Chemistry is the natural science involved with elements and compounds composed

of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes
they undergo during a reaction with other substances.[1][2]
In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position
between physics and biology.[3] It is sometimes called the central science because it provides a
foundation for understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental
level.[4] For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant chemistry (botany), the formation of
igneous rocks (geology), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants
are degraded (ecology), the properties of the soil on the moon (astrophysics), how medications
work (pharmacology), and how to collect DNA evidence at a crime scene (forensics).
Chemistry addresses topics such as how atoms and molecules interact via chemical bonds to
form new chemical compounds. There are four types of chemical bonds: covalent bonds, in
which compounds share one or more electron(s); ionic bonds, in which a compound donates one
or more electrons to another compound to produce ions(cations and anions); hydrogen bonds;
and Van der Waals force bonds.

Contents

 1Etymology
 2Modern principles
o 2.1Matter
 2.1.1Atom
 2.1.2Element
 2.1.3Compound
 2.1.4Molecule
 2.1.5Substance and mixture
 2.1.6Mole and amount of substance
o 2.2Phase
o 2.3Bonding
o 2.4Energy
o 2.5Reaction
o 2.6Ions and salts
o 2.7Acidity and basicity
o 2.8Redox
o 2.9Equilibrium
o 2.10Chemical laws
 3History
o 3.1Of definition
o 3.2Of discipline
 4Practice
o 4.1Subdisciplines
o 4.2Industry
o 4.3Professional societies
 5See also
 6References
 7Bibliography
 8Further reading
 9External links

Etymology
The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to an earlier set of practices that
encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism
and medicine. It is often seen as linked to the quest to turn lead or another common starting
material into gold,[5] though in ancient times the study encompassed many of the questions of
modern chemistry being defined as the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth,
embodying, disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies
by the early 4th century Greek-Egyptian alchemist Zosimos.[6] An alchemist was called a 'chemist'
in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as
"chemistry".
The modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā (‫)الكیمیاء‬. In origin, the
term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία.[7][8] This may have Egyptianorigins since al-
kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Kemet, which is the
ancient name of Egypt in the Egyptian language.[7] Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία,
meaning "cast together".[9]

Modern principles

Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne in Germany.

The current model of atomic structure is the quantum mechanical model.[10] Traditional chemistry
starts with the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules,[11] substances,
metals, crystals and other aggregates of matter. This matter can be studied in solid, liquid, or
gas states, in isolation or in combination. The interactions, reactions and transformations that are
studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to
rearrangements of the chemical bonds which hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in
a chemistry laboratory.
The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of laboratory glassware. However
glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as
applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it.

Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including ammonium hydroxideand nitric acid, illuminated in
different colors
A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more different
substances.[12] The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in
the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation,
which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the
equation for a chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of atoms on either side is
unequal, the transformation is referred to as a nuclear reactionor radioactive decay.) The type of
chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it
are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.
Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies.
Chemical substances are classified in terms of their structure, phase, as well as their chemical
compositions. They can be analyzed using the tools of chemical analysis,
e.g. spectroscopy and chromatography. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known
as chemists.[13] Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several concepts are
essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:[14]

Matter
Main article: Matter
In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has rest mass and volume (it takes up space)
and is made up of particles. The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well – not all
particles have rest mass, such as the photon. Matter can be a pure chemical substance or
a mixture of substances.[15]
Atom
Main article: Atom

A diagram of an atom based on the Bohr model

The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core called the atomic
nucleus surrounded by a space occupied by an electron cloud. The nucleus is made up of
positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons (together called nucleons), while the electron
cloud consists of negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the
negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus is
dense; the mass of a nucleon is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of
an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus.[16][17]
The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the
element, such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred oxidation state(s), coordination
number, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent).
Element
Standard form of the periodic table of chemical elements. The colors represent different categories of
elements

Main article: Chemical element

A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom,
characterized by its particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the atomic
number and represented by the symbol Z. The mass number is the sum of the number of protons
and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have
the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number; atoms of an
element which have different mass numbers are known as isotopes. For example, all atoms with
6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, but atoms of carbon may
have mass numbers of 12 or 13.[17]
The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table, which orders
elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in groups, or columns, and periods,
or rows. The periodic table is useful in identifying periodic trends.[18]
Compound

Carbon dioxide(CO2), an example of a chemical compound

Main article: Chemical compound

A compound is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties
of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements.[19] The standard nomenclature of
compounds is set by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Organic
compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system.[20] The names
for inorganic compounds are created according to the inorganic nomenclature system. When a
compound has more than one component, then they are divided into two classes, the
electropositive and the electronegative components.[21] In addition the Chemical Abstracts
Service has devised a method to index chemical substances. In this scheme each chemical
substance is identifiable by a number known as its CAS registry number.
Molecule
Main article: Molecule
A ball-and-stick representation of the caffeine molecule (C8H10N4O2).

A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its unique set
of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with
other substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of
molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are typically a set of
atoms bound together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all
valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs.
Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions. When this rule is broken, giving
the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a molecular ion or a polyatomic ion.
However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that
molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in
a mass spectrometer. Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common
sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry. Some molecules
contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating radicals. Most radicals are comparatively
reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be stable.

A 2-D skeletal model of a benzene molecule (C6H6)

The "inert" or noble gas elements (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are
composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements
consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identifiable
molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like
alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various pharmaceuticals.
However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed
most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are
chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as ionic
compounds and network solids, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of
identifiable molecules per se. Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of formula
units or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such
substances are mineral salts (such as table salt), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and
familiar silica and silicate minerals such as quartz and granite.
One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure. While the
structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra-atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal
etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of
several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature.
Substance and mixture

Examples of pure chemical substances. From left to right: the

elements tin (Sn)

and sulfur(S), diamond (an allotrope of carbon), sucrose(pure

sugar), and sodium chloride (salt) and sodium

bicarbonate (baking soda), which are both ionic compounds.

A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite composition and set of properties.[22] A
collection of substances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are air and alloys.[23]
Mole and amount of substance
Main article: Mole
The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an amount of substance (also called chemical
amount). The mole is
icine, pharmaceutical drug, or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat,
or prevent disease.[1][2][3]Drug therapy (pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the medical
field and relies on the science of pharmacologyfor continual advancement and on pharmacy for
appropriate management.
Drugs are classified in various ways. One of the key divisions is by level of control, which
distinguishes prescription drugs (those that a pharmacistdispenses only on the order of
a physician, physician assistant, or qualified nurse) from over-the-counter drugs (those that
consumers can order for themselves). Another key distinction is between traditional small-
molecule drugs, usually derived from chemical synthesis, and biopharmaceuticals, which
include recombinant proteins, vaccines, blood products used therapeutically (such as IVIG), gene
therapy, monoclonal antibodies and cell therapy (for instance, stem-cell therapies). Other ways to
classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological systemaffected,
or therapeutic effects. An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical
Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC system). The World Health
Organization keeps a list of essential medicines.
 Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken
by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. As a result of this complex
path from discovery to commercialization, partnering has become a standard practice for
advancing drug candidates through development pipelines. Governments generally regulate
what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, and in some jurisdictions, drug pricing.
Controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs.

Contents

 1Definition
 2Usage
 3Classification
 4Types of medicines
o 4.1For the digestive system
o 4.2For the cardiovascular system
o 4.3For the central nervous system
o 4.4For pain
o 4.5For musculo-skeletal disorders
o 4.6For the eye
o 4.7For the ear, nose and oropharynx
o 4.8For the respiratory system
o 4.9For endocrine problems
o 4.10For the reproductive system or urinary system
o 4.11For contraception
o 4.12For obstetrics and gynecology
o 4.13For the skin
o 4.14For infections and infestations
o 4.15For the immune system
o 4.16For allergic disorders
o 4.17For nutrition
o 4.18For neoplastic disorders
o 4.19For diagnostics
o 4.20For euthanasia
 5Administration
 6Drug discovery
 7Development
 8Regulation
 9Drug pricing
o 9.1United Kingdom
o 9.2Canada
o 9.3Brazil
o 9.4India
o 9.5United States
 10Blockbuster drug
 11History
o 11.1Prescription drug history
o 11.2Ancient pharmacology
o 11.3Medieval pharmacology
o 11.4Modern pharmacology
 12Controversies
o 12.1Access to unapproved drugs
o 12.2Access to medicines and drug pricing
 o 12.3Environmental issues
 13See also
 14References
 15External links

Definition[edit]
In Europe, the term is "medicinal product", and it is defined by EU law as: "(a) Any substance or
combination of substances presented as having properties for treating or preventing disease in
human beings; or
(b) Any substance or combination of substances which may be used in or administered to human
beings either with a view to restoring, correcting or modifying physiological functions by exerting
a pharmacological, immunological or metabolic action, or to making a medical diagnosis."[4]:36
plement" redirects here. For food additions that alter the flavor, color or longevity of food,
see Food additive.

As a pill

As a capsule

As a tablet
As a softgel capsule used for fish oil or large amounts of vitamin E

As a shake and bottled powder

Production of cod liver oil, one of the first dietary supplement products manufactured in the 18th century[1]

A dietary supplement is a manufactured product intended to supplement the diet when taken by
mouth as a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid.[2] A supplement can provide nutrients either extracted
from food sources or synthetic, individually or in combination, in order to increase the quantity of
their consumption. The class of nutrient compounds includes vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty
acids and amino acids. Dietary supplements can also contain substances that have not been
confirmed as being essential to life, but are marketed as having a beneficial biological effect,
such as plant pigments or polyphenols. Animals can also be a source of supplement ingredients,
as for example collagen from chickens or fish. These are also sold individually and in
combination, and may be combined with nutrient ingredients. In the United States and Canada,
dietary supplements are considered a subset of foods, and are regulated accordingly.
The European Commission has also established harmonized rules to help insure that food
supplements are safe and properly labeled.[3]
Creating an industry estimated to have a 2015 value of $37 billion,[4] there are more than 50,000
dietary supplement products marketed just in the United States,[5] where about 50% of the
American adult population consumes dietary supplements. Multivitamins are the most commonly
used product.[6] For those who fail to consume a balanced diet, the United States National
Institutes of Health states that certain supplements "may have value."[7]
In the United States, it is against federal regulations for supplement manufacturers to claim that
these products prevent or treat any disease. Companies are allowed to use what is referred to as
"Structure/Function" wording if there is substantiation of scientific evidence for a supplement
providing a potential health effect.[8]An example would be "_____ helps maintain healthy joints",
but the label must bear a disclaimer that the Food and Drug Administration(FDA) "has not
evaluated the claim and that the dietary supplement product is not intended to "diagnose, treat,
cure or prevent any disease," because only a drug can legally make such a claim.[8] The FDA
enforces these regulations, and also prohibits the sale of supplements and supplement
 ingredients that are dangerous, or supplements not made according to standardized good
manufacturing practices (GMPs).

Contents

 1Definition
 2Types
o 2.1Vitamins
o 2.2Minerals
o 2.3Proteins and amino acids
o 2.4Bodybuilding supplements
o 2.5Essential fatty acids
o 2.6Natural products
o 2.7Probiotics
 3Industry
 4Controversy
o 4.1Adulteration
o 4.2Regulatory compliance
 5Adverse effects
 6Society and culture
o 6.1Public health
o 6.2Legal regulation
 6.2.1United States
 6.2.2European Union
 7Research
o 7.1Databases
o 7.2Quality and safety
o 7.3Population monitoring
o 7.4Clinical studies
o 7.5Absence of benefit
o 7.6Reporting bias
o 7.7Future
 8See also
 9References
 10Further reading
 11External links

Definition
In the United States, the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 provides this
description: "The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA) defines the
term “dietary supplement” to mean a product (other than tobacco) intended to supplement the
diet that bears or contains one or more of the following dietary ingredients: a vitamin, a mineral,
an herb or other botanical, an amino acid, a dietary substance for use by man to supplement the
diet by increasing the total dietary intake, or a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract, or
combination of any of the aforementioned ingredients. Furthermore, a dietary supplement must
be labeled as a dietary supplement and be intended for ingestion and must not be represented
for use as conventional food or as a sole item of a meal or of the diet. In addition, a dietary
supplement cannot be approved or authorized for investigation as a new drug, antibiotic, or
biologic, unless it was marketed as a food or a dietary supplement before such approval or
authorization. Under DSHEA, dietary supplements are deemed to be food, except for purposes
of the drug definition."[9]
Per DSHEA, dietary supplements are consumed orally, and are mainly defined by what they are
not: conventional foods (including meal replacements), medical
foods,[10]preservatives or pharmaceutical drugs. Products intended for use as a nasal spray, or
topically, as a lotion applied to the skin, do not qualify. FDA-approved drugs cannot be
ingredients in dietary supplements. Supplement products are or contain vitamins, nutritionally
essential minerals, amino acids, essential fatty acids and non-nutrient substances extracted from
plants or animals or fungi or bacteria, or in the instance of probiotics, are live bacteria. Dietary
supplement ingredients may also be synthetic copies of naturally occurring substances
(example: melatonin). All products with these ingredients are required to be labeled as dietary
supplements.[11] Like foods and unlike drugs, no government approval is required to make or sell
dietary supplements; the manufacturer confirms the safety of dietary supplements but the
government does not; and rather than requiring risk–benefit analysis to prove that the product
can be sold like a drug, such assessment is only used by the FDA to decide that a dietary
supplement is unsafe and should be removed from market.[11]

Types
Vitamins

Pharmacies and supermarkets in the U.S. sell a large variety of vitamin dietary supplements

Main article: Vitamin

A vitamin is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in limited
amounts.[12]An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin
when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from
the diet. The term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For
example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for anthropoid primates, humans, guinea pigs and
bats, but not for other mammals. Vitamin D is not an essential nutrient for people who get
sufficient exposure to ultraviolet light, either from the sun or an artificial source, as then they
synthesize vitamin D in skin.[13] Humans require thirteen vitamins in their diet, most of which are
actually groups of related molecules, "vitamers", (e.g. vitamin E includes tocopherols and
tocotrienols, vitamin K includes vitamin K1 and K2). The list: vitamins A, C, D, E, K, Thiamine
(B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (B3), Pantothenic Acid (B5), Vitamin B6, Biotin (B7), Folate (B9) and
Vitamin B12. Vitamin intake below recommended amounts can result in signs and symptoms
associated with vitamin deficiency. There is little evidence of benefit when consumed as a dietary
supplement by those who are healthy and consuming a nutritionally adequate diet.[14]
The U.S. Institute of Medicine sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for some of the vitamins.
This does not prevent dietary supplement companies from selling products with content per
serving higher than the ULs. For example, the UL for vitamin D is 100 µg (4,000 IU),[15] but
products are available without prescription at 10,000 IU.

Minerals
Main article: Mineral (nutrient)
Minerals are the exogenous chemical elements indispensable for life. Four
minerals: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are essential for life but are so ubiquitous in
food and drink that these are not considered nutrients and there are no recommended intakes for
these as minerals. The need for nitrogen is addressed by requirements set for protein, which is
composed of nitrogen-containing amino acids. Sulfur is essential, but for humans, not identified
as having a recommended intake per se. Instead, recommended intakes are identified for the
sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine. There are dietary supplements which
provide sulfur, such as taurine and methylsulfonylmethane.
The essential nutrient minerals for humans, listed in order by weight needed to be at
the Recommended Dietary Allowance or Adequate
Intake are potassium, chlorine, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese
, copper, iodine, chromium, molybdenum, selenium and cobalt (the last as a component of
vitamin B12). There are other minerals which are essential for some plants and animals, but may
or may not be essential for humans, such as boron and silicon. Essential and purportedly
essential minerals are marketed as dietary supplements, individually and in combination with
vitamins and other minerals.
Although as a general rule, dietary supplement labeling and marketing are not allowed to make
disease prevention or treatment claims, the U.S. FDA has for some foods and dietary
supplements reviewed the science, concluded that there is significant scientific agreement, and
published specifically worded allowed health claims. An initial ruling allowing a health claim for
calcium dietary supplements and osteoporosis was later amended to include calcium
supplements with or without vitamin D, effective January 1, 2010. Examples of allowed wording
are shown below. In order to qualify for the calcium health claim, a dietary supplement much
contain at least 20% of the Reference Dietary Intake, which for calcium means at least
260 mg/serving.[16]

 "Adequate calcium throughout life, as part of a well-balanced diet, may reduce the risk of
osteoporosis."
 "Adequate calcium as part of a healthful diet, along with physical activity, may reduce the risk
of osteoporosis in later life."
 "Adequate calcium and vitamin D throughout life, as part of a well-balanced diet, may reduce
the risk of osteoporosis."
 "Adequate calcium and vitamin D as part of a healthful diet, along with physical activity, may
reduce the risk of osteoporosis in later life."
In the same year, the European Food Safety Authority also approved a dietary supplement
health claim for calcium and vitamin D and the reduction of the risk of osteoporotic fractures by
reducing bone loss.[17] The U.S. FDA also approved Qualified Health Claims (QHCs) for various
health conditions for calcium, selenium and chromium picolinate.[18] QHCs are supported by
scientific evidence, but do not meet the more rigorous “significant scientific agreement” standard
required for an authorized health claim. If dietary supplement companies choose to make such a
claim then the FDA stipulates the exact wording of the QHC to be used on labels and in
marketing materials. The wording can be onerous: "One study suggests that selenium intake
may re