The terminal velocity of a particle of size Dp and density ρp

settling under gravity through a medium of density ρ

One dimensional motion of particle in a fluid

According to Archimedes: Buoyancy force: Product of mass of the

fluid displaced by the particle and the acceleration from the
external force
 Drag force

CD :dimentionless Drag coefficient

Ap : projected area of particle measured in plane perpendicular to
direction of motion of particle
u0= u

If external force is gravity : ae = g

If external force is centrifugal

R: radius of path of particle

ω: angular velocity rad/s

Terminal velocity : where du/dt =0; incase of gravitational

external force
Incase of centrifugal motion of particle Terminal velocity when
du/dt is negligible

Since the velocity depends on the radius; the acceleration is not

constant if the particle is in motion w.r.to the fluid
Drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds number of particle (in case of settling
replace u0 by ut in NRe,p

Free settling: particle is sphere; far from other particles and the wall; is at its
terminal velocity

Hindered settling: particle is influenced by the other particles

 If the particles are spheres of diameter Dp

At very low particle Reynolds numbers (NRe,P) CD is inversely

proportional to the NRe,P (Stoke’s law region NRe,P<1 )
Fluidization

When particles are not

moving : Ergun Equation

Fluid velocity is too high:

Fluidization of particles
Conditions for Fluidization
Minimum Fluidization Velocity (v0M) :

Pressure drop across the bed

=

= Weight of bed per unit area of cross section – buoyant force

of displaced fluid
ΔP = (g/gc) (1-ε)(ρp- ρ) L

At the beginning porosity ε = εm => ΔP/L = (g/gc) (1-εm)(ρp- ρ)

Substituting in Ergun Equation

For fine particles with laminar region:

When Rep> 1000

Types of Fluidization:
The fluidization equation applies for liquids and gasses

Appearance of beds fluidized with liquids and gasses is quite different

Particulate Fluidization (liquid): large but uniform expansion of bed

at greater velocities than v0M
same average bed density
Aggregative or bubbling fluidization (gasses) :
irregular gas movement in the bed like bubbles
void fraction is same as min. fluidization

Depends on nature and size of gas bubble

Avg. bubble size depends on: nature and size distribution of particle
type of distributor plate
superficial velocity
depth of the bed
Slugging: happens If the diameter of the column is small
deep bed of solids

When superficial velocity >> v0M Then Turbulent Fluidization

Circulating Fluidization : further higher gas velocities

Continuous Fluidization : Pneumatic transport

 Expansion of Fluidized beds:
Since total pressure drop remains constant

Pressure drop per unit length decreases as porosity increases

ΔP/L = g(1-ε)(ρp- ρ)

Particulate Fluidization : expansion is uniform

Ergun equation is expected to apply
In case of large particles, in water

pressure drop also depends on kinetic energy of fluid

The dependency of ε on V0 is considered as

Ratio between Terminal Velocity to Minimum Fluidization velocity

For laminar

ut/v0M = 8.33(1-εm)/ (εm3φs2)

Usually for spheres : ratio is 50

some times goes to 100

For Newton’s law region 1000<Rep<200000

CD = 0.44 => FD = 0.055πDp2Vt2ρ

ut = 1.75(Dpg(ρp- ρ)/ ρ)(1/2)

ut/v0M= 2.32/ εm3/2

Pumps
Transportation of liquids through pipes and channels

Positive displacement pumps

Centrifugal pumps
Developed Head

Considering hfP=0
 Total head is denoted as

Dimension for head obtained = (m/s)2 =work per unit mass

In pumps, The difference in suction and discharge height is negligible

If Ha is total suction head and Hb is total discharge head

Dimension for head obtained = (m/s)2 =work per unit mass

Often head developed by pump is expressed in meters or feet of fluid

Power requirement

Power supply to the pump drive from an external source

Power delivered to the fluid

Above equations can also used for fans

Suction lift and Cavitation

Cavitation: if suction pressure is less than or slightly higher than liquid

vapor pressure some liquid flash to vapor inside the pump
To avoid cavitation ????

The pump,
inlet pressure must exceed the vapor pressure by certain value

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH).

Increases with pump capacity

Impeller speed
Discharge pressure
Positive displacement pumps

Reciprocating pumps

Piston pumps

Max discharge pressure for commercial piston pumps as about 50 atm

 Plunger pumps

Usually single acting and motor driven

Discharge pressure 1500 atm or more

Diaphragm pumps

Flexible diaphragm of metal

Plastic , rubber

Handling toxic materials

100 atm
Rotary pumps
Best for clean moderately viscous fluids
Discharge pressure 200atm or more

Spur gear pumps Lobe rotary pump

Internal gear pump

Vane pump
Peristaltic tube pump
Centrifugal pumps

1750 or 3450 r/min

Centrifugal pump theory

Performance of the pump

a-1, 1-2 and 2-b

1-2 is more focused

 Assumption:
1. All liquid flowing across the
periphery of the impeller is
moving at the same speed v2
(only numerical value)
2. The angle between vector v2
and the tangent is the actual
vane angle β2

Relative velocity of fluid v2 (w.r.to

observer moving with impellor)

Point 2, at tip of blade is moving with

Peripheral velocity u2 w.r.to axis

Absolute velocity of the fluid V2

(w.r.to observed from ground)
leaving the impellor is vector sum
 Same explanation for
absolute velocity at point 1

Angular momentum equation

For steady flow

Since α1 = 90 Vu1 = 0
 Since P = Tω

The power equation for an ideal pump with subscript ‘r’

Head-Flow relation for and ideal pump

 Since

The volumetric flow rate through the pump qr= Vr2.Ap

Ap : total cross sectional area of the channel around the periphery

Head-Work relation in an ideal pump

Bernouli equation
Effect of impeller speed and diameter change
Affinity laws

q varies with n (at constant D)

q varies with D (at constant n)

ΔH varies with n2 (at constant D)

ΔH varies with D2 (at constant n )

P varies with n3 (at constant D)

P varies with D3 (at constant n )
Actual performance of centrifugal pumps
Characteristic curves
 Fans, Blowers and Compressors

Fans

Low discharge heads (130-1500mm H2O)

Since change in density is very low,

Fluid flowing through Fans considered incompressible

Equations for centrifugal pumps are used here

1 atm = 10332.274528, mm H2O

Positive displacement blower

A single stage blower -
0.4 to 1 atm Gauge pressure

Centrifugal blower

3600 rpm or more

Centrifugal Compressor

340,000 m3/h at 20 atm pressure

Reciprocating positive displacement compressors
Equations for Blowers and Compressors

Change in density during compressible flow

Mechanical, kinetic and potential energies –no appreciable change

Assuming 100% efficiency and friction less

then at steady flow Bernoulli equation

Integrating between suction pressure Pa and discharge pressure Pb

Adiabatic Compression

If no cooling unit in a compressor

For an ideal gas

Isothermal Compression
Power equation in SI units

Adiabatic compression

Isothermal compression
Agitation and Mixing

Purpose of Agitation ???

Agitation equipment
Impellers

Axial flow impellers: currents parallel to the shaft of

the impeller

Radial flow impeller: tangential or radial direction

Propellers paddles Turbine

Propellers

Smaller ones 1150 or 1750 rpm

Larger ones 400 to 800 rpm

Max Diameter : 18 inch

Pitch of propeller

Square pitch
 Paddles

Pushes liquid radial or tangential

with no vertical movement

Industrial paddles : 20-150 rpm

Anchor type
Turbines

Effective over a wide range of viscosities

Flow patterns in agitated vessels

Directly dependent on type of agitator used

 Standard Turbine Design
Number of impeller blades 4-16
generally 6-8

Typical Proportions