PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE VOL 1 93-98 (1988)

Recycling of Plastic Packaging In the United

States

Susan E. Selke
School of Packaging, Michigan State University, E. Lansing, MI 48824-1223, USA

The manner in which recycling of plastic packaging is developing in the USA is outlined and
the probable changes in the next decade are discussed. Suggestions as to how packaging
professions should deal with the subject are made.

Keywords: Recycling of plastic packaging; US recycle legislation

INTRODUCTION c

In 1986 the US packaging industry used about 5.2
billion kilograms of plastic.' Use of plastics in
packaging has been growing rapidly, and forecas-
ters generally agree that growth will continue at
least for the next several years. As new resins and
new proceking technologies are developed, plas-
tics continue to replace glass and metal, especially
steel. However, ominous signs of public resist-
ance against plastics, especially plastic packaging,
are also increasing. A bill introduced in Connecti-
cut would prohibit the sale of expanded polys-
tyrene products in the state. Vermont is consider-
ing a ban of polyvinyl chloride packaging. The
city of Berkeley, California, is considering taxes
on plastic packaging. These are only a sampling of
legislation introducted or expected at state and
local levels in the United States in 1987.2
The impetus behind these and similar legisla-
tive efforts is the growing solid waste problem in
the US. Because the problem is particularly
severe in the northeast, most legislative activity is
taking place there, but no area of the country is
0894-3214/88/020093-06$05 .OO
@ 1988 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
immune. It is estimated that nearly 25% of the
major cities in the US will run out of waste
disposal capacity within 5 years.3 The US
municipal solid waste stream amounted to about
121 billion kg in 1984, of which about 0.7 billion
kg, or 7.2%, was p l a ~ t i c .Though
~ this is a
relatively small percentage, it is also rapidly
growing. In 1960 only about 450 million kg of
plastic entered the waste stream. By the year
2000, it is estimated that there will be 14.1 billion
kg of plastic in waste. In 1984, plastic packaging
accounted for about 53% of all plastic discards. It
must also be recognized that the percentage of
plastics by volume, the most important factor in a
landfill, is significantly higher than per cent by
weight.
The growing solid waste crisis has resulted in a
resurgence of interest in recycling of all kinds.
New Jersey's statewide mandatory recycling
legislation is in effect beginning this autumn. If
plastic packaging materials are not to become
even more a target for restrictive legislation, the
Received 10 December 1987
94
public perception of non-recyclability of plastics
must be changed.
TYPES OF RECYCLING
For plastics as well as other materials, it can be
useful to identify several types of recycling, which
can be seen as a series decreasing in value. The
highest value is properly speaking not recycling at
all, but reuse. Reuse involves utilizing the
container or other object again in its original
form, without reprocessing other than cleaning.
An example would be a plastic tray for shipping
beverage bottles, which is returned to the supplier
and used again. Though there is a trend for more
reuse of packaging materials, at least in some
industries, we shall not discuss reusable plastic
packaging here. True recycling of materials
involves reprocessing then into similar or diffe-
rent forms. The highest value recycling, known as
primary or direct recycling, involves producing a
product similar to the original. Secondary, or
indirect, recycling involves producing a material
with less critical specifications than the original.
Finally, tertiary, or thermal, recycling is some-
times included as a recycling category. It involves
the disruption of the polymeric structure and the
production of smaller molecular weight materials,
generally by pyrolysis or incineration but some-
times by hydrolysis or other chemical processes.
Incineration can yield energy directly. Pyrolysis
can produce materials to be used as ener
sources or sometimes as chemical feedstocks.% ! Since plastic packaging materials generally have a
Some authors have defined pyrolysis and other
processes for production of smaller molecules as
tertiary recycling and direct energy recovery as
quaternary recycling.’
Processes involving incineration with energy
recovery are now commonly known as ‘resource
recovery’ operations. They may or may not
incorporate recycling of materials. Recovery of
ferrous metals is easiest and is therefore fairly
common in these facilities. Recovery of other
materials is quite rare. There has been consider-
able public concern about the effects of plastic on
these facilities, and in fact considerable public
resistance to them, with or without plastics. A
discussion of the pros and cons of ‘resource
recovery’ is beyond the scope of this paper, which
will focus on primary and secondary recycling.
Another very important distinction to be made
is between recycling of industrial scrap and
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recycling of post-consumer materials. Recycling
of clean industrial scrap is well established, due to
the considerable economic incentives involved. It
is estimated that 75% of plastics waste generated
during fabrication is reused.8 Much of this
material is reused immediately by the original
manufacturer. For instance, in extrusion blow-
moulding of single-layer plastic bottles, the usual
practice is for the flash to be immediately
reground and mixed in with incoming virgin resin.
In cases where manufacturing scrap is not reused
in-house, it generally finds a ready market with
reprocessors, who grind, clean, and reformulate
the resul for resale. In fact, the supp1y:demand
ratio is such that several reprocessors have not
been able to satisfy their needs from industrial
scrap sources, and therefore have begun to
investigate post-consumer scrap as a source of
supply. In terms of our original classification,
reuse in-house of scrap in the same operation
would be primary recycling. Reprocessors typical-
ly sell to markets with less demanding specifica-
tions than that of the virgin material, so are
generally classified as secondary recycling. Be-
cause most plastic in the waste stream is
post-consumer waste rather than industrial scrap,
we will limit further discussion to recycling of
post-consumer plastic materials.
PLASTIC PACKAGING MATERIALS
lifetime of less than 1 year, we can obtain a good
estimate of the composition of the plastic
packaging material fraction of the solid waste
stream by looking at current production of plastic
packaging materials. Table 1 presents US plastic
packaging by type of plastic resin.
As can be seen, most packaging materials are
derived from only five types of resin (six if high
and low density polyethylene are counted separ-
ately). The polyolefin family alone accounts for
over 73% of plastic packaging materials.
It can also be informative to look at the types of
packaging structures. Of the total of 5205 million
kg of plastic packaging materials produced in
1986 in the US, 278 million kg were in closures,
470 million kg in coatings, 2639 million kg in
containers, and 1820 million kg were used in film.
Tables 2 and 3 show the breakdown by resin for
the two largest categories, containers and film.
RECYCLING OF PLASTIC PACKAGING 95

PLASTIC RECYCLING SYSTEMS

Table 1. Plastic Packaging Materials (US)*
For plastics recycling to be feasible, plastic
Resin Million % of
materials must be separate from other compo-
kg Total
nents of the waste stream. Further, as a number
of authors have said the prerequisites for success-
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) 1739 33.4 ful plastics recycling include a stable supply of the
High density polyethylene (HDPE) 1605 30.8
Polystyrene (PSI
plastic materials at a fairly constant quality level,
550 10.6
Polypropylene (PP) 480 9.2
a process for converting these materials to a
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 343 6.6 product with well-specified costs and tolerances
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 265 5.1 for variation in properties, a stable and predict-
Pthers 224 4.3 able market, combined in a way to provide an
economically feasible system.%' '
*Information from ' The recycling system can be usefully divided
into three phases: collection, processing, and
end-use. Further, it is useful to classify recycling
systems according to whether they handle a single
type of material or container, o r a mixed plastic
Table 2. Resins in Plastic Containers (US)*
stream.
Resin Million kg % of Total

HDPE 1399 53.1

PS 430 16.3
Collection
PET 336 12.8
PP 167 6.3 Collection of post-consumer plastic packaging
PVC 143 5.4 materials for recycle necessarily involves either
LDPE 106 4.0 separation of such materials from a stream of
Other 56 2.1 collected waste, or diversion of the materials
before they reach the waste stream. In the early
'Information from ' 1970s and US Bureau of Mines was very active in
research on separation of plastics from solid waste
and further separation by chemical type. '* Typic-
al separation methods include sink-float methods
for separation by density, similar systems using
Table 3. Resins in film (US)* surfactants or swelling agents when densities are
nearly the same, electrostatic separation proces-
Resin Million kg % of Total
ses, hydraulic separators, and air classifiers.
Results of this and similar researches were
LDPE 1311 72.1 disappointing. It was very difficult to achieve a
PP 200 11.0
product suitable for secondary recycling, and very
HDPE 150 8.3
PVC 92 5.0
expensive to do so. Most current investigators
PS 23 1.2 agree that a better course is to remove the
Other 44 2.4 potentially recyclable plastics before they are
mixed in with the rest of the garbage. There is
'Information from ' then much less contamination to deal with, and it
is considerably easier to get a useful product. The
problem with this approach is that it relies on the
co-operation of individual consumers to 'source-
As can be seen, most plastic packaging films separate' their recyclables from nonrecyclables.
are low density polyethylene, and the majority of Source-separation programmes tend to be the
plastic containers are high density polyethylene, most successful when consumers are asked to do
though there is considerably more diversity in relatively little separation. For example, a multi-
containers than in film. material recycling programme collecting glass,
96
metal, and paper will have a higher level of
participation if consumers are asked to put all
recyclables in one container, than it will if they
are required to further separate glass from metal
from paper. Fruther, levels of participation are
also influenced by other aspects of consumer
convenience. Participation is higher if recyclables
are picked up at kerbside than if they must be
delivered to a drop-off location. Participation is
also higher is collection of recyclables is made on
the same day as the regular garbage pickup than it
is if collection is on a different day. It is higher if
collection is every week than on a less frequent
schedule. Of course, one of the strongest
motivators for participation in a collection effort
for plastics is monetary. Those states which have
bottle deposit legislation providing for a 5-10
deposit on PET beverage bottles account for by
far the largest pool of collected plastic packaging
materials suitable for recycling. In fact, Franklin
associate^,^ cite the recycling of 57 million kg of
PET soft drink containers (and their HDPE base
cups) in 1984 from deposit states as 'the only
significant documented postconsumer recycling'.
In 1986, recycling of PET from beverage bottles
was estimated at 64-68 million kg, about 20% of
that year's consumption by the beverage bottle
industry.' It remains to be seen whether the 1 per
bottle rebate value provided by the new Califor-
nia legislation taking effect autumn 1987 will be a
large enough incentive to provide a good rate of
return for these containers.
Another approach to achieving consumer coop-
eration in source-separating recyclables is to
mandate it. A scattering of communities have had
mandatory source-separation ordinances for a
number of years. Many localities which had such
regulations a number of years ago have since
abandoned them. New Jersey is the first state to
require recycling on a statewide basis. Because
New Jersey communities are only required to
target three materials for recycling, one of which
must be aluminium, and because targets for waste
reduction have been set on a weight basis, it is not
expected that any communities will initially
include plastics in their recycling plans. Most are
expected to choose aluminium, glass, and news-
paper. However provisions in the bill call for an
evaluation of the state of plastics recycling in
another year, with recommendations to follow.
Many industry observers expect some require-
ment for plastics recycling to be the eventual
result in New Jersey.
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Processing
Once the plastic packaging materials are col-
lected, they must be processed. The first proces-
sing step is typically some type of densification.
Plastics are for the most part very light materials,
causing transportation of collected plastics to be
relatively expensive. Densification at an early
stage, either by grinding or baling, is often
essential to the overall economics. Further
processing involves two major considerations -
separation of the plastics from non-plastic con-
taminants, and separation of various types of
plastic from each other. Non-plastic contaminants
typically include dirt, food residues, labels, etc.
The amount of separation of types of plastic from
each other will be strongly dependent on both the
nature of the plastic stream being collected and
the end use for which the recycled material is
intended.
One of the difficulties of recycling plastics is
that not all plastics are alike, and further, they
tend to be incompatible with one another. Blends
of two or more types of plastics very seldom form
one-phase systems. Typically the components are
mutually insoluble and therefore exist in discrete
phases. The morphology of the structure will
depend not only on the amounts and types of
components present but on the processing
method, especially the amount and type of
mixing. Generally small regions of one phase in a
continuous matrix of the other phase produce the
most favourable properties in two-phase systems.
T o achieve this, mixing at high shear is generally
required. Even then, the resulting materials
frequently tend to be brittle and not very strong.
Uses are typically limited to items with fairly large
cross-sections which are often substitutes for
wood or concrete structures. On the positive side,
such objects can often incorporate substantial
amounts of nonplastic materials as well, eliminat-
ing the need for stringent removal standards for
label fragments, etc. This is obviously the only
type of recycling suitable for multilayer coex-
truded structures, which by their very nature
cannot be separated into individual resin compo-
nents. Recycling of mixed (or co-mingled) plastics
has not been practiced commercialy in the United
States until very recently and it is too soon to
judge its success. It has met with at least some
success in Europe and Japan.".'
Much better properties can be obtained from
recycled plastics that are homogeneous in chemic-
RECYCLING OF PLASTIC PACKAGING
al type. Commercially successful system produc-
ing homogeneous recycled plastic technically start
out with only one type of resin or one type of
container, rather than performing a lot of
separation. As mentioned before, PET beverage
bottles are the primary source of recycled plastic
in the US today. Both recycled PET and recycled
HDPE from the base cups are produced by
several commercial or pilot plant recycling
operations, including St. Jude Polymers, Star
Plastics, Nelmor, Envipco, and the Center for
Plastics Recycling Research at Rutgers
University.x Most of the recycled PET is used in
fibrefill or strapping. The HDPE can be used in
making new base cups, or in other applications
such as flower pots or agricultural drainage pipes.
The next largest scale plastic recycling opera-
tions, those for polyester X-ray film and polyp-
ropylene automotive batteries,x d o not involve
packaging materials. HDPE milk bottles are
currently being recycled in a few locations,
including N.E.W. Plastics in Wisconsin, Eagleb-
rook Plastics in the Chicago area, and Plastics
Recycling in Iowa. Recycling of HDPE drums
and of HDPE motor-oil bottles is being explored.
For the most part, problems with expanding
HDPE recycling are economic rather than tech-
nical. Virgin PET sells at 53-60 per Ib.' Blow-
mouldin grades of HDPE sell for only 30 per
pound,l'resulting in considerably less margin for
recycled polymer to be competitive. In addition,
HDPE does not have the built-in source of supply
provided for PET by bottle deposit legislation.
Only a few communities have any type of
collection programme and those in existence are
usually drop-off centres in operation only a few
days per month. Thus collection is much more of
a problem for HDPE than for PET.
Some industry experts expect the supply
problems for plastics recycling to be taken care of
eventually by greatly expanded mandatory recycl-
ing programmes which will provide kerbside
pickup for source-separated plastics. These prog-
rammes may target specific containers or may
result in collection of a variety of plastics.
End use
The final step in a plastics recycling system is
reuse of the recycled material. Suitable uses
obviously depend on the quality and properties of
the material. It is generally agreed in the US that
97
recycled plastic, regardless of its purity or
properties, will not find use in food contact
applications. Though the Food and Drug Admi-
nistration does not specifically prohibit the use of
recycled plastics, the requirements to document
purity and the potential liability in case of
contamination are seen as prohibitive. There
have been some suggestions for use as buried
layers in food containers (as is already done for
in-house scrap), but this has not yet been
attempted for post-consumer recycled plastics.
The largest single market for recycled PET is
fibrefill. The largest single market for recycled
HDPE is agricultural pipe. Other uses for PET
include strapping, paint brushes, carpet backing,
etc. Recycled HDPE is utilized as lumber boards,
soft drink bottle base cups, traffic-barrier cones,
outdoor furniture, etc. l4 Co-mingled plastics have
typically been used for wood replacement items
for outdoor use, such as fencing, park benches,
etc.
THE FUTURE
Indications are that plastic packaging in particular
will be the focus of increasing pressure by
environmental groups and by legislative bodies
over the next few years. The concern driving this
activity will be in some cases litter, as with the
current proposal in the US Congress to ban
non-biodegradable six-pack beverage container
bundling devices, and activities at state levels to
ban non-biodegradable fast-food packaging. In
more and more cases, however, the target will be
solid waste. Mandatory recycling is one example
of this type of legislation. Proposals to ban certain
types of containers based on perceived non-
recyclability are another.
Voluntary recycling programmes run by con-
cerned citizens groups are having a resurgence,
but unless they provide kerbside pickup, they are
likely to be insignificant in terms of quantity of
material recovered in comparison with mandatory
programmes coupled with bottle deposit legisla-
tion and other programmes providing a cash value
for returned packages.
Efforts by plastic packaging related industries
to promote and enhance the recyclability of
plastics, as evidenced by the formation of the
Plastics Recycling Foundation, are expected to
increase, in large part to ward off the threat of
adverse legislation. Business opportunities for
98
entrepreneurs in plastics recycling are also ex-
pected to grow.
Two areas of significant need can be identified.
One is for research efforts devoted to understand-
ing both the scientific basis for recycling systems
and the economic parameters of such systems.
Only with this factual base can the best decisions
be made as to the characteristics desirable for
recycling systems, including such matters as which
plastics should be collected for recycling and
which incinerated for their energy value, how
much separation by resin should be attempted,
etc.
The other area of urgent need is education of
individual citizens (and especially those charged
with formulating policies and laws) concerning
the solid waste and litter problems and their roles
in coping with these problems. The amount of
misinformation and misperception of the role of
plastics in these problems is phenomenal. Good
decisions cannot be made without good informa-
tion and understanding. Citizen participation in
recycling efforts will be tremendously enhanced
by citizen understanding of the importance of
recycling efforts to their communities and even-
tually to themselves. This cannot be a one-time
effort, but must be continual.
In addition, it is vitally important that packag-
ing professionals consider package disposal in the
package design process. Disposal is most often an
external cost at present, which is easy to
overlook. However. the cost of packaging deci-
sions which add to litter or landfiil proGeGs may
S. E. SELKE
soon be paid with package bans or taxes. The best
way to avoid such consequences is to demonstrate
a commitment to environmentally sound pack-
aging.
REFERENCES
1 . Modern Plastics, 64(1), 41 (1987).
2. Council on Plastics and Packaging in the Environment
Update, l(1). 1 .
3. Business W e e k , May 25, 150 (1987).
4. Franklin Associates, Characferizafionof Municipal Solid
Wasfe in fhe United Stares, 1960 f o 2000, Frankling
Associates Ltd., Prairie Village, Kansas.
5. Fergusson, W. C . , The Recycling and Disposal of Solid
Wasfe. pp. 138-167. Pergamon, Oxford (1975).
6. Leidner, J . , Plastics Waste: Recovery of Economic Value.
Dekker, New York (1981).
7. Curlee. T . R . . The Economic Feasibility of Recycling.
Praeger, New York (1986).
8. Modern Plastics, 64(3). 102 (1987).
9. Scott, G . , ‘Some chemical problems in the recycling of
plastics’, presented at Institution of Electrical Engineers
Symposium on Reclaim, Recycling and Reuse of Polym-
ers and Plastics. unpub. (1975).
10. Analy-Syn Laboratories, Inc., Plasiics in Wastes - Their
Potenfial Value, US Dept. of Energy, DOEISF190386
(1977).
1 1 . Milgrom, J . , ‘Recycling plastics: current status’, presented
to Second World Recycling Congress, unpub. (1979).
12. Holman, J . L . , Stephenson, J . B . and Adam, M. J . .
Recycling of Plastics f r o m Urban and lndustrial Refuse,
US Bureau of Mines, RI 7955 (1974).
13. Modern Plasrics, 64(4), 5 (1987).
14. Plastic Bottle Institute, Plasfic Roftle Recycling Directory
and Reference Guide. The Society of The Plastics
Industry. Inc. (1987).