Semiconductor Electronics

All electronic circuits use the devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained. Till
about 1948 such devices were merely vacuum tubes (also called valves). These devices used
metallic plates as electrodes. The metals emit electrons when heated, so the devices contain
heated metallic cathodes for electron emission and one or more metallic electrodes for controlling
the electron flow. The electron flow in these devices (thermionic emission) was controlled by
applying suitable potential difference relative to cathode. In these devices the electrons flow only
from cathode to anode (in one direction only); so these devices were called valves. The examples
are diode valve containing two electrodes: cathode and anode plate; triode valve containing three

2
electrodes: cathodes, control grid and anode plate etc.

6
Limitations of vacuum tubes:
These vacuum tube devices are quite bulky, require high voltage for operation and consume high

5
power.

7
In 1948 transistors were invented. A transistor is a solid state semiconductor device which
contain charge carriers within the solid itself. In semiconductor devices simple excitations like

7
light or small applied voltage can control the number of mobile charge carriers.

5
Advantages of Transistors over vacuum tubes:

3
These devices are very small in size, require low voltage for operation and consume low power.
Moreover, these devices have long life and high reliability.

1
Now a days all equipments e.g., television, computers are being constructed using solid state

4
devices.
9
In these notes, we shall study semiconductors, semiconductor diodes, junction transistors and
their applications.
@

Semiconductors
The substances which contain free charge carrier are called conductors while the substances
which do not contain any free charge carrier are called insulators. Semicondcutors are
L

intermediate to conductors and insulators. At NTP a semiconductor behaves as an insulator. The

well known examples of semiconductors are germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si).
A

Classification of Metals, Semiconductors, Insulators on the basis of Energy Band Diagrams:

L
N
A
H
S
R

Types of Semiconductors:
(i) Intrinsic Semiconductors: The pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. Their
A

conductivity is due to their own (internal) charge carriers. The

D

well known intrinsic semiconductors are germanium (Ge),

silicon (Si),i.e., they are tetravalent. The valency of each of Ge
and Si is 4.
The bonding between electrons of two neighbouring atoms is
covalent, therefore at NTP, there is no free charge carrier for
conduction. However, when a semiconductor is heated, some
covalent bonds break due to thermal agitation and thus some
electrons get free for conduction. As soon as one electron gets
free, there is a deficiency of electrons at its preceding position
which acts as a positive charge and is called a hole. The number of holes is equal to the number
of free electrons [ne = nh = ni ]. Thus in an intrinsic semiconductor the conductivity is due to holes
and electrons both, which increases with rise of temperature. At normal temperatures only 1 out
5
of 10 covalent bonds break, therefore the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is so small,
that they cannot be used for practical purpose.
(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductors: If a small amount of trivalent or pentavalent impurity is diffused into
a pure germanium (or silicon) crystal (doping), the conductivity of the crystal increases
appreciably. Such an impure semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor. The conductivity of
an extrinsic semiconductor is due to charge carriers provided by impurities. Extrinsic semi-
conductors are two types: (a) n–Type (b) p–Type
(a) n-Type semiconductors : When a pentavalent impurity like Phosphorus, Antimony, Arsenic is
doped in pure-Germanium (or Silicon), then the conductivity of

2
crystal increases due to surplus electrons and such a crystal is

6
said to be n-type semiconductor, while the impurity atoms are
called donors. Thus in n-type semiconductors the majority

5
charge carriers are negatively charged electrons and the donor

7
level lies near the bottom of the conduction band. [ne x nh = ni2]

7
(b) p-Type semiconductors: When a trivalent impurity like

5
Aluminium, Indium, Boron, Gallium

3
etc. is doped in pure Germanium (or silicon), then the conductivity of
the crystal increases due to deficiency of electrons, i.e., holes and

1
such a crystal is said to be p–type semiconductor while the impurity

4
atoms are called acceptors. Thus in p–type semiconductors the
9
charge carriers are holes. Acceptor level lies near the top of the
valence band. [ne x nh = ni2]
The conductivity of a semiconductor is: σ =e(neμe + nhμh)
@

where e is charge on positive or negative charge carrier, ne and nh are concentration of electrons
and holes, μe and μh are mobilities of electrons and holes.
The mobility (mobility : drift velocity per unit electric field) of holes is less than that of electrons.
L

The resistivity of a semiconductor is:

A
L
N

Diode as a Rectifier
The conversion of AC into DC is called the rectification. Diode has unique property to conduct
A

heavily in one direction (forward bias) so it is used as rectifier.

H

(i) Half Wave Rectifier: 

The circuit diagram for junction diode as half wave
S

rectifier is shown in Figure here.

Let during first half the cycle the secondary
R

terminal S1 of transformer be positive relative

A

to S2 then the junction diode is forward biased.

Therefore the current flows and its direction in load
D

resistance RL is from A to B.
In next half cycle the terminal S1 is negative relative
to S1 then the diode is in reverse bias, therefore no
current flows in diode and hence there is no
potential difference across load RL. Therefore the
output current in load flows only when S1 is positive relative to S2. That is during first half cycles of
input a.c. signal there is a current in circuit and hence a potential difference across load
resistance RL while no current flows for next half cycle. The direction of current in load is always
from A to B. Thus a single p-n junction diode acts as a half wave rectifier.
(ii) Full Wave Rectifier:
For full wave rectifier we use two junction
diodes. The circuit diagram for full wave
rectifier using two junction diodes is shown in
figure here.
Suppose during first half cycle of input ac
signal the terminal S1 is positive relative
to S (centre tap) and S2 is negative relative
to S, then diode I is forward biased and diode II

2
is reverse biased. Therefore current flows in

6
diode I and not in diode II. The direction of
current due to diode I in load resistance RL is

5
directed from A to B. 

7
In next half cycle, the terminal S1 is negative
relative to S (centre tap) and S2 is positive relative to S. Then diode I is reverse biased and diode II

7
is forward biased. Therefore current flows in diode II and there is no current in diode I. The

5
direction of current due to diode II in load resistance is again from A to B. Thus for input a.c. signal

3
the output current is a continuous series of unidirectional pulses. This output current may be
converted in fairly steady current by the use of suitable filters.

1
Remark: In full wave rectifier if the fundamental frequency of input ac signal is 50 Hz, then the

4
fundamental frequency of output is 100 Hz.
Filter Circuits: The rectified voltage is in the form of pulses of the shape of half sinusoids. Though
9
it is unidirectional it does not have a steady value. To get steady dc output from the pulsating
voltage normally a capacitor is connected across the output
@

terminals (parallel to the load RL). One can also use an inductor in series with RL for the same
purpose. Since these additional circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc voltage,
so they are called filters.
Now we shall discuss the role of capacitor in filtering. When the voltage across the capacitor is
L

rising, it gets charged. If there is no external load, it remains charged to the peak voltage of the
A

rectified output. When there is a load, it gets discharged through the load and the voltage across it
begins to fall. In the next half-cycle of rectified output it again gets charged to the peak value (See
L

Figure).
N
A
H
S
R
A

The rate of fall of the voltage across the capacitor depends upon the inverse product of capacitor
C and the effective resistance RL used in the circuit and is called the time constant. To make the
D

time constant large value of C should be large. So capacitor input filters use large capacitors. The
output voltage obtained by using capacitor input filter is nearer to the peak voltage of the rectified
voltage. This type of filter is most widely used in power supplies.

Optoelectronic Devices: LED, Photodiode, Solar Cell, Zener Diode

LED (Light Emitting Diode):
A light emitting diode is simply a forward
biased p-n junction which emits spontaneous
light radiation. When forward bias is applied, the
electron and holes at the junction recombine
and energy released is emitted in the form of
light.
For visible radiation phosphorus doped GaAs is
commonly used.

2
The advantages of LEDs are:

6
(i) Low operational voltage and less power.
(ii) Fast action and no warm-up time required.

5
(iii) The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Å to 500 Å or in other words it

7
is nearly (but not exactly) monochromatic.
(iv) Long life and ruggedness.

7
(v) Fast on-off switching capability.

5
I-V characteristics of LED are similar to that of Si junction diode but the threshold voltages are

3
much higher and slightly different for each colour. The reverse breakdown voltages of LED’s are
very low, about 5V.

1
Photodiode

4
It is a reversed biased p-n junction, illuminated by
radiation. When p-n junction is reversed biased with
9
no current, a very small reverse saturated current
flows across the junction called the dark current.
@

When the junction is illuminated with light, electron-

hole pairs are created at the junction, due to which
additional current begins to flow across the junction;
the current is solely due to minority charge carriers.
L

The characteristic curves of a photodiode

A

for two different illuminations I1 and I2

(I2 > I1) are shown in fig. (c)
L
N
A
H

Solar Cell
A solar cell is a junction diode which converts light energy into electrical energy. A p-n junction
S

solar cell consists of a large junction with no external biasing. The surface layer of p-region is
made very thin so that the incident photons may easily penetrate to reach the junction which is the
R

active region. In an operation in the photovoltaic mode (i.e., generation of voltage due to
A

bombardment of optical photons); the materials suitable for photocells are silicon (Si), gallium
arsenide (GaAs), cadmium sulphide (CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe).
D
 2
6
Working: When photons of energy greater than band gap energy hv > Eg are made incident on the

5
junction, electron-hole pairs are created which move in opposite directions due to junction field.
These are collected at two sides of junction, thus producing photo-voltage; this gives rise to

7
photocurrent. The characteristic curve of solar cell is shown in fig.(b) above. Solar cells are used in

7
satellites to recharge their batteries.

5
Zener Diode

3
A zener diode is a specially designed heavily doped p-n junction, having a very thin depletion layer

1
and having a very sharp breakdown voltage. It is always operated in breakdown region. Its

4
breakdown voltage   is less than 6V.
Zener diode as a voltage Regulator: The Zener diode makes its use as a voltage regulator due to
9
the property that when a Zener diode is operated in the breakdown region, the voltage across it
remains practically constant for a large
change in the current.
@

A simple circuit of a voltage regulator using a

Zener diode is shown in the Fig.(a) below. The
Zener diode is connected across load such
L

that it is reverse biased. The series

resistance R absorbs the output voltage
A

fluctuations so as to maintain constant

L

voltage across the load.

The working of circuit may be explained as
N

follows :
Let Vm be the unregulated input voltage
A

and V0 be the output voltage across RL to be

regulated and VZ be the Zener voltage of the diode. The value of the series resistance is so chosen
H

that the diode operates in the breakdown region under the Zener voltage VZacross it.
S

Let I be the current drawn from supply, IZ the current through Zener diode and IL the current
through load. Then obviously
R
A

If RZ is Zener diode resistance, then

D

Applying Kirchhoff’s law to the mesh containing resistance R, Zener diode and supply
voltage Vin we have

When the input voltage   is lower than the Zener voltage of diode, there is no current conduction

As input voltage Vin is increased so that it becomes equal to VZ the breakdown point is reached
and the voltage across the diode VZ = (Vin - IR) becomes constant.
A further increase of input voltage Vin does not result in the corresponding increase in V0 or VZ but
merely increases the voltage drop across R.
Thus in breakdown region, we have

Fig. (b) represents the plot of output voltage 

VZ versus input voltage Vin. It is clear from graph
that the output voltage remains constant when
the diode is in Zener region.
It may be pointed out that for maintaining constant
regulated output, the series resistance R for a given

2
range of input voltage be so chosen that

6
(i) the diode operates in Zener region and

5
(ii) current should not exceed a certain value to cause burn out of diode.

7
7
5
3
1
4
Junction Transistors
9
A junction transistor is a semi-conductor electronic device, discovered by Willium Shockly in 1951.
It is made in two forms:
(i) p-n-p Transistor (ii) n-p-n Transistor
@
L
A
L
N

(i) p-n-p Transistor: It is a single crystal containing two p-n junctions such that there is very thin
central layer of n-type semi-conductor enclosed on either side by p-type semiconductor. The
A

central layer has a thickness of about   and is called the base.

The p-type semiconductors on left and right side of base are respectively called the emitter and
H

collector.
S

The p-n-p transistor and its symbol are shown in fig. The arrow in symbol is from emitter to base.
Action of p-n-p Transistor :
R

The emitter-base junction is given a small forward bias,

A

while base collector junction is given a large reverse bias.

Under the forward biasing of emitter-base region, the
D

positive holes of P–region move towards the base. Due to

thin base most of holes (about 98%) entering it pass onto
collector while a very few of them (nearly 2%) combine
with the electrons of base. As soon as a hole combines
with the electron, a fresh electron leaves the negative
terminal of battery VEE and enters the base. This causes a
very small base current IB. The holes entering the collector
move under the aiding reverse bias towards terminal C. As
a hole reaches terminal C an electron leaves the negative terminal of battery VCC and neutralises
the hole. This causes the collector current IC. Both these currents IB and IC and combine to form the
emitter current IE i.e.,
Obviously the holes are the charge carriers within the p-n-p transistor while the electrons are
charge carriers in external circuit.
(ii) n-p-n Transistor : It is a single crystal containing two p-n junctions such that there is a very thin
central layer of p-type semi-conductor enclosed in either side by n-type semi-conductors. The n-p-
n transistor and its symbol is shown in figure below. The arrow in symbol is from base to emitter.
Action of n-p-n Transistor : The emitter base junction is given a small forward bias while the base
collector junction is given a large reverse bias. Under the forward bias of emitter base region the
electrons of emitter region move towards the base.
Due to base being very thin most of electrons (about 98%) entering it pass into the collector while

2
a very few of them (nearly 2%) combine with the holes of base.

6
As soon as an electron combines with the hole a covalent

5
bond breaks within the base releasing an electron hole
pair. The electron is attracted by positive terminal of

7
battery VEE and an electron leaves the negative terminal

7
of the battery VEE and enters to emitter through
terminal E. This process creates the base current IB and

5
also a new hole in the base.

3
The electrons entering the collector move under the

1
aiding reverse bias towards terminal C and are finally
attracted by battery VCC. This causes collector current IC.

4
For each electron reaching the positive pole of battery VCC
9
an electron leaves the negative pole of battery VEE and
enters the emitter. Obviously the emitter current IE is the sum of base current IB and collector
current IC i.e.,
@

The charge carriers in n-p-n transistor as well as in external circuit are electrons.

Configurations of a Transistor: There are three configurations of a transistor :
L

(1) Common Base Configuration

(2) Common Emitter Configuration
A

(3) Common Collector Configuration

L
N

Characteristics of a Transistor in Common Emitter configuration

In order to know the electrical behaviour of a
A

transistor, the characteristic curves between

various currents and voltages are plotted. The
H

most important characteristics of common base

S

configuration are its input and output charact –

eristics. The circuit diagram for determining
R

the static characteristic curves of n-p-n transistor

A

in common emitter configuration is shown in figure

here.
D

Input Characteristics: These characteristics are obtained by

plotting the base current versus emitter base
potential VEB at constant collector-base potential VCB. The
given Figure shows the input characteristics of CE n-p-n
transistor.
The characteristics curve resembles that of a forward
biased p-n diode. Input Resistance is the ratio of change in
emitter base voltage VEB to the corresponding change in
base current IB at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE.
The input resistance is very small, of the order of a few hundreds of ohms, because a small
change in VEB causes a large change in IB.
Output Characteristics: These characteristics are obtained by plotting the collector
current IC versus collector-emitter voltage VCE at constant input base current IB.
The given Figure represents the output
characteristic curves of a CE n-p-n transistor.
These characteristics resemble reverse bias V-I
characteristics but drawn in first quadrant instead

2
of third quadrant.

6
Output Resistance is the ratio of change in collector

5
-emitter voltage VCE to the corresponding change in
collector current IC at constant base current IB.

7
7
5
The output resistance is very high, of the order of

3
several-hundred kilo-ohms because a large change
in collector-emitter voltage causes a very small change in collector current.

1
Transfer Characteristics :

4
For CE configuration, the current gain β is defined as the ratio of change in collector current to the
9
change in base current for constant value of collector voltage in common emitter configuration i.e.,
@
L
A
L

Transistor as an Amplifier CE configuration:

Working: When input base current IB increases,
N

it increases the collector current according to

IC = βIB. The large current across larger resistance
A

RL gives amplified output ICRL.

Current Gain: The ratio of change in collector
H

current   to change in base current   

S

is defined as the alternating current gain denoted by βac.

R
A

Voltage Gain: The ratio of change in output voltage to the corresponding change in input voltage is
D

called the voltage gain. It is denoted by Av. The voltage gain of common-emitter transistor
amplifier is given by:

For large voltage gain from the current gain β and the ratio of load resistance to internal
resistance should be high.
Power Gain: The CE configuration is also called power amplifier configuration as it gives both
current and voltage gains. The power gain is given by:
RL
APP = AvAi = β2
Ri
Phase Reversal in CE configuration : The output voltage is practically taken across collector
terminal with respect to emitter terminal i.e., VCE. Applying Kirchoff’s voltage rule to the output
circuit we get output voltage as;
V0 = VCE = VCC - ICRC
As input voltage increases, it increases input base current IB and hence output collector current IC.
This increases the factor ICRL. So the resulting voltage in output decreases from VCC level. So an
increase in input results in decrease in the output and vice-versa. Thus, output voltage is 180
degrees or π radians out of phase than input voltage.

Transistor as a Switch

2
A switch is a device which can turn ON and OFF current in an electrical circuit. A p-n junction diode

6
and a transistor can act as a switch. We are familiar that when a junction diode is forward biased,

5
it conducts current but when junction diode is reverse biased, it does not conduct current. If we
treat the junction diode as a switch, then during forward biasing; the switch is ON and during

7
reverse biasing, the switch is OFF.

7
In a similar manner a transistor can also be used to turn current ON or OFF rapidly in electrical
circuits.

5
3
Operation: The circuit diagram of n-p-n transistor in CE configuration working as a switch is shown

1
in figure above.
Let VBB be the input supply voltage. VCC the dc output voltage is taken across collector-emitter

4
terminals across RL as the load resistance in output circuit.
9
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to input and output meshes (1) and (2), we get
@
L
A
L
N
A

Beyond Vi = 1V, the change in collector current and hence in

H

output voltage V0 is non-linear and the transistor goes into

saturation. With further increase in Vi the output voltage
S

further decrease towards zero (though it never becomes

R

zero).
If we plot V0 vs. Vi we get the graph as shown here. [called
A

transfer characteristic curve of base biased transistor]

Working:
D

Step 1 - As long as input voltage Vi is low and unable to

overcome the barrier voltage of the emitter base junction, V0
is high according to equation – 4 above. The transistor is
‘switched OFF’.
Step 2 – When the input voltage high, high enough to derive the transistor into saturation IB and
hence IC is maximum or saturated. The output is very low, very near to zero. The transistor is
‘switched ON’.
Thus low input switches the transistor in OFF state and high input switches it ON.
The switching circuits are designed in such a way that the transistor does not remain in active
state.
Logic Gates
A logic gate is a digital circuit that follows certain logical relationship between one or more inputs
and one output. The input and output are voltages which are always in two states only. The input
or output may be low or high. The high level is termed as ‘1’ while the low level is called ‘0’. By
convention, a voltage of 5 V corresponds to level 1 and voltage 0 corresponds to 0.
‘OR’ Gate : It has two or more inputs and one output. It follows the rule ‘‘the output of an ‘OR gate’
assumes 1 state if one or more inputs assume 1 state’’. The two input symbols of an ‘OR Gate’ are

2
shown in figure.

6
Boolean expression for OR gate Y = A + B

5
7
7
5
3
1
‘AND’ Gate: It has two or more inputs and one output. It follows the rule ‘The output of an ‘AND
Gate’ assumes 1 state if all its inputs assume 1 state’. The two – input symbol of an AND Gate is
shown in figure here.
4
Boolean Expression for AND gate is Y = A.B
9
@
L
A

‘NOT’ Gate: It has only one input and one output. It follows the rule: The output of a NOT gate is 1
L

if input is O and vice-versa. The symbol of a ‘‘NOT Gate’’ is shown in figure here.

̅
N

The Boolean expression is  Y = A

A
H
S
R
A

‘NOR’ Gate: It is the combination of ‘OR’ and ‘NOT’ gates. When the output of an OR gate is
D

connected to the input of a NOT gate, the circuit is called NOR gate and follows the rule: The
output of a NOR gate is 1 only if the both inputs are zero. The symbol of a NOR gate is -
̅
The Boolean expression for NOR gate is Y = A +B
‘NAND’ Gate: It is the combination of AND and NOT gates. When the output of an AND gate is
connected to the input of a ‘NOT’ gate, the circuit is called NAND gate and follows the rule ‘The
output of a NAND gate is 1 only if at least one of its inputs is 0’.
The symbol of a NAND gate is -
̅
The Boolean expression for ‘NAND gate’ is Y = A.B

2
6
The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates because the use of one or more of these gates can

5
yield any of the OR, AND and NOT gates.

7
7
5
3
1
4
9
@
L
A
L
N
A
H
S
R
A
D