Wind Tunnel Techniques 3 0 0 3: Objectives

Wind Tunnel Techniques 3003
Wind tunnel techniques course depicts the types, working and characteristics of wind tunnels in
the laboratory. The flow characteristics and flow visualization in the tunnel are recorded for
further observations.
Objectives
The course should enable the students to:
1) Understand the non-dimensional number by Buckingham theorem
2) Differentiate the wind tunnels on the basis of circuit, air flow and working.
3) Know the calibration of a wind tunnel.
4) Understand the pressure and force measurements in wind tunnel
5) Deduce the flow visualization techniques used in the wind tunnel testing
Outcome
The students should be able to:
1) Solve the Buckingham theorem to find the SI unit of a parameter
2) Clearly understand the working of blow down, in draft tunnels and their specifications
3) Know about horizontal buoyancy, flow angularities are checked while calibration
4) Know about component axis balance and internal balances are read and understood for the
measurements in wind tunnel
5) Get a clear idea about the smoke and tuft flow visualization procedures in WT testing
AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Syllabus
Unit Topic No. of

Lectures
I Principles of Model Testing 6
Buckingham theorem, Non-dimensional numbers, Scale effects, Types of similarities
II Wind tunnels 8
Classification, Special problems of testing in subsonic, transonic, supersonic and
hypersonic speed regions, Layouts, Sizing and design considerations
III Calibration of Wind Tunnels 11
Test section speed, Horizontal buoyancy, Flow angularities, Turbulence
measurements, Associated instrumentation, Calibration of supersonic tunnels
IV Wind Tunnel Measurements 12
Pressure and velocity measurements, Force measurements, Three and six
component balances, Internal balances

Syllabus
Unit Topic No. of

Lectures
V Flow visualization techniques 8
Surface and turft flow visualization techniques, Dye injection techniques, Optical
methods of flow visualization
References
1 Barlow, Jewel B. Rae, William H. and Pope, Alan “Low speed wind tunnel testing”, III Ed., ISBN 13: 9780471557746, ISBN 10:
0471557749, 1999 (Wiley India Edition, 2010, About Rs. 1,000).
2 Pope, Alan and Goin, Kenneth L, “High-Speed Wind Tunnel Testing”, ISBN-13: 978-0882757278; ISBN-10: 088275727X, 1978.
Instructor: Dr. N. Sitaram E_mail: pt.nsitaram@hindustanuniv.ac.in
Test First Periodical Second Model Seminar/ Attendance End-semester

Test* Periodical Test* Exam Assignment/Quiz Examination
Weightage 10% 10% 20% 10% 10% 50%
Duration 2 periods 2 periods 3 hours - - 3 hours

Introduction
CFD vs. EFD
Computational Fluid Dynamics Experimental Fluid Dynamics
Requirements High end computer, software, printers, Experimental facility (Wind tunnel),
plotters etc. Instrumentation etc.
Manpower One or two for small CFD work, Usually requires moderate number of
A small team for large CFD work, each people for small EFD for preparing and
member specializing in grid developing, installation of model, for measurements etc.
solver, post processing etc. Requires large number of people with
different skills for large experiments.
Initial Cost Moderate High
Time required Moderate for computation, but large for Large for preparation, small for data
post processing acquisition and post processing
Information Hugh Limited
acquired
CFD and EFD are complementary. Both require careful working. Needs verification and
validation. Extensive CFD can be carried out followed by limited comparison with EFD.

Principles of Model Testing
Buckingham theorem
“Dimension” is characteristic of the object, condition, or event and is described
quantitatively in terms of defined “units”.
A physical quantity is equal to the product of two elements:

A quality or dimension
A quantity expressed in terms of “units”
Dimensions
Physical things are measurable in terms of three primitive quantities (Maxwell 1871)
Mass (M)
Length (L)
Time (T)
NOTE: Temperature, electrical charge, chemical quantity, and luminosity were added as
“primitives” some years later.)
Buckingham theorem
Examples: Length (L), Velocity (L/T), Force (ML/T2)
Units: Measurements systems: CGS, MKS, SI
SI units are now the international standard (although many
engineers continue to use Imperial or U.S.)
SI Primitive Units
Dimension Symbol Unit Symbol
Length L meter m
Mass M kilogram kg
Time T second s
Temperature T Kelvin K
Electric Current I Ampere A
Luminous intensity C Candela cd
Amount of substance N Mole mol

Buckingham theorem
SI Derived units
Description Derived unit Symbol Dimension
Force Newton N kg m/s2
Energy Joule J kg m2/s2
Pressure Pascal Pa kg/(ms2)
Power Watt W kg m2/s3

Buckingham theorem
Fundamental rules:
All terms in an equation must reduce to identical primitive dimensions
Dimensions can be algebraically manipulated.
Uses:
Check consistency of equations
Deduce expression for physical phenomenon

Buckingham theorem
Simple Example: Drag on a Sphere
✓ Drag depends on FOUR parameters:
sphere size (D); velocity (V); fluid density (r); fluid viscosity (m)
✓ Difficult to know how to set up experiments to determine dependencies
✓ Difficult to know how to present results (four graphs?)
F 𝜚𝑉𝐷
2 2
=𝑓
ρV D 𝜇
✓ Only one dependent and one independent variable

✓ Easy to set up experiments to determine dependency
✓ Easy to present results (one graph)

Buckingham theorem
Simple Example: Drag on a Sphere
Experimentally derived relation between the dependent and independent variables

Buckingham theorem
Step 1:
List all the parameters involved

Let n be the number of parameters
Example: For drag on a sphere, F, V, D, r, m Hence n = 5
Step 2:
Select a set of primary dimensions

For example M (kg), L (m), T (s).
Example: For drag on a sphere, choose MLT

Buckingham theorem
Step 3
List the dimensions of all parameters
Let r be the number of primary dimensions
Example: For drag on a sphere r = 3
Parameter: F V D r m
2 2 3
Unit: ML/T L/T L M/L M/LT
Step 4
Select a set of m dimensional parameters that includes all the primary dimensions
Example: For drag on a sphere (m = r = 3) select ϱ, V, D

Buckingham theorem
Step 5
Set up dimensionless groups Ps
There will be (n – m)=2 equations
Example: For drag on a sphere a b
0 0 0
ML M L
Π1 = Fϱa V b Dc M LT = 2 3 Lc
T L T
Exponents to be determined to satisfy dimensional homogeneity
Equating exponents of M, L and T on left and right sides
For M: 0=1+a Hence a=-1
For T: 0=-2-b Hence b=-2
For L: 0=1-3a+b+c 0=1+3-2+c Hence c=-2
F
Hence the first dimensionless number can be written as Π1 = 2 2
ρV D
Buckingham theorem
Step 6
Check to see that each group obtained is dimensionless

Example: For drag on a sphere
2 2
F ML L3 T 1
Π1 = 2 2
ρV D T2 M L L
ρ𝑉𝐷
Π2 = Re = M L LT
μ L
L3 T M

Buckingham theorem
Direct Rationalization of Dimensionless Groups
Obtain the Π terms by simple reasoning:
1 Determine their number from Buckingham theorem. Make sure the appropriate
number of groups is obtained.
2 Identify variables (r, m, g etc.) that contain force quantities and formulate the
corresponding force. For example, Fr=rV2L2 and Fm=mVL. Then take ratios of
these forces (Fr/Fm=rVL/m) to get dimensionless groups.
3 If the force groups do not comprise the number of dimensionless groups sought,
then look for length type terms, velocity type terms, and/ or time type variables
which can be divided to give dimensionless groups.

Buckingham theorem
Direct Rationalization of Dimensionless Groups
There may be more than one length in the problem, i. e. L and D which give the
dimensionless group, L/D. Length type variables can also include area and volume, so
that A/L2 and V/L3 are dimensionless groups.
Velocity type terms include velocity, V, angular velocity, w, and volume flow rate, Q,
which yield dimensionless groups, wr/V and Q/VL2.
Time type terms consist of period, t, of the motion and convective time scale, L/V, which give
the dimensionless group, tV/L

Types of forces encountered in fluid phenomenon
Inertia Force, Fi: = mass X acceleration in the flowing fluid.
Viscous Force, Fv: = shear stress due to viscosity X surface area of flow.
Gravity Force, Fg: = mass X acceleration due to gravity.
Pressure Force, Fp: = pressure intensity X C.S. area of flowing fluid.

Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
These are numbers which are obtained by dividing the inertia force by
viscous force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force
or elastic force.
As this is ratio of once force to other, it will be a dimensionless number.
These are also called nondimensional parameters.
The following are most important dimensionless numbers.
Reynolds Number
Froude Number
Euler Number
Mach Number
These numbers are named after Fluid Mechanics Scientists who had
established their significance.

Reynolds Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force
of flowing fluid.
Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass. r . Velocity
Re = = Time = Time
Fv Shear Stress. Area Shear Stress. Area
r Q.V r AV .V r AV .V rVL VL
= = = = =
t .A du
m .A m .A
V m 
dy L

Euler Number, Eu: It is the ratio of inertia force to the pressure force of
flowing fluid.
Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass. r . Velocity
Eu = = Time = Time
Fp Pr essure. Area Pr essure. Area
r Q.V r AV .V V2 V
= = = =
P. A P. A P/r P/r

Froude Number, Fe: It is the ratio of inertia force to the gravity force of
flowing fluid.
Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass. r . Velocity
Fe = = Time = Time
Fg Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion
r Q.V r AV .V V2 V
= = = =
rVolume.g r AL.g gL gL

Mach Number, M: It is the ratio of inertia force to the elastic force of
flowing fluid.
Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass. r . Velocity
M = = Time = Time
Fe Elastic Stress. Area Elastic Stress. Area
r Q.V r AV .V r L2V 2 V V
= = = = =
K/r C
2
K .A K .A KL
Where : C = K / r

Dimensionless numbers for force quantities
Force intensities, pressure and shear stresses, are non-dimensionalized with the dynamic pressure
p−𝑝∞
Pressure coefficient:𝐶𝑝 = 1
ρ∞ V2∞
2
𝜏𝑤
Local shear stress coefficient:𝐶𝑓 = 1
2
ρ∞ V2∞
Resultant forces, such as lift and drag, are non-dimensionalized with the dynamic pressure force,
1 2
ρ∞ V∞ A, where A is some characteristic area.
2
FL FD
Lift coefficient,CL = 1 and Drag coefficient, CD = 1
ρ V A
2 ∞ ∞
2 ρ∞ V2∞ A
2

Dimensionless numbers for force quantities
Torque, T, is force F times a moment arm, L, which is non dimensionalized by multiplying the
dynamic pressure force by L to give torque coefficient.
T T
Torque coefficient: CT = 1 =1 (as V=wD)
ρω3 D3 ρV3
2 2
Power is the rate of doing work, FL/T or FV, which requires the dynamic pressure force be
multiplied by V to give power coefficient.
P P P
Power coefficient: CP = 1 =1 =1 (as V=wD)
ρV3 A ρω3 D5 ρV3 D2
2 2 2

Elaborate Example: Power required to rotate a propeller
The power, P required to rotate a propeller depends on the fluid density, r, the propeller
diameter, D, the rotational speed, w, the velocity, V, of the fluid approaching the
propeller, the speed of the sound, C, and the angle, a, of a propeller blade.
P = f (r, D, w, V, C, a)
Seven variables (n=7) give four dimensionless groups (m=n-r=4).

Two force like terms yield one dimensionless group.
The dynamic pressure, can be used to non-dimensionalized forces. As power is F V,
P
Π1 =
1 3
ρV A
2

For a rotating propeller, L=D and V=wD to obtain
P
Π1 = Cp =
1 3 5
ρω D
2
There are three velocity variables: w, V and C, which give two dimensionless numbers.
V V
Π2 = Advace ratio = Π3 = Mach number =
ωD C

Need one more dimensionless group, but have not yet considered the angle, a. An angle can
be defined in terms of its tangent which is the ratio of two lengths and is dimensionless.
That is a is a Π term.
Π4 = α
P V V
Cp = =𝑓 , ,α
Then 1 3 5 ωD C
ρω D
2
or Π1 = 𝑓 Π2 , Π3 , Π4

Dimensional Analysis
Definition: Dimensional analysis is a process of formulating fluid mechanics problems in terms

of non-dimensional variables and parameters.
Why is it used :
• Reduction in variables [ If F (A1, A2, … , An) = 0, then f (P1, P2, … Pr < n) = 0,

where, F = functional form, Ai = dimensional variables, Pj = non-dimensional
parameters, m = number of important dimensions, n = number of dimensional variables,
r=n–m). Thereby the number of experiments required to determine f vs. F is reduced.
• Helps in understanding physics
• Useful in data analysis and modeling
• Enables scaling of different physical dimensions and fluid properties

Dimensional Analysis: Example
Drag = f (V, L, r, m, C, t, e, T, etc.)

From dimensional analysis,
Vortex shedding behind cylinder

Similarity and Model Testing
Definition : Flow conditions for a model test are completely similar if all relevant
dimensionless parameters have the same corresponding values for model and prototype.
• Pi model = Pi prototype for i = 1 to n
• Enables extrapolation from model to full scale
• However, complete similarity usually not possible. Therefore, often it is necessary to
use Re, or Fr, or Ma scaling, i.e., select most important parameter and
accommodate others as best possible.

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
Geometric Similarity: The model must be the same shape as the prototype. Each
dimension must be scaled by the same factor.
Kinematic Similarity: Velocity as any point in the model must be proportional
Dynamic Similarity: All forces in the model flow scale by a constant factor to
corresponding forces in the prototype flow.
Complete Similarity: is achieved only if all above three conditions are met.

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
Complete similarity is ensured if all independent P groups are the

same between model and prototype.
What is P?
We let uppercase Greek letter P denote a nondimensional parameter,
e.g., Reynolds number Re, Froude number Fr, Drag coefficient, CD, etc.
•Consider automobile experiment
•Drag force is F = f (V, r, m, L)
•Through dimensional analysis, we can reduce the problem to

Flow Similarity and Model Studies
Example: Drag on a Sphere

Example: Drag on a Sphere
For dynamic similarity …
….then ….

Scaling with Multiple Dependent Parameters
Example: Centrifugal Pump
Pump head: h=g1(Q, r, w, D, m)
Pump power: P=g2(Q, r, w, D, m)

Similitude-Type of Similarities
Geometric Similarity: is the similarity of shape.
Lp Bp Dp
= = = Lr
Lm Bm Dm
◼ Where: Lp, Bp and Dp are Length, Breadth, and Diameter of Prototype

and Lm, Bm, Dm are Length, Breadth, and Diameter of Model.
◼ LR= Scale ratio

Kinematic Similarity: is the similarity of motion.
V p1 Vp 2 a p1 ap2
= = Vr ; = = ar
Vm1 Vm 2 am1 am 2
◼ Where: vp1& vp2 and ap1 & ap2 are velocity and accelerations at point 1
& 2 in prototype and vm1 & vm2 and am1 & am2 are velocity and
accelerations at point 1 & 2 in model.
◼ Vr and ar are the velocity ratio and acceleration ratio

Dynamic Similarity: is the similarity of forces.
( Fi ) p ( Fv ) p ( Fg ) p
= = = Fr
( Fi )m ( Fv )m ( Fg )m
◼ Where: (Fi)p, (Fv)p and (Fg)p are Inertia, Viscous and
Gravitational Forces in Prototype and (Fi)m, (Fv)m And (Fg)m are
Inertia, Viscous and Gravitational Forces in Model.
◼ Fr Is The Force Ratio

Example: Centrifugal Pump
𝑔ℎ Q 𝜚𝜔D 2
Head coefficient: 2 2 =𝑓 ,
𝜔 𝐷 𝜔D 3 𝜇
Power coefficient: P Q ϱωD2

3 5 =𝑓 3 , μ
ϱω D ωD

Example: Centrifugal Pump (Negligible viscous effects)
If then neglecting Reynolds number (viscous effects)
then gh1 gh2 and

2 2 = 2 2
ω1 D1 ω2 D2

Wind Tunnel Techniques 3 0 0 3: Objectives

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Wind Tunnel Techniques 3003

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Unit Topic No. of

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Unit Topic No. of

Instructor: Dr. N. Sitaram E_mail: pt.nsitaram@hindustanuniv.ac.in

Test First Periodical Second Model Seminar/ Attendance End-semester

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

A physical quantity is equal to the product of two elements:

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

✓ Only one dependent and one independent variable

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Experimentally derived relation between the dependent and independent variables

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

List all the parameters involved

Select a set of primary dimensions

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Check to see that each group obtained is dimensionless

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Obtain the Π terms by simple reasoning:

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Gravity Force, Fg: = mass X acceleration due to gravity.

Pressure Force, Fp: = pressure intensity X C.S. area of flowing fluid.

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Seven variables (n=7) give four dimensionless groups (m=n-r=4).

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Definition: Dimensional analysis is a process of formulating fluid mechanics problems in terms

• Reduction in variables [ If F (A1, A2, … , An) = 0, then f (P1, P2, … Pr < n) = 0,

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Drag = f (V, L, r, m, C, t, e, T, etc.)

Vortex shedding behind cylinder

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Kinematic Similarity: Velocity as any point in the model must be proportional

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Complete similarity is ensured if all independent P groups are the

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Example: Drag on a Sphere

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Example: Drag on a Sphere

For dynamic similarity …

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Pump head: h=g1(Q, r, w, D, m)

Pump power: P=g2(Q, r, w, D, m)

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

◼ Where: Lp, Bp and Dp are Length, Breadth, and Diameter of Prototype

◼ LR= Scale ratio

AE 2751 Wind Tunnel Techniques July-Nov. 2016

Kinematic Similarity: is the similarity of motion.