CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Worldwide the herbal industry is picking up at a fast pace. Herbs and

botanicals now appear in more products and have more medicinal applications
than ever before. India is blessed with diverse agro-climatic conditions and is
a major source for a wide variety of medicinal plants. But the production
potential is largely underexploited.
Pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, food and cosmetic industries are the
major buyers of herbal products. Herbal products are in demand in the form of
standardized plant extracts or botanical ingredients or semi-finished products.
Although the modern Allopathic system of medicine of western world has
made great strides and contribution to the understanding of human physiology
and cellular metabolic pathways and brought out methodologies for handling
acute diseases and infections However, worldwide, we face the problem of
incurable chronic diseases and ageing associated ailments.
When we look back over 250 years ago, people of many continents for
the most part resorted to herbal and traditional medicine. Likewise in India
too, Ayurveda systems offered botanical medicines and took care of the health
of our nation. Almost 25 – 40% of the active components of the synthetic
medicine of allopathic medicine had origins from higher flowering plants of

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the world and the clues to discover them came from folklore medicines of
various cultures.
Although the allopathic medicines are extremely effective in handling
short term and emergency health conditions, it has been largely ineffective in
treating some of the above multi factorial chronic diseases. The relative
strength of modern system of medicine over the traditional system is in its vast
pharmacopoeia, technological advancement in surgical tools or procedures and
in handling of acute diseases. Despite the fact that many new medicines are
being added in allopathy, only about 30% of the known 2000 diseases are
cured, and other 50% are being treated only symptomatically. Approximately,
20% of the allopathic medicines have considerable side effects.

1.1.1 Traditional Herbal Medicine

Herbal medicine has such an extraordinary influence on various

diseases that numerous alternative medical practitioners treat their patients
with Herbal remedies, Unani and Ayurveda. Approximately 25 percent of the
available prescription drugs are derived only from medicinal plants, trees,
shrubs or herbs.

1.1.2 History of Indian System of Medicine

Ancient Ayurvedic physicians in India had developed certain specific

dietary and therapeutic treatment and measures to arrest and delay the ageing
process and as a result rejuvenating the whole functional dynamics of the body
system. This revitalization and rejuvenation of the whole body is known as the
'Rasayan chikitsa' or rejuvenation therapy. Traditionally, Rasayana drugs were
being used against a plethora of diverse disorders with no pathophysiological
connections that is being followed in the modern system of medicine.
‘Ayurveda’ means the science of life. It is derived from the words ‘Ayush’
meaning life and ‘Veda’ meaning knowledge or science. It is not merely a
system of medicine but it is a science which covers various aspects of human

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life and health. In this connection, Ayurveda also reveals itself by another
meaning “Ayusho Vardhanam Veda” which means a discipline of science that
helps to prolong life or age. ‘Vardhanam’ means to prolong.

1.1.3 Indian Medicinal Plants

Nature has blessed and bestowed our country with an enormous wealth
of medicinal plants. Therefore, our country, India has often been referred to as
the medicinal garden of the world.These medicinal plants play a major role in
maintaining human health and also help in improving the quality of humanlife.
It is a well-known fact that medicinal plants have been used in manyareas
including medicine, food and nutrition, flavoring agents,beverages, dyeing,
insect repellents and cosmetics and other important industrial purposes.Since
the prehistoric times, medicinal plants have been the basisfor nearly all
medicinal therapies until the syntheticdrugs were developed recently in the
nineteenth century.The preservative effect of many medicinal plants suggests
the presence of antioxidants and antimicrobial constituents.Interest has
increased drastically inisolating naturally occurring antioxidants from
medicinal plants to be infood andpharmaceutical products. The use of
synthetic antioxidants is restricted due to theiradverse effects on human
health.Many medicinal plants contain large amountsof antioxidants such as
polyphenols and flavonoids which play an important role in scavenging the
free radicals, quenching the singlet andtriplet oxygen and decomposing the
peroxides. Variousepidemiological studies have shownbeneficial effects on
high intake of fruits andvegetables on many of the age-related chronic
diseases. Antioxidant compoundsfrom medicinal plants are multifaceted in
theirbenefits and provide excellent and enormous scope in correctingthe
imbalance in the body through regular intake of a properamount of such
medicinal plants or their extracts in the normal diet. It has been shown that
increased intake ofphytochemical antioxidants may reduce the threat of
freeradicals and many age related chronic diseases.At present, much of the

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attention has been focused on Indian medicinal plants that possess the
excellent property to arrest or delay the ageing process and also rejuvenate the
wholefunctional dynamics of the body. This revitalization and rejuvenation is
known as“Rasayan Chikitsa” and it is an important discipline of the
“Ayurvedic” system of medicine. Rasayana drugs are used in the treatment of
a large number of disorders with no pathophysiologicalrelationship according
to modern medicine. These groups of medicinal plants generally containstrong
antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.

Among the most early and ancient civilizations in the world, India has
been known to be rich repository of medicinal and herbal plants. The forest
spread all overIndia is the principal repository of a large number of medicinal
andaromatic plants, which are largely collected as raw materials for
manufacture of pharmaceutical drugs andperfumery products. More than 8,000
herbal remedies have been codified in Ayurveda. TheRig-Veda(5000 BC) has
recorded 67 medicinal plants, Yajurveda has recorded 81 species,
Atharvaveda(4500-2500 BC) has recorded 290 species, Charak Samhita (700
BC) has described properties and uses of 1100 species and Sushrut Samhita
(200 BC) has described properties and uses of 1270 species respectively, in
compounding of pharmaceutical drugs and these drugs are still used today in
the classical formulations, in the Ayurvedic system ofmedicine. Unfortunately,
much of the ancient knowledge and many valuable plants and plant products
are being neglected and lost at an alarming rate. With increase in urbanization
and the rapid destruction of forests, impairing the availability of rawdrugs,
Ayurveda, like other systems of herbal medicines has reached a very critical
phase which must not be ignored.About 50% of the tropical forests in India
which serves as the treasure house of plant and animal biodiversity
havealready been destroyed because of mere ignorance. In India, the rich
forest area is disappearing and vanishing at an annual rate of 1.5mha/yr. Only
a mere 8% geographical area is left behind at present as against a mandatory

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33% of the geographical area. Many important and valuable Indian medicinal
plants are under the verge of extinction. The Red Data Book of India has a
total recording of 427 entries of endangered species of which 28 are
considered extinct, 124 are considered endangered, 81are
consideredvulnerable, 100are considered rare and 34are considered
insufficiently known species [1].

In India, Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Folk (tribal) medicines are the
major systems ofindigenous medicines. Among these systems of indigenous
medicine, Ayurveda is most developed and widelypracticed in India.
Ayurveda which finds roots dating back to 1500-800 BC has been an integral
part of Indianculture Indian system of medicine. The term Ayurveda comes
from the Sanskrit root Au which meanslife and Veda which meansknowledge.
As the nameimplies,Ayurveda not only deals with the science of treatment of
the disease but also covers the whole gamut of happyhuman life involving the
physical, the mental and the spiritual aspects of life. Ayurvedarecognizes
clearly that besides a balance of the body elements, one has to have an
enlightened state ofconsciousness, sense organs and mind if one wishes to be
perfectly healthy in all aspects. Ayurveda is a science which is an experience
with nature and unlike in Western medicine, many of the concepts
excludescientific explanation. Fortunately, Ayurveda is now gaining
importance and prominence as the natural system of health care allover the
world.
1.1.4 Ayurveda: Representation of Indian Traditional Medicine

The traditional medicine that is practiced all over the world is now
revalued by an extensive and elaborate activity of research work on different
medicinal plants. Experimental evidence suggests that free radicals and
reactive oxygen species is involved in a large number of chronic diseases
[2,3]. As medicinal plants are rich sources of antioxidants whichreduce the
oxidative stress caused by sunrays and oxidation they can definitely represent

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a source of new compounds with antioxidant activity. ‘Ayurveda’ which
represents the Indian traditional medical system (‘ayus’means life,
‘Veda’means knowledge, meaning science of life or knowledge of life)is the
oldest and best medical system in the world and is now being revived and
activated in its complete form under the name of ‘Maharishi Ayurved’[4]. The
World Health Organization has approved its efficiency in the treatment of
diseases [5]. The Ayurvedic System provides a route to the prevention and
treatment of many diseases by employing a large number of medical
procedures and pharmacological preparations. One of the most important
clinical specialties of Ayurveda is Rasayana. Rasayana is not only considered
as a drug therapy but is recognized as a specialized procedure that is practiced
in the form of rejuvenating recipes and dietary regimen promoting good
habits. The purpose of Rasayana is prevention of disease and also counteracts
aging process which results from the optimization of homeostasis. The
meaning of the word Rasayana (‘rasa’means essence, water; ‘ayana’means
going) which essentially refers to good nutrition and its acquisition, its
movement, circulation and perfusion in the body tissues [6]. With regard to the
Rasayana drug therapy scientists have reported about the strong antioxidant
activity of any Rasayana.The compounds isolated from medicinal plants were
found to be 1000 times more potent than ascorbic acid, -tocopherol, and
probucol[7].
In Indian philosophy, an importantconcept in this regard is explained
that it is not merely increasing thelife span but also ensures good quality of life
as it is described in the following principle of Yajurveda.
¾ Pashyem Sharadah Shatam: Maintenance of goodvision for a hundred
years.
¾ Jeeveym Sharadah Shatam: Live for a hundred years.
¾ Shrunyat Shardah Shatam: Having goodhearing power for a hundred
years.

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¾ Pabrabam Bhuyashch Shatat: Having a goodvoice on this earth for a
hundred years.
Therefore, the ultimate aim in this regard istomaintain a sound health
with proper harmonization between the body, the mind, and the soul. One of
the foremost pioneers of Ayurveda, Charaka describes twoimportant groups of
drugs in this respect. They are
1. Jeevaniya:drugs which is life promoting or responsible forkeeping oneself
healthy at any given point of time in one’slife and

2. Vayahsthapana: drugs which isresponsible for extending age or in other

words antiageingdrugs. Incidentally, all these categories of drugs are also
calledRasayanas.

1.1.5 Rasayanas

‘Rasayana’ is a unique discipline of ‘Ayurveda’ which means vital

nourishment (Rasa + Ayana) which represents a holistic approach that is
responsible forprevention of ageingand alsotreatment of diseases. Sharangdhar
in 16thcentury AD correctly described‘Rasayanas’ as ‘JaravyadhiVinasanam’
which means checking theadvancement of age as well as destroyer ofdisease.
‘Jara’means age andVyadhi’ means disease.

1.1.6 Antioxidant Approach to Disease Management

The disease prevention and health promotion approach of Ayurveda

fundamentally takes into consideration the whole body, mind and spirit while
dealing with the overall maintenance of health. Promotion of health and
treating various diseases is a holistic approach and has now found increasing
acceptability in many regions of the world. The medicinal plants generally
possess strong antioxidant activity. Only a few medicinal plants have been
investigated in detail. Over about hundred disorders like rheumatoid arthritis,
hemorrhagic shock, cardiovascular disorders, cystic fibrosis, metabolic
disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, chronic gastrointestinal disorders,

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gastrointestinal ulcerogenesis and acquired immuno deficiency disorders have
been reported to be resulting from reactive oxygen species mediated response.
The role of free radicals in these diseases is an important thrust area of
research. Rasayana plants with potent antioxidant activity have been
investigated for their traditional uses and mechanism of antioxidant action.

1.1.7 Role of Rasayana Herbs in Ayurveda

The modern scientific study and evaluation of some ofthe major

Vayahsthapan Rasayanas (Anti-ageing)and Jeevaniya (Life promoting) drugs
shows thatall the Vayahsthapana drugs have strong antioxidantproperty and
several other pharmacologicalactions, though some of the Jeevaniya drugs
maynot have antioxidant property. Plants play a significant role in
maintainingthe human health and improving the quality of the humanlife. It is
evident from literature survey that herbs have been used in manydomains of
human life including medicine, nutrition, flavoring,beverages, dyeing,
repellents, fragrances, cosmetics, smoking, and also other industrial purposes.
Since the prehistoric era, herbs have been the only basis for nearly all the
medicinal therapies until the synthetic drugs were developed in the nineteenth
century.

1.1.8 Role of Antioxidants in Ayurveda

The preservative effect of many medicinal plant speciesand herbs used

in Ayurveda suggests the presence of antioxidant phytochemicals and
antimicrobial constituents in their tissues.Recently, research interest has
increased considerably in studying and evaluating the naturally occurring
antioxidants for use infoods or medicinal materials to replace
syntheticantioxidants, which are being restricted due to theiradverse side
effects.Many Indian medicinal plants contain large amounts antioxidants
which play an important role in adsorbing andneutralizing the free radicals,
quenching singlet andtriplet oxygen and decomposing the peroxides.

8
Variousepidemiological studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of
high intake of fruits andvegetables to fight against many of the age-related
chronic diseases. The antioxidant principlesfrom herbal resources are
multifaceted in theireffects and provide enormous scope in correctingthe
imbalance in the body through regular intake of a properamount of such herbs
in diet. It has been assumedthat nutritional intervention to increase the intake
ofphytochemical antioxidants may reduce the threat of freeradicals and many
chronic diseases.

1.1.9 Free Radical Mechanism of Ageing Processes

Free radical theory of ageing predicts a crucialrole for the free radicals
produced by external factors which includes environmental contamination,
irradiation and pathological disorders which includes hereditary diseases
orinfections in the initiation of ageing process. It means that under
hypothetical state of completely physiologicalconditions ageing processes
could be fullysuppressed. There are twomajor mechanismswhich are
responsible for freeradicalmediated damage and ageing in a living organism.
One mechanism is through super oxide overproduction by the mitochondria
and the other is through nonenzymatic lipid peroxidation.
Superoxideoverproduction causes the inhibition of nitric oxideformation and
hence its bioavailability which is one of the principalcharacteristics of ageing.
While the non-enzymatic lipid peroxidation produces toxicisoprostanes. The
major initiators offree radicalmediated damaging processes leadingto ageing at
physiological state are the oxidizablecomponents of the diet. The possibility of
inhibition ofageing processes by supplementation of nontoxicantioxidants and
calorie restriction is possible.

1.2 BENEFICIAL ROLE OF ANTIOXIDANTS

The energy needed for normal functioning of the cells in the body
arises mainly from the aerobic metabolicreactions and it is tapped and stored

9
asATP and other high energy compounds.However, during this process
approximately about 1-5% of the molecular oxygen gets oxidized to reactive
oxygenspecies (ROS) such as super oxide anion, hydroxylradical, hydrogen
peroxide, nitric oxide andother free radicals. The major sources of cellular
ROS production include the mitochondria, peroxisomes, cytochromeP450
enzymesand the antimicrobial and antioxidantbursts of phagocytic cells. ROS
can cause serious damages like lipidperoxidation, protein damage, and several
types ofDNA lesions, namely, single and double strand breaks,adducts and
cross links. The situation in whichROS concentration exceeds cellular
antioxidant defense concentration istermed as Oxidative Stress. In the
normalcourse of metabolic reactions, these ROS are encounteredand quenched
by both the enzymaticand non-enzymatic antioxidants. The enzymatic
antioxidants include superoxide dismutase,glutathione peroxidase, and
catalaseand so on. Thenon-enzymaticantioxidants include reduced glutathione,
vitaminA, vitamin E, ascorbic acid antioxidants.However, there are some
situations when the production ofreactive oxygen species exceeds the capacity
of thebody’s antioxidant mechanism to detoxify.Thusthe increased level of
reactive oxygen species in the body leads to a stressful condition producing
oxidative stress.

1.2.1 Free Radicals and Ageing

The accumulation of free radicals which induces damage to the vital

molecules is an important cause of human ageing. Free radicals are atoms or
molecules carrying unpaired electrons and are thus highly unstable. In
theirinstability to pair with another electron, they can attack almost any
molecule in the cytoplasm of the cell and hence damage it. Numerous cell
functions decline progressively with age. Oxidative phosphorylation occurring
in the mitochondria, synthesis of nucleic acids in the nucleus, structural and
enzymatic proteins, cell receptors, and transcription factors are all gradually
reduced. Senescentcells have a decreased capacity toabsorb nutrients and there

10
is a delayin the repair of chromosomal damage. Abnormally lobed nuclei,
vacuolated golgi apparatus are some of the characteristic features present in
the senescent cells. There is a steady and increasing accumulation of the
pigment lipofuscin which is a product of lipid peroxidation and oxidizing
damage or free radical damage. To protect against the free radical damage
every cell produces some enzymes to degrade, neutralize and detoxify the free
radicals that are formed in the course of thousands of chemical reactions
taking place in the cells. These free radical scavengers include the antioxidants
such as vitamin C and vitamin E and antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide
dismutase and catalase that can bind to highly reactive oxygen species and
make them harmless. Although the normal cells are well equipped with such
organized anti-oxidant defense system (ADS), an imbalance between the
generation of free radicals and their disposal by such antioxidants occurs as
age advances. All these facts suggest that the free radical damage plays a
major role in the imbalance that can occur at the cellular level with age.

1.2.2DNA and Ageing

Although ageinginvolves the damage to various cellular compositions,

the imperfect maintenance of the nuclear DNA is a critical contributor to the
process of ageing. Unless precisely repaired, the nuclear DNA damage can
lead to mutation and other deleterious consequences. Damages to both the
nuclear DNA which encodes the vast majority of cellular RNA and proteins,
and the mitochondrial DNA contribute to the process of ageing. There are so
many causesfor DNA damage to occur. The external sources of DNA damage
include ionizing radiation and geotoxic drugs. The cellintrinsic sources such as
DNA replication errors, spontaneous chemical changes in DNA structure,
programmed double-strand breaks occurring in lymphocyte development and
DNA damaging agents that are present in cells also contribute to DNA
damage. The latter category includes the reactive oxygen species (ROS).
Under the destructive action of ROS and other damaging influences, different

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types of mutations can appear in the DNA structure. If the genes passively
accept such damages, the information coded on double helix would be more
and more grabbled, making an orderly life impossible. But the DNA has a
remarkable capacity to repair by itself. It can exclusively sense exactly what
kind of damage has occurred and with the help of repair enzymes, the
appropriate missing links are spliced back into its place. Such mutation errors
in repair mechanisms have been linked directly to human ageing.

1.2.3Skin and Ageing

Wrinkled skin and sagging facial muscles are usually observed with the
process of ageing. Biochemical studies show that the skin contains less
collagen and less elastin in elderly individuals. Both collagen and elastin are
produced by fibroblasts. Research work and studies have shown that
fibroblasts in culture from young individuals are more capable of cell division
than the cells derived from elderly individuals.

1.2.4Rasayana and Ageing

The prevention of diseaseand promotion of health approach

of“Ayurveda”, takes intoconsideration the whole body,mind and spirit while
dealing with the maintenanceof good health. Therefore, the Ayurvedic
physicians have developedproper dietary and therapeutic measures to arrest or
delay ageing and thus rejuvenating the whole functionaldynamics of the body.
This revitalizationand rejuvenation therapy is known as the
‘RasayanaChikitsa’.The Rejuvenation therapy or ‘Rasayana Chikitsa’ is an
important component of the‘Ayurvedic System of Medicine’.

1.2.5Antioxidants and Ageing

Ageing is a many folded and multi factorial process governed mainly

by genetics, lifestyle and stress. The progression of ageing or rate of ageing is
highly variable in different species. The ageing process is variable in
organisms within a species, in organs and tissues within an organism, in cell

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types within a tissue, in sub-cellular compartments within a cell type, and
macromolecules within a cell. Thus, there is neither a single way of defining
ageing nor is there a single cause.

Scientific studies and evaluations have shown that the oxidative

damage caused by reactive oxygen species has been well implicated as the
cause of certain age related chronic diseases and has a direct impact on the
body's ageing process. The accumulation of net damages due to reactive
oxygen species and oxidative stress over a period of time is considered
responsible for many of the age related disorders like rheumatoid arthritis,
cancers, cardiovascular disorders etc. and finally leading to death.
Biochemical investigations and studies on cellular and sub cellular
components of the cell have revealed that with progress of age, the
concentration of oxidatively damaged proteins, lipids and DNA molecules
increases. For instance, 8-oxoguanine, a specific product of oxidative damage
caused to the DNA molecules is increased in all the cells and tissues during
the ageing process. In brief, we can say that the longer lived species generally
show higher cellular oxidative stress resistance and lower level of
mitochondrial ROS production than shorter-lived species.

1.2.6Antioxidants and their Medicinal Applications

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are an entire class of highly reactive

molecules that are derived from the metabolism of oxygen. ROS can cause
extensive damage to the cells and tissues in the body, during infections and
various degenerative disorders, such as cardiovascular diseases, aging process,
and various neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s disease, mutations
and cancer [8, 9, 10, 11]. Although many antioxidant defence systems
consisting of enzymatic antioxidants like superoxide dismutase (SOD),
catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and non-enzymatic
antioxidants like ascorbic acid, glutathione and α-tocopherol compounds can
maintain the balance between the ROS generation of ROS and protection from

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damage by ROS generated in the normal metabolic reactions.These
antioxidant systems do not provide complete protection from the hazards of
ROS attack under conditions of severe oxidative stress [12].

Free radicals have kindled significant interest among many

scientistsand researchers in the past decade. Their broad range of effects
inbiological systems has drawn the attention of many ongoing research works.
It has been proved scientifically that these mechanismsmay be important in the
understanding of pathogenesis of certain diseasesand ageing. There are many
experimental reports that support the use ofantioxidant supplements in
drastically reducing the level of oxidativestress and in delaying or preventing
the developmentof complications associated with such diseases [13].Many
synthetic antioxidant compounds have shownto be toxic and/or mutagenic.
This has shifted theattention of scientists and researchers towards the naturally
occurring antioxidants.A number of plantderived constituents have shown to
possess freeradical scavenging activity or antioxidant activity [14].
Flavonoidsand phenolic compounds (hydroxyl cinnamicderivatives,
catechines) derived from medicinal plants have beenreported to act as
scavengers of free radicals and inhibitors of lipid peroxidation[15].

1.3 RADIATION

Radiation sensitivity is an important function of the cell cycle with the

late S phase being the most radio resistant and G1, G2, and especially mitosis
being more radiationsensitive.

1.3.1 Mechanisms of Radiation Injury

Radiation exposure can directly interact with a molecule or a cell and

damage it directly. Because of the abundance of water present in the body,
radiation is more likely to interact with water. When the radiation interacts
with water, it produces labile chemical species, the free radicalssuch as
hydronium ion (H.) and hydroxyl ion (.OH). Free radicals can produce

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compounds such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which subsequently exert
chemical toxicity to the cell. Astonishingly, our body is blessed naturally
witha sophisticated protection mechanism against this type of chemical
damages. For example, hydrogen peroxide foams when it is poured on a cut or
a wound. The hydrogen peroxide is being destroyed by an extremely rapid
enzyme named as hydrogen peroxidase.

1.3.2 Types of Radiation Effects

1.3.2.1Acute Radiation Effects

Deterministic Radiation Effects

Acute Whole Body Radiation Effects
Acute Localized Radiation Effects
1.3.2.2 Chronic Radiation Effects

Cataractogenesis
Stochastic (Probabilistic) Effects
Radiation Induced Cancer
Radiation Induced Genetic Damage
Radiation Induced Premature Aging
In-utero Radiation Health Effects

1.4 SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN THE

CRUDE EXTRACT

The medicinal activity of the formulations most probably comes from

the synergistic effect of compounds present in the crude extract. According to
ethnopharmacological studies the botanical remedies or therapies provide two
advantages over singlecompound drugs. The primary active compounds in the
medicinal plants are synergized by the secondary compounds and the
secondary compounds ease the side effects produced by the primary active
compounds. The elaborate work of searching an ethno pharmacologically
active plant extract streamlined to a single active principal ingredient may

15
result in thefailure of the potent medicinal activity of the plant.A special
compound might become unstable during the extraction procedure or
fractionation process or in the purified form.The fundamental basic principle
for ethno pharmacology does not always exist in a single active compound but
rather it is a result of the interaction of more than one active compound present
in the extract. Moreover, that particular single compound might potentiate the
activity and that single compound might become toxic when compared to
crude plant extract. Thus, the likelihood that more than one compound present
in crude plant extract could contribute to a net pharmacological response of
the extract.

1.5 PROMISING PHYTOCHEMICALS FROM INDIAN

MEDICINALPLANTS

The Indian medicinal plants find widespread commercial applications

in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, agricultural and also food and beverage
industries. The use of the Indian medicinal herbs for curing diseases and
ailments has been documented in history of all Indian civilizations. With the
onset of scientific research, it was concluded that Indian medicinal plants
contain active principles, which are responsible, for curative action of the
medicinal herbs. Ayurvedic drugs are used in crude forms like extracted or
expressed juice, powder, decoction or infusion. The ancient healers, developed
medicinal formulations based on these medicinal herbs, were probably not
aware about the chemical composition of the herbs. But the tremendous
advancement they made despite non-availability of scientific procedures is
marvelous and astonishing. Scientific research has proved the utility of the
time tested valuableindigenous remedies.

Indian medicinal herbs are significant sources of synthetic and herbal

drugs. In the commercial market, Indian medicinal herbs are used as raw
drugs, plant extracts or tinctures. Isolated active constituents are used only for
applied research work. For the last few decades, phytochemistry or, in other

16
words, the study of plants and its chemistry has been making rapid progress in
the pharmaceutical industry and herbal products are becoming popular.

Ayurveda which is the ancient medicinal system of India flourished in

the Vedic era in India. According to historical facts and findings, the classical
texts of Ayurveda, Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita were written
around 1000B.C.The Ayurvedic text namely, Materia Medica includes 600
medicinal plants along with therapeutics. Indian medicinal herbs like turmeric,
fenugreek, ginger, garlic and holy basil forman integral part of Ayurvedic drug
formulations. The drug formulations incorporate single herb or more than two
herbs as in polyherbal formulations.

Indian medicinal plants are considered to be a chemical factory as it

contains a wide multitude of chemical compounds like alkaloids, glycosides,
saponins, resins, oleoresins, sesquiterpene lactones and oils which are essential
and fixed. Today, there is a growing interest in knowing the chemical
composition of plant based medicines. Several bioactive constituents have
been isolated from Indian medicinal plants and studied for the
pharmacological activity.

With the onset of scientific research in Ayurvedic system of medicine,

it is becoming clearer that the Indian medicinal herbs have a huge potential in
today’s synthetic era, as the numbers of synthetic medicines are becoming
resistant. According to one estimate source, only 20% of the plant flora has
been studied and 60%of the synthetic medicines owe their origin to plants.
Ancient knowledge of Indian medicinal plants coupled with scientific
principles can come to the forefront and provide us with powerful remedies to
eradicate the numerous diseases that have arisen in today’s polluted world.

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1.5.1 Global Overview of Medicinal Plants

The current and recent trends all over the world have clearly shown that
for one reason or the otherpeople are not only willing to try natural medicine
especially those of plant origin but alternatively are seeking nonconventional
remedies. As a result of this situation there is a global resurgence in the trade
of herbal medicines. International market for medicinal plants is reported to be
over 62 billion US dollars per year during 2000-2001, which is growing
steadily at the rate of 7% annually. The botanical retail market, inclusive of
herbs and medicinal plants, in USA, is estimated to be approximately 1.6
billion US dollars annually. It is estimated that countries in Europe annually
imports about 400,000 tonnes of medicinal plant material with an average
market value of 1 billion US dollars from countries in Africa and Asia. A
growing awareness of this new and recent contributor to the foreign exchange
reserves of several national treasuries is beginning to emerge globally. To
satisfy the growing market demands for medicinal plants, surveys worldwide
are being conducted by the pharmaceutical industries and research
organization to unearth and unveil new medicinal plant sources as herbal
remedies, medicines, and biomolecules.

1.5.2 Status of Medicinal Plants in India

Medicinal plants that are being in therapeutic purposes comprise

approximately 8000 species and account for about 50% of all the higher
flowering plant species of India. Millions of rural mass in India use medicinal
plants in curing various diseases. In recent years the growing demand for
herbal products has led to a quantum jump in the number and volume of plant
material traded within and outside the country. An estimate of EXIM Bank
projects in international market of medicinal plants related trade over US $ 60
billion per year that is growing at a rate of 7% per year. India’s surface land
has been grouped broadly into ten distinct zones and these in turn are further
divided into 25 biotic provinces and 426 biomes. The forest areas of these bio-

18
geographic zones or provinces are classified broadly into 16 major forest types
and more than 200 subtypes. A macro analysis of the distribution of medicinal
plants in India shows around 70% of India’s medicinal plants are found in
tropical and subtropical forests and only less than 30% are found in the
temperate and high altitude forests. The medicinal plants species belong to a
wide range of habits or life form,namely, trees, herbs, shrubs, lianasand woody
climbers. Habit wise analysis carried out so far clearly indicates that nearly
one third of these botanical entities are trees and around the same proportion
consists of shrubs and woody climbers. The remaining one third of the
proportion is herbs and twiners. Very small proportions of the medicinal plants
are lichens, ferns and algae. The majority of the medicinal plants found in
India are higher plants. Though India has a rich biodiversity and one among
the twelve-mega diversity centers, the growing demand is putting a heavy
strain on the existing resources causing a number of species to be either in the
threatened or endangered category. About 90% of medicinal plants used by
pharmaceutical industries are collected from the wild. While over 800 species
are used in production by pharmaceuticalindustry, less than 20 species of
plants are under commercial cultivation. Over 70% of the plant collections
from the available resources involve destructive harvesting because of the use
of parts like roots, bark, wood, stem and the whole plant in case of herbs. This
poses a definite threat to the existing genetic stocks and to the diversity of
medicinal plants, if biodiversity is not sustainably used by thepharmaceutical
industries. Recently some of the rapid assessment of the threat status of
medicinal plants using IUCN designed CAMP methodology revealed that
about 112 species in southern India, 74 species in Northern and Central India
and 42 species in the high altitude of Himalayas are threatened in the wild.
The need of ourcountry is to replan India’s participation in the expanding
global market, in light of the interest of all the stakeholders who are affected
and who play a role in this sector. There is a need to collect all the available
information and data regarding medicinal plants development in the country in

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order to obtain a comprehensive overview, which will provide the necessary
insight for coordinated and effective action. Such an overview could form the
basis of a renewed development of India’s medicinal plants and
pharmaceutical industries sector, and a strategic exploitation of her
comparative advantage in the global market on a sustainable and equitable
basis.

1.6 SIX INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS SELECTED FOR THE

PRESENT STUDY

1.6.1 Indigofera aspalathoides Vahl.

1.6.1.1 Regional Synonyms:

English: Indigo
Sanskrit: Nil
Hindi: Nil
Bengali: Nil
Gujarati:Gali
Tamil:Sivanarvembu
Persian: Nil

1.6.1.2 Parts Used:

The leaves of the plant are the parts used in indigenous medicine.

1.6.1.3 Phytochemical Constituents:

Glycosides,tannins are the major phytochemical constituents present in

the plant.

1.6.1.4 Action or Uses:

The leaves act as a stimulant and demulcent. The leaves, flowers and
tender shoot are said to posses cooling and demulcent effect.

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1.6.1.5 Treatment:

The stem is traditionally used for the treatment of various skin

disorders and cancer. The leaves, flowers and tender shoot are used in the
form of decoction for the treatment of leprosy and cancer. The leaves are also
applied to abscesses for quick healing activity. The whole plant is used in the
treatment of edematous tumors and the ashes are used in the treatment of
dandruff. The decoction of the leaves and the flowers is used for treating
various types of rashes in skin. The root is used in preparing medicated oil
and is applied externally for curing scabies, leprosy and many skin disorders.
The medicated oil prepared from its root is mixed with the powder of the
whole plant and is given internally for treatment of leprosy, dermatitis and
various skin ulcers.

1.6.2 Myristica andamanicaHook. f.

1.6.2.1 Regional Synonyms:

English:Jaiphal
Sanskrit:Jaiphala, Jatiphola
Hindi:Jaiphal
Bengali:Jaiphal
Gujarati:Jayiphal
Tamil:Jaikhay

1.6.2.2 Parts Used:

The seeds and fruits are the main parts used in indigenous medicine.

1.6.2.3 Phytochemical Constituents:

The principal constituent of Myristica andamanicais the oilthat acts as

a counter irritant and stimulates blood flow to the area where it is applied.

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1.6.2.4 Action or Uses:

Myristica andamanica is an aromatic, carminative, hallucinogenic,

stimulant that is considered effective in digestive disorders, dehydration and
skin disorders. The principal constituent of Myristica andamanicais oilthat act
as a counter irritant and stimulates blood flow to the area where it is applied.

1.6.2.5 Treatment:

Myristica andamanica helps improving appetite and digestion as it

prevents gas and fermentation in the intestinal tract. It is also good for nausea
and vomiting. It is also used in folk medicine for the treatment of rheumatism.

1.6.3 Adhatoda vasicaNees.

1.6.3.1 Regional Synonyms:
English: Malbarnut
Sanskrit:Adarushah
Hindi:Adosa, Basak
Bengali:Adulsa
Gujarati:Ardusa
Persian: Bansa
Tamil:Adhtodai Adatoda.

1.6.3.2 PartsUsed:

Leaf, root, stem, bark andflowers arethe parts used in indigenous

medicine.

1.6.3.3 Phytochemical Constituents:

Alkaloid,vasicine andadhatodic acid are the major phytochemical

constituentspresent in the plant.

1.6.3.4 Action or Uses:

Adhatoda vasica is mainly used as anexpectorant, diuretic,

antispasmodic and alterative. The plant has potent antiperiodic, astringent,

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diuretic and purgative action. The flowers, leaves and root have antispasmodic
property.

1.6.3.5 Treatment:

Adhatoda vasica is mainly used in the treatment of cough, asthma and

bronchitis. The activities against tuberculosis were reported by many
researchers quite early [16,17]. It has been used extensively as an important
herbal drug in treating a wide variety of diseases and the leaves of the plant
are the main source of drug formulation. For instance, the source of the drug
‘vasaka’ is well known in the indigenous system of medicine for its beneficial
health effects, particularly in treating bronchitis [18]. It is a highly valued
Indian medicinal plant which is used in the treatment of respiratory diseases
like asthma, cough, bronchitis and tuberculosis [19,20].

1.6.4 Azadirachta indicaA. Juss.

1.6.4.1 Regional Synonyms:

English: Margosatree
Sanskrit:Nimba
Hindi:Neem
Bengali:Nimb
Gujarati:Limbdo
Tamil:Arulundi,Vembu
Sinhalese:Kohomba
Persian:Neem

1.6.4.2 Parts Used:

Leaf, seed, root, gum, fruit, andbark are the parts used in indigenous
medicine.

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1.6.4.3 Phytochemical Constituents:

Margosine present in the seed are the major phytochemical constituents

present in the plant. The seeds also contain a complex secondary metabolite
azadirachtin.

1.6.4.4 Action or Uses:

The leaf, seed,andfruit of Azadirachta indicapossess antibacterial,

antiviral, insecticide, bitter tonic; antiseptic action. The fruit possess
astringent, purgative action.The gum possesses demulcent action. The leaf
possesses emmenagogue, antihelmintic action. The dry flower is used as a
tonic, stomachic. The oil has antiseptic and irritant property.

1.6.4.5 Treatment:

The leaf of Azadirachta indica is used in the treatment of skindiseases,

abortion, and footand mouth diseases. The bark is used in the treatment of
dengue fever. The plant is used as an alternatefeed and fodder during drought.
The flower is used in curing blindness in sheep and goats. The fruit is used in
the treatment of leprosy, bronchitis, intestinal worms. The oil is used in curing
rheumatism. Every part of the Neem tree has been used as traditional medicine
for house hold remedy against various human ailments.

1.6.5 Saraca asocaRoxb.

1.6.5.1 Regional Synonyms:

English: Ashoka tree

Sanskrit:Ashoka
Hindi: Ashoka
Bengali:Ashoka
Gujarati:Ashoka
Tamil:Asogam
1.6.5.2 Parts Used:

Barks are the parts used in indigenous medicine.

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1.6.5.3 PhytochemicalConstituents:

Saponin, kaempterol, quercetin and β-sitosterol are the major

phytochemical constituents present in the plant.

1.6.5.4 Action or Uses:

Saraca asoca is used as a tonic, emetic, purgative and expectorant.

1.6.5.5 Treatment:

Saraca asoca is used in the treatment of salivation, epilepsy, chlorosis,

Assamin fever and as emetic. The fruit is used as a good shampoo. Fumigation
ofSaraca asocais useful in treating hysteria, melancholia, postparturient after
retained placenta in animals.

1.6.6 Aegle marmelosLinn.

1.6.6.1 Regional Synonyms:

English: Bael fruit, Bengal-guinee

Sanskrit:Bilva
Hindi:Baelaripal
Bengali:Bela
Gujarati:Bilvi,Billi-Patra
Tamil:Vilvam
Sinhalese:Beli

1.6.6.2 Parts Used:

Leaf, fruit, root, stem and bark are the parts used in indigenous
medicine.

1.6.6.3 Phytochemical Constituents:

Aegelenine (minor alkaloid), tannin, mormelosin, sterol-aegelin,

Gamma – sito-sterol, marmarin (new coumarin) are the major phytochemical
constituents present in the plant.

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1.6.6.4 Action or Uses:

The fruit possesses aromatic, cooling, alterative and nutritive action.

1.6.6.5 Treatment:

Aegle marmelosis used in the treatment of habitual constipation,

chronic dysentery, dyspepsia.The unripe fruit is used as a digestive aid,
stomachic and demulcent.The pulpis used as a stimulant, antipyretic and
antiscorbutic. The root and stembark is used as an antipyretic. Aegelin is used
in the treatment of bronchial spasms.

1.7 SCIENTIFIC EVALUATION OF THE SIX INDIAN MEDICINAL

PLANTS

There is a need to assess how India fares inthe utilization of her

enormous biodiversity resources,with particular reference to the antioxidant
componentsof the various medicinal plants found in the country. Hence,
thiselaborate study on the six Indian medicinal plants aims to stimulate
interest in this all importantresearch area that will be of immense benefit to
ourpeople who though plagued with several ailmentsandlack the technological
and economic resources tocombat them with orthodox medicine. Even
intechnologically and economically advanced countries likethe USAabout
40% of the population use alternativeremedies including herbal medicines for
diseaseprevention and therapy.A detailed scientific evaluation of the six Indian
medicinal plants has been carried out as a preclinical study.

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