CHEMICAL REACTORS

INTRODUTION

The reactor is the heart of a chemical process. It is the only place in the process where raw materials are
converted into products, and reactor design is a vital step in the overall design of the process. Application of the principles
of chemical reaction kinetics for the design of chemical reactors is an area of activity that is particularly appropriate for
chemical engineers. For reactor design, the fundamental ideas of process analysis, equipment design, economic
evaluation, and optimization are all combined to give a mathematical model of the reactor system.

SELECTION OF CATALYST

A catalyst is a substance that increases a rate of reaction by participating chemically in intermediate stages of
reaction and is liberated near the end in a chemically unchanged form.
The mechanism of a catalyzed reaction—the sequence of reactions leading from the initial reactants to the final
products—is changed from that of the uncatalyzed process and results in a lower overall energy of activation, thus
permitting a reduction in the temperature at which the process can proceed favorably. The equilibrium condition is not
changed since both forward and reverse rates are accelerated equally.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CATALYST

Homogeneous Catalyst

Advantages of homogeneous catalysts are their specificity and low temperature and pressure requirements. Their
main drawbacks are difficulty of recovery from the process fluid, often rapid degradation, and relatively high cost. Classic
examples of homogeneous catalysis are the inversion of sugar with mineral acids, olefin alkylation with hydrofluoric acid,
and the use of ammonia in the Solvay process and of nitrogen oxides in the Chamber process. A modern development is
the synthesis of acetic acid from methanol and CO in the presence of homogeneous rhodium complexes.

Heterogeneous Catalyst

By far the greatest tonnages of synthetic chemicals are manufactured in fluid phases with solid catalysts. Such
materials are cheap, are easily separated from the reaction medium, and are adaptable to either flow or nonflow reactors.
Their drawbacks are a lack of specificity and often high temperature and pressure requirements. The principal components
of most heterogeneous catalysts are three in number:

1. A catalytically active substance or mixture.

2. A carrier of more or less large specific surface on which the catalyst proper is deposited as a thin film,
either for economy when the catalyst is expensive or when the catalyst itself cannot be prepared with a
suitable specific surface.
3. Promoters, usually present in relatively small amount, which enhance the activity or retard degradation.

KIND OF CATALYSTS

To a certain extent, it is known what kinds of reactions are speeded up by certain classes of catalysts, but
individual members of the same class may differ greatly in activity, selectivity, resistance to degradation, and cost.

1. Strong acids - are able to donate protons to a reactant and to take them back. Into this class fall the common
acids, aluminum halides, and boron trifluoride. Also acid in nature are silica, alumina, aluminosilicates, metal
sulfates and phosphates, and sulfonated ion exchange resins.

2. Base catalysis - is most effective with alkali metals dispersed on solid supports or in the homogeneous form as
aldoxides, amides, and so on. Small amounts of promoters may be added to form organoalkali compounds that
really have the catalytic power. Basic ion exchange resins also are useful. Some base-catalyzed processes are
 isomerization and oligomerization of olefins, reaction of olefins with aromatics, and hydrogenation of polynuclear
aromatics.

3. Metal oxides, sulfides, and hydrides - form a transition between acid-base and metal catalysts. They catalyze
hydrogenation-dehydrogenation as well as many of the reactions catalyzed by acids such as cracking and
isomerization. Their oxidation activity is related to the possibility of two valence states which allow oxygen to be
released and reabsorbed alternately. Common examples are oxides of cobalt, iron, zinc, and chromium; and
hydrides of precious metals which can release hydrogen readily.

4. Metals and alloys - The principal industrial metallic catalysts are found in periodic group VIII which are
transition elements with almost completed 3d, 4d, and 5d electron orbits.Platinum, palladium, and nickel, for
example, form both hydrides and oxides; they are effective in hydrogenation (vegetable oils, for instance) and
oxidation (ammonia or sulfur dioxide, for instance). Alloys do not always have catalytic properties intermediate
between those of the pure metals since the surface condition may be different from the bulk and the activity is a
property of the surface.

5. Transition-metal organometallic catalysts in solution are effective for hydrogenation at much lower temperatures
than metals such as platinum. They are used for the reactions of carbon monoxide with olefins (hydroformylation)
and for some oligomerizations.

Kinds of Catalyzed Organic Reactions

1. Alkylations - for example, of olefins with aromatics or isoparaffins, are catalyzed by sulfuric acid, hydrofluoric
acid, BF3, and AlCl3.

2. Condensations of aldehydes and ketones - are catalyzed homogeneously by acids and bases, but solid bases are
preferred, such as anion exchange resins and alkali or alkaline earth hydroxides or phosphates.

3. Cracking - a rupturing of carbon-carbon bonds, for example, of gas oils to gasoline, is favored by silica-alumina,
zeolites, and acid types generally.

4. Dehydration and dehydrogenation - combined utilizes dehydration agents combined with mild dehydrogenation
agents. Included in this class of catalysts are phosphoric acid, silicamagnesia, silica-alumina, alumina derived
from aluminum chloride, and various metal oxides.

5. Esterification and etherification - may be accomplished by catalysis with mineral acids of BF3; the reaction of
isobutylene with methanol to make MTBE is catalyzed by a sulfonated ion exchange resin.

6. Halogenation and dehalogenation - are catalyzed by substances that exist in more than one valence state and are
able to accept and donate halogens freely. Silver and copper halides are used for gas-phase reactions, and ferric
chloride commonly for liquid phase. Hydrochlorination (the absorption of HCl) is promoted by BiCl3 or SbCl3
and hydrofluorination by sodium fluoride or chromia catalysts that fluoride under reaction conditions. Mercuric
chloride promotes addition of HCl to acetylene to make vinyl chloride.

7. Hydration and dehydration - employ catalysts that have a strong affinity for water. Alumina is the principal
catalyst, but also used are aluminosilicates, metal salts, and phosphoric acid or its metal salts on carriers and
cation exchange resins.

8. Hydrocracking - is catalyzed by substances that promote cracking and hydrogenation together. Nickel and
tungsten sulfides on acid supports and zeolites loaded with palladium are used commercially.

9. Hydrodealkylation - for example, of toluene to benzene, is promoted by chromia-alumina with a low sodium
content.

12. Hydroformylation - or the oxo process, is the reaction of olefins with CO and hydrogen to make aldehydes. The
catalyst base is cobalt naphthenate which transforms to cobalt hydrocarbonyl in place. A rhodium complex that is
more stable and functions at a lower temperature also is used.
 17. Oxidation catalysts - are either metals that chemisorb oxygen readily such as platinum or silver, or transition
metal oxides that are able to give and take oxygen by reason of their having several possible oxidation states. Ethylene
oxide is formed with silver, ammonia is oxidized with platinum, and silver or copper in the form of metal screens
catalyze the oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde.

18. Polymerization - of olefins such as styrene is promoted by acid or base catalysts or sodium; polyethylene is made
with homogeneous peroxides.

19. Reforming - is the conversion primarily of naphthenes and alkanes to aromatics, but other chemical reactions also
occur under commercial conditions. Platinum or platinum/rhenium are the hydrogenation-dehydrogenation
component of the catalyst and alumina is the acid component responsible for skeletal rearrangements.

20. Steam reforming - is the reaction of steam with hydrocarbons to make a manufactured gas containing mostly
methane with trace amounts of ethylene, ethane, and hydrogen.

PRINCIPAL TYPES OF REACTORS

The following characteristics are normally used to classify reactor designs:

1. Mode of operation: batch or continuous

2. Phases present: homogeneous or heterogeneous
3. Reactor geometry (flow pattern and manner of contacting the phases)
i. Stirred tank reactor
ii. Tubular reactor
iii. Packed bed, fixed and moving
iv. Fluidized bed

Based on Mode of Operation

Batch process- all the reagents are added at the commencement; the reaction proceeds, the compositions changing with
time, and the reaction is stopped and the product withdrawn when the required conversion has been reached.

Continuous process- the reactants are fed to the reactor and the products withdrawn continuously; the reactor operates
under steady-state conditions. Continuous production will normally give lower production costs than batch production,
but lacks the flexibility of batch production.

Semi- batch process- can be one which is interrupted periodically for some purpose; for instance, for the regeneration of
catalyst

Based on phases present

Homogeneous reactions- are those in which the reactants, products, and any catalyst used form one continuous phase:
gaseous or liquid. Homogeneous gas phase reactors will always be operated continuously; whereas liquid phase reactors
may be batch or continuous

Heterogeneous reaction- two or more phases exist, and the overriding problem in the reactor design is to promote mass
transfer between the phases

The possible combination of phases are:

1. Liquid-liquid: immiscible liquid phases; reactions such as the nitration of toluene or benzene with mixed acids,
and emulsion polymerisations.

2. Liquid-solid: with one, or more, liquid phases in contact with a solid. The solid maybe a reactant or catalyst.

3. Liquid-solid-gas: where the solid is normally a catalyst; such as in the hydrogeneration of amines, using a slurry
of platinum on activated carbon as a catalyst.

4. Gas-solid: where the solid may take part in the reaction or act as a catalyst. The reduction of iron ores in blast
furnaces and the combustion of solid fuels are examples where the solid is a reactant.
 5. Gas-liquid: where the liquid may take part in the reaction or act as a catalyst.

Based on Reactor Geometry

Stirred tank reactors- consist of a tank fitted with a mechanical agitator and a cooling jacket or coils. They are operated
as batch reactors or continuously. Several reactors may be used in series.

Packed bed reactor- Industrial packed-bed catalytic reactors range in size from small tubes, a few centimeters diameter, to
large diameter packed beds. Packed-bed reactors are used for gas and gas-liquid reactions. Heat-transfer rates in large
diameter packed beds are poor and where high heat-transfer rates are required fluidized beds should be considered.

Tubular reactor- Tubular reactors are generally used for gaseous reactions, but are also suitable for some liquid-phase
reactions. If high heat-transfer rates are required, small-diameter tubes are used to increase the surface area to volume
ratio. Several tubes may be arranged in parallel, connected to a manifold or fitted into a tube sheet in a similar
arrangement to a shell and tube heat
exchanger. For high-temperature reactions the tubes may be arranged in a furnace.

Fluidized bed reactors- The essential features of a fluidized bed reactor is that the solids are held in suspension by the
upward flow of the reacting fluid; this promotes high mass and heat-transfer rates and good mixing. Heat-transfer
coefficients in the order of 200 W/m2 ŽC to jackets and internal coils are typically obtained.

Design Procedure
A general procedure for reactor design is outlined below:

1. Collect together all the kinetic and thermodynamic data on the desired reaction and the side reactions. Values will
be needed for the rate of reaction over a range of operating conditions: pressure, temperature, flow-rate and
catalyst concentration.

2. Collect the physical property data required for the design; either from the literature, by estimation or, if necessary,
by laboratory measurements.

3. Identify the predominant rate-controlling mechanism: kinetic, mass or heat transfer. Choose a suitable reactor
type, based on experience with similar reactions, or from the laboratory and pilot plant work.

4. Make an initial selection of the reactor conditions to give the desired conversion and yield.

5. Size the reactor and estimate its performance. Exact analytical solutions of the design relationships are rarely
possible; semi-empirical methods based on the analysis of idealized reactors will normally have to be used.

6. Select suitable materials of construction.

7. Make a preliminary mechanical design for the reactor: the vessel design, heat-transfer surfaces, internals and
general arrangement.

8. Cost the proposed design, capital and operating.

In choosing the reactor conditions, particularly the conversion, and optimizing the design, the interaction of the
reactor design with the other process operations must not be overlooked. The degree of conversion of raw materials in the
reactor will determine the size, and cost, of any equipment needed to separate and recycle unreacted materials. In these
circumstances the reactor and associated equipment must be optimized as a unit.

Mole Balances
The general mole balance is given as the following for species A:
𝑑𝑁𝐴
𝐹𝐴0 − 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐺𝐴 =
𝑑𝑡
where:
𝐹𝐴0 = input molar flow rate
𝐹𝐴 = output molar flow rate
𝐺𝐴 = generation
𝑑𝑁𝐴
𝑑𝑡
= accumulation
 If the system variables are uniform throughout the system volume, then
𝐺𝐴 = 𝑟𝐴 𝑉
where V = volume, then:
𝑑𝑁𝐴
𝐹𝐴0 − 𝐹𝐴 + ∫ 𝑟𝐴 𝑑𝑉 =
𝑑𝑡

1. Batch Reactor
A batch reactor has no input or output when the reaction is occurring (𝐹𝐴0 = 𝐹𝐴 = 0), so

𝑑𝑁𝐴
= 𝑟𝐴 𝑉
𝑑𝑡

For constant volume batch reactor:

𝑑𝐶𝐴
= 𝑟𝐴
𝑑𝑡

2. Continuous-Flow Reactors

1. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)

CSTRs are operated at steady state (accumulation = 0) and are assumed to be perfectly mixed.
𝐹𝐴0 − 𝐹𝐴 = −𝑟𝐴 𝑉
𝐹𝐴 = 𝐶𝐴 𝑣 ; v = volumetric flow rate
Then,
𝐶𝐴0 𝑣 − 𝐶𝐴 𝑣 = −𝑟𝐴 𝑉

2. Packed-Flow Reactor (Tubular)

The tubular reactor is operated at steady state, and is dependent on the volume of the reactor. A
reactor of this type is called a plug-flow reactor (PFR).

𝑑𝐹𝐴
= 𝑟𝐴
𝑑𝑉

3. Packed-Bed Reactor (Tubular)

For a heterogeneous reaction, the mass of solid catalyst, W, is what matters instead of the system
volume.
𝐺𝐴 = 𝑟𝐴 𝑊
Therefore,

𝑑𝐹𝐴
= 𝑟𝐴
𝑑𝑊

Conversion

1. Batch Reactor Design Equations

Conversion of substance A is defined as:

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑋=
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑓𝑒𝑑

This can be rephrased mathematically as:

𝑁𝐴0 − 𝑁𝐴
𝑋=
𝑁𝐴0

The number of moles of A in the reactor after a conversion X has been achieved is

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝐴0 (1 − 𝑋)

By differentiating the above expression with respect to t and plugging it into the expression for the batch reactor,

𝑑𝑋
𝑁𝐴0 = −𝑟𝐴 𝑉
𝑑𝑡
 2. Flow Reactors Design Equations

The Molar Flow Rate:

𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹𝐴0 (1 − 𝑋) or 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐴0 (1 − 𝑋)

a. CSTR Design Equation

Using the expression for the volume of a given CSTR derived earlier, we can eliminate 𝐹𝐴 by
using the conversion of 𝐹𝐴0 such that the design equation is

𝐹𝐴0 𝑋
𝑉=
−𝑟𝐴

b. PFR Design Equation

Similarly, the design equation for a PFR is

𝑑𝑋
𝐹𝐴0 = −𝑟𝐴
𝑑𝑉

– For PBRs, simply swap V for W

𝑑𝑋
𝐹𝐴0 = −𝑟𝐴
𝑑𝑊

CSTRs and PFRs Reactor Sizing

 For an isothermal reactor, the rate is typically greatest at the start of the reaction when the concentration is
greatest.
 For reversible reactions, the maximum conversion is the equilibrium conversion where the reaction rate is zero
 For an isothermal case, the CSTR volume will typically be greater than the PFR volume for the same conditions.
o This is because the CSTR operates at the lowest reaction rate while the PFR starts at a high rate and
decreases to the exit rate (which requires less volume since it is inversely proportional to the rate)
𝐹𝐴0
 From a vs. X plot, the reactor volumes can be found from areas as shown in the sample Levenspiel plot below
−𝑟𝐴

HEAT TRANSFER

INTRODUCTION

The transfer of heat to and from process fluids is an essential part of most chemical processes. The most commonly used
type of heat-transfer equipment is the ubiquitous shell and tube heat exchanger.

The principal types of heat exchanger used in the chemical process and allied industries, which will be discussed in this
chapter, are listed below:

1. Double-pipe exchanger: the simplest type, used for cooling and heating.

2. Shell and tube exchangers: used for all applications.

3. Plate and frame exchangers (plate heat exchangers): used for heating and cooling.

4. Plate-fin exchangers.

5. Spiral heat exchangers.

 6. Air cooled: coolers and condensers.

7. Direct contact: cooling and quenching.

8. Agitated vessels.

9. Fired heaters.

Exchanger

- all types of equipment in which heat is exchanged; but,

- often used specifically to denote equipment in which heat is exchanged between two process streams.
o Heaters and Coolers – process fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service stream.
o Vaporizer – process stream is essentially completely vaporized
o Reboiler – heat exchanger associated with a distillation column
o Evaporator – used to concentrate a solution
o Fired Exchanger – used for exchangers heated by combustion gases
o Unfired Exchanger

Applications of Heat Exchangers

1. Intercoolers and preheaters;

2. Economizers and super heaters;

3. Condensers and boilers in steam plant;

4. Condensers and evaporators in refrigeration units;

5. Regenerators;

6. Automobile radiators.

7. Cooling tower.

8. Heat pipes.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

- generally used in the chemical and process industries.

- these devices are available in a broad range of configurations
- one process fluids flow through the tubes of the exchange while the other flows outside of the pipes within the
shell.
- The tube side and shell side fluids are separated by a tube sheet.
- one fluid flows through tubes while the other fluid flows in the shell across the tube bundle.

o Baffles
 are primarily used in shell-and-tube heat exchangers for supporting the tubes and for inducing
cross flow over the tubes, resulting in improved heat transfer performance.
 To induce turbulence outside the tubes it is customary to employ baffles that cause the liquid to
flow through the shell at right angles to axes of the tubes.

Condenser

- heat exchangers used to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquefied state.
 - to receive exhausted steam from a steam engine or turbine and condense the steam
- used for industrial as well as domestic purpose.
- Use of cooling water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers

o Steam Condenser
 condenses the steam to a pressure significantly below atmospheric.
 converts the discharge steam back to feed water which is returned to the steam generator or
boiler.
Cooling Tower

- a device in which recirculating condenser water from a condenser or cooling coils is evaporative cooled by
contact with atmospheric air.
- It consists of:
 a fan to extract intake air
 a heat-transfer medium or fill
 a water basin
 a water distribution system
 an outer casing.

Radiator

- types of heat exchangers used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling
and heating.
- removes heat from engine coolant passing through it
- three main parts: core, inlet tank, outlet tank
- major application: automobiles buildings and electronics.
o Compact heat exchangers
 radiators used in cars and heavy vehicles
 two fluids usually move perpendicular to each other (cross-flow)
BASIC DESIGN PROCEDURE

Objective in an Exchanger Design

- determine the surface area required for the specified duty (rate of heat transfer) using the temperature differences
available.
General Equation for Heat Transfer Across a Surface

𝑸 = 𝑼𝑨∆𝑻𝒎

where:

 Q = heat transferred per unit time; W.

 U = the overall heat transfer coefficient; W/m2 oC.
 A = heat-transfer area; m2.
 ∆Tm = the mean temperature difference, the temperature driving force, oC.

 The magnitude of the individual coefficients will depend on:

1. Nature of the heat-transfer process (conduction, convection, condensation, boiling, or radiation)
 2. Physical properties of the fluid
3. Fluid-flow rates
4. Physical arrangement of the heat-transfer surface

DESIGN PROCEDURE

- As the physical layout of the exchanger cannot be determined until the area is known the design of an exchanger
is of necessity a trial and error procedure.

 Steps in a typical design procedure:

1. Define the duty: heat-transfer rate, fluid flow-rates, temperatures.
2. Collect together the fluid physical properties required: density, viscosity, thermal conductivity.
3. Decide on the type of exchanger to be used.
4. Select a trial value for the overall coefficient, U.
5. Calculate the mean temperature difference, ∆Tm.
6. Calculate the area required from equation.
7. Decide the exchanger layout.
8. Calculate the individual coefficients.
9. Calculate the overall coefficient and compare with the trial value. If the calculated value differs significantly from
the estimated value, substitute the calculated for the estimated value and return to step 6.
10. Calculate the exchanger pressure drop; if unsatisfactory return to steps 7 or 4 or 3, in that order of preference.
11. Optimise the design: repeat steps 4 to 10, as necessary, to determine the cheapest exchanger that will satisfy the
duty. Usually this will be the one with the smallest area.

Sample Problems

Heat Exchanger
A stream of hydrocarbon is cooled by water in a double-pipe counterflow heat exchanger. The overall heat transfer
coefficient is to be determined. The specific heats of hydrocarbob and water are given to be 2.2 and 4.18 kJ/kg°C
respectively

Given:

Thi= 150°C m=540 kg/hr

Tho=40°C
Tci=10°C Tube
Tco=? do= 2.5 cm
Cp=2.2 kJ/kg°C L=6 cm
Cp=4.18 kJ/kg°C U=?
M=720 kg/hr

Solution:

Q=UA∆Tm
Q=(720kg/3600s)(2.2 kJ/kg°C)(150-40)°C = 48.4 kW
48.4 kW = (540kg/3600s)(4.18 kJ/kg°C)(Tco-10)°C
Tco=87.19 °C

R=1.425
S=0.5513
FT=1
∆Tm=44.4 °C

48.4 kW = U (⁋x2.5x6)cm2(44.4°C)
U= 0.023 kW/cm2°C
Condenser

The pressure inside a boiler is p p = 115.105 Pa and pv = 9.44.104 Pa inside a condenser. Calculate the absolute pressure
inside the boiler and condenser if the barometric pressure pb = 0.098 MPa. Find the vacuum in the condenser in %

Given:

pp = 11.5 MPa: pv = 94.4 kPa; pb = 0.098 MPa; pa boil = ? ; pa cond = ?

Solution:

a) The absolute pressure inside the boiler

pa boil = pb + pp = 0.098 + 11.5 = 11.598 MPa

The absolute pressure in the condenser

pa cond = pb - pv = 0.098 - 0.0944 = 0.0036 MPa

b) The vacuum inside the condenser in % :

x [%] = x.100 = 96.3 %

Refrigiration

A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid is considered. The rate of cooling, the
power input, and the COP are to be determined when the efficiency is 0.88 and a mass of 0.25 kg/s.

Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. Analysis (a)
From the refrigerant-134a tables.

Tsat@200 kPa = -10.1 °C

P1 = 200 kPa h1 = 253.05 kJ/kg
T1 = -10.1 +10.1 =0°C s1 =0.9698 kJ/kg K
P2 = 1400 kPa h2s = 295.90kJ/kg
s1 = s 2
Tsat@1400 kPa = -10.1 °C Ƞc = 0.88
P3 = 1400 kPa h4 = h3 = 120.39 kJ/kg
T3 = 52.4 – 4.4 = 48 °C

ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1
Ƞ𝑐 =
ℎ2 − ℎ1

295.90 − 253.05
0.88 = ; ℎ2 = 301.74 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
ℎ2 − 253.05
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑚(h1 – h4) = 0. 025 kg/s (253.05 – 120.39) = 3.317 kW
𝑄𝐻 = 𝑚(h2 – h3) = 0. 025 kg/s (301.74 – 120.39) = 4.534 kW
𝑊𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚(h2 – h1) = 0. 025 kg/s (301.74 –253.05) = 1.217 kW
𝑄𝐿 3.317 𝑘𝑊
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟓
𝑊𝑖𝑛 1.21 𝑘𝑊
 Transfer of Solids

OBJECTIVES

To know the different techniques or process for transferring solids.

To enhance our knowledge about different equipments being used in transporting solids.
To gain some understandings on how to design equipments that are being utilized in transport of solids.

TRANSPORT OF SOLIDS

SLURRY TRANSFER

In short process lines slurries are readily handled by centrifugal pumps with large clearances. When there is a
distribution of sizes, the fine particles effectively form a homogeneous mixture of high density in which the settling
velocities of larger particles are less than in clear liquid. Turbulence in the line also helps to keep particles in suspension.
It is essential, however, to avoid dead spaces in which solids could accumulate and also to make provisions for periodic
cleaning of the line. A coal-oil slurry used as fuel and acid waste neutralization with lime slurry are two examples of
process application.

Computations

Principally, investigations have been conducted of suitable linear velocities and power requirements. Slurries
of 40-50~01% solids can be handled satisfactorily, with particle sizes less than 24-48 mesh or so (0.7-0.3 mm). At
low line velocities, particles settle out and impede the flow of the slurry, and at high velocities the frictional drag
likewise increases. An intermediate condition exists at which the pressure drop per unit distance is a minimum.

The velocity at this condition is called a critical velocity of which one correlation is:

Pressure drop in flow of aqueous suspensions sometimes has been approximated by multiplying the pressure
drop of clear liquid at the same velocity by the specific gravity of the slurry. This is not borne out by experiment,
however, and the multiplier has been correlated by other relations of which Eq. (5.7) is typical:
 Another criterion for selection of a flow rate is based on considerations of the extent of sedimentation of particles of
various sizes under flow conditions. This relation is developed by Wasp, Aude, Seiter, and Thompson (1971),

EQUIPMENT:

PNEUMATIC CONVEYORS

Granular solids of free-flowing natures may be conveyed through ducts in any direction with high velocity air
streams. In the normal plant, such lines may be several hundred feet long, but dusty materials such as fly ash and cement
have been moved over a mile in this way. Materials that are being air-veyed include chemicals, plastic pellets, grains, and
powders of all kinds. The transfer of catalysts between regenerator and reactor under fluidized conditions is a common
operation. The performance of pneumatic conveyors is sensitive to several characteristics of the solids, of which the most
pertinent ones are:

FOUR COMMON KINDS OF ARRANGEMENTS

(a) VACUUM SYSTEMS

Vacuum systems are favored for shorter distances and when conveying from several sources to one
destination. Appropriate switching valves make it possible to service several sources and destinations with either a
vacuum or pressure system. Normally the vacuum system is favored for single destinations and the pressure for
several destinations or over long distances.

(b) ROTARY VALVE FEEDER

(c) VENTURI FEEDER

 A Venturi Feeder has a particularly gentle action suitable for friable materials.

(d) PUSH-PULL SYSTEM

It is a system in which the fan both picks up the solid and delivers them.

Friable materials also may be handled effectively by equipment in which alternate pulses of granular material and
air are transported.

The most used blower in pneumatic conveying is the rotary positive displacement type; they can achieve
vacuum 6-8psi below atmospheric or positive pressures up to 15psig at efficiencies of about 65%. Axial positive
displacement blowers also are used, as well as centrifugal for large capacities. Rotary feeders of many proprietary designs
are available; Stoess (1983) and Kraus (1980) illustrate several types. Receivers may be equipped with fabric filters to
prevent escape of fine particles; a dacron fabric suitable for up to 275°F is popular. Cyclone receivers are used primarily
for entirely nondusting services or ahead of a filter. Typical dimensions are cited by Stoess (1983), for example:

line diameter (in.) 3 5 8

primary diameter Wt) 3.5 4.5 6.75

secondary diameter (ft) 2.75 3.5 5.0

POWER CONSUMPTION AND PRESSURE DROP

The power consumption is made up of the work of compression of the air and the frictional losses due to the flows
of air and solid through the line. The work of compression of air at a flow rate ML and C,/C, = 1.4 is given by:
Rules of Thumb for Pneumatic Conveyor

MECHANICAL CONVEYORS AND ELEVATORS

Granular solids are transported mechanically by being pushed along or dragged along or carried. Movement may
be horizontal or vertical or both. In the process plant distances may be under a hundred feet or several hundred feet.
Distances of several miles may be covered by belts servicing construction sites or mines or power plants. Capacities range
up to several hundred tons/hr. Many construction features of these machines are arbitrary. Thus manufacturers’ catalogs
are the ultimate source of information about suitability for particular services, sizes, capacities, power requirements and
auxiliaries; much of the equipment has been made in essentially the present form for about 100 years by a number of
manufacturers so that a body of standard practice has developed.

TYPES OF MECHANICAL CONVEYORS AND ELEVATORS

1. SCREW CONVEYORS

These were invented by Archimedes and assumed essentially their present commercial form a hundred years
or so ago. Although the equipment is simple in concept and relatively inexpensive, a body of experience has
accumulated whereby the loading, speed, diameter, and length can be tailored to the characteristics of the materials to
be handled.

Lengths of screw conveyors usually are limited to less than about 150 ft; when the conveying distance is
greater than this, a belt or some other kind of machine should be chosen. The limitation of length is due to structural
strength of the shaft and coupling. It is expressed in terms of the maximum torque that is allowable.

Several designs of screws are shown in Figure 5.7. The basic design is one in which the pitch equals the
diameter. Closer spacing is needed for carrying up steep inclines, and in fact very fine pitch screws operating at the
relatively high speeds of 350 rpm are used to convey vertically. The capacity of a standard pitch screws drops off
sharply with the inclination, for example:
 Angle (degrees) <8 20 30 45

Percent of capacity 100 55 30 0

2. BELT CONVEYORS

These are high capacity, relatively low power units for primarily horizontal travel and small inclines. The
maximum allowable inclination usually is 5-15” less than the angle of repose; it is shown as “recommended
maximum inclination,” and is the effective angle of repose under moving conditions. The majority of conveyor belts
are constructed of fabric, rubber, and wire beads similarly to automobile tires, but they are made also of wire screen or
even sheet metal for high temperature services.

3. BUCKET ELEVATORS AND CARRIERS

Bucket elevators and carriers are endless chains to which buckets are attached for transporting granular
materials along vertical, inclined or horizontal paths. There are two basic types: spaced buckets that are far apart and
continuous which overlap. Spaced buckets self-load by digging the material out of the boot and are operated at
speeds of 20&300fpm; they are discharged centrifugally. Continuous buckets operate at lower speeds, and are used
for friable materials and those that would be difficult to pick up in the boot; they are fed directly from a loading chute
and are discharged by gravity. Bucket carriers are essentially forms of pan conveyors; they may be used instead of
belt conveyors for shorter distances.
4. CONTINUOUS FLOW CONVEYOR ELEVATORS

One design of a drag-type of machine is the Redler shown on Figure 5.12. They function because the friction
against the flight is greater than that against the wall. Clearly they are versatile in being able to transfer material in any
direction and have the often important merit of being entirely covered. Circular cross sections are available but
usually they are square, from 3 to 30 in. on a side, and operate at speeds of 30-250 ft/min, depending on the material
handled and the construction. Most dry granular materials such as wood chips, sugar, salt, and soda ash are handled
very well in this kind of conveyor.

More difficult to handle are very fine materials such as cement or those that tend to pack such as hot grains or
abrasive materials such as sand or crushed stone. Power requirement is dependent on the coefficient of sliding
friction. The closed-belt (zipper) conveyor is a carrier that is not limited by fineness or packing properties or
abrasiveness. Of course, it goes in any direction. It is made in a nominal 4-in. size, with a capacity rating by the
manufacturer of 0.07cuft/ft of travel. The power requirement compares favorably with that of open belt conveyors, so
that it is appreciably less than that of other types.

The formula is

HP = 0.00l[(L,/30 + 5)u + (L,/16 + 2L,)T], where

u = ft/min,

T = tons/hr,

L, = total belt length (ft),

L, = length of loaded horizontal section (ft),

L, = length of loaded vertical section (ft).

5. SOLID FEEDERS

Rates are controlled by adjusting gates or rotation speeds or translation speeds. All of these methods
require free flow from a storage bin which may be inhibited by bridging or arching. Most part of the devices
provide only rough feed rate control. More precise control is achieved by continuous weighing. For some batch
processes, the feeder discharges into an overhead weighing hopper for accurate measurement of the charge.
Similar systems are used to batch feed liquids when integrating flow meters are not sufficiently accurate.