Chapter IV The Spanish Era
1. In Search of New Lands
The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries brought an era of worldwide
exploration and expansion that resulted from the desire to gain new
lands, power, and wealth for the explorers and their countries. In
the last two centuries of the Middle Ages (13001500), the
Europeans, while regaining the Holy Land from the Muslims, were
able to establish commerce with the Orient through trade routes.
Spices like pepper, ginger, nutmeg, onions, and garlic were the most
important items of trade from the East, owing to the desire of the
Europeans to enhance the taste of food and to preserve meat
during winter time. The fall of Constantinople (1453) and the
emergence of the Ottoman Turks closed the former trade routes to
the East, causing the monarch s and navigators of Europe to find
new routes across the seas. The Portuguese were a few years ahead
of the Spaniards in the discovery of new trade routes. Inspired by
Prince Henry, the Navigator (1394-1460), Portuguese navigators
sailed down the African coast to reach the East. In 1487, led by
Bartolome Dias, the Portuguese rounded the Cape of Good Hope. A
few years later, in 1498, Vasco de Gama reached Calicut, India, by
sailing eastward from the cape. The end of the reconquistas (wars
against the Moors) in 1492, paved the way for great voyages
including the discovery of the New World (America) for Spain.
Christopher Columbus, who had failed to convince the King of
Portugal that he could reach the
East by sailing westward, was able to get the support of the Spanish
Crown. After these remarkable voyages, Portugal and Spain became
keen rivals in colonizing new lands because of gold, spices, and
other merchandise found in the Orient, as well as their religious zeal
to proselytize the natives. European adventurers made daring
voyages and sought new lands and riches. Great explorers were able
to discover various routes for their expeditions, which marked the
Age of Exploration (1492-1682). On May 3,1493, Pope Alexander VI,
attempting to settle the rivalry, issued a papal bull known as the
Inter caetera. The Pope decreed that the Spanish zone of
exploration should be west of the imaginary line drawn north to
south, 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. All
lands east of the demarcation line should belong to Portugal. The
demarcation line was drawn to identify Spanish and Portuguese
spheres of exploration and conquest. The following year, the two
kingdoms agreed in the Treaty ofTordesilU* to move the
demarcation line 170 leagues (about 1,100 miles) west of Cape
Verde islands and still be guided by the provisions of the papal bull.
The revised treaty allowed Portugal to claim what is now Brazil
while Spain was given the rest of the Americas (Perry et al., 1988:
353). In 1505, Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521), a member of the
nobility of Portugal sailed with a fleet carrying the first Portuguese
viccroy to the I last Indies in 1506 and from there, was sent to
Malacca (Melaka) in the Malay Peninsula and the spice markets of
Ambon and Banda in Western Indonesia. He was promoted to the
rank of captain in 1510. He returned to Portugal in 1512. During
those days, all explorations were done by latitude sailing by means
of an astrolabe. Through observing wind directions and ocean tides,
Magellan later conceived the idea of a passage to the west or
around South America to reach the Moluccas or Spice Islands
(islands of present-day Indonesia). While finding the chance to
present his plan to King Manuel of Portugal, he fought against the
Moors in Morocco in 1513. There he received his wounds that left
him lame for life. After his return to Portugal, Magellan proposed to
the king his plan to travel a westward route to the Moluccas. The
king refused and even canceled his promotion probably because of
charges of financial irregularities while he was in Morocco.
Disgusted by the king's response, he renounced his Portuguese
citizenship. He went to Spain in 1517. In his new found home,
Magellan met influential persons who helped him get support for
his plan to find a new route to the Spice Islands from King Charles I
(later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). One of them was Bishop
Juan de Fonseca, the head of the Royal Council of the Indies
(division in charge of overseas expeditions). Spurred by the
competition to win against Portugal in obtaining high- priced spices,
Spain commissioned Magellan to find a route to Moluccas by sailing
west. Such passage would be beneficial to Spain for Portugal
controlled the eastward route to the East Indies around Africa's
Cape of Good Hope. The contract for the expedition was signed on
March 28,1518. Magellan was named captain general of the
expedition.
2. Magellan's New Route to the East Magellan left the port of San
Lucar de Barrameda, Spain, on September 20,1519 with five ships
namely: Trinidad, Conception, Santiago, San Antonio, and Victoria
together with about 250 men. The expedition intended to
circumnavigate the earth in the service of Spain. Accompanying him
were Fr. Pedro de Valderrama (fleet chaplain), Antonio Pigafetta
(chronicler of the expedition), Duarte Barbosa (Magellan's brother-
in-law), and his Malay slave Enrique of Malacca (acting as
interpreter). The fleet sailed through familiar waters along the
westcoast of Africa. They reached the Canaries on September 26.
Crossing the Atlantic, they landed on the South American coast,
now Pernambuco, Brazil, on November 29. Magellan continued the
voyage, reaching Rio de Janeiro on December 13. He named it Santa
Lucia, because he landed there on the saint's feast day. There they
traded with the native Americans for provisions. The voyage
continued at Rio de Plata. By the time they were at the tip of the
South American continent, it was already winter. The snowstorms
were in a headstrong. The men became apprehensive and asked
Magellan that they all return to Spain. Magellan declined. Instead,
he asked them to take courage. The ships took shelter from storms
in Port San Julian (now in Argentina) in March 1520. Unknown to
Magellan, some officers took into command the maneuvering of
three ships, the San Antonio, the Conception, and the
Victoria. The next day, Gaspar de Quesada, captain of the
Conception, wrote to Magellan that he and others would not
recognize his authority unless they return immediately to Spain.
Still, Magellan refused to heed their petition. Juan de Cartagena,
Antonio de Coca, Juan Sebastian del Cano (called Elcano), and
Gaspar de Quesada were found guilty of treason but pardoned. But
Cartagena continued to plot again, this time with one of the priests,
Pero Sanchez de Reina. They were probably jealous because the
captain-general of this Spanish expedition was a Portuguese.
Magellan had the two left off the coast of an unnamed island. With
the first signs of spring, the exploratory voyage continued in search
of a route to the Southern Sea (now Pacific Ocean). A strong
typhoon had driven ashore and destroyed the smallest ship,
Santiago. In August, the four ships went farther south and
eventually, they came upon a strait, which Magellan called "Strait of
All Saints" (now Strait of Magellan). Magellan sent the San Antonio
to explore the southeast opening of the strait. Trinidad entered the
southwest. Secretly, San Antonio, piloted by Esteban Gomez (a
Portuguese), deserted on the night of November 20 and sailed back
for Spain. The fleet reached the Southern Sea, which Magellan
named Ocean Pacific because it was calm. Unfortunately, Magellan
had underestimated the ocean's size. In the next five months, the
ship was running out of supplies. Instead of biscuits, the men ate
sawdust. They also started to eat leather rope guards and even rats.
Many got sick with scurvy (a gum disease). A number of his men
died. But Magellan and his men bravely sailed on and by March 6,
1521 they had reached an island in the Western Pacific. He called it
Islas Ladrones (or Islands of Thieves, later to be named Marianas, in
honor of Maria Ana of Austria, Queen Regent of Spain) because
some of the native Chamorros had stolen a boat from the flagship.
To stop them, Magellan ordered his men to fire their guns.
1. Voyage to the Philippines From Ladrones Islands, Magellan's fleet
went on their journey westward. At the dawn of Saturday, on March
16, 1521, they saw the towering heights of Samar and named the
island Islas de San Lazaro, for it was the feast day of St. Lazarus.
They stayed overnight off
Suluan Island. I he following day, they landed on the small
uninhabited islet of Humunu (Homonhon) found at the mouth of
Leyte Gulf and built two tents for the sick. On the third day after
their arrival on March 18, they met nine natives from the
neighboring island of Suluan who arrived in a boat. Seeing them .1
friendly people, Magellan gave them red caps, mirrors, combs, small
I ells, ivory, fine linen cloth, and other trifles. In return, the islanders
gave them their cargo of bananas, fish, coconuts, and palm wine
(tuba). On Holy Thursday, March 28, the fleet landed in another
island called Mazaua, which could be Limasawa in Leyte or Masao in
Butuan. Rajah kolambu was rowed to where the Europeans were. At
first, he refused to board Magellan's big ship. Finally, the rajah
welcomed Magellan and visited him aboard his ship. He gave
Magellan three porcelain jars of rice, while Magellan gave a red cap
and a red-and-yellow robe. Subsequently, Magellan's men held a
mock fight. The soldier in a suit of armor remained unhurt even
after he was struck. Rajah Kolambu was fascinated and noted that
one man in such attire was worth 100 fighters. These newcomers
could help them win their battles. Thus, the rajah decided to seal
their new friendship. Afterwards, he performed the kasi kasi or
blood compact ceremony with Magellan on March 29, Good Friday.
Pursuant to Republic Act No. 2733 dated June 19, 1960 Barangay
Magallanes, Limasawa, Southern Leyte is the site of the first
Christian mass in the Philippines. In 1980 the National Historical
Institute (NHI) sponsored a workshop for historians to determine
the site of the first mass in the Philippines. They concluded it was
Limasawa. They based their findings from the evidence presented in
1800 by Carlo Amoretti, a conservator in Ambrosiana Library in
Milan. Amoretti said that Mazaua where Magellan landed in 1521
and the island of Limasawa in the book written by Father Francisco
Combes are one and the same. This idea was supported by known
writers in history, which include Father Pablo Pastells, S.J., Dr. T. H.
Pardo de Tavera, Jaime de Veyra, and James Robertson. Noted
historian Dr. Sonia M. Zaide presented the evidence for Masao
rather than Limasawa as the site of the first recorded mass in the
Philippines. First, in all primary sources including the diary of
Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler of Magellan's voyage, the name of
the place was Mazaua. Limasawa has four syllables and begins with
another letter. Second, according to primary records, the expedition
traveled 20 to 25 leagues from I lomonhon, iht* first landing point.
If they had been to Limasawa Island, the distance is only 14.6
leagues or one-half of that length. Third, the distance to Cebu from
Mazaua according to Pigafetta was 35 leagues (140 miles). The
distance from Limasawa to Cebu is only 80 miles. Fourth, it was
mentioned that the king came to their ship in a balanghai. Butuan is
now the site of at least nine excavated balanghai relics; by contrast,
Limasawa has no significant archaeological relics or balanghai
tradition. Fifth, the Western explorers got excited at the abundance
of gold in Mazaua, for that was the main currency at that time. Both
archaeological relics and the gold mines today attested to the
abundance of gold in the Agusan Valley. The site of the first mass in
the Philippines was first mentioned by Maximilian Transylvanus in
his De Moluccis... in 1523. He interviewed the survivors of the
Magellan expedition and noted that they landed in Messana (at
times written as Massana), where the mass was first officiated. Due
to numerous copies of De Moluccis in Europe, the Italian manuscript
of Antonio Pigafetta (the chronicler of the expedition) was deferred
in printing. In 1536, Gian Battista Ramusio also wrote a chronicle
about the voyage of Magellan based on the Pigafetta manuscript.
He pointed out that it was in Butuan where the first mass in the
Philippines took place. When Father Francisco Colin, S.J. wrote a
book about the spread of Christianity in the Philippines, he could
not exactly determine the site of the first mass in the archipelago.
From the Ramusio version it was in Butuan, while from the writings
of Antonio de Herrera (based from accounts of Andres de San
Martin) it was in Mazaua.-Finally, Father Colin wrote that it was in
Limasawa where the first mass in the Philippines was officiated. In
1667, Father Francisco Combes mentioned in his Historia de
Mindanao... description of the voyage of Magellan and his Armada
de Molucca. He mentioned the word Limasaua, which never existed
in any primary source about the Magellan expedition. It was William
Henry Scott who was able to identify that it was the Ramusio
version that first mentioned Mazaua in Butuan. From the findings of
Scott and Vicente C. de Jesus, they had come into conclusion that
the inclusion of Limasawa in the voyage of Magellan may be
attributed to Colin (with his Dimasaua) and Combes (with his
Limasawa). For Scott, de Jesus and the NHI, the eyewitness
account of Gines de Mafra, the Spanish mariner should be
considered in determining the location of Mazaua. Mafra was the
only navigator who reached Mazaua twice, first in 1521 in the
Magellan's expedition and in 1543 in the Villalobos expedition.
Andres de San Martin gave Mafra some important documents
before he was killed by the warriors of Rajah Humabon in Cebu after
the Battle of Mactan. Martin was an astrologer and one of the finest
mariners during the Renaissance. He died in the Cebu massacre that
took place on May 1, 1521. Mafra held the documents given to him
by Martin for five years. I hrse documents were confix «ii«'d by the
Portuguese and were kept in the Lisbon archives. Finally, the
documents were transferred to Madrid at the lime when Portugal
became part of Spain (15801640). Based on the Mafra accounts,
from Homonhon, Magellan and his men iiaveled westward,
southwest to the tip of Seilani (Panaon) to avoid the Northeast
monsoon. (From Panaon, Limasawa is in the northwest direction).
According to Mafra, Mazaua has a circumference of 3-4 leagues,
equivalent t:o 9-12 n.m., while Limasawa has a circumference of
2.0313 n.m. Mafra mentioned that Magellan and his men were able
to reach Mindanao. Mazaua is 45 n.m. south of Surigao. The
western part of the i .land is a perfect harbor during the Northeast
monsoon. Mazaua has two hilly areas, Pinamangculan at
Dalindingan, as drawn in the map of Pigafetta. Planted near the foot
of the hills were rice, coconut, and fruits. There was gold in the
area. Houses were described as stilted. On Easter Sunday, March 31,
1521, a mass was held on Mazaua's shore with Reverend Father
Pedro de Valderrama officiating. At sundown, Magellan, in the
presence of Spaniards and Filipinos, planted a large wooden cross
on the summit of a hill overlooking the sea. He named the country
the Islas de San Lazaro. On April 7, 1521, Magellan together with
King Kolambu and the Spanish and native fleets landed on Sugbu
(now Cebu). On the same day, Humabon made a blood compact
with Magellan after the latter had won his trust and friendship.
Asked who would succeed him, Rajah Humabon told Magellan that
he had no sons, only daughters. His nephew who had married his
daughter was therefore the crown prince. Rajah Humabon added
that parents were no longer honored in their old age and instead
their children commanded them. Magellan explained to the
Cebuano chieftain the Christian teaching about honoring one's
parents. This confounded Rajah Humabon. Soon, he sought to be
baptized as a Christian. On Sunday, April 14,1521, a mass on the
shore of Cebu was held with Rajah Humabon and his people
attending the ceremony. After the mass, Magellan planted a huge
wooden cross and gave Queen juana, wife of Rajah Humabon, an
image of the Child Jesus as a gift. There were about 800 Filipinos
who participated in the mass and underwent ritual baptism. As for
Humabon (renamed Carlos), Magellan made him the king's
representative in Cebu and promised to unite the local chieftains
under his authority. Magellan likewise tried to impose Christianity
and Spanish sovereignty on local chieftains. Rajah Humabon and
Datu Zula of Mactan welcomed the Spaniards, but not Lapulapu,
another chieftain of Mactan. Lapulapu's real name was Cali Pulacu
as written by Carlos Calao, a Chinese-Spanish poet in the 17th c<
ntwry 111 his poem, Que Dios Le Perdone (That God May Forgive
Him). I his was a result of the research of Prof. Guillermo Gomez-
Rivera, a 1975 Zobel Prize awardee. Lapulapu refused to accept the
new political system and pay tribute. He decided to break away
from Rajah Humabon. To teach him a lesson, Magellan invaded
Mactan on April 27, 1521. He led an army of 60 steel- clad Spaniards
in three vessels and 1,000 Cebuano warriors in 30 boats. He told
Rajah Humabon and his men to stay on their boats, watch how the
Europeans fight. Magellan had misjudged the fighting skill of
Lapulapu and his men. The Mactan warriors repulsed the Spanish
force with their spears and bamboo stakes. They aimed their spears
at the unshielded legs of the Europeans. The Spaniards were forced
to go back to their boats. Magellan was wounded in the battle. A
poisoned arrow hit his right leg and then a bamboo spear struck his
face. Lapulapu and his fighters pounced and killed him. The Philippines. It also confirmed that the earth is round and that it is
remaining Europeans retreated and left the body of their captain really possible to sail around the world since the world's oceans are
behind. The Battle of Mactan was a scandalous defeat for the connected. The cargo of cloves sold for such a high price that it was
Spaniards for they were not able to prove themselves better in more than sufficient to pay for the expenses of Magellan's
combats. On May 1; the natives of Cebu carried out the plan to expedition. As a reward, the Spanish Crown granted Elcano a proud
massacre them. While the Europeans were attending a banquet motto for his shield, Primus (. ircumdedisti Me (you
prepared for them by circumnavigated me first). In unwritten history, it was really an
Asian who first circumnavigated the world ahead of the Europeans.
Rajah Humabon, the warriors attacked them. Duarte Barbosa, Juan
He is no other than Enrique of Malacca who acted as interpreter for
Serrano, and 27 other Spaniards were killed. The remaining
Magellan. From Malacca, he was able to join the voyage of the
members of the expedition were forced to flee the islands before
Portuguese after he was taken by Magellan to be his aide, cruising
the Cebuanos could kill them all. They burned the ship Conception
across the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean and reached
for lack of men to operate the vessel. With two ships left - Trinidad
Portugal. When he became part of the Magellan's expedition, he
and Victoria, they continued their voyage to Moluccas. On
was able to sail from Spain via Atlantic Ocean, reached the tip of
November 8, 1521, they finally landed in Tidore, an island in
South America iind across the Pacific Ocean then finally returned to
Moluccas. They were able to secure a rich cargo of spices. The
Asia, particularly the Philippines.
survivors decided that the Trinidad, led by Gomez de Espinosa,
would sail back to Spain by crossing the Pacific to Panama, while the
Victoria, under Juan Sebastian del Cano's command would sail via
Magellan's expedition paved the way for Spain's expansion to the
Cape of Good Hope, but on lower latitudes to avoid the Portuguese.
Orient. Driven by the thrill of adventure and the reward of gold and
The Victoria crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good
spiritual dispensation, the conquistadores took the risks of the
Hope and finally reached San Lucar, Spain on September 6,1522,
journey. The first post-Magellan expedition (1525), led by Captain
with only 18 survivors. The voyage around the world lasted 2 years,
Garcia Jofre de Loaysa sailed with seven ships and 450 men. After
11 months, and 16 days. As for the crew of the San Antonio (the
crossing the Strait of Magellan, the vessels were dispersed by a
ship that had deserted the expedition), they had been imprisoned
storm. Unfortunately, Loaysa got ill. They served him broiled rat, the
until Elcano's return. They were tried and convicted. Pigafetta's
traditional treatment for constipation. He did not recover.
story of the expedition spread. Shortly thereafter, the geographers
Eventually he died. His men failed to reach the Philippines.
adopted new dimensions of the earth and the wider scope of the
Sebastian Cabot, son of Venetian explorer John Cabot, headed the
Southern Sea (Pacific Ocean). The voyage enhanced their knowledge
second expedition in 1526 with four ships and 250 men. They failed
about the existence of othet inlands in the Pacific and the
to find the Strait of Magellan. In 1527, A1 varo Saavedra Ceron,
cousin of Hernando Cortes of Mexico, together with 110 men
constituted the first expedition to the Philippines from the
Viceroyalty in Mexico (New Spain). Three ships were set out to
investigate what had happened to the two earlier expeditions and
rescue any survivors. Only one ship, the Florida, reached Surigao in
Northeastern Mindanao but failed to colonize. They were able to
rescue several survivors from the first two expeditions in Tidore,
Moluccas. Loaded with spices, the Florida attempted to return to
Spain but strong winds drove her back. Saavedra Ceron tried the
second and third time to sail against strong winds. He fell ill and
died. His successor also failed to make a return trip. Finally, they
decided to surrender to the Portuguese. In 1542, King Charles I sent
another expedition. This was to reassert the claims of Spain to the
islands, which is part of the Eastern Hemisphere. Based on the
Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the Eastern Hemisphere was reserved
to Portuguese colonization. However, with the Treaty of Zaragoza in
1529, <i new demarcation line was fixed .it 297 1/2 leagues east of
Moluccas. Portugal gained the rights of ownership over all the lands
on the west of the line, while Spain gained the right of ownership
over all the lands found on the east of the line. Spain sold the
Moluccas to Portugal for 350,000 gold ducats ($630,000), which lay
within the Portuguese sphere ot influence and claimed ownership
over the Philippines then known as Islas del Poniente (the Sunset
Islands). He instructed Ruy Lopez de Villalobos to command a fleet
of six ships and around 400 men. He exhorted Villalobos to avoid
any of the Spice Islands in their voyage to Islas del Poniente.
Villalobos reached Baganga Bay in Eastern Mindanao on February
2,1543 after three months of sailing. He named Mindanao Caesarea
Caroli, or the imperial island of Charles. Searching for food, they
reached the southern island of Sarangani, which Villalobos renamed
Antonia in honor of Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza of Mexico. Some
of his men went as far as Leyte, which they renamed Felipina, in
honor of the future king Philip II of Spain. Later, the name Felipinas
was given to all the islands. Villalobos also failed to colonize
Mindanao. He died in the Moluccas, consoled by St. Francis Xavier,
acclaimed as the Apostle of the Indies. King Charles T of Spain
abdicated his royal crown after getting weary of far ranging duties
brought about by his scattered dominion. His son Philip II succeeded
as ruler of the Netherlands in 1555 and in Spain in 1556. During the
reign of King Philip II, Spain was at the height of its power. He wrote
to Mexican Viceroy Velasco ordering him to prepare an expedition
for the conquest of the Philippines. The command of this expedition
was given to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1505-1572), a soldier, lawyer,
and administrator. Since the Mexican government was then in the
brink of bankruptcy, Legazpi spent his own resources to finance the
expedition. Legazpi and his fleet, consisting of four ships with 380
men, left Natividad, Mexico, on November 19, 1564 (some say
November 20, a Monday). Besides royal officials and crew, five
Augustinian friars joined the expedition. Legazpi was accompanied
by Father Andres de Urdaneta (survivor of the Loaysa expedition),
and Captain Felipe de Salcedo (Legazpi's grandson), Guido de
Lavezaris (survivor of the Villalobos expedition), and Melchor de
Legazpi (Legazpi's son). The fleet stopped in Guam, and there they
obtained fresh water and supplies. On February 13,1565, Legazpi
and his men anchored near the island of Cebu. Due to Cebuano
opposition, they sailed to the neighboring islands and landed in
Samar. Legazpi made a blood compact with Urrao, a friendly chief,
on February 22. They proceeded to Limasawa and were received by
a young chieftain named Bankaw. Later, Legazpi landed in Bohol and
befriended two native kings, Sikatuna and Sigala. On March 16,
1565, Legazpi and Sikatuna made a blood compact. A few days later,
Legazpi and Gala did a similar pact.
On April 27, 156.5, I egnzpi .n rived in Cebu and hit the shore. Rajah
lupas and his Cebuano warriors challenged the enemy forces but
were overpowered by the Spaniards. Soon, the natives burned their
houses and if treated to the uplands. The next day, April 28, one of
Legazpi's men, a Greek sailor named Mermeo (others say Juan de
Camuz) discovered the image of the Sto. Nino in one of the houses.
Viewing it as a sign of God's approval, Legazpi named I he f irst
settlement Ciudad del Santissimo Nombre de Jesus (City of the Most
I loly Name of Jesus), in honor of the sacred image. The statue can
be found m the present Augustinian Church of the Holy Child. The
earliest Spanish settlement was in the form of a triangle. The i wo
sides face the sea and the third fronts the land. The settlement was
urrounded by fences. Wells were dug for stable water supply. A
church lor the Augustinian Fathers was erected. In this church, the
historic image of the Child Jesus was kept. One day, a soldier, Pedro
de Arana, went out alone from the camp. He was speared to death.
Ln retaliation, a unit was sent to grab captives, one of them a niece
of Rajah Tupas of Cebu. Upon learning this, Legazpi sent her
nursemaid to inform Rajah Tupas that the hostages were free to go
home, on the condition that he had to come for a talk. Tupas did not
heed the invitation of Legazpi, but Tamuyan the girl's father came
with six men. Tamuyan offered himself as a slave in place of his
daughter but Legazpi assured him the freedom of his daughter
without making him subservient to the Spaniards. The father was
stunned to see his daughter dressed as befitted her rank. He knew
that captives taken in war were not given noble treatment. Moved
by their kindheartedness, Tamuyan accepted Legazpi's friendship.
He promised to convince his brother Tupas to accept Spanish good
will. After a few more days, convinced that Legazpi was sincere with
his words, Rajah Tupas accepted Legazpi's friendship.
4. The Spanish Conquest of the Islands Legazpi tried to win Rajah
Tupas and the people of Cebu through the policy of attraction,
inviting them to return, rebuild their homes, and live in peace with
them. With the help of Cid Hamal (Sidamit), a Muslim Malay,
Legazpi succeeded. The Cebuanos paid
yearly tribute to the king of Spain and recognized him as their
sovereign. Legazpi promised Spanish protection. When Legazpi
began on his conversion efforts, most Filipinos were still practicing a
form of polytheism, although some had converted to Islam. The
Augustinian missionaries were assiduously spreading the Christian
faith. The first Cebuano convert was Jandulaman, a widowed niece
of Tupas, later on named Isabel in honor of Isabel Garces, Legazpi's
deceased wife. After her baptism, she married Master Andres, a
Greek member of Legazpi's expedition. Fray Diego Herrera officiated
the wedding, the first Christian marriage on Philippine soil. Rajah
Tupas also accepted baptism. Legazpi stood as the godfather. He
was named Felipe, in honor of Philip II. His son, Pinsuncan was
likewise baptized and was named Carlos. The natives followed the
same. In 1569, Legazpi transferred to Panay due to meager food
provisions in Cebu. Meanwhile, he sent his grandson back to Mexico
with his first reports to the Spanish King. On the bank of the Panay
River, the second Spanish settlement was founded. Due to the
continuing apostolic work of Fr. Juan de Alba and other Augustinian
missionaries, the people became friendly to Legazpi. Two chiefs of
Panay, Datus Macabaog and Madidong became Christians. In 1570,
Legazpi sent his grandson, Juan de Salcedo who arrived in Cebu
from Mexico in 1567, to Mindoro to punish the Moro pirates who
plundered upon Panay's villages. With 30 Spaniards and several
hundreds of Visayans, Salcedo destroyed the Moro forts in Ilin and
Lubang (islets near Mindoro). On May 8,1570, Marshal Martin de
Goiti and his men left Panay. With a force of 120 Spaniards and 600
Visayans, they explored the Pansipit River in Batangas. Native
volunteers who had already made friends with the Spaniards joined
Goiti's men to avenge the harm done to them by hostile
neighboring villages. From the bay, Goiti saw on the south bank of
the Pasig River a wall protecting a port. He sent his interpreter
ashore to invite the local chief to a conference, which Rajah
Matanda and his nephew Rajah Sulayman (or Soliman) accepted.
Rajah Sulayman led Goiti to a house and they sealed their new
alliance with the traditional kasi kasi. The Maynilad chief was willing
to befriend the Spaniards but would not submit to Spanish
sovereignty and pay tribute to the Spanish king. This lack of trust led
to an armed clash between them. Goiti landed his 80 fighters
against Sulayman's fort, (where Fort Santiago stands today) and
ordered his men to destroy the artillery. Sulayman defended his
kingdom from the Spaniards who took the offensive. A bloody hand-
to-hand battle ensued until the Manilans turned their backs as
flames began to engulf their houses. Sulayman and his warriors
retreated across the river. Goiti and his men captured Maynilad on
the 24th of May and seized some cannons that Panday Pira had
made for Sulayman. After the battle, Goiti returned to Panay. He
told Legazpi about the rich kingdom of Maynilad, a trading center
where Chinese, Borneans, Siamese, and other foreign merchants
engaged in. From thereon, Legazpi decided to colonize Maynilad. He
left Panay and reached Manila Bay in the middle of April 1571, with
a stronger expedition consisting ot 27 vessels, 280 Spaniards, and
600 Visayan allies. Lakandula, king of Tondo and Sulayman's uncle,
realized that it was useless to resist the Spanish forces. He
welcomed Legazpi and persuaded his nephew Sulayman to make
peace with Legazpi. On May 19,1571, Legazpi took possession of
Maynilad in the name of King Philip II of Spain. Bambalito, a
Pampango warlord from Macabebe; wanted to resist the Spanish
forces in Maynilad. He conferred with Lakandula and Sulayman to
support his cause. The two former native rulers did not want to join
him since they had already made peace with Legazpi. However, a
son and two nephews of Lakandula and some of Sulayman's
warriors joined his war camp in Navotas. On June 3, 1571,
Bambalito's more than 2,000 fighters in 40 caracoas (boats) from
Hagonoy, Macabebe, and other Pampanga villages sailed into
Bankusay's creek, off the north shore of Manila Bay. They fought
Marshal Goiti's forces in this furious naval battle. Bambalito
perished at the height of this bloody fight. His men were routed.
The rest paddled frantically away. Ten native boats were captured.
On June 24, 1571, the Feast Day of St. John the Baptist, Legazpi
proclaimed Manila as the capital of the Philippines (celebrated as
the Manila's FoundationDay). He called the city Nueva Castilla,
because he had been told that there had been an old fort or castle
on the site.
On the same day, the city government was established with a
cabildo or city council and a court. Years later, King Philip II, by his
Royal Decree of June 1,1574, named Manila, Insigne y Siempre Leal
Ciudad (Distinguished and Ever Loyal City) and by his Royal Decree the first three decades of Spanish rule, the Philippines was divided
of March 20, 1596, conferred a beautiful coat-of- arms on this city. into encomiendas. With a cross in one hand and a sword in the
On August 20,1572, Legazpi, the first Spanish governor and other, the Spanish conquistadores imposed upon the Filipinos this
adelantado (title given to those who personally funded their feudal
expeditions) of the Philippines, died of heart attack. Guido de La
vezaris succeeded and stayed in post until 1575. Captain Juan de
Salcedo, grandson of Legazpi, subdued the region along Laguna de
Bay; discovered the gold mines of Paracale across the mountains;
system of administration. The word encomienda comes from the
and pacified Ilocandia and Cagayan in 1572. He founded Villa
verb encomendar meaning "to commend or to commit to one's
Fernandina de Vigan in honor of Prince Ferdinand, son of King Philip
care." Originally, an encomienda was a feudal institution used, in
II who died at the age of four. Ln recognition of Salcedo's military
Spain to reward deserving generals and conquerors during Spanish
services, the Spanish Crown gave him encomienda in llocos. From
wars of recover}' of territory from the Moors. The earliest
Vigan, Salcedo explored the tip of Luzon. In 1573, he conquered
encomendergs in the West Indies were delegated with the power to
Camarines, Albay, and Catanduanes. The Bicolanos refused to yield
collect tribute and to use the personal services of the inhabitants of
to them. The natives used their arrows against the Spanish forces,
their encomiendas. This feudal grant was introduced by the Spanish
however they hurriedly withdrew for their safety after Salcedo fired
Crown for the combined purposes of rewarding deserving Spaniards
his guns. I'he Philippines was a crown colony considering she was
and attracting others to settle in the colonies. Permanent
under Spanish domination. From the beginning of Spanish rule in
settlement of the Spanish soldiers assured the defense of the
1565 to 1821, the Philippines was a dependency of Mexico. The
colonies. This also facilitated the conversion of the natives to the
Mexican viceroy, in the name of the Spanish King, administered the
Catholic faith. Encomienda in the Philippines was not a land grant. It
country. After the independence of Mexico from Spain in 1821, the
was more of an administrative unit for the purpose of exacting
Philippines came to be directly governed from Madrid. In 1863, the
tribute from the natives and to use the personal services of the
Overseas Ministry (Ministerio de Ultramar) took over the functions
King's vassals in the encomienda. The encomendero undertook
of the Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias). The colonial code
ways to look after the wellbeing of his people and to educate them
titled Recopilacion de leyes de los reynos de las Indias (Compilation
with Spanish norms of conduct. In the domain of relations, the
of Laws on Royal Lands in the Indies) popularly known as Leyes de
encomienda had been considered as a kind of benevolent
Indias (Laws of the Indies) issued in 1680, was used by Spain to rule
paternalism. In reality, the encomienda was looked upon by its
its extensive possessions. It was on November 16,1568 when King
beneficiaries as a pretense for slavery. Tributes were collected in
Philip II issued instructions to Legazpi to establish cities and towns
cash or in kind. From the total collection, not exceeding one-fourth
and create encomiendas to be distributed to deserving soldiers, in
of this went to the encomendero and the rest to the friars as well as
the government. The cabeza de barangay (former datu) collected
the tribute and gave it to the encomendero. The Laws of the Indies
provided that the encomendero must not own a house in the native
settlements, within their encomiendas to avoid the commission of
abuses. C >ovenwr Gomez Perez Dasmariftas, as commanded by
King Philip 11, urged the encomenderos to reside near their wards
to promote the latter's welfare. However, this arrangement became
an opportunity for the encomenderos to enrich themselves. The
unlawful inaction of numerous services coupled with greed and
cruelty made the lives of the natives miserable. The early Spanish
friars took the side of the exploited people because they saw that
the colonizers had failed to instruct their people in the Catholic
religion. The national economy, founded upon the medieval concept
of master cind slave, paved for the introduction of a class of landed
aristocracy, while the broad masses lived in distress.
Haciendas and encomiendas are not the same though both were
forms of colonial appropriation. The demands or exactions of an
encomendero were incidental to his position as representative of
the King, thus, he exacted tribute and drafted labor. The hacendero
on the other hand, under the fiction of partnership (with the tenant
as companion or kasama), had the right of inheritance and free
disposition of the land. Because of the abuses perpetrated by the
encomenderos, the encomiendas were replaced by a system of
provincial government. There were two types of provincial
administrations: the alcaldiamayor or the province, where peace
had been established by the Spanish government placed under a
civil official called alcalde-mayor; and the corregimientos or
territories that had not been completely pacified under the charge
of corregidores or politico- military governors. Tomas de Comyn, a
Spanish social scientist, nevertheless described the office of the
alcalde-mayor as a model of graft, corruption, and inefficiency
brought about by inexperienced men being assigned to govern the
provinces. Some of them had little or no background at all to
execute their varied responsibilities. The province was divided into
towns or pueblo, which were administered by gobernadorcillos. The
office of the gobernadorcillo was open to Filipinos. This local
position was at first occupied by pre-colonial chieftains and their
descendants and later elected by an electoral board composed of
the outgoing gobernadorcillo and twelve members of the
principalia. The principalia (social and political aristocracy) referred
to the prominent land-owning and propertied citizens who could
read, write, and speak Spanish. Each town had several villages or
barangays placed directly under the cabezas de barangay. This
position remained an appointive office. The king appointed the
governor general and other colonial officials administering the
country. The governor general was the chief executive as well as the
commander-in-chief of the military forces in the colony. Aside from
this, he was also the vice-royal patron wherein he has the power to
recommend priests in parishes, and the authority to intervene in
controversies between religious authorities. The governor general
could also reject or suspend the implementation of any royal decree
or law from Spain with his cumplase power, if in his opinion, the
conditions in the colony did not justify its implementation.
The office of the governor general was oftentimes bought or
granted as a favor. Since it generally involved a short tenure of
office, averaging two years and ten months, and in the 19th century
even shorter, the governor general oftentimes became eager in
accumulating wealth before his term of office expired. However, gobernadorcillos, cabezas and their families, government
checks to gubernatorial powers were made possible through the employees, soldiers with distinguished service, descendants of
following: first, the Audiencia Real or Royal Audiencia established in Lakandula, a few other native chieftains, choir members, sacristans,
1583 to act as the Supreme Court of the colony also served as porters of the churches, and government witnesses.
advisory body to the governor and audited the expenditures of the
Encomenderos often had to send soldiers to collect the tribute by
government; second, the residencia, which was a judicial institution
force. Nonpayment of tribute meant torture or imprisonment.
headed by the incoming governor general to conduct a trial of an
Sometimes houses were burned or looted by them? soldiers as
outgoing governor general and other Spanish officials for the
punishment for the natives' defiance. Other natives |ust fled to the
purpose of punishing those guilty of corruption, but the case may be
mountains to escape punishment. The Filipinos hated the tribute for
appealed to the King for clemency; third, the visitador-general, who
it was a symbol of subjugation to Spain. Likewise, it resulted to
was the investigator sent by the King or an official dispatched by the
Spanish abuses especially by tribute collectors. Opposition to
Council of Indies in Spain to check the behavior of the high officials
colonial authority became quite difficult. Although the Spaniards
in the colony; fourth, the Archbishop and clergy who were
constituted a small number in the country, they had conscripted
appointed by the Pope upon the recommendation of the King; and
natives from different regions to put down revolts in other regions
fifth, subordinate public officials and influential private citizens. The
to remain in power. Polo or forced labor instituted in 1580 was
counterbalance efforts of the aforementioned nevertheless proved
another form of pacifying the natives. Male Filipinos between 16 to
ineffectual in reprimanding corrupt administrators, for it was quite
60 years of age rendered manual service for the country for the
easy for them to bribe the officials conducting the investigation.
purpose of building ships, churches, roads, and other forms of
They could even seek for the revocation of the decisions given by
infrastructure. The polista or worker has to work 40 days a year in
the investigating officials through political influence in the country
the labor pool. In 1884, forced labor was reduced to 15 days a year.
or in Spain. The local officials as well as the Spanish high officials
To be excluded from the polo, one has to payfalla (exemption fee),
became the main instruments of "pacification." The subjugation of
which only a few Filipinos could actually pay. The chieftains and
the natives became complete after they have agreed to pay the
their eldest sons were also excused from forced labor. Polo led to
tribute. One tribute corresponds to one family, consisting of
the abandonment of the fields, separation from families or homes,
husband, wife, and minor children. Half of the tribute has to be paid
as well as illness and death for some. The alcaldes often drafted
by an unmarried man or woman. One tribute is equivalent to eight
hundreds of men, more than what was necessary for woodcutting
(8) reales or one peso. It may be paid in money or in kind like rice,
and then pocketed the money, which must be paid for the polistas.
honey, corn, and the like. In 1851, it was increased to 12 reales or
Bandala, which was instituted in the first half of the 17th century by
one peso and a half, in 1884, the cedula tax replaced the tribute.
Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera was another way
Exempted from paying the tribute were as follows: incumbent
to overpower the Filipinos. This refers to the assignment of annual
quotas to each province for the compulsory sale of products to the
government. Due to lack of funds, the government issued
promissory notes in exchange for the goods. Nonpayment on the
part of the government meant seizure of products. The system
meant virtual confiscation of products for the government that was
usually out of money; promissory notes were first given in exchange
for the goods. The political condition in the Philippines was
worsened with the union of Church and State. The friars, like the
government officials, exercised political, economic, and other non-
spiritual powers. They controlled the educational system as well as
the collection of taxes and the conscription of natives into the army.
They even controlled municipal elections and censored plays and
reading materials. So extensive was the so-called friar interference
in the country that in the 19th century, Filipino propagandists
demanded their expulsion.
5. Towards the Hispanization of the Natives The Spaniards
integrated into the Filipino society their religion, language, customs,
arts, and sciences. The Church and State inseparably carried out
Spanish policy in the country. When the Spaniards came into the
country, they destroyed the carved idols out of wood and stone
because these artworks were regarded as abominable to the faith.
To a great extent, the Spanish Catholic missionaries were able to
remodel Filipino culture and society. The Spanish authorities
clustered the Filipino population into village settlements where they
could more easily be instructed. Since most secular colonial officials
had no intention of living far from home, the friars took on the roles
as the King's representatives and interpreters of government
policies in the countryside. Spanish urbanization was centered in the
city of Manila, within a walled city called Intramuros. Infrastructure
showing Spanish domination in the country, such as massive
colonial churches, convents, schools, roads, bridges, and the bahay
na bato at kahoy (Antillian stone and wood houses) were
constructed. Initially, buildings during the Spanish era were of
thatch and bamboo. After accidental fires that hit some of them,
stones, wood, bricks, and tiles were used for construction.
Structurally, the bahay na bato at kahoy also known as bahay na
mestiza (or mixed, because wood and stone were blended
together), perpetuated the features of the pre-Hispanic bahay na
kubo. The ground floor was used for storage and for parking
vehicles. Habitation took place upstairs with specific rooms for
guests (azotea and sala), dining (comedor), cooking (cocina), and
sleeping (cuarto). The Spaniards imposed the feudal system and
created towns and estates by converging the people through
reduction, referring to the resettlement of inhabitants in Spanish-
style poblaciones - or at least - bajo de las campanas (within hearing
distance of the church bells). The Spanish model for a poblacion
(town center) was organized around a rectangular plaza, with the
church (the most important structure of the plaza complex) and
convent on one side, bounded by
the tribunal or municipio, and by the houses of Spanish officials and
principales (elite). The presence of principalia residences in the
plaza complex reflected the existence of socioeconomic ascendancy.
Spanish society had always stressed "purity" of blood in indicating became conversant with the Spanish language. He wrote the first
societal rank. At the top of the social pyramid were the espanoles, published Tagalog book titled Librong Pag-aaralan nang manga
with both Spanish parents, which included the espanoles Tagalog nang uicang Castila (Book
peninsulares (born in the Spanish peninsula) and the espanoles
that the Tagalogs Should Study to Learn Spanish) for the benefit of
insulares or Filipinos (born in the colony). Below the espanoles were
unlettered Filipinos in the Spanish language. Basic education was
the mestizos and mestizas - the children of an espanol and an indio
rendered by parochial schools, established primarily for religious
or india. The term mestizo referred to the mestizos de sangley or
instruction. The first one was established in Cebu. In 1582,
Chinese mestizos, while Spanish mestizos were called mestizos de
Archbishop Domingo de Salazar ordered that every town was to
espanol. Constituting the majority of the population were the indios
have one school for boys and one for girls. Attendance was made
or indios naturales, pertaining to the natives of the Philippines
compulsory. Parents paid the teachers' salaries. The subjects taught
without Spanish or I hinese ancestry. Generally, the Spanish
were catechism, reading and writing in the dialect, music, the
colonizers believed that the indios k could not comprehend more
rudiments of arithmetic, and trades and industries. Education was
than the basic knowledge. The ceremonial splendour of the Roman
still in the early stage of development during the Spanish period.
Catholic Church aroused the admiration of the natives. More
Even by the late 19th century, the Spanish language was still
representatives of various religious orders such as the Augustinians,
unknown to a great majority. They were literate in their own native
Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits came to the Philippines after
dialects. The Spanish aristocracy tried to distinguish themselves
Legazpi's expedition. The first bishop of Manila was Fray Domingo
from the indios with the use of language and level of education.
de Salazar, a member of the Order of Preachers (OP). He was
Higher education was established exclusively for the Spaniards and
succeeded by Fray Ignacio de Santibanez, a Franciscan priest who
Filipinos, referring to those born in the colony to Spanish parents.
became the first Archbishop of Manila. The territory of the old
Colleges and universities were closed to indios. (The natives were
Archdiocese of Manila covered the civil provinces of Nueva Ecija,
only allowed in these institutions after 200 years of colonial rule).
the Southern half of Tarlac, Zambales, Pampanga, Bulacan, Rizal,
The Jesuits in Manila founded the first college for boys in 1589. It
Cavite, Batangas, Laguna, and the islands of Mindoro and
was originally called College of Manila (for the scholastics), and later
Marinduque. Pope Clement VIII on August 26,1595, established the
changed to College of San Ignacio. In 1621, it was elevated to the
Diocese of Nueva Segovia in Lal-lo, Cagayan. In the same year, the
rank of a university by Pope Gregory XV and was named University
Diocese of Nueva : Caceres in Camarines Sur and the Diocese of
of San Ignacio. However, this school was closed in I7h8 when the
Cebu (cradle of Christianity ' in the Philippines) were also
Jesuits were expelled from the country. In 1601, the Colegio de San
established. Consequently, the missionaries learned local dialects
Jose also under the Jesuits, was established. In 1611, Fray Miguel de
and introduced the Roman alphabet. By the 16lh century, there
Benavides, the third archbishop of Manila established the Colegio
were Filipinos like Tomas Pinpin (the first Filipino printer), who
de Nuestra Senora del Santissimo Rosario, later renamed
Universidad de Santo Tomas (in 1645 by Pope Innocent X). The
Dominican order that administered Colegio de Santo Tomas also
established the Colegio de San Juan de Letran to take care of
orphaned Spanish boys. The girls were also given special education.
Schools were of two kinds: the colegio, which is a regular school for
girls; and the beaterio, a combined school and nunnery. The first
college for girls in the Philippines was the College of Santa
Potenciana (1594). After the
school ceased its operations, the students transferred to College of
Santa Isabel, now the oldest existing college for girls in the country.
The institution was originally built to care for orphaned Spanish
girls. Eventually, it became an exclusive school for the daughters of
affluent Spaniards. In 1621, the Franciscan nuns established the
Real Monasterio de Santa Clara (now St. Claire Convent of Manila),
the first nunnery in the Philippines. In 1694 the Beaterio de la
Compania de Jesus, which was directed under the Jesuits was
founded by Mother Tgnacia del Espiritu Santo, a Filipina nun. This
was a school established to accommodate Filipino girls, the indias.
Mother Ignacia's spirit of poverty, humility, penance, confidence in
God and charity became the distinguishing mark of the beatas
(resident pupils). The beatas had extended their apostolate to
education. The beaterio has developed into the Congregation of the
Religious of the Virgin Mary (R.V.M.) of the 20th century. - Primary
education consisted of courses in reading, writing, arithmetic,
religion; geography, the history of Spain, the Spanish language,
vocal music; and agriculture for boys and needlework for girls. The
girls were taught basic education, as well as religion, needlework,
painting, and music. Academic reforms were later on implemented,
after the Spanish government conceded to its growing demand. The
Educational Decree, dated December 20, 1863 introduced a system
of public education that opened opportunities to Filipinos for higher
learning. It ordered the establishment of an educational system
consisting of elementary, secondary, and collegiate levels. It also
provided for the establishment of normal schools to train teachers.
The Board of Public Instruction was likewise created to supervise
the schools. The decree also provided for the use of Spanish as the
language of instruction, starting at the elementary level. The Escuela
Normal (Normal School) for the training of male teachers for
elementary instruction, was delegated to the Jesuits. It was
inaugurated in 1865. In 1893, it became the Normal Superior, which
trained teachers of secondary courses. Schools for the arts were
also built aside from these regular schools. Archbishop Juan A.
Rodriguez founded the Escuela de Tiples in 1743. The institution
was to provide elementary education and offer courses in vocal and
instrumental performance. In the late
19th century, the school was able to pattern its plan of study after
the Conservatory of Music in Madrid. Damian Domingo founded the
Academy of Fine Arts, the first school in painting in Manila in 1820.
With this, he was called the "Father of Filipino Painting." The
Academia de Dibujo y Pintura (Academy of Drawing and Painting)
was founded in 1824. Some of its students were sent by the
government to pursue higher studies in Madrid, Rome, and Paris. In
the 19th century, various technical schools were established like the
School of Mercantile Accounting and Modern Languages, patterned
after the Commercial School in Barcelona. Commerce was
introduced as a three-year vocational course, with the degree of
perito to be earned by the student after studying. Mechanics and
other vocational courses were offered in secondary instruction
leading to the bachillerato en artes. After finishing the course, the
students could take examinations for the title of perito mecanico
(mechanical expert). Surveying was also introduced as a vocational
course, which conferred the degree of perito agrimensor to its
graduates. It was in 1860, that a nautical school was opened upon
orders of the queen. It was placed under the commander of the
fleet. After four years, the student was to board a ship. The degree
of piloto de marina mercante was to be given after the training. The
seeds of vocational education were sown by the early Spanish
missionaries who taught the natives better methods of farming, the
cultivation of foreign plants like indigo, corn, cotton and wheat, and
various crafts like printing, carpentry, masonry, and dyeing. The
early missionaries were also the first to establish a printing press in
the Philippines. Books were being printed by xylographic method,
using engraved wood blocks. The earliest book printed was the
Doctrina Christiana en lengua espaiiola y tagala (1593), written by
Fray Juan de Oliver. This catechetical book sought to explain the
importance of Christ, chastity, and devotion to God in the
vernacular. At the beginning of the 19th century, the pasion was the
prevalent form in print. Written in verse and chanted during Lent, it
depicted the life and passion of Jesus Christ. The first Tagalog pasion
was written by Caspar Aquino de Belen. It was published in 1704.
The second written pasion titled Casaysayan ng Pasiong Mahal ni
Jesucristong Panginoon Natin na Sucat Ipag-alab ng Sinomang
Babasa (The Story of the Holy Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ that
Should Inflame the Heart of the Reader, circa 1814) was preferred
over the lirst one. It was also known as Pasyong Genesis. This
version was edited by Father Mariano Pilapil (circa 1758-circa 1818)
and published by the Imprenta de Santo Tomas. It was later
translated into several native dialects. During the first half of the
19,h century Jose de la Cruz was the most prominent poet in the
oral tradition. He was said to have written many literary pieces in
elegant Tagalog language. Among them were: Doce Pares de
Francia; Bernardo Carpio; and, Adela at Florante. He was popularly
known as Husefig Sisiw because whenever zealous writers
approached him for guidance in their verses, he required them to
bring sisiw (chick) as payment. Pedro Bukaneg, the blind poet who
wrote the popular Ilocano epic, Lam-Ang, was hailed as the "Father
of llocos Literature." Among the Tagalogs, Francisco Balagtas (later
dubbed as the Prince of Tagalog Poets) became popular with his
poetical pieces particularly, Florante at Laura. Momentous feasts
and events like the arrival of a new Spanish official also meant stage
presentations. The first recorded drama was staged in Cebu in 1598,
a comedia written by Vicente Puche. It was performed in honor of
Msgr. Pedro de Agurto, Cebu's first bishop. Christian victory over
the Muslims was depicted with a linambay (moro-moro in Tagalog)
in 1637. At the end of the 17th century, the first theater was
established in Intramuros, Manila, known as Teatro Comico. At the
turn of the 19th century, the zarzuela, a Spanish one-act opera with
satirical theme became popular in the country. These stage plays
were performed at fiestas where townfolks eagerly watch so as not
to miss the gala presentation. In the field of music, the Sampaguita
composed by Dolores Patemo became popular. The first music
teacher to win distinction in Philippine history was Geroriimo de
Aguilar, a Franciscan missionary. In 1811, the first newspaper in the
country appeared in Manila, which was the Del Superior Govierno
(Of the Supreme Government) with Governor General Manuel
Gonzalez de Aguilar as editor. In the field of science, the first
scientists in the Philippines were the Spanish friars. Fr. Manuel
Blanco, the "Prince of Botanists/"
wrote Flora de Filipinas, which was published in 1837. This book
identified 1,200 kinds of plants in the country. The first sundials in
the country were built in 1871 at Tagudin, llocos Sur by Fr. Juan
Sorolla, a Spanish Augustinian. Father Marcial Funcia Ramos
introduced the first iron printing press in the Philippines in 1847. He
also initiated the use of better paper such as papel de kilo (linen
paper), instead of rice paper and Chinese paper. George Oppel, a
German, introduced lithography in the country in 1858. Transported
through galleons (huge Spanish trading ships) were plants like corn,
cassava, sweet potato, cotton, maguey, indigo, achuete, tobacco,
cacao, peanut, tashew nut, pineapple, avocado, pepper, squash,
tomato, lima bean, turnip, and eggplant. The Spaniards also brought
to the Philippines some animals like horses, cow, sheep, and goats.
The galleon ships were used to ferry the cargoes via Pacific Ocean to
Acapulco, Mexico were brought into the Philippines by Asian traders
from China, Japan, India, Siam (now Thailand), Moluccas, and other
nearby places. Manila became an important port for the galleons.
The galleon would be carrying minted coins or silver bullion and
products of Mexico on its return. The galleon trade was a
government monopoly, however, the Chinese merchants
outnumbered the Spanish and Filipino traders in selling their goods
mainly silk textiles and porcelain to Mexico. The Chinese formed an
economically important community in Manila by the 1590s but
years later were given restrictions. When the galleon trade ended in
1815, Philippine trade was opened to the world, but links to Latin
America weakened. The financing of the galleon trade was made
possible primarily through the Obras Pias, the earliest banking
institution in the country. The funds were donated by rich people
for charitable purposes. Later, the friars had the funds given as
loans to businessmen at various rates of interest. The friars were
also able to borrow from die government. Unfortunately, they were
not able to pay back the government resulting in the bankruptcy of
the national treasury. In 1717, Governor General Fernando Manuel
de Bustamante compelled the friars to return the money they
borrowed from the government. This however, only resulted to his
death in 1719 in the
hands of an angry mob, agitated by his stringent rules against the
members of the church. The Spanish government also attempted to
introduce economic reforms in the country, through the efforts of
some enlightened officials like Governor General Jose Basco y
Vargas. Governor Basco implemented series of reforms not only to
promote economic development but also to make the country
independent of subsidy from Mexico. He envisioned large-scale
production of silk, cotton, tobacco, spices, and sugarcane; the
application of scientific knowledge to Philippine agriculture and
industry and the growth of foreign trade on the basis of Philippine
natural resources. Governor General Basco (1778-87) founded the
Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del Pais (Economic Society of the
Friends of the Country) in Manila on April 26, 1781. The society
helped much in the agricultural development of the country. In
1824, importation of martines (birds) from China was made to fight
the locusts that were destroying Philippine crops. The society also
offered prizes for best agricultural projects and techniques
developed. In 1853, Candido Lopez Diaz, a Filipino, was awarded for
his invention of a machine cleaning hemp fibers. In 1861, the society
established the tirst .igi n ultural school in Manila. It introduced the
cultivation of tea, cotton, poppy, and mulberry trees. Large tracts of
land in Camarines were planted of mulberry trees to feed
silkworms. Upon Governor Basco's recommendation, King Charles III
issued a royaT decree in 1780 establishing a government monopoly
in the Philippines that took effect in 1782. Thus, the government
established monopolies on tobacco, wine, gunpowder, playing
cards, and among others. The tobacco monopoly raised much
money for the colonial government but resulted to the abuses of
some crooked Spanish officials. They often cheated the farmers in
the payment of their produce. The farmers on the other hand
cultivated more than what was required and hid their excess
tobacco to be sold in the black market. In 1882, Governor General
Fernando Primo de Rivera abolished the monopoly. Private firms
took control of the tobacco business. Governor General Felix
Berenguer de Marquina succeeded Governor Basco. His first official
act was the demolition of nipa
houses in the city of Manila, which to him was an ugly sight and can
even cause fire. He also ordered the abolition of indulto de
comercio (license to trade), which gave the alcalde mayor
(provincial governor) the privilege to control the prices of goods in
his province. Monopolies on playing cards, gunpowder, and wine
were also abolished. He established the minting of money in the
country to prevent the outflow of gold. In 1842, Don Sinibaldo de
Mas, an economist, wTas sent by Spain to the Philippines to make
an economic survey of the country. In his report, he made the
following recommendations: first, the opening of more Philippine
ports to world trade; second, the encouragement of Chinese
immigration in the country to stimulate agricultural development;
and third, the abolition of the tobacco monopoly. The opening of
the Philippines to world trade resulted to a great demand for its
products in the world market. This brought about the need of
machinery for massive production. The first steam machine for
hulling rice was introduced in 1836 by Eulogio de Otaduy. Then a
few years later, Nicholas Loney, a British merchant, introduced the
first steam machine for hulling sugar in Negros. The end of the
galleon trade together with Spain's involvement in the Napoleonic
Wars (1799-1858), reduced the large-scale importation of fabrics.
This became beneficial to the local weaving industry. The most
important materials used in weaving were cotton, abaca, silk, and
pina. Sinamay or pinukpok is made from beaten abaca fibers, which
were extensively woven in Camarines, Albay, Panay, Bohol, and
Samar. Finest of the fabrics were usually woven in combination.
Nipis (sheer) is from pure Nllk in combination with cotton and abaca
(trom the trunk of wild banana). A particular type of riipis produced
in lloilo came to be called jusi (from the taw silk fibers brought in by
i hinese traders). Since weaving of the riipis requires a great amount
of skill, patience and time, the cloth was priced highly. Also popular
during the Spanish era was the pina fabric (from the Ir.ives of the
wild pineapple). Batangas was known for its kulambo (gauze
mosquito net). The Northern Luzon provinces produced a type of
cloth l.nown as abel lloco. As early as in the 1700s the Spaniards
brought in their dressy shirt (tucked out) with standing collar.
Woven embroidery of the
fabric is for display and for some, due to health reasons. With the
sinamay or pinukpok material, skin irritation at times developed
because of the material's fibers >md the country's warm
temperature. The trousers used with shirt were loose and required
the use of slippers or shoes. In the early 19th century, the
Augustinian missionaries introduced spinning wheels and more
sophisticated looms in Panay Island, which greatly developed the
local weaving industry of the place. In time, needlework developed
in Ermita, Malate, and Sta. Ana, Manila. Finished articles were
expensive, primarily because of embroidery. Elaborate works of
embroidery were sewn on hemlines, sleeves, scarves,
handkerchiefs, and on children's clothes. With skilled labor, this
cottage industry gained popularity. The Christianization of the
Filipinos was the most lasting legacy of the Spanish missionaries.
The Spaniards converted much of the Philippines to Christianity
except Mindanao and Sulu. The use of Philippine dialects by the
early missionaries facilitated the teaching of the Gospel. The striking
resemblances between the pre-colonial religion and Catholicism
have made the latter acceptable to the local inhabitants. During the
Spanish period, no building structure was allowed to rise higher
than the church's bell tower. The highest part inside the church was
the retablo. At the center and above the altar table was the
tabernacle for storing the sacred hosts. Many holy images arid their
corresponding devotions have originated from New Spain (now
Mexico). Some of the popular images are the following: statue of
Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage (also known as Our Lady of
Antipolo); the Black Nazarene venerated at the Quiapo Church, and
Our Lady of Guadalupe. Jesus Christ has been represented in various
forms. As a child he is depicted as the Santo Nifio, either placed on a
manger or standing as the Sovereign King with a globe and a
scepter. On His way to Calvary, he is presented as the Nazareno.
While placed inside a sepulcher, the image is called Santo Entierro.
The image of the resurrected Christ is known as Cristo Hi in ituiio.
Christ on the cross known as the Santo Cristo is regarded as the
most important symbol of the Church. It is to be placed at the
center of every altar. During the Spanish era, it occupied the central
pinnacle of the
church's retablo (decorated medieval altar). Family life during the
Spanish period focused on the Christian way of life. The father
although acknowledged as the head of the family, considered the
sentiments of his wife on family matters. The mother was regarded
as the custodian of the family. She usually acted as the first teacher
of the children. Families became more considerately close since
parents and children did pray together, particularly during the
Angelus, in saying the rosary and before each meal. They went to
church together to hear the Sunday mass as well as other masses,
marking important religious events like Christmas, Holy Week, and
the feast day of the patron saint of the town. Owing to the influence
of Christianity, social welfare was also promoted in the country. The
sick and the needy were given care through medical services, juan
Clemente founded the first hospital in Manila in 1578. Out of this
hospital originated the present San Juan de Dios Hospital and the
San Lazaro Hospital. In 1594, the Santa Hermandad y Cofradia de la
Misericordia (Holy Brotherhood and Confraternity of Mercy) was
organized for charitable works and services for the needy. The first
regular orphanage, Real Hospicio de San Jose, was established in
1810. The religious calendar stemmed from celebrations in
reverence of Jesus Christ and Mother Mary and in the feasts of
saints. Every December 8, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception,
which solemnizes the dogma of Mary being conceived without
original sin is celebrated through eucharistic rites and a grand
procession. The whole Christendom celebrates the birth of Jesus
Christ on December 25. The joyous celebration begins on December
16 with the start of Misa de Aguinaldo (Mass of the gift), popularly
known as simbang gabi, a novena dawn mass to prepare for the
midnight mass on Christmas Eve called Misa de Callo (Mass of the
Rooster). A religious play called panunuluyan, which reenacts the
search by Joseph and Mary for an inn has also been observed in
some parishes prior to the midnight mass. After the mass, families
gather for the traditional noche buena, a feast usually of ham,
cheese, and other native delicacies. The passion and death of Our
Lord is solemnly remembered during Lenten season, particularly
during Holy Week from Palm Sunday to Easter Sunday. People chant
the pasion or attend the cenaculo (religious play depicting the life,
sufferings, and crucifixion
of Jesus Christ). In Easter Sunday, the traditional salubong
commemorates Christ's first meeting with His mother. In
Marinduque, the Moriones Festival is held during the Holy Week.
This glittering pageantry rei .ills the story of Longinus, the Roman
centurion who was converted to Christianity. In this colorful parade,
the participants wear masks and costumes portraying the Roman
era. A typical Moriones mask bears a bearded Caucasian face with
large arrogant eyes and an open mouth. The tradition of self-
flagellation during the Lenten season was introduced in the
Philippines from Mexico. During those times, public penance was
practiced in Spain and the rest of Europe. But in Mexico and i n the
Philippines self-flagellation was primarily done to carry out a
promise (panata in Tagalog) to the Lord. Every town established
during the Spanish period has a patron saint, whose fiesta is
celebrated annually with masses, procession, fireworks, feasting,
music, and often, theatrical presentations. Towns or barrios named
after San Jose (St. Joseph) hold their fiesta on March 19. Those
named Sta. Monica celebrate every May 4. Those named after Sta.
Rita de Casia commemorate her feast day on May 22. Those named
San Juan (St. John the Baptist) observe his feast on June 24. Every
May 15, the Pahiyas Festival in Lucban, Quezon is held in honor of
San lsidro Labrador, the patron saint of farmers. The word "pahiyas"
comes from the root word hiyas, which gives a notion of a joyous
shower of blessings or treasures. Elaborate decorations like rice
wafer, fruits, and vegetables are placed on houses, as an outpouring
of creativity and thanksgiving for good harvest. In Pulilan, Bulacan,
the Carabao Festival is also held in honor of San lsidro ever)' May
15. Work animals mostly colorfully groomed and shaved carabaos
are led on parade on the streets of Pulilan to genuflect or kneel in
front of the church. Also in Bulacan, the Obando Festival is in honor
of the town's patron saints - Nuestra Senora de Salambao, San
Pascual Baylon, and Santa Clara, which begins on the 17,h of May. It
is a three-day celebration. Pilgrims attending the festival usually
wear straw hats adorned with quills, flowers, ribbons or paper and
join the dance to appeal for heavenly intercession for a future
spouse in the case of singles or a child in the case of childless
couples. Farmers also attend to thank the Virgin of Salambao for
bounteous harvests. Bicol's grandest celebration is the annual
Penafrancia Festival where a fluvial procession is made in honor of
Our Lady of Penafrancia every 17th of September in Naga,
Camarines Sur. Culminating the final novena prayers is a Gregorian
Mass, in thanksgiving to God and in honor of Our Lady. During the
entire month of May, parishes annually hold the Flores de Mayo
(Flowers of May), where devotees offer flowers every day at the
church altar to honor the Blessed Mother. Before the month ends,
the Santa Cruz de Mayo or the Santacruzan procession is held to
commemorate the finding of the I loly Cross by Empress Helena and
Emperor Constantine. The participants called sagalas play various
characters found in Christian history, which include the Reyna Elena.
This festive celebration ends inside the church. Solemn rites and
celebrations were followed by dining and merrymaking among
families and friends. During these occasions, Spanish culinary
specialties like paella (a mixture of rice, chicken and shellfish), arroz
valenciana (rice and chicken cooked in coconut milk), and lengua
(sauteed ox-tongue) were usually served in feast tables.
6. Chinese in the Philippines During the Spanish times, the Chinese
were called Sangleys, derived from the terms xiang and ley meaning
"traveling merchant." Since Legazpi and those who succeeded him
favored Sino-Philippine trade, more trading junks from China came
to the Philippines annually, bringing their merchandise like silk,
textiles, and porcelain wares. Prior to the coming of the Spaniards,
the Chinese had already established their settlements in the
country. The Chinese, who were able to learn the styles and
techniques from native craftsmen, predominantly occupied the
manufacturing of carriages, stone masonry, printing, shoemaking,
and tailoring. In Manila, they were forced to live outside tine city
walls. The place was called Parian, erected in 1581 by Governor
General Gonzalo Ronquillo de Penalosa. Outside Manila, many
Chinese engaged in retail trade, while others invested in land. Many
Chinese settled in the Philippines after the Taiping Rebellion (1851-
1864) in China. A number of them were converted to Catholicism
and married Filipina women. Their descendants, called Chinese
mestizos, were formed.
During the Spanish period, the Chinese mestizos were able to
acquire land from peasants through the pacto de retroventa. This
was also known as pacto de retro, which was a contract under
which the borrower who conveyed his land to the lender could
repurchase it for the same amount of money that he had received.
Generally, the borrower could no longer pay the sum of money;
thus, the transfer of land ownership to the lender has been
completed. The Chinese in the Philippines had given valuable
services to the community but still they were not given fair
treatment by the Spanish authorities, owing to their constructive
role in the economic development of the country. To discourage
Chinese immigration to the country, the Spanish authorities taxed
them heavily. They were also taxed twice the amount required of
Filipinos because they earned more. The Spanish government
encouraged the immigrants to become agricultural laborers. Soon,
the Chinese gained position in the cash-crop economy in the
provincial level. The Chinese mestizo could legally change his
classification through the dhpcrtsaie ley, which involved the transfer
of his family to the tax register of Indios. The Chinese compound
name was combined into a single surname, • g., Tan Hwang Co to
Tanjuangco. 1 le wore the camisa de chitio and the top li.it, a status
symbol of the native priticipalia. I he first Chinese threat to Spanish
rule in the Philippines was the m\ .ision of Lim-Ah-Hong. He
appeared in Manila Bay on November 29, l'v I with 62 war junks and
shiploads of farming and household goods. M» was in search of a
kingdom. In Paranaque beach, Lim-Ah-Hong landed a force of 600
men under Sioco, his Japanese lieutenant. On November 30, 1574,
Sioco attacked H.n.umbayan, killed Marshal Martin de Goiti, and
assaulted the city of Manila. But the Spanish forces aided by
Filipinos, drove the invaders back to their ships. Lim-Ah-Hong
himself led the second attack in Manila. This time, Juan Salcedo has
already arrived from Vigan upon knowing the previous attack in
Manila. He succeeded Goiti as marshal. Sioco died in action while
Lim-Ah-Hong retreated with his ships and men northward, to
Pangasinan. He established a colony at the mouth of Agno River.
However, Lim-Ah-Hong's colony in the Philippines did not last long.
Marshal Salcedo with a fleet of 1,500 Filipinos and 250 Spaniards
sailed from Manila to Pangasinan and destroyed Lim-Ah-Hong's
stronghold in Lingayen Gulf.
Lim-Ah-Hong evaded capture. He managed to escape through a
man-made canal and fled to the hills and mingled with the Igorots
and Tingguians. Then, he returned to China and reorganized his
forces but he was defeated by the Chinese viceroy in Fookien in a
naval battle of Palahoan. He fled to Thailand but was not permitted
to stay there. He went to other kingdoms, but for fear of China,
these kingdoms did not welcome him. He wandered from one place
to another, till his whereabouts could no longer be traced. The first
Chinese revolt was brought about by the deep-seated suspicion of
the Spaniards. On May 23, 1603, three Chinese mandarins arrived in
Manila. They wanted to see Chin-San (Mountain of Gold), which was
believed to be in Cavite. The Spaniards looked at it as a plausible
scheme. After the mandarins had left, the Spaniards strengthened
the city defenses, which alarmed the Chinese residents. In Parian, a
secret plot to overthrow the Spaniards was planned under the
leadership of Eng-Kang, a rich Chinese merchant. They attacked
Tondo and Quiapo on October 3,1603 by setting the buildings on
fire and by killing the inhabitants. Don Luis Dasmarinas (former
governor general) and Captain Tomas Bravo de Acuna (nephew of
Governor General Acuiia) led the retaliatory attacks but they were
ambushed. I lowever, the Chinese failed to capture the city walls
because of the Spanish, F ilipino and Japanese joint forces, including
the friars as well as the residents of the area. The Chinese rebels
retreated to the hills of San Pablo, Laguna, but they were defeated
by the forces led by Cristobal de Axqueta Monchaca. In 1639, the
Chinese revolted for the second time. This was caused by Governor
General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera's order forcing the Chinese
to work in Calamba, Laguna. The Chinese denounced the abuses
committed by Spanish tribute collectors. On November 19,1639,
hostilities began in Calamba and it spread to other towns killing
several Spanish friars, including the alcalde mayor of Laguna,
Marcos Zapata. In the early part of 1662, Koxinga (real name was
Cheng Chengkung) was able to take Taiwan from the Dutch. He sent
Fr. Victorio Ricci to Manila, to extend his directive for tribute from
the Spanish authorities. This infuriated Governor General Manrique
de Lara and thus, he prepared to drive out all Chinese residents in
the country.
The Chinese retaliated by burning the district of Santa Cruz. Many
Filipinos and Spaniards were killed. An army of 4,000
Pampanguenos under Francisco Laksamana came to the rescue and
defeated the rebels who had fled to the mountains of Taytay and
Antipolo. The fourth Chinese revolt (1686) was planned by Tingco, a
Chinese ex-convict. He was desperate to raise money to return to
China. He tried to burn the city of Manila and to loot the churches.
His group of rebels attacked in August, starting at the Parian, in the
house of Don Diego Vivien, the alcalde mayor. The government
forces arrived and routed them. Tingco was caught and executed.
To put an end to possible Chinese insurrection in the country, the
governor in 1729 ordered that all unbaptized Chinese in Manila
were to reside in the Parian. The baptized ones had to reside in
Binondo and Sta. Cruz. However, when the British came and
occupied Manila in 1762 the Chinese collaborated with them to
fight the Spaniards. The Chinese in Manila as well as the Chinese in
Guagua, Pampanga secretly plotted to massacre the Spaniards on
Christmas Eve of December 24,1762. One of the plotters happened
to reveal the plot to his Filipina sweetheart. The latter relayed the
news to Fr. Jose Salas, the parish priest of Mexico, Pampanga.
Governor General Simon de Anda who was informed of this plot, led
his forces to Guagua on December 20 and crushed the Chinese
rebels. This bloody confrontation was considered in Philippine
history as the "Red Christmas."
7. More Europeans In the Islands Towards the end of the I6,h
century, some European nations began the attempts to establish
settlements in the Philippines. In 1579, English mariners including
Sir Francis Drake started to harass Spanish shipping. I he Dutch also
began to raid some islands in the Philippines. They likewise
assaulted Chinese, Portuguese, and Japanese trading vessels. In
1602, the Dutch trading companies sent fleets capable of seizing
control of the spice trade from the Portuguese. As Portugal's ally,
Spain committed its forces in the Philippines to help avert Dutch
assaults. Thus, the Dutch were drawn to the Philippines to weaken
the Spanish fleet stationed in the colony. Their base of operations
was Formosa (Taiwan). Dutch naval squadron attacked
various places in the Philippines from 1600-1747, which discouraged
Chinese and Japanese traders from entering the colony. In February
of 1646, a Dutch fleet arrived in the Philippine Sea. As the Spanish
officers and crew prepared for battle, the Dominican friars advised
the people to do penance and pray for the intercession of Nuestra
Sefiora del Santissimo Rosario (Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary).
After five naval skirmishes between March 15 and October 4,1646,
the Filipinos and Spaniards won the eight-month naval battle of
Manila against the Dutch. This naval victory, until now is being
celebrated as Festival La Naval de Manila in honor of Our Lady, the
patroness of the Spanish fleet. This is truly a manifestation of divine
intervention for people to reflect on the social and moral pressures
that threaten the Filipino society. The first successful foreign
invasion of the Philippines, after the Spanish conquest was the one
staged by the British. It happened when Spain became involved in
the Seven Years War (1756-1763) on the side of France and Austria
against Britain and Prussia for the control of Germany and for
supremacy in North America and India. In counterstrike, Britain laid
claim to most of the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the
Orient, including the Philippines. On the evening of September 22,
1762 (Manila time), the British fleet consisting of 13 ships (with
around 2,000 men) entered Manila Bay. The commander of the fleet
was Rear Admiral Samuel Cornish, while Brigadier General William
Draper was in command of the troops. The following morning,
September 23, two British officers sent ashore under a white flag, a
truce carrying an ultimatum to the Spanish officials, demanding the
surrender of Manila. Upon the advice of the council of war,
Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, the interim governor general
rejected the ultimatum. Thousands of Filipino warriors from
Pampanga, Bulacan, and Laguna reinforced the military army in
Manila, then with only 556 regular troops. I heir leader was
Manalastas, .1 Pampanguefto. Still, they were outnumbered and
out armed. Knives and spears were no match against British rifles.
Draper's cannons tore down the southwest corner of the city walls.
Finally, they were forced to retreat. Although unsuccessful, this
battle was significant for the Filipinos, for it proved their loyalty to
Spain and to Catholicism.
Manila fell into British hands on October 5, 1762 after a white flag
was hoisted at Fort Santiago. This was to stop the horrible slaughter
of city defenders and residents. Terms of surrender were discussed.
Simon de Anda, the youngest oidor of the Audencia Real had
escaped in a boat on the eve of the fall of Manila. He was
dispatched by Archbishop Rojo to Bulacan to ensure the loyalty of
the rest of the provinces to Spain. He established his headquarters
in Bacolor, Pampanga. He continued the government with himself
as the governor general. Archbishop Rojo had also sent messengers
to Palapag, Samar where the galleon Filipino docked. The ship had
brought back from Mexico the situado (subsidy) of over a million
silver pesos. The government wanted to keep this fund from the
British. Under Rojo's instructions, the ship was burned after the
silver coins were taken out safely. Learning about it, Cornish sent his
frigates to Samar but the money had already been placed under
Anda's care. During the brief occupation of the British in Manila, the
country had three governors: Archbishop Rojo, Oidor Simon de
Anda, and Honorable Dawsonne Drake, who established a civil
government in Manila. He was appointed by the East [ndia
Company to govern the Philippines. The brief occupation of Manila
by the British resulted to different reactions. When the British took
Pasig, Alimud Din sought refuge and was later restored to his
sultanate in the south. In return, he signed a treaty permitting the
British to establish a trading center in Jolo. The people of Paranaque
stood loyal to the Spaniards. Pampanga and Bulacan rallied behind
Anda. However, in North and Central Luzon, some people roused in
action against the Spanish government. In Pangasinan, a revolt was
instigated by Juan de la Cruz Palaris. In the Ilocos region, Diego
Silang accepted the British bid of support for his cause in fighting
against the Spaniards. The Seven Years War in Europe came to an
end with the Treaty of Paris signed on February 10, 1763. Among
the terms settled was the acquisition of almost entire French
Empire in North America by Britain. The British also acquired Florida
from Spain. England has to restore the Philippines to Spain. The
news reached Manila in a much later date. On May 31,1764, Anda
and his troops went back to Manila
amidst the jubilation of the populace in conformity with the treaty,
which formally ended the war.
Study Guides "Terms/Concepts to Understand Inter caetera bull
Vassalage Reduccion Plaza complex Retablo Pacto de retroventa
Questions to Answer 1. What prompted the Europeans to search
new lands in the 14th . century to the 16th century? 2. Explain the
efforts of the westerners to conquer the Philippines. 3. What made
some historians believed that it was in Masao, Butuan and not in
Limasawa, Leyte where the first recorded Christian mass took place?
4. Did the Spaniards succeed in promoting Hispanic culture among
the early Filipinos? 5. Describe the general condition of the Filipino-
Chinese during the Spanish period. What caused them to revolt
against the colonial government? 6. When the British forces
occupied Manila in 1762, what happened as a result to the
Philippine political scenario