)    -iii
          
 
     
            
   (cistron) 
        
        (d eoxyribonucleic acid)
       

      
           
     (genes)
                 
   

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   
 436 
          

       (Nilson Heribert)     
 
             
 

 

 (Prof. M ax Westenhofer)  


         

    
    
             
 (Java Man)        (Prof. Weismann) 
 


(Prof.             
           Gish )
    
  
  (Nebraska Man)    
 
    
    

     
      
   
          
   
      
            
            
  
1. Jeremy Rifkin, A lgeny, Middlesex: Penguin,1984.

2. Paul S. Moorhead and Mirtin M. Kaplan, eds.


Mathematical Challenges to the Neo-Darwinian
Interpretations of Evolution, Philadelphia: Wistar

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   
 437 
Institute Press, 1967.

3. Norman Macbeth, Darwin Retried: A n A ppeal to


Reason, Boston: Gambit, 1971.

4. Duane T. Gish, Evolution: The Fossils Say No!, San


Diego: Creation Life Publishers, 1978.

5. John Moore, On Chromosomes, Mutations and


Philogeny, Phil adelphia, 1971.

6. Walter J. Bock, Book Review of Evolution, Orderly


Law, Science, (146) 1969.

7. Harold Francis Blum, Time's A rrow and Evolution,


Princeton University Press, 1968.

8. Nilson N. Heribert, Synthetische A rtbildung,


University of Lund, Sweden.

9. Pierre-Paul Grasse, Evolution of Living Organisms,


New York: Academix Press, 1977.

10. David Raup. Conflicts Between Darwin and


Paleontology, Field Museum of Natural History
Bulletin. January 1979.

 
  
          

         
       

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   
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 
     
        
              
 
            
      
  
     
   
          

  
               
   
       

   
 

  
           
        
 O  

  

o 
   

  
     
     

   
           
     
(special  
     
     
 
     
        creation)


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   
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

  

  
(Expanding universe)
 
   

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              
              
 

          
  
       
       
               
    
    (physic al universe) 
            15        
    65 

  
  
           
O sc i lla t in g U n ive r se      
       Theory

  
                    
      
                 

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         
      
 
             
     
       
            

    16             
   93,91,28,46,33,60,00,00,00,00,000   

     (radiatio n)  
        
            
 
            
     
              
             
              
 
       
 
     

       

     
   
         
       
   (M ilky        
Way) 

(Proxima  
   
      

         4.2     Centauri)
          
  24.68 
   8.3        
   4

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14,92,96,644   9,27,72,934.58     
     8.3             
             
     
      

  
  
   
          
     
        
    1 9 2 4  
           (Edwin Hubble)

             


      
      
 
            
 
             

               



                



            (red shift)
      
 (Hubble's      
Law)        
         
      

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   
    
  (Hubble's Constant)

          
     
         (Doppler Effect)    
  
      
        
     10 5      


  (Doppler
    Effect)   

  
         

    
(Big Bang)     
 

    
       
       
   
 
         
         
 
      
         


            
    
        
     
                
 
  
       
         
             
   
    
             
                 
        
      

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   
 445 
  (doppler effect)   
      
 


            
 

  
        
   (1803-1853)
      
    
    
              
     
  
  
            
 1924            
   
  (Red Shift)       
      
 
  

    
    

              
             

       

        
         1,400
       

                 


                  
                    

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   
 446 

 
      O   

    
     
o

    
        
      
    


                     


        
   O    

      
    

o     

    
        
     

  
          
    

             

  
      
      



  
          

          
 O       


o       

 

           

     
  
 14      

   
            

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   
 447 

  (astrophysics)


    (cosmo logy) 
  

 
          
 
       
   
     
       
        
       
       
      
  1915  

         (General Theory of Relativity)

              



  
 (c osmolo gic al co n st ant )  
  
   
    

       


        
 

    1922      (Alexander Friedmann)

    1929        
  

       1965 
   
  
    
  
(Ro b er t    (Ar n o Pe n zias)      
 


 
        
  
   Wilson)
     1978     
  

    
    
  
 

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   
 449 


 

(Black Hole)    

 
    
   

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   
 451 


 
    

 (Stephen Hawking)   
       
      (physics)

             
     
   
           
(black hole)  
(John       
    1969     

   
           
    Wheeler)
  
      
   200
            
   
              
 

     

           

             
      
 

  (Black Hole)   


 3,50,00,00,000     
20   

   
     (supernova) 
 
   

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   
 452 
           
      
 
 

     
          

            
   
  
 
            
  
   
          
    
          
(black hole) 

  
            
    
 
  (singular ity)    
      
  (astrophysic s)  
 
   
         
  
    
     
  
  
     
         
       
  
      (superno va) 
   
            
     

  

      (Black Hole)   

            
    (life -cycle )    
       
 
     
      

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   
 453 
       
      
 
      
         
      

 (Hydrojen)         
         
   
        
 

          (Helium)      
   
     
     
          

 
    
              

   
    


        
       
  
    
   
     

       
          

                
       
          
         
      
     

         
   
               
  
   
              
   
           
       

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   
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            

       
        5

          
    50
          
      
   
 1920              


    
 
          
    
        (supernova)
 
          (dense core)  

            
     
 
         
           
             

      
  
         
             
          
    (quasars)
 
 
        

   
      10    

     
  
   
      
        (supernova)  
   
   
         
 

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   
 455 
         
     
  
   (pulsar)  
          
   
    (core)  
  
    
  

        
       

              
    



   
      
       
(Oppe nheimer)   
            

         
     
          (cones) 
     
                  
     
   
    
 
                    
             

          
  
      
 
  
    
  
  (magnetic field)

  
  
           
         
        

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             
      

      
    
       
   
              
     
         
               
    
    
             
 
    

    
           
                
         -   
   

(black                 


     
  
             hole)
            
 (event horizon)

             
       

          

 

      (Stephen Hawking)   
Penrose)  
 1975   1965  (Roger
   
 


 
           
 
       (singularity of infinite density)   

  
 (space-time curvature)   
  

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      
          
             
   
              

          
          
 
   
  
            

      
            
      
          
 
  
     

       
            
   
 
 
         
      
      
               
  

          
    
                  
   

               
  

                  
 
            
     
           
     
            


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   
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 

       
         
 
            
    
   
      
   
         
  (1,00,00,00,00,00,00,00,00,00,00,00,00,000)

      
        
     
          
   
  
   
  

    
      
      (M ilky Way)    
 
   
    ( M age llan ic Clo u n d s)

           (Cygnus X-1)


     
   
       
 
               

             
  
     
            
       
        
  
        
 
   
        
    
    
 
    
       

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       
         
              

       
          

        
               
            
  
       

      

     
        
     
 10      

        
            
                 
  
             
     
           
       

                  
 
      
   
     
 

                 

    
      
    
 
   
      
     
      (Chandrasekhar Mass Limit )

    
   
    

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                
 
           
 
 
         
  



   
    

       
          
     
     
      
        
            

          

      
  
 

        
       
        
      

      
       
     
           

    


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
   

      
 
   

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   
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   
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   
            
 

       
     

 
   
     
      
   15               -1

              (Big     


Bang) 

(Big   
Crunch)        65 
 
         
       -2

 
             
  
   


                
                    

 
               -3

          
           


      (hylium)   (hydrojen) 

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 464 
              
        
           10     
27
-4

       

       
       
        


          

(su p e r galac t ic

     
10         black holes)
106

             
     
          
      
        65      
  -5

    10
140

 

    
      
        -6
                  
         

                    
     (nothing & naught) 

       
   
       
          

      
             
 

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 465 
 
       
        O        
 o  
    O      O   
 o            
O  

o             O    


o    
  
 O 

         -    


    o   
o    


         
         
    
       O         
 

          
o  

        
 
         
      
    O     
o     

                   


   
           O    
  o              O   

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     
     O     

    o        - 


         
 
o      

o 
                   O     
     
        O   
       o    O   

o     -   

       
    O       
  o  
        O     

o        O   

         
   
- 
o    

        
   O        

    o       O    
   o  
    O   

o    
 -   

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 
         O           

o  

       
      O         
   
     o   O     O  

        O        
   
   o  O          

 
    o    -  
 
  o    

      

o  

     
       O        
  o    
        O 
 o       O       O  


 o         -  
     
   
  
o  

       O          

  
      O          

             

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   
 468 
       o

         
     

o  

           O    O   


   
       O     
   
    o
      O      
  
   
       
        o
 O  

     
  
-   
o     
 
         

      
      

       o 
o      

  
  
 
 O             
o     
     

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 469 
 
       O      

   
o     
 

               


       
 

  
                       
                

   
    
     

     
   

      
 
   

 
      
   

  -1

        
            
              

     
      

      
       
    
 
       
      
        -i

    

     -ii

         


   
    -iii

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   
 470 

     
  
    
      -2

 
 
                  
                        
                  
     
       
            

 
  
           
      

 

   
   

        
    
          
     
 
  (astro-physics)  
      


   
     
            

           
      


 
      
    

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   
 471 

       
           
               (matt ress)

    
        
            
 
 
             
        
          
 
    
    
       
        (white     
dwarf) 

       
   
       20         
  

 
       
         


         
      
          
   
                   

        
 
 
 (curvature)      
    
            
    -         (singularity)


       
 
           
     
  
     

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                     
               
      
           

    
  O   

            
   
   
      
 
   
      
o        

        
(John Wheeler)   

 
(General Theory         
  
        
   of Relativity)


       
   
             


        
              
                
     

     (Big Crunch)   
                
         

          
      
  

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    (Big Crunch)      
    (John Wheeler) 
      
               


    (Big Crunch)            


  
      
 (Big     
Bang) 

          


     
 
           
    
         
   
   (Super Space) 
   
            
    
 
           
 
 
           

          
    
   
 
      
      
        
         
    
        
  

   
      
              
    
            
 

  
     
    

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                     
               
      
    
      

       O   

            
   
   
     
   
    
       
o    

                     


        
    
        
      
  O   

    
    


o   

       
           
      
           
          O           
         
 
   
   
o    

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                   
          
            
                   

                  
   
        O  

   
   
         
      
     
   
o 


           
  
       
 
          
   

      
       
    
      
          
     
 
            
         
      

(Osc illatin g Universe         
 
     Theory)
     
                  

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   
 476 
      
           
     
  O   

     
      

 
o    
 
    
       
    
          
    
   
               
      
        
          
         
     
    
  
 
     
        
             

   
       
   
   
     

(Gaseous state)     



      
     
 
        (Big Crunch) 

(gaseous state) 

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   
 477 
           
                  
  
   
o   O 

 
  
  
     
  
    
         
     1 0 
            
              
    
      
     

   
 
 
     
     

      
              
    
           
  -  
 )         
   
   ( 
    :      
   (    )  
  
  : 
 (  )  
   
  
      
 

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   
 478 
                 
                       
   40 
      
       
                 
     
          
  
                 
  

     )        
       
        
  
    (    

               

 (gravit ation )        ()
 
  
 
         
  
     
          
   
 
       
      
          
   
  
    
  
                
        
      
           
   
             
   

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   
 479 
   
  (particle physicists)            
 
      
            
   (light electron)    (lepton)    


(massless 
neutron)       (positron)
         
      

  
         
  
  
             
 
              

            
    


(Black Hole)         

(John L.      
   1977    

               Wilhe lm)
  
       
         

            
            
   
        (Cygnus)  
   

    
                 

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   
 480 
       
   
       

              
      
 
     
    
    
         
              


 
 

(  )   (space)         (mat ter)  
          
(time ) 

     
       
     
  
            
  

          
      
       
        
              
    

        
  
         
      
  
               
    
       
  
      
 
           
 
   
              
            
  
          
                

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     
           

    
         
      90 
       

                  
 
                   
  

    
          

             
    

 
           
 

     
     
      
              
  
  
 
        
  
  

            
  
                    
 
  
         

  
    

          


                 
              
   
   
        
 (white dwarf) 
  

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                 
 
 
                  
      
   (velocity)         

             
 
   
        

              
 
  
 
         
              
                        
              
       
  
     
 O   

   
     
o

                  

            
    
       
   
  
    
 -1

         
       -2

  
 -3

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        
    
  -4

   
 
  
       
    
  
     10   
     
32

10         
  
   
32

  
           


   

           
    
 
     
        


    

(Stephen             
         
    Hawking)

 
             
    
 
 
      
   
          

      
       
     
                
              
  
 
     
             
 
                   
  
                     
  
         
       

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       
          
 
         
    
  
      
 
     
                  
  
     
          
       

             
       
    
        
        

             
 

     

        
           
         65           

              
   

       
           
 
                

       
     
             
  
       
  
         

             
  
 
          

  
  

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         
             
        
                
              
       
  
    
 O   

o      
   

               


       
   

      
            

         
        
  
                         
                 
   
      
  
        

    
        
     



  
    
        


      
    
       
      

           
      

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       
  
       
  65      
    
               
             
            
      
           
    

             
          
       

     



              
       (Hydrojen)
        
       

         
  

       4,50,00,00,000       
            

 
 
     
          
          
       

             

  
              

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 487 
             
             
    
          

    (red giant)   
           
     
      red giant 
   

             
   
      
           

                 

                 


                   


  
            
   

     
    

     

  
    
 
  
 
                  

         

 
     
    
   
  
   
 

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   
 488 
      (astrophysics)  
  
  
                  
          
     
 
              
    

      

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 

 
   

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    

 
     

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   
 493 

               
   
   
       
        
        
     
    
    
        
     
     (chemic al evolution)  
    
  
            
 
          
       
   

   
 
     
         
    

  

(inorganic matter)  -1


(water)  -2

(clay)  -3

(adsorbable clay)    -4

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   -5

(old physically & chemic ally altered mud )



(dried & highly purified clay)     -6

(ext ract of purified clay)  -7

 
      
   

(Inorganic matter)  -1


             
     
      
              
 
     
 ( :   )

  
           

                    
  
       
          
 
   
    
        
     
                
       
 O  

    
    ( :   )


o   

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      
  
     
           
    
 

        
     

            
      
            

   
   
      
      
       
   
           
      

 

(Wat er)  -2
     
   
 
  
      
        
      
 
   
             
  (  :   )

 
     
    
   

  
      
        
   
(  :   )

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 
         
     
  
   
   
                

       
        

       

       
 
            
         O      

         )


( :   

 o  
       
  
   

            

(Clay)  -3
   
        
   
    
              
        
            
       
 :    
  
   
  

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 
           
    
            
     
              
   
                 
  
 
          
      
            
    

    
     
      
 
  
 
 
  
           
     
  
      
    
 
    

 

(Adsorbable clay)    -4
       
      
     
    

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   
 498 
       O       
o
 :  
  
           
       
       
     
            
  
            

 
        

   -5
(Old physically & chemically altered mud)
     
         
                  
  
 
      
    
           
       O    

         :


         

 

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 
    

o     

 
          
       

            
  
 
                

  
                   
    
             
          
       
      
 
              
              
     
             
                 
     
      
      


               
   
           
 
  

               
      

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   
 500 
         (physical change) 

  
       
  
        
         
     
           
      
  
           
  
  

o  
      O     

 :  
       
            
      :   
    

         O            


  
         

    o  :   

                
        
     
  
 
  

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        
     
               
               
 
             
     
        
      
      
       
    
  :    
              
    
               
                

         
    
    
       

     
       
    
 
           
   

  
 
        O        

 
         
  :

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       


o 

    
          
 
             
  
 


(Dried & highly purified clay)     -6
             

    

   
        
o      O   

:  
   
             
     
       
    
  
      
     
                 
               

     
      
                 
 

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   
 503 
                  
  
          
 
 
   
     
   
              
      
 
         

      
    
                

      
   
                   
        

    
       
    
    

        
     
    
               

            
    
 

             
      
        
      

       
 
    

         

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   
 504 
    
          
   
                
  
     
       
  

          
       
   
            
    
         
          
 o            O   
        O    
o   :  
  
    
                   
        
 O   

o      :  


       
    
 
  
     
    

(Extract of purified clay)  -7


         
   
        
 

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   
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    
               
    
   O 

  
o  


           
   


        
       
   
    
(process of purification)      
 
              
 
                 
                       
    

             
              
      
 

  
                   
  
        
    
       
 

     
 
 
       
 
     
 
          
        
             
 

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            

    
      
          
   
   
       
      
             

  
               
            
     
  
               
  
    
 
  
        
  
   
         
 
     
    
    
  
      

                    

               
          
     
    
       
 
                 
   
      
          
      
      
 

  
   
 
           
         
         

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   
 507 
                 
 

                     
  
                  
      
      
    
                   

 
     
   
   
        
  
   
      
                 
      
  O          

     
      
       
       

o

 
  
   
            

                     
 
    
      


   
    

  

    
   
  
   
 
    
    

    
    
      
 
  

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   
 508 
          
        
  
  
   
       
   
           
     
          

             

  

             
       
       
    
          

        
 
        
  
     
  
       
  
             
 
         
       
 
              
           
 
       
      
  )
(    

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   
       

     
               
       
  
       
   
       
    

  
    
   
     

   
 
              
            
(   )

    
      
               
  
    
       
        
   )
            

        
   
   
  
              
   
 
                
    
      
      
              
   

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   
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   
           
    
 
              
 
 
           
 
    
             

 
           
   
    
     
     
      

 


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   
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 

     
 
 

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   
 513 

     
      
 
         
      
 
             
   

  
         
      
              
  
            
   
         
   

   
         
  
   
   
      2      
   
       (celluler division)   

       

(Mitotic division in uterus)  


  
         
         
    
  
       
  

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   
 514 

:  
  
               
(s in g le  
         
  life cell) (    )

       


                
   
      
 

      6 
      
   
           

   
     
         
     
     
  
         
fertilized ovum 
Zygote      
  

       
  
   

      
        
 
   
 
   
             
   (mingled fluid) O             

      ( )

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   
 515 
 
    
o   

   
         
  

   
    
    
   
   (potentialities)  

 (Mingled fluid)   



           
 
   
         fertilization 
           
    
      fertilizing liquid

(Sper m)   -1


  
      
 
      
    O           
o   (   ) 
    
       

spermatic liquid      
      

           sperm
(A liquid pour ed out)    -2
  
     

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   
 516 
    
 ( )     O         
     
 o        O     
 ) 
     O       
    (     (    )
      o  

 (  )  
o  
 
 
          

    
 
                
   
             

 
            
   
 sacrum        
 
      
  symphysis pubis   
   

    
 
   
The seminal passage in the plevic cavity lies
between the anterior and posterior segments of the
pelvic girdle.

       


 semen  
         
     
  
   
         (anatomy)  
       

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   
 517 
   
 
     
      
    
       
   

 

(A despised liquid)    -3
    
    
 
               
          O   

o (   )

(Mingled fluid)     -4


     
    
   
            
   (mingled fluid)    
(:  )

  
       
     

  
    
         
   

  sp e r ma t i c liq u i d  
     
    (glands)   (secretions)
1. Testicals

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   
 518 
2. Seminal vesicles
3. Prostate glands
4. Glands of urinary tract

(Mitotic division) 


    
     
    
 
  (fertilized ovum)            

    
        


            
  mitotic division    
    
 
              
(sin gle  
             
   
  life cell)            
       
      
      (    )

 
   
   
 
 
     
             
              
  ( )

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   
 519 
    

   zygote   
   
 -1

      
   -2

   
   
  cells   -3

   

   mitotic
        division 
  
  
1. Prophase 2. M etaphase
3. Anaphase 4. Telophase

  ( v e r t i c a l l y )   
    
 

     (horizo ntally)

    (Single life cell)  


    mitosis     

  (cells)          meiosis   
  
   m a t u ri t y        

meiosis      ovarian cells   testicular cells

   ova  spermato zoa  


 
zygote         fertilizat ion  
   
 


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   
 520 

  
(Ut erus)    
(uteru s)  
   
    ovum  sperm 
   implant ation of egg  
 
  
     
                        
    
       
 
     
              (egg) 
  
  
    
  

   (Hanging mass) 


 
   
        
   

          
   
   
   
 
  
  
  O          
          o  O      

      
     
o  

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   
 521 
   
 
 
       O          
 (  
 )  
           
 
       o (     )

     

           
    
        
      
         
       
  
 
        
  
 embr yology
    
           
  
 

       
        
          
        
   
     
      

      
   
            
  
     
         
   

  
       
       
         
  
    

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   
 522 
     
   
   
  

    
       

   
       
 
      


    
              
      

   
              
      
   O  

 
o

              


 (   
  )   
  O   

o

   
                  
     
 

         
       
    
       
  

                



 

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   
 523 
     
         

  

                     




    
   O      
 
         (  -   )

    
  
 
 
o   

      


  
 
             
   
     
         
   (deve lop me ntal stages of human embryo)

Extr act of cl ay     


Sper matic liquid of sper m    
Ha n g i ng mas s c li ng i ng t o t he    
endometr ium of the uter us

Chewed lump of chewed substance     


Skeletal system   
Muscular system   
New cr eat ion     

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   
 524 
    
     
  
   


:  
  
)  
                   
  (  
                  
      O        

   (     
)  ( :  )

)     
)      ( 
 (   
o   

:       


   
   
              
   (mingled O               

fluid)

      ( : )

     
 
  ( 
 )    ( )
o

 (embryo)  
      
  
 
         
    
  

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   
 525 
              

        (embryology)  
 
 
   
  (University of Toronto)
   (Dr Keith L. M oore) 
Pr imo r diu m o f t he in te r nal ear s ap p ear s
before the beginning of the eyes and the brain (the
site of understanding) differentiates last. This part
of Su r a 32:9 in d ic at e s t h at spe c ial se nse s o f
hearing, seeing and feeling develop in this order,
which is true.

       
    
       
      
  9       
   
     
    
    
 

    
 
      
      
 

     
       
 
    
    
   
    
     
    
     
  

   
       

     (Streete r)  1941   
   

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   
 526 
   
       
 O' Rahilly   1972  
    
     

 
 14    
       
    


    
    
      
     
  
              

   
 


  (Embryo) 
  

     
  
      
          
 
       
  
   

                   
    


            
        

          
  
 
 )       
 O        
  
    (   ( )

 
  (      
 )  
     
o        

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   
 527 
  L e e u w e n H o o k    1 7

       (micr osc ope )


     
    
      
 
             
   
        

 (thr e e veils 
of darkness)       

 
 
  
1. Anterior abdominal wall
2. Uterine wall
3. Amnio-chorionic membrane
or
Extra-emb ryonic me mbranes

    
(veils of darkness)     

    opacities   laye rs  



     (laye rs)      

  
   
  
           

   
1. Chorion 2. Amnion 3. Amniotic fluid

    (Dr  
Keith L. M oore)

 

   
     

        

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   
 528 
 

Keith L. Moore, Ph D, FIAC
Statements referring to human reproduction
an d d evelop men t are sc att er ed th r ou gh ou t t he
Qu r 'an. It is o n ly r e c e n tly t h at th e sc ien t ific
me an in g o f so me o f t h e se ve r se s h as b e e n
app rec iat ed fu lly. The lo ng de lay in int erp ret ing
th e se ve r se s c o r r e c t ly r e su lt e d main ly fr o m
in ac cu rate tr an slat ion s an d c omme nt aries, an d
from a lack of awareness of scientific knowledge.
Interest in explanations of the verses of the
Qur'an is not new, people used to ask the Prophet
M uhammad all sorts of questions about the meaning
of ve rses r efer ring t o h uman r ep ro du ct io n. The
Ap o st le's an swe r fo r m t he b asis o f t h e Had ith
lite ratu re.
Th e t ran slat io ns o f th e ve rse s fr o m th e
Qur 'an wh ic h ar e in te rpr et ed in th is pap er wer e
p r o vid e d b y S h e ikh Ab d u l M ajid Z e n d an i, a
pr o fe ssor o f Islamic S tu d ies in Kin g Abd u laziz
University in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
"He make s yo u i n t h e wo mb s o f yo u r
mothers, in stages, one after another, in three veils
of darkness."

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   
 529 
This st ate me nt is fr om sura 39. We do not
kn o w wh e n it was re alized th at h uman b ein gs
underwent development in the uterus (womb), but
the first known illustration of a fetus in the uterus
was d r awn b y Le on ar d o d e Vin c i in t h e 15t h
cen tur y. In th e 2nd ce ntu ry AD, Gale n d esc ribed
the placenta and fetal membranes in his bookOn
th e Formati on of th e Foetu s . Co n se q u e n t ly ,
doctors in the 7th century AD likely knew that the
hu man emb r yo d e ve lop e d in t h e u te r u s. It is
unlikely that they knew that it developed in stages,
even though Aristotle had described the stages of
de ve lo p me n t o f t h e c h ic k e mb r yo in th e 4th
century BC. The realization that the human embryo
develops in stages was not discussed and illustrated
until the 15th century.
After the microscope was discovered in the
17th century by Leeuwen Hook, descriptions were
made of the early stages of the chick embryo. The
staging of human embryos was not described until
the 20th century. Streeter (d.1941) developed the
fir st syst e m o f st agin g wh ic h h as n o w b e e n
replaced by a more accurate system proposed by
O'Rahilly (d.1972).
"Th e t hre e veils of d arkness" may refer to :

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   
 530 
(1) t he an te rio r abd omin al wall; (2) th e ut erine
wall; an d (3) t h e amn io -c h o rio nic me mb r ane .
Alt ho ugh the re are ot he r int er pr et at io ns of t his
statement, the one presented here seems the most
logical from an embryological point of view.
"Then we placed him as a drop in a place of
rest." This statement is from sura 23:13. The drop
or nu tfah h as be en in te rp re te d as th e spe rm of
sp e r ma t o z o a n , b u t a mo r e me an i n g f u l
interpretation would be the zygote which divides to
form a blastocyst which is implanted in the uterus
(a place of rest). This interpretation is supported
by another verse in the Qur'an which states that "a
human be ing is cr eat ed from a mixe d dr op." The
zygo t e fo rms by t he u nio n o f a mixt u re o f t h e
sperm and the ovum (the mixed drop).
"Th en we mad e th e dr op int o a lee ch -like
structure." This statement is from sura 23:14. The
word alaqa refers to a leech or bloodsucker. This is
an appr opr iat e d esc rip tio n o f th e hu man embryo
fr o m d ay s 7 -24 in wh ic h i t c lin gs t o t h e
endometrium of the uterus, in the same way that a
leech clings to the skin. Just as the leech derives
blo od fro m th e ho st , th e hu man embr yo d er ives
blood from the decidua or pregnant endometrium.

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   
 531 
It is r emar kab le ho w muc h th e e mb ryo of 23-24
d ays r e s e mb le s a l e e c h . A s t h e r e we r e n o
microscopes of lenses available in the 7th century,
do ct or s wou ld n o t have kn own th at t h e hu man
embryo had this leech-like appearance. In the early
part of the fourth week, the embryo is just visible
to th e u naid ed eye b ec au se it is smaller th an a
kernel of wheat.
"Then of that leech-like structure, We made
a chewed lump." This statement is also from sura
23:14. The Ar abic wo rd Mu dgh ah means c hewed
substance or chewed lump. Toward the end of the
fou rth week, th e hu man e mb ryo looks so mewhat
like a c h e we d lu mp o f fle s h . Th e c h e we d
ap p e ar an c e r e su lt s f r o m t h e so mit e s wh ic h
resemble teeth marks. The somites represent the
beginnings or primordia of the vertebrate.
"The n we made ou t of th e c h ewed lump,
bo n e s an d c lo t h e d t h e b on e s in fle sh ." Th is
continuation of sura 23:14 indicates that out of the
chewed lump stage, bones and muscles form. This
is in accordance with embryological development.
First the bones form as cartilage models and then
the muscles (flesh) develop around them from the
somatic mesoderm.

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   
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"Th e n we d e ve lo p e d o u t o f it an o t h e r
creature." This next part of sura 23:14 implies that
the bones and muscles result in the formation of
another creature. This may refer to the human-like
embryo that forms by the end of the eighth week.
At t his st a g e i t has d i s t i n c t i ve h u man
char acte ristics and po ssesses the primor dia of all
the in ter nal an d ext ernal organs an d par ts. After
the eigh th we ek, t he human embr yo is called a
fetus. This may be the new creature to which the
verse refers.
"An d He gave yo u h e ar ing and sigh t an d
feeling and understanding." This part of sura 32:9
indicates that the special senses of hearing, seeing,
and feelin g develop in t his ord er , which is t ru e.
The primordial of the internal ears appear before
the beginning of the eyes, and the brain (the site of
understanding) differentiates last.
"Then out of a piece of chewed flesh, partly
for me d and p ar tly un fo rmed ." This part o f Su ra
22:5 se e ms t o in d ic at e t h at t h e e mb r yo is
c o mp o s e d of bot h d iffe r e n t iat e d an d
und iffer ent iat ed t issues. Fo r e xample, wh en t he
cartilage bone s are different iate d, th e emb ryonic
conn ect ive tissue o r me sen chyme ar oun d th em is

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   
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und iffer en tiate d. It late r diffe re nt iat es int o th e
muscles and ligaments attached to the bones.
"And We cause whom we will to rest in the
wombs fo r an ap po int ed te rm." This ne xt part of
su ra 22:5 see ms t o imp ly t hat God d et er min es
which embryos will remain in the uterus until full
ter m. It is we ll-kn wo n t hat man y e mbr yo s abo rt
dur ing the first mon th of d eve lo pme nt, an d th at
only about 30% of zygotes that form, develop into
fet us th at su rvive u ntil bir th. This ver se h as also
be en int er pr et ed t o me an th at God d et er mine s
whether the embryo will develop into a boy or girl,
and whether the child will be fair or ugly.
Th is in t er p r e tat io n o f t h e ve r se s in t he
Qur'an referring to human development would not
have been possible in the 7th century AD, or even a
hun dr ed years ago. We c an in te rp re t t he m now
because the science of modern embryology affords
us new understanding.
Und ou bte dly th er e ar e ot he r ve rses in t he
Qur'an related to human development that will be
u n d e r st o o d in t h e fu t u r e as o u r kn o wle d ge
incre ases.

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 534 
References:
1. Ar e y, L .B , D ev elo p m e n t A n at om y : A
textb ook a n d Lab orat ory M an n u al of
Emb ryology , r evised 7th ed., Philade lph ia,
W.B.Sanders Co., 1974.
2. M oore, K.L, The Developing Human Clinically
Orien ted Emb ryology , 3rd ed. Philadelphia,
W.B. Sanders Co., 1982.
3. M oore, K.L, Highlights of Human Embryology
in the Qur'an and the Hadith. Proceedings of
the Seventh Saudi M edical M eeting, 1982.
4. M o o r e , K.L, Before W e are B orn , B asi c
Em b ryology an d B irth D efec ts, 2nd ed .,
Philadelphia, W.B.Sanders Co, 1983.
5. O' Rahilly, R, Guide to the Staging of Human
Embryo
6. Str ee te r, G.L, Develop mental Hori zons i n
Human Embryos.

  
     
   
    
 
      
     
     
   
 

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   
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
    

  
    
      
      
       
     
  
                  
   

             
 
         
     
               

  

           
 
            
  
  

      
      
 
   
     O              

         
 (:   )

        


 
 
   
   
o 

   
     
     
          
      
 
   
          


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      

      
    O       

    o


 O          O     
             O        

 o  
     
O   
     
  
(- :  )

          
 
    o
  o
     

 )  
  
   
o 

   
   
       
    
   

Creation  -1
Arrangement  -2
Estimation 
-3
Guidance  -4

     
 

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   
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     
      O        
    o         O    

           O   

     
 ( :   )

 
       o
  
    
   
        
o
  
        
          
 
  
     
    

 
 
     
   
      
       

        
 

 
  
  
     O      
   o  
    O        
o  (    
 )   O           O   

   
( )    ( : )

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   
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 
   )   o

       
  (  
o 


:   
      
   
                 
    (cell)  
          
    
  O          
 
  
         ( :  )

         
  
       
   
  
o 

  
         


        :  

           


 
           
   
       
         
  
   
(sperm)     
     
   
     
  (ovum)        
     
     
     

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   
 539 
(sperm) 40,00,00,000         
  

       
    
    
     (sperm)      
     
 ( o vu m)      ( o vu m)
       sperm      (membr ane)
     fertilizing membrane    

        
          

   embryo  
   
            
  
   
             


  
          embryo   
        
      
             
 
        (skelton system)     

    (muscular
 system) 


  )                    
   
   
     
    
           
  (     
       
    )   

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   
 540 
 
   (  
    


  
  
     
   
 
(equalization)  -1

(personification) 
 -2

(methodical formation)  -3


    

  
                 

 
       
    O 
   
     o              
O

         
    
O

     
     (: :  )

  
       
o 
   
  
      
  
o


         
     


      
 


         
   
   
 
     30    

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   
 541 
        
        

            
             
  
             
    
 
    

           
               
                 
         (  :   )

  (   )    


 
     
       
    


    
      
   
 
          
    
    

(Nourishment )  -1
    
   
  

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   
 542 
(Pr otection)  -2

 
  
      
      
    
(Movement)   -3

     
       
  
 

  -4

(Contr ol of temper atur e)   
   
            
    (tempe ratu re)
         
            
 

    
      
 
         
  
 

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   
 543 

 


     
 

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  
 545 


     
       
 
   
  
      
              
    

   
    
       
  
            

            
   


              

          
      
   
         
   
  

      
 
   
  
               
              
 
            
                   
  

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  
 546 
    
            
 
         
 
          
    
   
     
 
   

    
  


        
    
 
      
    
        
     
       
    
     
        

         

      
    
  
 
            
 
      
    
  
     
       
  
   
 
  
 -1


 -2


 -3

 

 -4

( 
)
  

 -5


(     -i
 )  

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  
 547 
    
)  
 -ii


(     -iii
 )  

    
 
   -1

              
 

       
     
  
       
     
  
            
       
       
  
       
 
          
  
   
               
   
            
               

  
             
     
                
              
   
          
        
         
    

        
    
    

          
   
     

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  
 548 
 
             

     
      

      
                 
      (   ) O  

 

o     (     

  -2
 


       
       
   
              

   
   
        
                
   
            
     
               
      
  
          
                 
            
 
            
     
                 
   


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  
 549 
           
  
  
  
 

                       



o    
    
O       

( :    
  )

                  


             

   ( :   )

 -3

            
  

  
      

 
     
     

    

     
 
     



  -4


       
    

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  
 550 
     
         
    

    
  

                


      O    
    
       ( :   )
o 
    


        
 
 
       
      
             
    
    
   

 
 
   -5


 
  

  -i

      
         
   
    
   
 
      

   
       

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  
 551 
                      
     
 (  :   )
      


:  
   

      


           
     ( :    )

                     


       

(   )

    
      


                   


   
        O   

o  (  :   )

         
      
 
      
         
 
           
     
      
    
  
         
        

    
        
 


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  
 552 
        
   
      
    

   

  -ii

      
  
      
   
      


        
    
  
           
      
       
       
  
  
 
    



   
      

               


        
         (   :  )
 

                 


             
     
    
     
  ( :    )

  
    
           
     

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  
 553 

   
   


              


   
 
 (  :  )

                     


         
   (:  )

   
        
    

                


  
  

    


             

   
    ( : )



  -iii

  
  
      
   
   
          
  
     
         
               

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  
 554 
        
      
       
        
  
            
 

     
 

  
    O           

         ( : )
o  

 
    
  

            
  
 
   ( :  )


             
 

 
                  
   
     
 
  (:  
  )

   
           



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  
 555 

  
 
   
            
  
        
  
   
                 
    
    
          

              


 
        
           
  
    
        
 

  
            
            
  
             
 

   
           
    

  -1


 -2


  -3


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  
 556 

  -1

     
     
  
         
     
   -1

      -2


    -3
 
    -4
  
     -5

     
 
 
    
      
(physical        
        
 
                 world)

          


      
            
   

   
      
      
            
        
     
                
 
           
   
        
             
  

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  
 557 
  
    
  
   
      

     
  

  
   

           
       
                 
                    

   
       
         


             
    
            

  
 

  
     
   
     
      
                   


                 


             
    
             
   

            


   

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  
 558 
      
          
  
      
           

                
            

  
         
      
  



    
        
 
        
     
            
     
  

           
 

                 

                 

   

            

  
  
                
 
            
   
          
 

            





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  
 559 
             () 
   
              
        
       


 
    

    (physical world)       


  
  
      
        

         
         
  
 
       
      
  
  
   


 
  
   
          
       
        
  
  
        
      
   (perception )    
 (raw material)      
            
     (knowledge)  

          
       
  
          
  

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  
 560 
    
   
     

     
    
 
  
 (factor y)           
               
  
   
           
       
       
       
     

                
                
   
 

             


  
          
    
  
      
     

   

  
      
     
 
     
     
 
  
  

(physical           


  
                
     
 world)

      
        
   
             
 

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  
 561 
    


 -2

   
    
    
               
 
        
  

 -4
   -1


 -5
   -2
 

 -3


        
       -1
    
           

                 
              
  

              -2
      
           
          
      
  
           
 
 
    
   
          

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  
 562 
  
        -3
 
                    

                 
             
  
       
 

          -4


   
       
      



      
     -5
 
  
        
           
 
       
     
      
     
            
  
 
   

   
  
  
 
  

  
        
 
    
  
         
         
                 
       
            

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  
 563 
    
   

 
   
 
        
  
   
      
      

      
 
  
    
 
            
  
         
 



      



         
       
   
            
   
        

               



     
            
                
 
      
          
      
       
               

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  
 564 
                 
            

    
   
 

  
         
         
       
       
    
 
           
                    
     
      

      
     
         
  
     
       
   
   
                
   

               
            
  
      
        
  
       
     
      
   

   
     
      
  
         
     


       
          

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  
 565 
        
  
  
    
     
       
  
              
    
             
 
         
       
  
        
          
 
               
   
          
  
      
         
               
     
        
    
      

       


     
 
               
 
    
         

               
              
              

           
        
  

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  
 566 
         
        
           
     
               

           
 
 

        
    
             
       
          
 
          
   
  
         
 
         
 

 -3
   
      
   
      
 

        
    
 
 
              (intuition)

      
     
    

  
          
  




 -2 
 -1

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  
 567 

 -4 
 -3
 
 -5
    
      
    
     
          
               
 
 
    
 
 
  

 
:             

   
                 
                
                

   
      
        
)
(  :    
       
  

           



          
      
     
           
      
  
    
         
         

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 568 
   
           
     

     
        
    
   
        

 
             
  
      
               
        
       
  
              
    
  
  
          
     

      
           

  
     

           
 

     
         
    
    
         

  
          
 

      
     
    
          

  
  

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  
 569 
       

         
O    
o (   
  )

              
      
   
         

       
       
  
      

         

            
 
   
     
     
    
           
 
           
      
   
           
      
      
       
      
  
  
  
   
       
 
               
   
    
 
(ultimate reality)   

   
          (absolute reality)

          


      
     
         
       
              

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  
 570 
     
    
  
       
  
             
 
            
   
                 
  
               
    

            


 
 
    
   
  
  
        
      
    

 
                
 
    
      

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  
 571 

  


   


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   
 573 

      
      
  
          
   
             
  
    
    
     

         
        
      
      
   
    

    
  

                 

  
     
          

   
             

                      

    
                 

             


      

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   
 574 


                          

        O              

         

       
        

        
          
       
      
       
  
      
    
   
o  

      


     
   

          
        

        
      
  
               

        
      

  
             

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 575 
                 
                 
   
  

  
              
    
          
          
     
      
  
  
        
           

  

                   
   
          
     

   
      
         
  
        
     
       
    
      
         
           
    

        
      

     
 
 

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   
 576 

 

          
       

   
      
   
   
      
     



                  

   
     
    
     

    
     
      

           
 
         
         
            
 
  
    
       
  
   

 
  
   
     
    
   
          

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 577 
  
              
 
     

   
         

 
     

       


    
               

     
        

 

      
       




  
     
       
  

     
           

     


    

 
       
      

    
  

    
      
            
  
    
          
    
           

               
 

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   
    

     
       Pilonidal Sinus
 -1

           
  

  
       
 Pyelonephritis -2

        
    
  
 

            
     
            
 
    
 
           

 
    
       
    

    
      
      
 
         

       

                  

                 
     
  
 
      
     
   


           

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 579 
 
        
  

     
           
 
         
      
   
  
             

    
           
 
      
 
   
     
             
  
            
    
     
   
      
  
 
   
       
   
  
               
  
       
       
  
 
          
      
        
      
  
        
  
           
      
          
      
 
   
       
 
        
 

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     
       
     
   

                
      
       

                

          


     
      

     
     
   
             
      
    
               
        
   
       

              

  
             

         

         

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
     
   
   

 
      

   
              

            

     

    
  


              

                  

         

  
       

          
      
          
   

  


 
  

  
             
                      
             

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   
 582 

         
     
  


           
     
         


     
          

                  

                 


 
  
                

      
 
   

  


              
   
            
  
             
  
     
       
   

        
   
    

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   
 583 
   
    


                   

     
    
     

  
   
         

     
 
   


   
          
 

   
  
            

                

     
    

 
     
      

           
  

  
         
      
 
   


       

   
        
     
       
            

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   
 584 

       

 
      

   
    
  
       
       
        
    
 
    

   
 
      
         
               
 
            
 
        
      
   
 
         
  
       
        

 
   



             

       
          

   
            

   
       

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 585 
 
            

        
        

       
     
    
     
      

   
   
        
  
 

      


     
    
   

  
          
      
       
  
        
    


 
      


 

      
            

   
           

         
      

          


   
 

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   
 586 
          
  
      
    
  

 
    
     
     
          
                 
  
            
        
      
         
              
           
      
 
  
    

     
 


     
      

     

  
        

              


            
    
        
     

 


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   
 587 

   

      
         
          
        
 
                
  
                
             
   (physiotherapists)    
    
 
           
        
               
        
       

             

 
                
          

 
                     
  
     
         

 
           

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   
 588 
       
        

      
    

    

     
      

  

             


    

      
  
     

          
   
   
     

 250  150     


  
   
   
          

     
           

          
       

                
                    
 
              

                 
 

        
   
   
    
  
        

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   
 589 
         
      
           


         
 
 
 
        
      
 

 
   
 

             


         
 

                  
 
  

     
          

               
                



 
  
     
 
   
     
 

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   
 590 


  
           

          
   
           


       
       
    
    
        
             

     
     



        
     
                
 
              
          
      
       

           
   
  
 

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   
 591 

 

             
   
      
         



    
         


          
      

    
   
  
    
      

    
   
        
 
 
        
        

              
   
           
     

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   
 592 
            
    
   



  
        
  
      
          
        
            
   
       
    
      
       
       

     


            
       

        

   


    
      
            
      
   O        

o      

              




    
   
   
  

    
              

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   
 593 

  
            
     
     
     

            


     
              
  
 
     
    
 
   
  
   


   
              
  

                 

  
          
    
       

 
               

               

        

 
   
 
     

                 

        
          

                

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   
 594 

 
          

   
       

   


  
       

   

 
  
   
            
 
     
      
 
        
     
         
  
        
          
  

 
 
        

   
       
    
            
   
            
 
  
           
    
        
        
 
 
  

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   
 595 
             

2200        
 2900 (calories)  

    

400
  
(carbohydrates)  

    
     (min erals)  

      

45   
  (proteins) 

 C 
  B12  B6  B2 B1 
  A 
 (Vitamins)  

E 
  D 

     
    
(fats)  

 66%     


  (water ) 

 
 

          


 
            
    

    


(Meat) 

           
   


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   
 596 
            
    

      
       
      
  
     
  
 
    
       
     
  
    
         
    
              
 

 
             

     
   
  
    
  
      
           

  
    

(Beef)    

  
           

                

                


       
      
  

    
          

   
   
    
   

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   
 597 
   

  
      
   
        
 
taenia saginate 

    
           
 

    
        
  100
 

 
 15.2  229     -1

 
 14.6  246       -2

 
 12.1  218  -3

 
 21.1  284  

   
  -4

(Mutton)   
 
    
    
  
   
         
   100

 
 17.9  266     
 
-1

 
 29  355      -2

 
 12.3     
 222      -3

 
  8.1  191    
   -4

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   
 598 
     
         
 
  
            

    
     
       

  

   
               

   
      
            

                 


         

     
      

 
  

    
      
(lean)      
 
   
  

(White meat)  

    
    
   
 
              
 
   
      
  
  
    
    

   


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 599 

   
     O          

o          

     
         

   
        
 
      
   
       
           
   
   

(Fig & Olive) 



               

     

o     O       



  
    

       


      
(fibr e)    
          
     
             
         
         
      
        
       

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   
 600 
        
     
      
        
     

 
  
     
100

82 

0.7
  

1.2
  
 

1.0
   


35
   

8.8
  


      


               
 
              
  
  
           
   
         
 
         
         
     
           
          
      
    
    

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 601 
        
      
         
    
          


   
    
   



      
        

 
           
  

   
                   

    


      


 
    

(Honey) 
    
      


    
        
    
    

               


     


  
   
    

             

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   
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    
       

          

             
         
  
  

   
               

   
    

    
             

  
 
         
  

       
        

      
        

   
        
 
  

 
    
           

 
             
 

                 

        
          


     
        

  
     
         


      
        

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   
 603 

     
  
 

    
         

   
  


 
 
             
  
      
    

 50  40  1

 34.2  2

 1,9  3

 17.7 
4

 1.5 
  5

 0.18   6
 
 
      
     
     



  
 
               
  
           
 
    
 

   


      -1

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   
 604 
  -2

   
  -3

          -4

    
   
     -5




  
  -6

(Grapes) 
        
  
    
  

  


      O      

o       

       


  
             
  
                
    

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   
 605 

(Garlic) 

            

       


    

                 
 
   
         
 
 
  
  
      
                  
       (antiseptic) 
 
(hypertension)  
        
       

(Onion) 

        
         

         


   

              


   
        
    100

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   
 606 
1.3
  (fibe r)  

23
  (Calo ries) 

0.9
  (proteines) 

5.2
  (sugar) 

        
 
 B6    

          
  
            
   
                 
  
 

 
(Po rk) 

      
 
         
      

                  

     
               

    
    
    

  

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   
 607 
              
  
 
          
       
                  
       

 
     
    
 
          
      
  trichinella spiralis   taenia solium 
   
  (epile psy)        
  
 

   
 trichinosis

      acute trichinosis


  
          
  
   
                
      
 
      
      
 
 
 

   
          
 
  

   
          
    
  
   
      100      
   496  
          
   284
 21.1  
   
             
 44.8          
   

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   
 608 
        
  
 
            
              
   

(Drinking) 
   
  
  
         

      

   
                 

                 


                    

       
 O      

        
     
  
     
o 

     

         
   

  
       

 
  
 

    
  
           

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   
 609 

   
 
    

    
              

             

  

        
    
 (amino acids)     
      
       
(me tab olism)   
 
     
     
   
            
    
 
                 
        cardiomyopathy   
     
            
 
       
     
   
 
 
 (cardiovascular system)

  
          
 
              

        (HDL Cholesterol) 
 

       
         

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   
 610 
          
      
                    
       
  (heart associations)
    

      


    
      
 
         
      
   
   
      
         
           
    
 
      
        
           
       
         

      
    
   

 
   

     
            

              

       
    
    

    
 

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   
 611 
 
            
                

                
  
 
    

    
         
       931        
 
      
   
       
            
    

            
   
(clinic)             
 
 

       
       
    
         
    
       
        
   
  
        1,000        
 
   700       
     

          
     
      300 



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   
 612 

   
    
       106  105   
 
      
 
      
   
      
           

          
    
   
     
        

       
 
    
       

    
     
       

 
  

                 

  
      

      

    
     
 

               

     
      

           
    

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   
 613 

   

              
             

               
    
    
  
   
 
           
 

        


     
 

              

  
            

     


       

 
 


  

     

     
        

   
         
  

 
       

      

    
           

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   
 614 

     

             


       

 
  

      
        

     
  
        

     

   
    
   
   
 
   
       
         
  
     
    
    
   
  
          
    
  
   
    


     

  

                   


      
               
    
          
         

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   
 615 
        

     

 
    

               

    
             

            


 
              

   
  
    

        


    
     
            
     
          
               
        


            


     
    

   

                 

          

    
 
      

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   
 616 
             
      
         
      

   


         
   
         
       
 
             
     
 
 

          

                 


   

           

       

   
 
        

            


   

      
        

 
  

      
   
         
      
 
      
    

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   
 617 

                

          

 
 

          


   
         
      
                 
         
      

(Genetic engineering )    



(ge n e t ic         
 

 (genes) 
        engineering)

              
    
   
        
(Deoxyribonucleic            



   
       
 
   Acid)

    (Encyclopaedia 



Britannica)  
   
   
     
 
   
      
   
 
        DNA     

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   
 618 
        
      
  

          
 
  
    
   
 

        


   
   
  
            
    
    
   
 
  
  

             
      
 
      
          
         
     
    
          
     
       
    DNA       
 
   
   
     
    

                       


               
        O  

      
      
O        

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   
 619 
   

    
         



                


  
               
                   
  
       
   
     
   

 

        

 
    
   

            


  
             
 
      
      


         

         
     
  
    

           


     
   
 
        
             
     
             
   

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   
 620 
             
  

         


   
               
 
     
      
    

            
      
          
    
            

 
         
       

          
    
       
     
 
    
     
       
  
    
          

                 
 
    

      
      
          
   
               
    
  
     

  
 
           
     
    

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   
 621 
            
   
  
   
       
      
            


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   
 625 



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  
 627 
127    
 505  483  413  408  299  184  111   
507  506

425     
108   

92  90   
447  318 
   

445  432  400  


 339  337  335  299  298  291  249  
 348  347  346  345  344  341  340
 393  392  353  352  351  350  349
446  405  398

376  374   


101  
329   
427  408  295 
101 
  
396  

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  
 628 
427 
 331  329  325  318  250  249  70   
 455  447  384  377  360  359  333
472  470

88   

206    

108 
 

111  108  


111   

155   

88    
163  98  94  
 
155    

163  93  
163  92   

 

111  110

98  
 
137  105  91  90  89  86  

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  
 629 
161  137  90  

163  
137  
163  94  
111  

137  

110 

111   

163 
110  


88     
112  79  
137  111  

157  137  111  107  99  94  90  85   

157  102  101   

208  104  
108  

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  
 630 

  

110

111   
  
105  94  89  

81 
137  82  
110  
  
110   

111  108  79  

113  

111  108   
110   
87  
256  239  154  89    
  

163   


395       



155     

93   

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  
 631 
79  

88    
547    
88    
160  159  
163  
110  106  



93  
135   
134   
163  107  

110   
109  

99  
104 
469 
 

110  107   

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  
 632 
247  119  113  76 
 273  271  253  249  243  223  221 
 
346  334  292  288  276

157  
77   
125  
358  243  108  90  89  75  
135  
81   
87  
155  103 
    
155    
168  
160  
116  76  59  
158  

183 

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  
 633 
 163  160  151  134  133  128  93 
184

383  371  366  


113 

110   
 

 134  133  132  128  127  93  92 

162  155

75  
264  188  167  

286  250  249  241  235  210  65  64     
109       
112  92  
88  85  

87   

161  137   
 

95  89  87  85 
110 


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  
 634 

110  
191  
  

110 
92 
 137  103  102  100  99  98  97  94  
 
158  157  156

189  188  

107 
 
107   

 
160  



92  
133 
135 
134 
110 
110   
    
110   

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  
 635 
91   
110   

104  
 
94  88  

111  109   


  
244  

98  97   

110  
110 
 
109  


184  182  177  162  135  
86  
96 
 
110   
481  479  332  329  321 
609  
447  266  228 

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  
 636 
433 
109 
206 
 100  99  94  93  92  85  81  69  59 

 128  125  119  116  113  106  103
 151  139  137  135  133  131  130
161  159  158  157  154  152

111 

613  

455  280   
287    
107    

298  297  
283   
284 

310  225  
 

445  443  325  318 


 
116 
 

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  
 637 
524 
 
162  154  93 


409  
318   


603  
242 
182 
188  167  
68  67 
112  99  
509  

110    
  
98  
132  127 

125 

193 
400  329 

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  
 638 
319 
 

110 

238  162 
246  243  161  160  137 
79  

 132  125  116  90  81  79  69  59 
 160  157  156  155  154  153  137
 178  177  175  174  173  170  168
611  189

 325  322  320  318  289  276  273  

473  463  331  329

473  463  293  

113  111   

193 
373 

176  166  162 

174  152  150  132  130 

174  170  165  130 

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  
 639 
153  135 
429  424  
162 
81  79 
 
606  412  409 






181 
447  

135 
283  248  245  160   


205  
174  164  152  151  
177  

479  
326  
163 

182  125 
91  

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  
 640 
483  482 

278  
605 
442 
 
455 

304  291 
180   

304 

604  603 

181  180   
 
446  445  443  439  321  315   
171 
167   
 
168  
110    
67 
111 

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  
 641 
309 
 
88   
367  86 
471  464  360  334  332 

67 
206  
125  
175 
434 
103 
176  

247  246  

90  88     

79    


161  
104  

325  321   

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  
 642 
322  321   

479    
475  473  472  451  
507  204  188  

127  
162 
 
178  170  156 

131  125  
   

104   
427 
135   
 
133   

130  116  

526 
110   

151  135 

425    

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  
 643 
617  435 


620  617   



480    
 288  242  234  226  223  222  214 

 309  308  307  306  305  304  303
469  346  311  310

459  
 
174  116  113 
184   
93  
 
477     
 
205 

154  152  151  131 

79 
112 
104   


232  220 
 
79 

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  
 644 
110 

183  129 
  
188 
161  112  88  



129 
189   
107 
479 
242 
476  334  300  278   

70   


180  166  
 
112 
 
190  180  166     

368  366  
284  283  282 

 137  129  96  81  80  79  69  59 
179  175  174  166  153

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  
 645 

425 
247 
170  
111   
 
177  
445  444  
 
431  412  
617   
447  318  
456  




127   
208   

503  498  396  224    
185  

113 
76 
163 

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  
 646 
59 
350 

174    
325  


206 
404  291 
286  248  245  244  161  160  137  
182  169  168 

155  104  99  94  89   
 
 300  299  295  294  291  287  281 
 403  368  357  347  303  302  301
486  457  414  407

487  291 

161 
107  
 
256  251  155  151   
 238  235  154  119  117  104  62  
 
256  254  241  240  239

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  
 647 
373 
133 

 305  292  289  277  276  253  242  
487  481  469  444  403  398  357

279 
 129  128  127  126  125  123  93 
 150  138  137  136  135  134  132
 161  160  158  157  155  154  153
 170  169  168  167  166  165  164
 178  177  176  175  174  173  172
 190  186  185  184  183  182  180
195  194  192  191

525 



426   



483  456  451  362  358  329   
278 
109  
  
102  101 

487  356  288  279   

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  
 648 
444  325   

110  107 

427   

184  183  151  133  
113  79 
205  

75 

113 
 
605 
375 
482  399  332  89  
174 
183 
242 
611   

174 

603  

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  
 649 
 283  253  248  245  244  242  214 
 308  295  289  288  287  286  285
 367  357  350  346  332  320  309
487  486  454  403  393  390  389

455  280  87  85 



186   

104 
 253  249  248  247  246  245  244 
 303  295  294  293  292  291  289
392  350  332  305

 456  454  451  449  281  280  279   


 479  475  464  463  460  459  458
483  482  481  480

101 
107 
233  219  203 

130 

176 

107  
 

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  
 650 
205  110  107  
 
179  99 

112 

111       
 

547   
110  
  
107  
 

163  137  128  94   


132  126   

367  306  304  287 
298 
88 
464  362  323  320  316    
   
153  132  131 
134 
151  
175   
 

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  
 651 
86   

273    
189  
 
129  128  127  
  
584 
111 

175  81  
177  
109  

127 
127 
184  162  128 
186  185  182  137  87  86   



86    

166  161  130  93        

168  131    

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  
 652 

   
 159  158  154  153  151  150  131 
189  188  186  170  
129 
 
131  
583     
583  581  508  396  204    

470   
208  206    
93    

134  
109 
172  167  166 
158   
 
383  370  369 

487  291  
257  
258   

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  
 653 
111     
157  102  98  94    
219  88   
157   
218  180  179  158  85     
 

102  95  
 
257 

91  90 

258  152  111  



 331  327  316  257  255  57  55 
 
 
447  400

516  257    


 
257  156  94  
 
257  152  150  113  111 
 
428  257 

159  88 
 
 426  424  257  254  217  209  77   

435  433

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  
 654 
426  257   

107  

435  152  150  93  

258  

 156  155  154  152  150  94  93  79  

424  257  219  162  159  157
409  257     

 434  384  325  257  217  208  152  

475
258 

257  218  152  106 
  
258  211  210  209  159  152 



 470  446  349  331  327  325  316 
  

488  481  472

218 
 
257 

257  152  150  104 

258 
  
159  152 


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  
 655 
257 

257  162  154  150  99  93  92  91 

219  159  152  150  113  86 

258 

433  257  219  88  
 
 158  154  152  150  113  93  86 
  
316  297  276  257  179  160  159

86    

99  
103  102  95   
 

95   
157  
88  85  
509   
192  116  67   

 194  192  171  155  138  135  95 


437

245  68 

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  
 656 
304  
 176  162  153  151  135  125  81 

191  184  182

567  221  111  110  109   


77  

80   
111  109  88  
604  603 
113  
 
242 

229  182  178  156  130  125  95 


175   
119 
168  106 
  
192  191  106 
 
257  106 

113  

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  
 657 
258  106 
321 


413 
605  603  

243  238  

135  
81  

175 

 151  137  134  128  93  86  81  79 

 181  176  170  165  161  153  152
248  193  188  187  186  184  182

137  
 
125   

507    

176  
190  189 

135 
 

190  189  188   


 

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  
 658 
91   

113 
78 
367  306  305  304  288 
481  459  454  400  351  350  282  
 379  363  357  329  293  289  277  

 471  470  464  463  461  382  381
 486  485  484  483  478  477  472
487

130 
279 
295     
604  
113  
110 
173 
325     

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  
 659 
93   


 
 
 
204  
102   
205  110   
110   
158  157  101  98   

 
110  
104   


94   
99  
110  107     
 
110  107 
   

110  
89  


110  

98   

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  
 660 
90  89  
104   
 

91   
110   
161       
  
 
158    

     
112    
110  
 
445  
  

376  342  339  


 455  453  360  332  319  277  228 
478

507     
508 
242    
352  350  338  273 


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  
 661 
192 

603  
151 
438  67   
188 
90     
451
 
 






286  247  246  245  
310  225 


606  588 


  
171  125 
 352  350  338  334  330  287  253 
 445  444  443  442  400  398  392
464  458

248  247 


527  


605  604  603 
329  

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  
 662 
181  
603 
310 

128  126 
287  286   

304   


263   
329  247  67 
316  

302  301 
182 
171 
78  69    
422  
193  135  133 
480  471  464  360  353  332  273 
318    

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  
 663 
128   

422  
182  151  135 
110  107  

98  

108 
204  
110  107  
406  346  305  293  248  245  244 
79   
92  81  80 
188   
  

75  68  66  61  60  59  57  
  
152  133  132  

190  134 

81  
110  


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  
 664 
184  183  182 
295  294  291 
192  
86  
88  
115 
193  191  186  

111  

111 
 
160 
159 


404  291

168  159  155  150 


86    
242  111  108  81  79 
106 
321 

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  
 665 

131  
112 
  
134  
194  
128  

457  455  350  298  280   
109 
 

 363  362  359  358  355  329  282   - 


471  456  379  378  368  364

508  116  92  81 
89   
428 
   

442  400  350  287

421 
194  138   
108 
152  135  134  

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  
 666 
129  128  127  126   

168  106 
110 
79  
86 
 

422  
134 

108   
426 


407 
 
98 
 




603 
422 
310  222 
193  
295 
135 

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  
 667 
509 
128  
  

108    
137  88  
 247  246  245  244  243  242  67 
 295  294  291  290  282  249  248
404  350  303  300

 358  330  318  281  250  249  70  


 447  384  378  377  368  362  361
472  457  456  455

79 
130 
210 

81  80   
110  

110 
278  


404  291 

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  
 668 
79  69 

310  225 
  
482  479 

455  452 

321 

451  447  384  358  329  317  248 
486  286  278   
163  162    
188    
162    
128   

456  

295 
 
 382  381  379  377  371  365  363  

480

326 

422 

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  
 669 
129  126  80  
98  
193 
85   
181  78  69 
 453  434  403  288  286  279  276 
486

453  
407  
481  



130    
130   
424  350  323 
 
116  108 
229   
284  
  

 434  403  329  288  286  279  276 
486  453

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  
 670 



326 
326 

 
 
325  
112 

110      
 
159        

111 
 127  125  119  116  104  95  85 
 171  170  169  165  164  135  131
 245  195  193  192  181  176  174
266  263

284  
404  291 
133  132  
 
174  
415  395  394  393  389 
174  155  76  

363  238  237  154  70  67  55  

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  
 671 
90   

157  137  
437  138  126 

al-Biruni 87

al-Kh war izimi 88

Aben Bethar 99

Albucasis 99, 100

Alexan dria 76

Alhazen 86

Allan R. Sandage 318

Almagest 244

almanac 86

Almeria 135, 162, 177, 182

anaesthesia 103

Apollo-11 225, 310

Arab 193, 194

architecture 106

Aristotle 76, 89, 243

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  
 672 
Arithmetic 88

Arnold 90, 193

Arno Penzias 318, 447

Arzachel 160, 244, 248

astronomical table 161

Athenian Constitution 108

atmosphere 89

Avicenna 94

Averros 85

Azarq uiel 87

Azdi Hospital 81

Babylonian s 242

Baghdad 69, 79, 81, 170, 175

Barcelona 193

Bay of Biscay 129, 183

Beja 182

Baza 135

Beyasa 162

Big Bang 273, 289, 316, 318, 326,


463, 473

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  
 673 
Big Crunch 255, 293, 364, 463, 472,
473

black hole 279, 280, 449, 451, 456,


464

C. H. Haskins 194

Cad iz 135

Canon of M edicine 94

Central Asia 79, 111

China 178

colliget 99

Collin s 225, 227, 310

comet 282, 283, 284

compass 113

Compostela 175

Cooksonia 416

Copernicus 245, 246, 247

Cordoba 79, 81, 86, 93, 128, 134,


151, 152, 165, 170, 176,
181, 182, 248

Cordova 192, 193

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  
 674 
cosmic red shift 325

cosmology 89

Cremona 98

crystallization 104

Cygnus 479

Damascus 69, 79

dark ages 69

Darwinism 419

decorative art 106, 168

density 89

DNA 427, 617, 618

Doppler Effect 444, 445

Duane Gish 425

Dynamics 89, 90

E = mc 2 332

E. G. Browne 95

Edwin Buzz 225, 310

Edwin Hubble 318, 443

Egypt 79, 111, 178, 242

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  
 675 
Egyptian s 242

Einstein 249

elliptic orbits 160

equation 88

equatorial instruments 87

ESA 284

Euclid 91

Europe 175

evaporation 104

Far East 178

fine arts 105

Finland 113

France 175

Frederich 156

G. R. Gibb 195

Genil River 166, 180

Galileo 90, 247

George Gamow 321, 325

George Lawaitre 321

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  
 676 
Gerard 98

German y 175

Gibraltar 127

Gijon 129

Giotto 284

godgets 90

Granad a 81, 125, 135, 151, 153,


162, 176, 182

gravitation 89

Greece 76, 243

Gregorian Calendar 85

Guadalimor River 166, 180, 190

Guadix 162, 163

Gulick 98

H. E. Barnes 194

Halab 79

Hans Bethe 325

Heisenberg 326

Hendrick Casimir 326

Hijara Valley 162

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  
 677 
Hitti 84, 92, 100, 112

Hubble's Constant 444

Hubble's Law 443

Iberian Peninsula 125, 131

Ibn-i-Tulun Hospital 81

Ibn Rushd 99

India 178

infinite density 316

integration 88

Jaen 135, 151

Jeremy Rifkin 425

Jerusalem 79

Kazan 113

Keith L. M oore 527

Kepler 91, 247, 248

KSC 310

lenses 90, 91

Leon 133, 193

lever 90

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  
 678 
liber karatonis 90

light 91

lithotomy 101

Lorca 182

lunar eclipse 87

lunar model 227

Macbeth 426

M agna Carta 108

magnifying lenses 90

magnifying power 90

M alaga 135, 151, 182

M artin Ryle 318

M aurice Bucaille 229

measles 94

M editerranean Sea 99, 112

measurement s 89

Merida 128

Mesopotamia 242

M ilky Way 287, 400

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  
 679 
M inute Cosmic Egg 255, 318

mobile medical units 80

mome ntum 90

Moroccan Hospital 81

Mosul 79

motion 89

Mulhacen 162

Muller 428

Murcia 182, 183

Narbonne 125

NASA (National 222, 310


Aeronautic Space Agency)

Navarr e 193

Neil Armstrong 310

Newton 91, 248

Noorie Hospital 81

North Africa 175

observational astronomy 86

On Optics 90

Oort Cloud 283

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  
 680 
Oppenheimer 107, 280, 455

optic nerve 91

Optics 88, 90

Orion Arm 287

Pare 156

Paul Davies 326

Peckham 91

Perpignan 125

Piltdown M an 429

planets 289

planet arium 86, 160

Plato 75

Portugal 125

private international law 107

protostars 290

Ptolemy 238, 243, 247

public international law 107

Pyrenees 125, 171

quasar 282, 400, 454

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  
 681 
Ralph Alpher 325

red giant 279, 288, 357, 487

retina 91

Robert Briffault 117

Robert L. Gulick 117, 120

Robert Wilson 318, 447

Roger II 175

Roger Bacon 91

Roger Penrose 456

Russia 113

Scandinavia 113

Seirton 98

Seville 128, 133, 134, 151, 160,


163

Sicily 79, 175

smallpo x 94

Socrates 75

solar eclipse 87

space 89

space-time 355, 358, 364, 379

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  
 682 
Spain 69, 92, 99, 119, 125,
175, 193, 194

Stanwood Cobb 120

Stephen Hawking 329, 451

Stephen J. Gold 426

strake 107

Strassburg 91

Streeter 525

sublimation 104

Sumerians 242

sunspots 85

supernova 451, 454

surgery 94, 101

Surtsey 427

Syria 99, 175

tangents 88

Tarabulus 81

The Jabirean Corpus 104

Theory of Relativity 70

time 89

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  
 683 
timekeeping 85

Toledo 128, 162

Toledan Astronomical 87
Tables

Toulouse 125

trial & error 64, 65, 249

Trigonometrical 88
functions

Tycho Brahe 246, 247

uterus 513

Valencia 162, 166, 176, 179

Vasco de Gama 113

velocity 89, 91, 332, 399, 482

Vikin g 295

watches 179

water mills 180

weight 89

Western Europe 194

Willis Lamb 326

win dmills 180

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  
 684 
Xatiua 176

Zarago za 133, 151, 183

Zero 88

zero volume singularity 316, 320

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  
 683 



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   
 685 
  
  
  

                
     
  
             
      

          


       
- -              
 

       
       

        
 
       
 

              

      

         
     
             
 
    
 
                  


           

 
 
   
           

 

 

           
     
 

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   
 686 
  

          
   



     

        
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
             

    

      


       

        
      

              


    
       
 

  

         
   

 
           
   
   

  
 
                
 

              


  


          


   



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           


 
        

       


     
        
    
  

      

  

  


   

          

Ahmad Y. al- Hassan, Is lamic T ec h on ology , New Yr ok:


Cambr idge Univer sity Pr ess, 1994

Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam

Ber nar d Lewis, The M uslim Discovery of Europe, London,


Phoenix, 1988

Dr . Mustafa Siba'i, Some Glittering Aspects of the Islamic


Civiliz ation

Geor ge Bush, The Life of M uhammad

Ger har d End r ess, An In trodu ction to Is lam, Edinbur gh


Univer sity Pr ess, 1994

H. E. Bor nes, A History of Historical Writings

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   
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J. Br onowski, The Ascent of M an

J. J. Witkam, Catalogue of Arabic M anuscripts

Joseph Schacht (ed), C. E. Boswor th (ed), The Legacy of


Islam

Maur ice Bucaille, The Bible, the Qur'an and Science

Nasim Butt, Islam and M uslim Societies , London: Cr ey Seal

Philip Hitti, History of Arabs

Rober t Br iffault, The M aking of Humanity

S. H. Nasr , Islamic Sciences

Stanwood Cobb, Islam's Contribution to World Culture

Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time

Str assbur y, Zeitsechrift fues Assyriologie ,

W. Montgomer y Watt, The Influence of Islam on M edieval


Europe , Edinbur gh Univer sity Pr ess, 1994

W. M ontgomer y W att and P i er r e C achia, A History of


Islamic Spain , Edinbur gh Univer sity Pr ess, 1992

M uhammad, The Educator

Studies in the History of M edical Sciences

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