TRIBHUWAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
THAPATHALI CAMPUS

A STUDY ON DESIGN OF A BURNER

SUBMITTED TO:
Prof. Dr. B.B. Ale

SUBMITTED BY:
Bishal Pudasaini (073/MSEMDM/07)
Kamal Pokharel (073/MSEMDM/08)
Department of Automobile and Mechanical Engineering

MARCH 2018
 Abstract

This work presents an introduction of Burners a combustion device. It explains the various factors
that need to be considered while designing a burner. It also covers the underlying theories and
principles related to working principle and design of a domestic gaseous burners. Finally it
provides the necessary design equations to determine the various design parameters of a gaseous
burner and for performance evaluations of the designed burner.

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 List of Figures

Figure 1 Schematic of a premixed burner. (Courtesy of John Zink Co., LLC.) [4]
Figure 2 Schematic of a diffusion mixed burner
Figure 3 Schematic of a diffusion-mixed burner.
Figure 4 Schematic of a partial pre-mixed burner
Figure 5 Schematic of a staged-air burner
Figure 6 Schematic of a staged fuel burner
Figure 7 Schematic of Air/fuel Burner
Figure 8 Schematic of Oxy/fuel Burner
Figure 9 Schematic of Air-oxy/fuel Burner
Figure 10 Round (a) and rectangular (b) burner shapes
Figure 11 Schematic of a natural-draft burner
Figure 12 Mechanical atomization of oil
Figure 13 (a) Convergent-Divergent burner or venturi burner (b) Air atomized burner
Figure 14 Spreading of an axis‐symmetric jet in the surrounding
Figure 15 Entrainment of the surrounding in a free jet.
Figure 16 : Entrainment of products of combustion in the jet.
Figure 17 Effect on NO2 emission due to changes in peak turbulent flame temperature (Falcitelli.
M 2002)
Figure 18 Figure 5. Comparison of NO concentration and temperature at different primary
equivalence ratio (Li 1998)
Figure 19 EINOx versus primary equivalence ratio comparison of different experiments (Lyle
1999) (Gore and Zhan 1996) (Kim T.K 1995)
Figure 20 Flue-gas NOx emission (ppm) for 5 heat inputs and increasing flue-gas recirculation
(Foster 1994)
Figure 21 Sound-pressure level versus frequency for a burner with and without a muffler.
Figure 22 Example for the effect of burner air inlet muffler arrangements. Direct noise ray path in
the arrangement on the right side leads to reduced efficiency of the muffler compared to the
arrangement on the left.
Figure 23 Schematic representation of a common plenum chamber for floor burners in a furnace
with mufflers at the common air intakes.
Figure 24 Flow through an orifice
Figure 25 Injector Geometry
Figure 26 Formation of Flame in a gas burner
Figure 27.Design of air inlet port for optimum aeration (a) holes in the cylinder wall, at right angles
to the length of cylinder in horizontal direction (b) slots in a flat disk that fits behind the gas injector
(c) a disk mounted on a thread on the injector pipe
Figure 28 Air flow control in venturi type mixing tube (a) by screwing the injector into or out of
the throat or by moving the throat relative to the injector (b) by fitting a "throttle".

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Figure 29 Lighting Back of a flame
Figure 30Flame Lift off
Figure 31 Burner Manifold
Figure 32 Design of A Bar Burner
Figure 33 Alternate strips of flat and corrugated metal strips of "Ribbon Burners"
Figure 34 Pattern of burner ports (a) Secondary air unable to reach holes at center (b) Secondary
air able to reach all holes
Figure 35 Placement of burner port to increase supply of secondary air.
Figure 36 Use of retention flames for flame stabilization.
Figure 37 Flame stabilization by formation of eddies using sudden changes in flow area.

III
 Table of Contents

Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ I
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. II
Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 Main Objective ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2.2 Specific Objectives ......................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 2. Burners Working and Design Principles ....................................................................... 2
2.1 Combustion Process [3] ........................................................................................................ 2
2.2 What is a burner and how does it work? [3] ......................................................................... 2
2.3 Classifications of Burners ..................................................................................................... 2
2.4 Burner Design Principles ...................................................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Oil and Gaseous Fuel Burners ........................................................................................ 8
2.4.2 Mixing of Air and Gaseous Fuel .................................................................................... 1
2.4.3 Characteristic Features of a Jet ....................................................................................... 2
2.4.4 Applying Design Concepts ............................................................................................. 4
2.4.5 Degree of Recirculation .................................................................................................. 4
Chapter 3. Considerations for a Burner Design .............................................................................. 5
4.1 Power Requirement ............................................................................................................... 5
4.2 Fuel ........................................................................................................................................ 5
4.3 Combustion Space ................................................................................................................. 6
4.4. Stability of the Flame ........................................................................................................... 6
4.5 Emissions .............................................................................................................................. 6
4.6 Noise Level ........................................................................................................................... 9
4.7 Life ...................................................................................................................................... 11
4. Design of a Domestic Gaseous Burners.................................................................................... 12
4.1 Main Design Parameters ..................................................................................................... 12
4.2 Design Equations and Guidelines [10]. ............................................................................... 12
4.2.1 Injector Orifice or Jet .................................................................................................... 13

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 4.2.2 Flames ........................................................................................................................... 15
4.2.3 Entrainment .................................................................................................................. 16
4.2.4 Throat Size.................................................................................................................... 17
4.2.5 Design for Optimum Aeration. ..................................................................................... 18
4.2.6 Mixing Tube ................................................................................................................. 19
4.2.7 Venturi .......................................................................................................................... 19
4.2.8 Burner Ports .................................................................................................................. 20
4.2.9 Lighting Back ............................................................................................................... 20
4.2.10 Flame Lift ................................................................................................................... 21
4.2.11 Burner Manifolds ........................................................................................................ 22
4.2.12 Burner Port Design ..................................................................................................... 23
4.2.13 Cross Lighting ............................................................................................................ 23
4.2.14 Secondary Air supply ................................................................................................. 23
4.2.15 Flame Stabilization ..................................................................................................... 24
4.2.16 Load Distance from Flame ......................................................................................... 25
4.2.17 Materials of Construction ........................................................................................... 26
4.2.18 Performance Evaluation of a Burner .......................................................................... 26
6. Conclusion and Recommendations ........................................................................................... 27
References ..................................................................................................................................... 28

V
 Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Background

Combustion and its control are essential to our existence on this planet as we know it [1]. More
than 80% of total energy consumptions of world comprises of combustion of fossil fuels and about
10% from burning combustible renewables and wastes [2]. As a popular statement quotes
“Necessity is the mother of inventions”, this dependency of human civilization on combustion for
energy has necessitated the design of efficient combustion devices.

Different combustion devices like cooking stoves, boilers, internal combustion engines, gasifiers,
incinerators are used for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes to burn fuel to produce
thermal energy which is directly utilized for various processes or transformed using various
devices like turbine, compressors, etc. to produce useful mechanical work.

Burner is one of the most important combustion devices as it is the primary component of most of
the combustion devices. Here we are going to do a detailed study of various aspects of design of a
domestic burner.

1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 Main Objective

The main objective of this work is:

1. To study working and design principle of a burner.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this work are:

1. To study basic working principle of burners

2. To study different types of a burner
3. To study different parameters considered in design of a domestic gaseous burner

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 Chapter 2. Burners Working and Design Principles

2.1 Combustion Process [3]

Combustion process is the release of potential energy of fuel (stored in form of chemical energy).
It occurs in several stages as follow:

 Mixing of air and fuel

 Ignition of the mixture

 Chemical reaction

 Disposal of products of combustion from the reaction site so that fresh

reactants are available

It is said that “If air and fuel are mixed and ignited, fuel is burnt” implying that except mixing of
air and fuel, all other stages are extremely fast. So, mixing is the slowest step in the process of
combustion and the most important process.

2.2 What is a burner and how does it work? [3]

A Burner is a mechanical devise that:

 Supplies required amount of fuel and air

 Creates condition for rapid mixing of fuel and air to form combustible
mixture

 On ignition produce a flame which transfers thermal energy to furnace and

charge

2.3 Classifications of Burners

The burners are classified as follows:

2.3.1 On the basis of Application:

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 1. Domestic burners: The burners for domestic use usually cooking and space heating purpose
are domestic burners. They are relatively small in power and size.
2. Industrial Burners: The burners for industrial use, used in various processes in industries
are industrial burners. They are larger in size and power producing thousands of Kilowatts
power.

2.3.2 On the basis of process of mixing of air and fuel [4]

One common method for classifying burners is according to how the fuel and the oxidizer are
mixed.

1. Pre-mixed: In premixed burners, shown in the diagram in Figure 1 and schematically in

Figure 2, the fuel and the oxidizer are completely mixed before combustion begins.

Figure 1 Schematic of a premixed burner. (Courtesy of John Zink Co., LLC.) [4]

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 Figure 2 Schematic of a diffusion mixed burner
2. Diffusion Mixed Burners: In diffusion-mixed burners, shown schematically in Figure 3,
the fuel and the oxidizer remain separated and unmixed prior to combustion, which begins
where the oxidizer/fuel mixture is within the flammability range (assuming the temperature
is high enough for ignition).

Figure 3 Schematic of a diffusion-mixed burner.

3. Partially pre-mixed burners: It is also possible to have partially premixed burners, shown
schematically in Figure 4, where a portion of the fuel is mixed with the oxidizer prior to
exiting the burner.

Figure 4 Schematic of a partial pre-mixed burner

4. Staged mixing Burners: Another burner classification based on mixing known as staging
are:
a. Staged Fuel Burner and
b. Staged Air Burner

A staged air burner is shown in the diagram in schematically in Figure 5. A staged fuel
burner is shown in the schematically in Figure 6.

Figure 5 Schematic of a staged-air burner

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 Figure 6 Schematic of a staged fuel burner
Secondary and sometimes tertiary injectors in the burner are used to inject a portion of the
fuel and/or the oxidizer into the flame, downstream of the root of the flame .Staging is
often done to control heat transfer, produce longer flames, and reduce pollutant emissions
such as NOx.

2.3.3 On the basis of Fuel used. [4]

1. Gaseous Fuel Burner: Gaseous fuel burners are the predominant type used in most of the
applications considered here. In general, natural gas is the predominant gaseous fuel used
because of its low cost and availability. However, a wide range of gaseous fuels are used
in, for example, the chemicals industry. These fuels contain multiple components such as
methane, hydrogen, propane, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide and are sometimes referred to
as refinery fuel gases. Gaseous fuels are among the easiest to control because no
vaporization is required, as is the case for liquid and solid fuels. They are also often simpler
to control to minimize pollution emissions because they are more easily staged compared
to liquid and solid fuels.

2. Liquid Fuel/Oil Burners: Liquid fuel burners are used in some limited applications, but are
more prevalent in certain areas of the world such as South America. Waste liquid fuels are
also used in incineration processes. One of the specific challenges of using oils is
vaporizing the liquid into small enough droplets to burn completely. Improper atomization
produces high unburned hydrocarbon emissions and reduces fuel efficiency. Steam and
compressed air are commonly used to atomize liquid fuels. The atomization requirements
often reduce the options for modifying the burner design to reduce pollutant emissions.
Another challenge is that liquid fuel oils often contain impurities such as nitrogen and
sulfur that produce pollution emissions. In the case of fuel-bound nitrogen, so-called fuel
NOx emissions increase. In the case of sulfur, essentially all of the sulfur in a liquid fuel
converts to Sox emissions.

3. Solid Fuel Burners: Solid fuels are not commonly used in most industrial combustion
applications but intensively used for domestic combustion. The most common solid fuels

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 are coal, coke and firewood. Coal is used in power generation and coke is used in some
primary metals production processes. However, neither is considered a traditional
industrial combustion process. Firewood is the traditional fuel used for domestic
combustion processes like cooking and space heating. Another type of pseudo solid fuel is
sludge that is processed in incinerators. Solid fuels also often contain impurities such as
nitrogen and sulfur that can significantly increase pollutant emissions. Some solid fuels
may also contain hazardous chemicals that can produce carcinogenic pollution emissions.
Because solid fuels are not used frequently in the applications considered, they are only
discussed in those specific cases.

2.3.4 On the basis of Oxidizer type

1. Air/fuel: Figure 7shows a schematic of an air/fuel burner, which is the most commonly
used type.

Figure 7 Schematic of Air/fuel Burner

2. Oxy/fuel: Figure 8 is commonly referred to as an oxy/fuel burner. In nearly all cases,
the fuel and the oxygen remain separated inside the burner. They do not mix until
reaching the outlet of the burner. This is commonly referred to as a nozzle-mix burner,
which produces a diffusion flame.

Figure 8 Schematic of Oxy/fuel Burner

3. Air-oxy/fuel: Figure 9 shows an air/fuel process in which the air is enriched with O2.
This can be referred to as low-level O2 enrichment, or premix enrichment. Many
conventional air/fuel burners can be adapted for this technology.

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 Figure 9 Schematic of Air-oxy/fuel Burner
2.3.5 On the basis of Burner Geometry

There are two primary shapes for the outlet nozzle of industrial burners: Round or Rectangular.
Figure 1.38 shows identical heaters with the same number of burners but with different burner
shapes: round flame and flat flame.

Figure 10 Round (a) and rectangular (b) burner shapes

2.3.6 On the basis of Draft type

1. Natural Draft Burner: In natural-draft burners, the air used for combustion is induced
into the burner by the negative draft produced in the combustor and by the motive
force of the incoming fuel, which may be at a significant pressure. A schematic is
shown in Figure 11.

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 Figure 11 Schematic of a natural-draft burner
2. Forced-draft Burner: In Forced- draft burners the oxidizer is supplied to the burner
under pressure. For example, in a forced-draft air burner, the air used for combustion
is supplied to the burner by a blower.

2.4 Burner Design Principles

Here we will consider the design principles for oil burners and gaseous fuel burners only.

2.4.1 Oil and Gaseous Fuel Burners

In oil burners, oil is atomized into a fine spray by a spray nozzle and air is supplied for combustion
in the spray chamber. Alternatively oil may be atomized by high speed air to produce a fine
dispersion of droplets into air.

There are liquid fuel and gaseous fuel burners. In liquid fuel burner, oil is heated and atomized
either mechanically or by high speed gaseous jet. In mechanical methods oil is atomized by means
of a rotating disc or cup or by swirler as shown in the Figure 12 (a) and (b). Mechanical atomization
produces wider spray of oil and wide flame area with uniform droplet size.

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 Figure 12 Mechanical atomization of oil
In atomization, compressed air or steam is the atomizing fluid. Air atomization produces higher
flame temperature than steam atomization. Steam atomization is preferred for viscous oil. Some
ways of air atomization are shown in the Figure 12

Figure 13 (a) Convergent-Divergent burner or venturi burner (b) Air atomized burner

A gaseous fuel burner could either be of premixed type or diffusion type. In a pre‐mixed type gas
and air are mixed prior to passing through the nozzle. In diffusion type fuel and some amount of
air is mixed and the mixture is passed through the burner. Rest air for combustion is supplied in
the furnace chamber. Combustion of fuel is controlled by the rate of mixing of air and fuel. In
these burners small portion of air is mixed with fuel as primary air and the rest amount, known as
secondary air is supplied in the furnace.

Industrial burners for gaseous fuel are diffusive type.

2.4.2 Mixing of Air and Gaseous Fuel

In diffusion burner air and gaseous fuel are supplied separately in the furnace. In most combustion
systems mass of air is at least 8 to 9 times than fuel. When air and fuel pass through the burner,
the momentum flux of air is several times greater than fuel. Some fraction of total air is mixed
with the fuel and this air is known as primary air. Rest amount of air, known as secondary air is

1
supplied in the furnace through appropriate locations. Mixing and combustion take place
simultaneously.

When a mixture of air and gaseous fuel passes through the burner, a free jet is produced
downstream the burner. If the air fuel mixture is discharged in the furnace then a confined jet is
produced because of the furnace walls. The difference between the free jet and confined jet is that
in the former the amount of surrounding is unlimited whereas in the later the amount is limited.
Mixing of secondary air in the jet is important for complete and efficient combustion. In the
absence of mixing the chances of formation cannot be ruled out.

2.4.3 Characteristic Features of a Jet

A jet is produced when a fluid is discharged through the nozzle. In the jet the velocity of the fluid
is accelerated. Free jet is produced when the fluid is discharged in the surrounding with no
confinement. A jet is said to be confined when the fluid is discharged in the container. The
characteristic feature of the jet (whether free of confined) is that it spreads due to the difference in
the density of the jet and the surrounding. A hot jet in the cold surrounding spreads faster than a
cold jet in the same surrounding. Spreading of the jet is due to entrainment of the surrounding.
Due to entrainment of the surrounding, the axial velocity of the jet decreases. For any downstream
axial distance, the maximum velocity is at the center and minimum at the periphery such that a
parabolic profile is developed as shown in the Figure 14.

Figure 14 Spreading of an axis‐symmetric jet in the surrounding

In addition, jet carries with it momentum flux. The momentum flux within the jet is:

Momentum flux= Mass of the jet X velocity of je

Mass of jet = Mass of air at the exit of the nozzle + Mass of surrounding

Mass of the air at the exit of the nozzle is constant. The entrainment of the surrounding in the jet
increases the mass of the jet but decreases the velocity of the jet. The cumulative effect is that

2
momentum flux within the jet remains constant. Entrainment of the surrounding and hence
increase in mass of jet depends on the difference in the momentum flux within the jet and that of
surrounding (note that as the jet is discharged into a still surrounding, the surrounding sets in
motion). The entrainment of the surrounding will continue as long as the difference in the
momentum flux exists.

2.4.3.1 Free or Unconfined Jet

A free jet has no confinement and hence can spread till the difference between the momentum flux
of the jet and the surrounding becomes zero. Figure 15 shows the entrainment in the free jet.

Fuel +

Figure 15 Entrainment of the surrounding in a free jet.

We note in the figure that:

1. A free unconfined get spreads in the surrounding.

2. Spreading of the get is due to entrainment of the surrounding
3. Entrainment of the surrounding is due to the difference in momentum flow rate within
the jet and that within the surrounding.
4. Entrainment of surrounding continues till the difference becomes zero. Entrainment
of surrounding depends on mass flow rate and jet velocity

2.4.3.2 Confined Jet

In furnaces jet is confined by furnace walls. Due to confinement, mass of the surrounding is limited
to the amount equal to secondary air. The primary air mixes rapidly with the fuel at the nozzle but
the remaining air must be entrained and for this purpose excess momentum flux in the jet is
required. If the confined jet has momentum flux in excess of that required for the complete
entrainment of the secondary air, products of combustion will entrain and a circulatory jet is
produced. Figure 16 shows recirculation of products of combustion in the jet. In the figure the
secondary air is entrained up to point A but beyond it the products of combustion entrain due to
the excess momentum in the jet.

3
 Fuel +

Figure 16 : Entrainment of products of combustion in the jet.

2.4.4 Applying Design Concepts

Role of primary air

Thus in the design of burner for gaseous fuel it is important to design the primary air depending
on the requirement. Since the amount of air is many times greater than the fuel, momentum flux
within the jet is controlled by the primary air. The primary air:

 Controls the fuel /air mixing rate

 Assists in stabilizing the jet and to control recirculation.

In designing a gaseous fuel burner total mass flow rat of air is subdivided into primary, secondary
and tertiary air. Whereas primary air is mixed with fuel, secondary and tertiary amounts of air are
introduced through the pots in the furnace.

2.4.5 Degree of Recirculation

Recirculation sets in when the secondary air is mixed completely with the fuel. Degree of
recirculation indicates complete mixing of fuel with air. In confined gets, absence of recirculation
results in a tendency for the flame to expand until it impinges into the furnace walls of load. Hot
gases will be in direct contact with the refractory brick which may result in failure. The
recirculating gases provide a “cushion” of cooler inert flue gases which prevents direct
impingement of flame. A high momentum re-circulatory jet will also produce a stable flame which
is comfortable.

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 Chapter 3. Considerations for a Burner Design

The features of a good burner are: [5]

1. Stable and proper operation in the range of design parameters.

2. Low pollution.
3. Low level of noise.
4. Longer life time.
5. Security of operation.

4.1 Power Requirement

The first step of the burner design is the assessment of its power [6]. The power required to be
produced by any burner depends upon the thermal energy consumed by the load. The power
requirement helps us to decide the mass flow rate of fuel that has to be produced through the nozzle
of a burner.

𝑃 = 𝑚̇𝑓 ∆ℎ𝑐 (1)

where 𝑃 is the power required to be produced by the burner in Watts,

𝑚̇𝑓 is the mass flow rate of the fuel in kg s-1,

∆ℎ𝑐 is the specific heat of combustion (calorific value) of the fuel.

4.2 Fuel

As we have discussed already that different kind of design approaches are followed depending of
the physical and chemical properties of the fuel. Further a burner designed for one particular fuel
is not suitable for other. Liquid fuel burners are two types: Oil is vaporized before ignition, and
atomization followed by combustion. Atomized type burners are commonly used. Mechanism of
atomization of oil differentiates the burners. Oil may be atomized mechanically by a rotation disc
or cup or swirled. High pressure air is also used to atomize the fuel. For details the reader may see
the following references.

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4.3 Combustion Space

As discussed the phenomenon of the jet formation depends upon the surrounding. Burner design
varies considerably with space occupied by fuel and products of combustion (upstream pressures
and flow rates).

4.4. Stability of the Flame

Stable flame steady and continuous propagation of flame. Turndown ratio is important from
economic and legislative perspective so that the burner provides efficient and proper combustion.

𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = (2)
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑚𝑖𝑛

The minimum heat input rate is controlled by the phenomenon called “back fire” whereas
maximum heat input is controlled by the extinguishing of the flame. If velocity of mixture of fuel
and air is greater than flame velocity, flame will extinguish. Back fire will occur when the velocity
of mixture of fuel and air is lower than flame velocity

4.5 Emissions

The incomplete combustion of fuels or combustion of impurities present in the fuel produce
particles which affects the environment and human health adversely. Thus emissions of harmful
substances like NOx, CO, Sox, Particulate matters from any combustion device designed must be
under the regulations.

The emissions dependencies on combustion parameters like Flame Temperature and variations in
equivalence ratio due to primary air distributions are presented in [7] which are explained by the
graphs below.

6
 Figure 17 Effect on NO2 emission due to changes in peak turbulent flame temperature
(Falcitelli. M 2002)

Figure 18 Figure 5. Comparison of NO concentration and temperature at different primary

equivalence ratio (Li 1998)

7
Figure 19 EINOx versus primary equivalence ratio comparison of different experiments (Lyle
1999) (Gore and Zhan 1996) (Kim T.K 1995)

Figure 20 Flue-gas NOx emission (ppm) for 5 heat inputs and increasing flue-gas recirculation
(Foster 1994)

8
From the results thus obtained the various techniques that are considered in design of a burner to
reduce emissions are as follows:

1. Water Steam Injection

2. Staged-air combustion (varying primary equivalence ratio)
3. Flue Gas Recirculation (FGR)

4.6 Noise Level

There are four major mechanisms of noise production in combustion equipment. They can be
categorized as predominantly high frequency or low frequency sources [8]. They are:

1. Low Frequency Noise Sources

 Combustion roar and instability
 Fan noise
2. High Frequency Noise Sources
 Gas jet noise
 Piping and valve noise

Typical sound sources contributing to the overall noise emissions of burners used in industrial
heaters and furnaces are [8]:

1. Combustion process
2. Gas jet noise of the fuel gas at the burner
3. Pilot burners
4. Combustion air fan
5. Steam or air injection for atomization
6. Control valves and connected pipes

Four common techniques used to reduce noise in industrial burners are the following [8]:

1. Sound insulation in the burner plenum

2. Mufflers at air inlets of natural draft burners
3. Acoustically optimized furnace wall construction
4. Acoustical treatment of the air ducts in forced draft burners

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Figure 21 Sound-pressure level versus frequency for a burner with and without a muffler.

Figure 22 Example for the effect of burner air inlet muffler arrangements. Direct noise ray path
in the arrangement on the right side leads to reduced efficiency of the muffler compared to the
arrangement on the left.

10
Figure 23 Schematic representation of a common plenum chamber for floor burners in a furnace
with mufflers at the common air intakes.

4.7 Life

The life of any burner depends upon the material selection according to the fuel used and the
thermal load that the different components of the burner has to withstand which is later on another
section.

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 4. Design of a Domestic Gaseous Burners

4.1 Main Design Parameters

For every design study, a few parameters are significant to ensure a proper fit of parts during
assembly. It is important to note that the gas inlet pipe should be smooth and subsequently the
determination of the following important dimensions [9]:

1. Diameter of the orifice or injector (do)

2. Length of the mixing pipe (Lm)
3. Number and diameter of flame port holes (np, dp)
4. Height of the burner head. (H)

The underlying principles and guidelines for determination of above parameters are discussed in
following sections.

4.2 Design Equations and Guidelines [10].

The force which drives the gas and air into the burner is the pressure of the gas pipeline. The key
equation that relates the gas pressure to flow is Bernoulli’s Theorem (assuming incompressible
flow):

𝑝 𝑣2
+ + 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2𝑔 (3)

where: p is the gas pressure (N m-2),

ρ is the gas density (kg m-3),

v is the gas velocity (m s-1),

g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m s-2),

z is head (m). For a gas head (z) can be ignored.

Bernoulli’s Theorem essentially states that for an ideal gas flow, the sum of the potential energy
due to pressure and the kinetic energy due to the velocity of flow is constant.

In practice, with gas flowing through a pipe, Bernoulli’s Theorem must be modified. An extra term
must be added to allow for energy loss due to friction in the pipe:

12
 𝑝 𝑣2
+ − 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2𝑔 (4)

where: f is the head loss due to friction in pipe (m).

4.2.1 Injector Orifice or Jet

An injector needs to be carefully designed and positioned in order to control the amount of gas and
air used by a burner. The size and shape of the injector orifice control the gas flow rate and hence
heat input for a given gas composition and supply pressure.

The amount of gas used by a burner is controlled by the size of the “jet” or “injector orifice” (an
orifice is a hole in a plate). This is usually a thimble with a hole drilled in the end, screwed on to
the end of gas line fitting, so that it can be easily replaced. As well as controlling the gas flow rate,
the injector has the second important role of separating burner from the gas supply. It will be
impossible for a flame to enter gas supply pipe.

The gas flow rate (Q) is related to the velocity (𝑣) by the area (𝐴) of the pipe through which it is
flowing:

𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴 (5)

For fluid flow through an orifice, the area of the hole is not necessarily the area of the flow. A
sudden change in the flow area causes a “vena contracta”, a narrowing of the flow to an area
smaller than that of the hole itself:

Orifice Vena Contracta

Figure 24 Flow through an orifice

13
4.2.1.1 Gas flow through an injector orifice (jet)

In physical terms, an injector uses to convert potential energy from high pressure gas supply in to
the kinetic energy of an emerging gas jet. Mathematically, therefore, by conservation of energy
and assuming no losses at the nozzle, we have (per unit mass):

1 2
𝑣 = 𝑔ℎ
2
Or (6)
̇𝑉 = 𝐴𝑗 √2𝑔ℎ

where 𝑉̇ is the volumetric gas flow rate from the orifice (m3 s-1),

Aj is the jet area (m2),

h is the column of gas required to exert gas pressure at the orifice (m).

Gauge pressure is given as:

𝑝0 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 𝑔
(7)
where 𝑝0 is the pressure of gas at orifice (N m-2),

𝜌𝑔 is the density of the gas (kg m-3).

From Eq. (6) and (7), in empirical version of Bernoulli’s Theorem is used to define the flow rate:

𝑝
𝑄 = 0.0467𝐶𝑑 𝐴0 √
𝑠 (8)

where: Q is the gas flow rate (m3 h-1),

A0 is the area of orifice (mm2),

p is the gas pressure before orifice in (mbar),

s is the specific gravity of the gas,

Cd is the coefficient of discharge for the orifice.

The coefficient of discharge for the orifice takes into account the vena contracta and the friction
losses through the orifice. It usually has values between 0.85 and 0.95.

14
4.2.1.2 Orifice Design

Orifice Injector

Screw Thread

Figure 25 Injector Geometry

To maximize Cd, the angle (a) of approach before the orifice should be 30° and the length of the
orifice channel (b) should be between 1.5 and 2 times the orifice diameter (c).

To ensure accuracy each jet is usually calibrated individually using a fixed pressure air supply and
a flow meter and its value of Cd marked on it.

4.2.2 Flames

Figure 26 Formation of Flame in a gas burner

As gas comes out of the injector, air is “entrained” into the stream and mixed in the mixing tube
with the gas before it comes out of the burner port. The unburned gas is heated up in an “inner
cone” and starts burning at the flame front. The cone shape is a result of laminar flow in a
cylindrical mixing tube, the mixture at the centre of the tube is moving at a higher velocity than
that at the outside.

15
The main “combustion zone” is where the gas burns in the primary air and generates the heat in
the flame. The “outer mantle” of the flame is where the combustion is completed with the help of
the secondary air that is drawn into the flame from the sides.

The combustion products (CO2 and steam) are at a high temperature, so rise vertically away from
the flame, transferring heat to the air close to the top of the flame. It is this air moving vertically
away that draws in the cooler secondary air to the base of the flame.

The size of the inner cone depends upon the primary aeration. A high proportion of primary air
makes the flame much smaller and concentrated, giving higher flame temperatures.

4.2.3 Entrainment

The gas emerging from the injector enters the end of the mixing tube in a region called “throat”.
The throat has a much larger diameter than the injector, so the velocity of the gas stream is much
reduced. The velocity (v0) in of the gas in the injector orifice (in ms-1) is given by:

𝑄
𝑣0 = (9)
3.6 × 10−3
From equation of continuity,

𝐴0 𝑣0 = 𝐴𝑡 𝑣𝑡 (10)
2
where: A0 is the area of orifice (mm ),

v0 is the velocity of the gas in the injector orifice (ms-1),

At is the area of the throat (mm2),

Vt is the velocity of the gas in the injector orifice (ms-1).

From Eq. (10),

𝐴0 𝑑0 2
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣0 = 𝑣0 2 (11)
𝐴𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where: d0 is the diameter of the orifice (mm),

dt is the diameter of the throat (mm),

Here, we ignored the vena contracta and the friction.

The gas pressure just after the nozzle then becomes:

𝑣0 2 𝑑0 4
𝑝𝑡 = 𝑝0 − 𝜌𝑔 [1 − ( ) ] (12)
2𝑔 𝑑𝑡

16
The value of 𝑝0 is around atmospheric pressure, as the throat is open to the air, so this drop in
pressure is sufficient to draw primary air in through the air inlet ports to mix with the gas in the
mixing tube.

The primary aeration depends on the “entrainment ratio” (r), which is determined by the area of
the throat and the orifice (Prigg’s Formula):

𝐴0 𝑑0
𝑟 = √𝑠 (√ − 1) = √𝑠 ( − 1) (13)
𝐴𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Prigg’s Formula holds well if total flame port area (Atot) is between 1.5 and 2.2 times the area of
the throat. The ratio is approximately independent of the gas pressure and the flow rate. The
primary air supply is rarely enough to give a stoichiometric mixture.

4.2.4 Throat Size

The flow rate of the mixture in the throat (Qm) is then given by:

𝑄(1 + 𝑟)
𝑄𝑚 = (14)
3600
where, Qm is in m3 s-1 and Q in m3 h-1

The pressure drop due to the flow of the mixture down the mixing tube should be checked, by first
calculating the Reynolds number:

𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑡 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑡 4𝑄𝑚 4𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑄𝑚

𝑅𝑒 = = = (15)
𝜇𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝜇𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝜋𝑑𝑡 2 𝜋𝜇𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑡

where 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 is the density of the mixture (kg m-3),

𝜇𝑚𝑖𝑥 is the viscosity of the mixture (Pa s).

The pressure drop (∆p) is then given by:

𝑓 𝐿𝑚 𝑓 16𝑄𝑚 2
∆𝑝 = 𝜌𝑣𝑡 2 = 𝜌 𝐿 (16)
2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝜋 2 𝑑𝑡 5 𝑚
64 0.316
where 𝑓 = 𝑅𝑒 when 𝑅𝑒 < 2000 and 𝑓 = 1 when 𝑅𝑒 > 2000
𝑅𝑒 4

𝐿𝑚 is the length of the mixing tube (m)

17
The pressure drop should be much less than the driving pressure.

4.2.5 Design for Optimum Aeration.

Most burners are designed to have a throat that gives an aeration greater than optimum, with a
device for restricting the air flow, so the optimum aeration can be set for a given situation .

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 27.Design of air inlet port for optimum aeration (a) holes in the cylinder wall, at right
angles to the length of cylinder in horizontal direction (b) slots in a flat disk that fits behind the
gas injector (c) a disk mounted on a thread on the injector pipe

18
A simple method of air control on a cylindrical mixing tube is to make the air inlet ports as holes
in the cylinder wall, at right angles to the length of the cylinder as shown in Figure 27 (a). These
holes should be horizontal, rather than vertical, to prevent gas seeping out at low flow rates. The
holes can be partially covered by a concentric section of cylinder, with identical holes in it that can
be rotated by a lever. The maximum area of the holes should be larger than the cross-sectional area
of the throat.

A more complex method to do the same job is to make slots in a flat disk that fits behind the gas
injector as shown in Figure 27 (b) or to mount a disk on a thread on the injector pipe as shown in
Figure 27 (c), so the air port can be opened and closed by rotating the disk up and down the screw.

4.2.6 Mixing Tube

For a cylindrical throat, the mixing tube must be long enough to allow good mixing of the gas and
air. A length of 10 × dt is usually recommended.

4.2.7 Venturi

Another way of making the mixing tube is as a “venturi” or “diffuser”, with a pipe that tapers into
the throat and tapers smoothly away again.

(a)

(b)

Figure 28 Air flow control in venturi type mixing tube (a) by screwing the injector into or out of
the throat or by moving the throat relative to the injector (b) by fitting a "throttle".

19
The air flow can be adjusted by screwing the injector into or out of the throat, or by moving the
throat relative to the injector as shown in Figure 28(a).

The air flow in the venturi can also be controlled by fitting a “throttle”, either a vane that can be
turned or a screw that can be screwed in to block the throat as shown in Figure 28(b).

A venturi can be shorter than a cylindrical mixing tube (6 × dt), so is often used where space is
limited, such as in lamps.

4.2.8 Burner Ports

The big advantage of a gas burner is that the heat can be directed to where it is needed, by designing
the burner properly. However, the design must allow for particular problems that can occur when
burning gas, especially biogas.

4.2.9 Lighting Back

It is possible for the flame at a burner port to travel back down the mixing tube to the injector. This
is called “lighting back”.

Figure 29 Lighting Back of a flame

The way to overcome lighting back is to choose a burner port size smaller than a certain size. For
ports in thin metal, this will be 2.5 mm diameter for natural gas. If the burner port is drilled in
thicker metal, then it can be larger.

Lighting back is not usually a problem for gaseous fuel with low flame speed like Biogas.

20
4.2.10 Flame Lift
The opposite effect is a real problem for gaseous fuel with low flame speed like biogas, that of the
flame lifting off the burner port.

Figure 30Flame Lift off

The flame lifts off from the port and can “blow-off” and go out. “Flame lift” occurs when the speed
of the gas/air mixture through the burner port is higher than the speed of the flame burning in the
gas.

The total flame port area must be chosen so that the mixture velocity through the ports is much
lower than stoichiometric flame speed of the gaseous fuel.

The flame velocity at the flame front is likely to be 50% of the stoichiometric value, as the flame
is not fully aerated at this point.

Even if the burner port size is designed correctly for a particular situation, a variation in conditions
can result in flame lift.

Alterations in the entrainment ratio, caused by adjustments in the primary air controls, or by partial
blockage of the air inlets by dirt, can cause the flame velocity at the flame front to change.

Increased supply pressure will increase the mixture flow rate and velocity, also causing flame lift.

The mixture supply velocity (vp) is given by:

𝑄𝑚
𝑣𝑝 = (17)
𝐴𝑝
𝑄(1+𝑟)
Where 𝑄𝑚 = in m3 s-1,
3600

𝜋𝑑𝑝 2
𝐴𝑝 = 𝑛𝑝 the total burner port area in m2 where 𝑛𝑝 is the number of ports each diameter
4
of 𝑑𝑝 in m.

21
4.2.11 Burner Manifolds

The flow of the gas/air mixture through each of the burner ports must be uniform, so each burner
port should be of the same size. Also the pressure drop in the supply pipes leading to the burner
ports must be of the same value. The usual way to ensure this is to use a manifold that is
symmetrical and with a cross-sectional area that is much larger than the total flame port area as
shown in Figure 31.

Figure 31 Burner Manifold

For a bar burner, with the flame ports arranged in line on a cylindrical or rectangular tube, it is
common to place the mixing tube so the mixture comes out at the center of the manifold as shown
in Figure 32. Baffles may be required to balance the flow patterns within the manifold, so the flame
size is uniform.

Figure 32 Design of A Bar Burner

Burner ports are often round in shape, but can be made any shape. Burner bars often use slotted
ports, as they give fan shaped flames. “Ribbon” burners are made by placing together alternate
strips of flat and corrugated metal strips as shown in

22
 Figure 33 Alternate strips of flat and corrugated metal strips of "Ribbon Burners"

4.2.12 Burner Port Design

The total area of the burner ports is limited by the need to prevent flame lift, as above. It can also
be defined by the heat output from the burner ports, which should be less than 900 W cm -2 (0.09
W m-2) of burner port area.

The size and positioning of the individual burner ports are defined by various factors, such as the
heat pattern required, the need for burner ports to be close enough together for cross-lighting and
the need for an adequate supply of secondary air.

Domestic stoves, used mainly for cooking, usually have burner ports arranged in a circular pattern,
as most cooking pots have a circular base. The size of the circle depends on the average size of the
cooking pots to be used.

Water heaters usually use one or more bar burners arranged under a rectangular boiler.

4.2.13 Cross Lighting

A burner is usually lit at one place, so the flames should jump from one burner port to the next, so
the whole burner is alight. Also the flames at individual burner ports may go out, so cross-lighting
is essential.

4.2.14 Secondary Air supply

The pattern of burner ports should allow secondary air to reach each port without interference.

(a) (b)

Figure 34 Pattern of burner ports (a) Secondary air unable to reach holes at center (b) Secondary
air able to reach all holes

23
The first pattern would produce a poor burning pattern, with the flames from the central burner
ports being much higher than those at the edge because secondary air is prevented from reaching
them. The second pattern allows air to reach each of the burner holes.

4.2.15 Flame Stabilization

Several methods can be used to reduce the problem of flame lift. The supply of secondary air to
the flame can be increased by putting the burner ports in a raised ledge, or by putting them at an
angle to the horizontal as in Figure 35.

Figure 35 Placement of burner port to increase supply of secondary air.

The second method uses retention flames, small flames arranged around the main flame to hold it
onto the burner port. The velocity of the mixture entering these smaller burner ports is often
reduced by increasing the friction losses into these ports, using “metering orifices” as shown in
Figure 36.

Figure 36 Use of retention flames for flame stabilization.

24
The third method uses sudden changes in flow area at the burner port to give eddies, that help in
flame stabilization as shown in

Figure 37 Flame stabilization by formation of eddies using sudden changes in flow area.

4.2.16 Load Distance from Flame

The gas in a flame must be at a high temperature for the combustion reaction to proceed. If the
flame is cooled, the reactions are “quenched” and the reactions are incomplete. Gas burning in air
will produce carbon monoxide and carbon particles (soot) if the reaction is quenched.

Quenching is useful, as it prevents lighting back in burner ports that are of the correct size. The
flame cannot pass through the port as the metal cools it.

The correct positioning of the object to be heated (e.g. a pot of food to be cooked) above the flame
is therefore important. If the object is too close to the flame, the flame is quenched and the
combustion is incomplete and the efficiency of the stove is reduced. If the object is too far away
from the flame, heat is lost to the atmosphere and the stove is again less efficient.

The best position for the base of the object being heated is just above the tip of the visible flame,
just outside the outer mantle, above the hottest part of the flame. The flame height, though, depends
on a variety of factors. A key variable is the velocity of the gas/air mixture through the burner
ports, which in turn depends on the size of the burner ports and the gas pressure. The degree of
primary aeration of the burner affects both the mixture velocity and the height of the inner cone of
the flame, which in turn affects the full flame height. Greater primary aeration will reduce the
flame height.

25
4.2.17 Materials of Construction

Gas burner components are usually made of cast metal, as they must take high temperatures, be
very robust and withstand corrosion.

Many parts can be made from aluminum, except for those parts which might reach temperatures
above its softening point (600°C).

Cast iron is used for parts that reach higher temperatures, as it is fairly resistant to corrosion.
However, it is brittle and can shatter if dropped onto a hard surface.

Mild steel can take high temperatures, is not brittle, is easily welded and is very strong, so can be
used for many components.

However steel is susceptible to corrosion, so must be coated with a corrosion inhibitor that can
withstand the temperature in which the steel is being used. There are aluminum based paints that
are designed for high temperature use, as well as vitreous enamels that are baked onto the metal
surface.

Gas burner parts can also be made from ceramics, which are much cheaper than metals, easy to
mold and can be baked in a furnace to give a hard material that can withstand high temperatures
and is not susceptible to corrosion. The main disadvantage is that they are brittle and can shatter if
dropped on a hard surface.

4.2.18 Performance Evaluation of a Burner

The evaluation of performance of a burner is done by using following two parametrs.

Combustion efficiency is calculated from the carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide flow rates.

[𝐶𝑂2 ]
𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100 (18)
[𝐶𝑂2 ] + [𝐶𝑂]

Thermal efficiency is the ratio of useful heat (heat received by the load) and heat that can be
generated from the complete combustion of the supplied fuel.

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = × 100 (19)
𝑚̇𝑓 ∆ℎ𝑐

26
6. Conclusion and Recommendations

The various factors to be considered during the design of a burner are power requirement, fuel to
be used, flame stability, safety of operation, noise levels, and emissions. The design parameters
like diameter of orifice of injectors, throat diameter of mixing tube, length of the mixing tube,
number and diameter of flame ports, etc. can be determined by underlying principles of
thermodynamics and fluid mechanics.

Design of burner for every fuel is different due to the difference in the flame velocity and other
chemical and physical properties.

The amount and mixing of primary air with fuel in mixing tube plays the most important factor in
complete combustion of fuel, flame stabilization and flame temperature regulation also
contributing to emissions.

Various techniques such as staging and flue gas recirculation can be used to inhibit emissions.

Modern engineering software tools can accurately and effectively guide biogas burner flame port
design [11]. So Software packages such as ANSYS®, Chemkin®, SolidWorks®, RStudio® and
Matlab® can be used as the integral part of the design of gaseous burner to iterate the design
parameters until a desired result is obtained in short span of time.

27
 References

[1] S. R. Turns, An Introduction to Combustion Concepts and Application, Mc. Graw Hill
Campanies, Inc, 2000.

[2] OECD/IEA, "Statistics Search," IEA, 2018. [Online]. Available:

http://www.iea.org/stats/WebGraphs/WORLD4.pdf. [Accessed 26 March 2018].

[3] P. S. D. Koria, "Courses," [Online]. Available:

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/113104058/mme_pdf/Lecture27.pdf. [Accessed 26 March 2018].

[4] C. E. Baukal, Jr., Industrial Burners Handbook, London: CRC Press LLC, 2003.

[5] FORBES MARSHALL, "Types of boiler burners," FORBES MARSHALL, [Online].

Available:
https://www.forbesmarshall.com/fm_micro/news_room.aspx?Id=boilers&nid=180.
[Accessed 26 March 2018].

[6] H. S. Couto, J. B. F. Duarte and D. Bastos-Netto, "Domestic Range Burner Design

Procedure," in The Seventh Asia-Pacific International Symposium on Combustion and
Energy Utilization December 15-17, Hong Kong SAR, 2004.

[7] H. Wang, "Th Effect of Primary Air Distribution on Emissions from a Natural Gas Water
Heater," Marquett University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 2012.

[8] C.-C. H. a. E. S. Mahmoud M. Fleifil, "Combustion Noise," in Industrial Combustion

Testing, London, CRC Press, 2010, pp. 183-210.

[9] D. O. Obada, A. I. Obi, M. Dauda and F. O. Anafi, "Design and Construction of a Biogas
Burner," Palestine Technical University Research Journal,, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 35-42, 2014.

[10] D. D. Fulford, Biogas Stove Design A short course, UK: The University of Reading, 1996.

[11] T. J. Decker, "A MODELING TOOL FOR HOUSEHOLD BIOGAS BURNER FLAME
PORT DESIGN," Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 2017.

28