PDC Notes for Control

Objective of process Control: Safe operation, Management of variation, Sustainability, Economics.

Benefits: wider range of operation, efficient, energy / emission reduction and lower product variability.

Control system components:

Error = Set point – measured variable

Pressure measurement

Manometers

- Static measurement
- Cheap, rugged, simple
- Fragile
 - If pressure difference is too big, liquid can be pulled out

Bourdon Tube

- Static measurement,
- +-0.5%

Mechanism:

- Pressure is applied
- Tip moves out
- Pulls up link and causes quadrant to move, whereby it is attached to a pinion and indicates on the dial

Differential Pressure cell

Pneumatic Differential pressure cell

Mechanism

- Pressure applied to opposite sides

- Pressure difference at the lower end of force bar
- Balances through a lever system
- Whereby the differential pressure can be proportionally calculated

Modern differential electronic cells

- The difference in pressure on the two sides of the isolating diaphragm exerts pressure
- Sensing diaphragm moves and causes a change in capacitance due to capacitor plates
- A change in capacitance is used to calculate change in pressure

Level Measurements

Float Actuated device

Examples of such include a chain, lever, or magnetically coupled devices whereby such device moves up and
down with the vessel. Think of your toilet, whereby the float moves up when the tank thing for flushing is
full, and seals the inlet of water.

Pressure/head devices

DP cells/manometer can be used to predict height, for example, pressure difference p=patm+pgh

Ultrasonic method

A transducer sends pulses of ultrasonic sound to the surface of the liquid, and the surface reflects the pulses
back to the transducer, based on speed and time, the distance can be calculated. Ultrasonic can also be done
in the liquid.

Temperature Measurements

Bimetal Thermostats
 - Expansion of differential metals
- Rugged, cheap, direct reading. Can handle vibration

Principle:

The difference in expansion causes a bend and the metal type touches the magnet, which can trigger an on
and off.

Thermocouples:

Two dissimilar metal/alloy wires join and the ends form a loop. This creates temperature difference resulting
in thermostatic electromagnetic field. Magnitude will determine the material used.

Flow measurement

Orifice Plate

Least expensive and simplest of head meters.

Constricts the flow of a fluid with a plate, to produce a differential pressure across the plate.
Differential pressure = F^2
Magnetic flow meter

Device measures flow using a magnetic field

- Based on faradays law, whereby a voltage is induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field:

- Where E is the generated emf

- B is magnetic field strength
- D is pipe diameter
- V is average velocity
- K is constant
- Thus when kB and D are constant, then E is proportional to V

Final Control elements

Control valves

- Pneumatic
- Most common in process control
- Initial lower purchase cost
- Relative ease of maintenance
- Speed of response.

Variable speed pumps

- Costly
- Reduce efficiency as they break down frequently
- If fail, then maximum pressure is delivered

Electric valves

- Above 25 cm pipe/valve diameters

Rheostats

- Small applications, lab water bath T control

Typical Pneumatic Valve

- Valves have an actuator that serves to open or close the valve

- A positioner that works to modulate the flow
- And the valve itself which include the body. Where there is a plug, seat, and where the manipulated
flow flows.

Another example

Valve definitions [Important]

Capacity – The maximum flowrate through the flow system

Range – the range that indicate the extent of flows.
Pressure drop – Purpose of the valve is to create a variable pressure drop in the flow system.
Three valve characteristics

Fast opening - Large change in flowrate for a small valve lift from the closed position. E.g, a 50% valve lift
may result in a flowrate of 90% of its maximum potential. Sometimes referred to as having an on/off
characteristic. These are usually pneumatically or electrically actuated for on/off control.

Linear characteristic valve plug – Shaped so that the flowrate is directly proportional to the valve lift.
Therefore a linear relationship is achieved.

Equal percentage characteristic – Slope of the curve increases as the valve is opened.

Rule of thumbs for control valves

- Generally, On/off is unwanted as it gives too little control

- Linear is usually more common for liquid level control
- Liquid percentage is more common for P and F control.

Control Valve coefficient and flow

CV is defined by convention in field or imperial unites as the number of US gallons that will pass through a
control valve in 1 min. Where the pressure differential across the valve is 1psi. Cv varies negligibly with Re
for most valve applications.

Valve positioners

Adjusts air pressure to move stem to correct position.

To expand, the valve positioner has a feedback controller which adjusts the stem position.

Air relay controller between controller and diaphragm. It separates air supply and stem position.

Fail safe design of valves

The valves can have its own failure positions where the air pressure is atmospheric. The valve can either be
fail open or fail closed

What is the aim of process control?

To maintain the process variable at a desired value in the presence of unmeasured disturbance. We want good
SERCO, REGULATORY control and robust.

Servo Control

Objective is to cause the output to track the changing set point

Regulatory

The task is to counteract the effect of external disturbances in order to maintain the output at its constant set
point (disturbance rejection)

Open loop control – You set something, and don’t monitor it to change accordingly. Like just starting a
washing machine. Open loop should only suffice when there are no disturbances present to threaten the desired
state of the product. ‘Real processes’ Usually require control.

Disturbance type

Input – a change in mass or energy of the supply, or input, to the process that may cause the condition of the
process variable to drift from its set point value.

Load - a load disturbance is any other upset, except for an input mass or energy change, which may alter the
quality from the desired set point value.
Set point disturbance – Occurs when the desired state of the process variable PV changes, and the process
must adjust to new state.

Note – Load disturbances cannot typically be anticipated and often not measured directly. Usually utilizes the
corrective action

SISO (Single input Single output loop)

Advantages

- Easy to implement
- Robust (insensitive to modelling errors)
- Regulates both known and unknown loads
- Operators have generally been taught to use and understand them

Limitations

- Process must first be upset before the controller reacts

- PV must be measurable and not noisy
- Loop interaction must be minimal
- No significant dead time
- MV must be adjustable over a large range
- Process characteristics must not vary with conditions or time.

Basic elements of feedback [Important]

Process variable – The variable that is important to maintain under control

Set point - Which represents the desired value of the PV

FCE – Typically a valve to which the controller output is attached and which the controller exercises its
influence on the PV

Manipulated variable – Represents the variable in the process to which the PV is sensitive, and to which the
FCE is attached.

Process characteristics – Action

Direct action – Refers to a control loop element that, for an increase in its input, also experiences an increase
in its output

Reverse action – Refers to the control loop element whereby an increase in its input would result a decrease
in its output.
Note: If in series, whenever there is an even number of I/D blocks in a series, the overall effect is I/I/
Whenever there is an odd number of I/D blocks in a series, the overall action is I/D

Actions of the loop elements [Important]

- Transmitter/ sensor – Direct acting

- Process – either, e.g an increase in flowrate increases the height in tank), or cold water flow and
temperature, is reverse acting.
- FCE – either e.g in the case of a pneumatic valve where it is an air to open actuator (fail closed), an
increasing air signal causes the actuator to stroke open, and therefore the flow of the valve increases
(Direct acting) but for fail closed, an increase in pressure would close the flow (reverse)
- Controller- either but the overall loop must be I/D as otherwise it would be positive feedback and
reinforces the error.

The loop action must be I/D as negative feedback is required for stable control. Positive feedback is when
something propagates the error, but we want to counter it so negative feedback is required.

Process Characteristics – Physical attributes

Static gain

Dead time

Hides disturbance from the process measurement and control and when the controller may over or under
react causing instability.

Capacitance
Capacitance represents a systems ability to absorb or store mass or energy. Capacitance may also be defined
as the resistance of a system to the change of mass or energy stored in it. i.e. Inertia.

Capacitance is a friend of the process control engineer. For example, consider a massive tank, a change in
input flow into the tank does not result in an instantaneous increase in the tank height.

- It acts as a natural buffer for disturbances

- Self-regulating control: The tank height stabilizes to a new steady state height for the step input in the
inlet flow and does not keep on increasing indefinitely.

HAS INERTIA AND SELF REGULATING CONTROL.

Capacity Dominant system

Where the Process variable h and the Measured variable is Qin.

Consider a simple P proportional controller, whereby the change in measured variable is:

If PV deviates from SP then change in MV is computed and implemented without delay and the deviation e
will be driven to zero. The larger the controller gain is the greater the corrective action. In the limit, as Kc
approaches infinity, the error will be driven to zero, and perfect control is achieved.

It is important to note that: For capacity dominated systems, effective control can often be achieved using
simple control and large gains. High capacitance means greater controller gain, and greater corrective action,
with inertia and self-regulation. Also, often tanks with high capacitance do not often need tight control, thus
usually p control suffices. But remember that a large capacitance (too much) will usually increase capital
costs, and too much upset material allowed to accumulate, it may take longer to fix.

Example Capacity dominated system with dead time

A first order response to step change

In the presence of a step input change, for a capacity-dominated first – order process, it takes about for
the output to reach its final steady state value and to reach 63.2% of the steady state value.

Time constant can actually be defined in electrical terms as the product of resistance and capacitance.
A second order response

Second order system response examples

Please note that P controllers provide fast responses, but do not remove the offset, they just help the
regulation back to steady state. The offset which is the original error, stays.

Control modes

On-Off control modes

Primarily used for FCE’s that are non-throttling in nature. E.g hot water boiler in your house, or heating at
home, when the temperature goes above the set point then the heating turns off.
Usually a switch and not a valve.
Useful for large capacitance systems where tight control is not important (like a surge tank)

Disadvantage of on-off
Although as a disadvantage, the FCE gets worn out therefore a low operational life of FCE as on and off.

Another disadvantage is cycling, since the controller cannot throttle the actuator, but only turn it on or off, the
on-off control is always Cycling about the set point. Cycling frequency is usually reduced by introducing a
dead band (of which is like a range whereby no control action is to take place). However, cycling cannot be
eliminated.

The controller switches off when the process variable exits the dead band on the high side and does not turn
on again until PV is outside the dead band on the low side. The frequency of cycling is reduced.

Proportional P control
 E.g

Fi=MV
If Fi =fo then the CV stays at the SP.

So if the controller output is zero (manipulated variable) then the level would begin to drop, to stop this Fo
and F0 must equal 50 percent again, if a linear relationship is assumed between inflow and controller output,
then for Fi = 50%, then MV= 50%, therefore assuming such relationship, if SP is 50% then:

Suppose for Example

Suppose

Therefore

Do you notice that now that the greater KC is, the less the error is required in order for the MV to have
corrective action? In theory if Kc is set to infinity than the error could be reduced to zero. But an extremely
large value of Kc can lead to instability as its value is multiplied with gains of other elements in the control
loop. There is a loop gain limit, a limit to how large the controller gain can be.
HOWEVER, another approach to reducing the error to zero is to add a bias b, it is simply defined as the output
of the controller when the error is zero. So therefore, the controller is still active even if error is zero, and the
level would not drop as a bias is set.

Proportional Controller (continued)

If Kc has a value such that loop gain KL is 1, then the loop will oscillate with a period that is a function of the
natural characteristics. This is called the natural period, a function of the natural characteristics of the process.

Natural Period below

Gain can be defined as:

Change in Output of the controller over change in input

Controller gain

Advantages of P

- Simple
- Easy to tune, as only Kc is needed.
- Large capacitance systems have large controller gain, also usually large capacitance systems do not
require small changes so P control is ideal

Disadvantages
 - Cannot remove off-set

Proportional – Integral (PI) controller

Note that in a proportional integral controller, the change in MV will only stop when e =0, thus the manipulated
input will keep on changing because of the presence of the integral term

The bias term in the P-only control has been replaced by the integral term in the PI controller

The integral action provides a bias that is automatically adjusted to eliminate any error.

The integral action eliminates error but usually takes 50% longer than just P-only

Proportional Integral Derivative controller (PID)

The primary purpose of a PID is to create a response that is much the same as P control but with no error
offset. The derivative term is the last term as indicated as above.

The integral action results in a delay (which is determined by Ti)

The derivative action provides a lead (or a look ahead) to overcome lags/Delays in the loop by:

- Anticipating where the process is going by looking at the rate of change

- However, does not work well in the presence of NOISE
- D controller is never used as a sole control module as it does not know where the SP is, cannot control
the SP. It only knows D is changing.
- Although D action should not be used when variable has a noisy measure or process is not sluggy.
When noise is present, the measurements may be masked by such noises. Usually large tanks have
noise

Advantages

- Oscillations can be dampened with respect to PI control

Disadvantages
- Tuning is harder than PI as three parameters need to be specified, Kc, Ti, and Td
- Derivative action may also amplify measurement noise.

Control Graph Summary:

Summary of Control modes

Choosing your control mode

Box 1 – Usually if a small offset can be tolerated like in large capacitance tanks, P control would suffice
Box 2 – Noise would stop derivative action from taking place
Box 3 – if ratio of dead time and process time constant is greater than 0.5, then the process is assumed to be
dead time dominant, and requires PI
Box 4 – a small dead time and small capacity does not require derivative action to compensate for loss
Controller hardware (Memorize pros and Cons)

Controller tuning

Performance criteria for controller tuning (Important)

- Closed loop must be stable
- Provide good disturbance rejection
- Suitable set point tracking
- Offset should be avoided
- No excessive control actions
- Control system robustness

To remember:
RoStDrOff ExxSP
Ro – Robustness
St – stable control loop
Dr – can handle Disturbance rejection
Off- avoid offset
Exx- No excessive control actions
SP – Suitable set point tracking

Controller tuning is like an art

- Overdamped – Slow response with no oscillation

- Critically damped – Fastest response without oscillation
- Underdamped – Fast return to set point but with considerable oscillation

Common criteria for controller tuning

Overshoot:

Decay ratio
Offset: The steady state deviation in the control variable caused by a change in the load variable
Rise time: the time required by the transient response to initially reach the final steady state value
Response time: The time required for the response to settle within the specified arbitrary limits.

Error criteria
An error performance criteria are more complicated and take into account the entire response of the process .

Integrated error

- Minimize area under the curve

- Below represents the graphical representation of the controlled variables return back to set point is
known as a response time. This is the area under the response curve but remember below the x axis is
negative and so the error may be zero!

Integrated absolute error,

Just the absolute of the area, so negative areas a re accounted for,

Integrated square error

The reason the square is done is to penalize larger errors. For example an error of 6 is 36 and 5 is 25, so 6^2
is much more penalized and gives more conservative responses.

Integrated time absolute error

This takes into account of errors that exist over time, then they are penalized even if they are small. This
usually results in a more havily damped results/
Summary graph

ISE is least damping as only large errors are penalized most, IAE accounts for large and small somewhat
equally. And integrated time has the most damping as errors that exist over time although small are penalized
thus resulting in a heavily damped response.

Tuning methods

Trial and error tuning

- Tuning by trial and error is simply a guess – and check type method.
- P is the main control. I&d are used to trim the response
- Start with controller gain, P I and D with minimum
- Adjust Kc in factors of 2
- Optimal response is ones chosen criterion, (the QDR)
- When in trouble, decrease the integral and derivative actions to a minimum and adjust the controller
gain for stability

Reaction curve Tuning : Step response – Open loop

- Introduces small disturbance and record action of the process variable

- Allow it to reach a steady state

The lag time, Time constant estimate, P initial step disturbance are the parameters taken away from
this method, whereby:
 And it is substituted to the according equations.

Constant cycling tuning

1) After the processes reaches steady state, eliminate the integral and derivative control action
2) Set Kc equal to a small value and place the controller in the automatic control
3) Introduce a small set point change so that CV moves away from the SP
4) Gradually increase Kc and repeat step 3) until continuous cycling occurs

Classical advanced control

Cascade control

Cascade control is a control type that uses two controllers with one feedback loop nested inside the other.
The output of the primary controller acts as the set point for the secondary controller
The secondary controller controls the final control element FCE
 Cascade control is generally faster than normal feedback, but can cause potential loop interactions. This
would be faster as both controllers would calculate appropriately, for example a specific supply of energy
requirement is required rather than a simple signal for valve adjustment.

Heat exchanger cascade control example

For example, For normal feedback. If FW changes, Fs is adjusted accordingly, what if the upset is in Fs (a
supple side upset) and Fw and Fs are both changing, there would be a delay in sensing changes in Fs, which
results in sustained oscillations causing it to be in a constant state of flux.

For cascade, if Fw changes or SP for T changes, then the primary loop will change the SP for the secondary
loop, and that secondary loop will adjust it accordingly. For that new SP, so a specific energy requirement is
the objective, and not a simple valve opening and seeing its affect later down the stream.

Feedforward control
Feed forward control corrects and minimizes disturbances before they enter the process, but it faces a huge
disadvantage of having to know all the possible disturbances. Unexpected disturbances cannot be combatted
in this sense, no corrective action would occur.
 - If all disturbances were known, then feedback control would never be needed, but it never happens.
- So therefore, feedforward can be combined with feedback, where by the Feedforward mitigates most
of the effects from the known disturbances, and the feedback provides residual control, set point
tracking, and knows if there is an unexpected disturbance.

Ratio control

- A type of mass balance control, whereby the ratio between two variables are kept fixed.
- Typically the two variables are the ‘Wild flow rate’ and ‘Manipulated flow rate’
- The wild flow rate is measured, and the controlled flowrate is adjusted to maintain a fixed ratio
between the two. Both have a transmitter on both flowrates
- It can be considered a form of feedforward control

- Take an example of a reactor with two liquid feed streams, ratio control would ensure they are both
stoichiometrically correct and ensure mass balances are correct.
 - Take another example of an absorption column where V/L is utilized a as a fixed ratio, whereby V is
the wild flow rate and L is the manipulated flowrate. Keeping constant absorption factors.

As seen above, wild is measured, and manipulated is measured, and the manipulated is changed accordingly.
Here the set point is the ratio.

OR alternatively, the set point could be yw multiplied by the constant of a desired ratio, and it is adjusted
accordingly

Override Control

This usually occurs because of constraints on variables for economic, efficiency and safety reasons.
- If the number of controlled variables is greater than the number of measured variables, then a selection
should be made for obtaining a SISO system
- A selector is used for this

High Selector: Passes the highest value of the multiple inputs the output signal, ignoring other inputs
Low selector – Chooses the lowest inputs the pass through as the output while ignoring the other inputs

Equipment protection

In the protection of a pump for example we need to consider 3 things

- Surge protection – When Pin drops below a certain minimum value, and the output valve should close
- High temperature – When the temperature of the pump exceeds a certain maximum temp, the outlet
valve should close
- Excessive downstream pressure – When P-outlet exceeds a maximum pressure, close the valve

As you can see above, all the selectors are low selectors, so indicating that the lowest output from either would
control the valve. For example, a low pressure would protect it from a surge. Note how TC and PC have
Reverse action, thus the smallest manipulated signal is the one that would damage the most

Auctioneering

- The objective of auctioneering is to protect against the high temperature sensed by one of many
temperature transmitters.

- The highest temperature will be selected by the high selectors and used as the measurement for
controlling fuel to the oven.
Redundant instrumentation

This is when you have to control something and its of great importance so you have two instrumentations,
together they may be redundant unless you use a selector.

Take for example an exothermic reactor, where too much of a catalyst can prove to be disastrous.

Thus, two composition transmitters are implemented, and a high selector implemented, therefore, the highest
reading of the analyzers (which would be the worst case scenario) would be used to control the catalyst in
flow.

Downscale failure of the analyser- If one analyser fails to zero, then the other will still be functional to control
the catalyst in flow

Upscale failure – If one analyser fails to full scale (to its max), it will get selected and then the catalyst flow
will be stopped, production is stopped and a possible hazardous situation is avoided.
Split range control

- Useful when there is one CV and extra MV’s

- For example both hot and cold water used to control reactor T

Common Control loops

Flow loop

- Response
- Noisy
- Use PI control

Liquid pressure loop

- Same characteristic as Flow loop

- Control P by controlling flow
- Use PI control as noisy
Liquid Level

- Large capacitance
- Noisy
o Turbulence
o Stirring
o Boiling liquids
o No D action
- But noise can be offset by using stilling well
- Should always consider P initially as high capacitance means it’s a) self-regulating, b) does not need
close control, and c) has noise so cannot use D action
- But then PI control can be used if not P

Gas pressure loop

For a gas pressure loop, consider only P control as it is the easiest process control loop. It is the only loop in
process industry that is unconditionally stable. Due to low process gain and high controller gain.
Temperature Control loop

- Can use PI or PID as temperature measurement is not noisy

Take for example this tank with condensate.

If T2 gets too hot, then the condensate valve will close, and that means less steam input, and more condensate
to cover more tubes, which would REDUCE heat transfer to the cold fluid. However note that condensation
time is large and therefore the response is quite slow.

Temperature control example 2

Side stream of Fw is skipped to the end without heating mixing with the heated part, however, this usually
gives a heavy energy penalty as you first heat up and cooldown, complete loss of energy for no reason

Temperature control example 3

- Most difficult to control

- Unstable
- Nonlinear response

Pump and compressor Control

Pump control – The flow and pressure of streams discharging from pumps must be control.
- For a centrifugal pump: you should throttle the discharge valve
- For a Reciprocating pump: you should manipulate the recirculating valve
- The most efficient method of control however, is to have the pump itself have a variable speed motor

Compressor Control

- Major capital cost

For a reciprocating compressor control:

Control the compressor capacity, engine load and speed.

Control of auxiliary items on the compressor package (oil water, gas temperatures, scrubber liquid
levels etc.
Control of compressor safety, temperature and vibrations etc.

For a centrifugal compressor control:

Control the capacity, and oscillations.

Distillation column control

- 5 Dof
- Level pressure and temperature, and 2 mass balance control
- Temp can be controlled by reboiler steam or distillate
Multiple single loop control[Unfinished]
[Learn from slides]

Plantwide Control[Unfinished]
Plantwide control asks the questions:
Can the feeds be set and the process left unattended?
What would happen if a common disturbance occurred?
- Feed composition change
- Production rate change
- Product mix or purity specifications change
- Temperature changes
- Sensor failures

Novice Mistakes
- Cannot have more than 1 valve on 1 line
- Rarely control P more than once or wice
- Would like to control F (throughput) only once
- Have to control level wherever a Liquid vapor interface
- Would like to minimize Temperature controls

Important to be aware of propagation of variation through plant. Snowball effect.

Variation Management

- Important to be aware of the propagation of variation through a plant

- Management of variation is the key to good plant wide operation and control

Movement of variation

Management strategies

- Short term: Transfer variation to less harmful locations

- Long term: Process improvements to reduce or eliminate the problems caused by variation
Short term:

Ok so short term solution strategy would be to transfer the variation in feed by compensating for It in the
utilities, for example consider a heat exchanger, the inlet has fluctuations but then you add a controller,
now that condensate or steam inlet or whatever will vary, in order to keep that fluctuation of the PV
constant, basically adding a controller, keeping the PV at set point.

Long term solution strategy

So basically, feed system is redesigned so that all the high frequency variations ( all with high noise) are put
into a mixer to reduce all the noise, essentially making it one stream.

Plantwide control (Cascaded units)

- Material balance control structure for inventory controls
- Product quality loops are closed to keep product streams at specification values
- Manipulated variables are commonly utility streams which have little effect on downstream units
Ok so vapor boil up changes requires changes in the reboiler and condenser duties. Boilup also effects the
liquid levels, but the level controllers filter this out. So there’s a propagation of disturbances down the flow
path to the next unit, thus feedforward control can be used to look out for previous units disturbances.

Plantwide control – Recycle

- Typically install large surge tanks.

Example Ethylene Glycol Plant

 With valve level control below

So there’s a big danger here called the snowball effect. It’s a giant monster that lives in the tank. Lol im
just fucking with u. Anw basically u see if there was a step change in the water feed to the reactor as seen
in the diagram below, then u see it stays at that new Step change, but the water is STILL being continually
recycled, so more and more and more and more water will accumulate in the surge tank, and the level
control in the surge tank just opens the valve to max, and boom, some F*ed up damage and sh*t happens.
This is called the snowball effect, u know when u roll a snowball once, it keeps rolling down the hill and
turns massive and u find out that u left ur kid in the snowball? Yeah that’s why.

So what do u do to counter this, You add the feed of the water valve to the surge tank, then you can control
the feed inlet of water at the surge tank. Perfect, so if too much water is going to the system, the valve simply
lowers the feed of water into the system and voila, no more snowball kids in the tank.
As u can see below:

Plantwide control summary?

What are the primary objectives of the plant

Where are the bulk inventories and how should they be controlled?
Will additional inventory control improve the operation and control
Will changes in the process design improve the operation and control?
Where should recycle streams be placed?
I think should have a read of these: IS HE GOING TO ASK US A QUESTION TO ANSWER WITH
ASKING A QUESTION TO BE THE ANSWER FOR THAT QUESTION? QUESTCEPTION. -
Colonel Adrian 2018
MPC[Unfinished]