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hapter 19
Constructing Valid Tests to
Match Your Learning
Obiectives

M l$ [ @
I
r;IffiF
l.
T
4.

Specialthanks to Alvin Kent, former Director of Media Servicesat

towa State University,who originally co-authored the material in
this chapter for another Proiect.
 Joint Statementon Rightsand Freedomsof Students
on
PrctectionAgainstlmproperAcademic Evaluation
by
n
America rs
ii:i,: Hi&S"'il'lT:Jx,Sroresso
Associationof AmericanColleges
NationalAssociationof Student PersonnelAdministrators
NationalAssociationof Women Deansand Counselors

Studentsshould haveprotectionthrough orderly

proceduresagainstpreiudicedor capriciousacademic
evaluation,At the sametime,they are responsiblefor
maintainingstandardsof academicperformance
establishedfor eachcoursein which they are enrolled.
(Miltonand Edgerly,1976)

VALIDTESTS
CONSTRUCTING

usmgthe learningperformance
objectivesfroma sectionof yourcourse,identifythe
mosivalidassessment Justifyto the classwhytheywerevalid.
procedures.

KEYIDEAS
1. All testingtechniques,performanceon paperandpencil,mustbe basedon the
samecognitivelevelas the learningperformance objectiveand the sameclass
of behaviorto be demonstrated.
2. Criterion-referencedtestsare absolutemeasuresof performance ratherthan
relativemeasuresas demonstrated in norm-referenced.
3. Instruction can be qualitatively
improved throughtesting.
NEWVOCABULARY
. validtestsand reliabletests . norm-referenced
. criterion-
referenced . normalcurve
. contentvalidity . validity
construct
r predictivevalidity . performancetest
o essav tests

Oneof the mostsignificant is testvalidity-did

issuesin education the testmeasure
whatit was intendedto measure.A test,regardless of the type, is an instrument to
systematically measurea sampleof studentperformance. lt is systematic in the way
tliat it generaiesa sample of performancefroma domain of performance, in methods
of scoiing,and in interpreting Performance
results. includes skills,knowledge, and
attitudes.
The selectionof a test proceduremustbe basedon the typeof performance
requiredof the student.The learningperformance objectives that definespecifically

19-3
 Number of Students
Achieving a Score
Many

The Normal Gurve

(or average
distribution)

Middle High
Score Score
Few

CRITERION.REFER ENCEDTESTING
Criterion-referencedtestingis relativelynewand is basedon the assumption that
masteryof certainperformances is criticalto thefuturesuccessof the student.Mastery
of certainskillsmayalsohavecriticalconsequences for "safe"performance in such
areasas the health professions and engineering. Criterion-referenced or mastery
learningis basedon the researchof Carroll(1963)and Bfoom(1968).Oncea mastery
levefis-determined, comparative datais useless.The most criticalquestion,posed in
'To wh'atdegreedid.thestudent -"?t_!,:::y:!;Zol?f^"'^?l^
this approachis,
(l ll9 sylvf vsv. t

as'spssiried
perfo'rmance pe,rform.?!?9^"Pf:!y?:i;^I1:.,1llt^ou"n
in tie learning
;;;;ffi'th;;"'ioirJ to judge against-wh.ich
tnecriterion
of performanceib
grade,o "B-;',in
openheart
someone.can a surgeonget a ressthancompetent
fi;i;'";; r:h.o'Jrot i*irn thaipiece-of anatomy? Howwouldvoulike
ilil;;;;
\)Lrl vvlJ| vr vs,
"8"
^rr r - r-r-- ^ rrl^r, i^ l^nAinrr?
in takeoffanda"C" in landing?{/o:P,X:;,t
-rr -^l \Alnrrlr{ rrnll
to fly in a planeinwhichtrrepilotgot."
LV lly ll I cr yrcrl
of
"B-"
in
like to cross a bridgewhen told th;t the bridgeengineerreceivedan average
bridge-building? r. -! i.^-
testsare designedto minimizevariance.Evaluationis
Criterion-referenced
basedon how closelythe studentcomes-to achieving tfe performance objective'
The student's'achievement is compared with riis/her own progres.s- Testitems
betweenthe student's abilityor lack of to reacha
ability
are designedto discriminate
Jesignai"dteu"lof pertormance. Hig!'rachievement translates intovirtuallyall
studentsreachinga minimumlevelof performance'
In summary,the optionfor testirigthatis.chosen willinteractand reflectuponthe
in thesetwo approaches to
approachto teaching.The ;ajor questions addressed "what proportion
Norm-referenced
testingare very impSrtant. testingasks,

19-5
whatthe studentis expectedto do formthe framework for the development of testing
The experiences
situations. thatstudentshavein the learning in whichthey
activities
engage must have a clear to
relationship the and
objectives Furst
tests. (1958)
showedthis relationshipgraphically.

Obiectives

Educational Evaluation
Experiences Procedures

Thereare severalpurposes for classroom testing.Testsprovidesummative

datafor the instructor to showdifferences amongstudentscoresand indicatestudent
performance againstpredetermined performance criteria.Thiscan be shownas a
gradeor p/F. ifrey provideformative data as feedback to the instructor for the purpose
5f improving instruciion. Testsalsoprovidediagnostlc data for the student to indicate
strengths andweaknesses in relation to mastering the learning objectives.^
Fromthe viewpoint of the student, testing serves several purposes. One is to
providefeedbackduringa course to show where additional mastery is needed relative
io the performance objectives.Another purpose is to motivate the student by
demonstrating the degreeto whichthe studenthasmastered the material.

NORM.REFERENCED TESTING
Testresultscan be reportedas norm-referenced or as criterion-referenced.
Norm-referenced testingis the morecommonmethod.Basedon the
assumptions of classicparametric statistics,it usesa comparative approachin which
onestudent'sperformance is compared to anotherin reporting data.lt posesthe
"Did
question, Johndo as wellas Maryand Bob?"Student scores are reportedat the
ggthor somelowerpercentile compar-ed to all otherstudents. Norm-referenced tests
are designedto maximize varianceamongstudenttestscores.Theypromotethe
conceptif averagescoredistribution in whichsomestudentsreceivea highscore,
mosti middlesc5re,and a few a lowscore.In otherwords,thistestingapproachis
designedto failstudentsor at leasthavea few scoreat a low level.lt doesnot indicate
whaia studentcan,in fact,do. lt onlycompares onestudentwithothersin the peer
test itemsar6 designedprimarily
group.In thissituation, 1.odiscriminatebetweenhigh
as "Thepursuit
and low scoreson any test.Highachievement theoreticallytranslates
Lowa6hievemeitindicates
of excellence." a lackof masteryor competence in a skill
or knowledgebase.

19-4
 of my
"Howclass(or peers)learnedmoreor lessthanme."Criterion-referenced
testingasks,
muchof the specifiedperformance
hasthe studentlearned?,,
TESTINGAS A MEANSTO IMPROVEINSTRUCTION
Instructioncan be qualitatively
improved.thlorg[ t"rting.lf the learning
objectiveshavebeenstateddpecitically performance
before"insiructionbegan and if they are
sharedwiththe studentsparti6ipating ln tne instruction,
test rliuns
followingdata: willprovidethe
1' Didthe test itemmeasurethe learningperformance objective?
2' Tg *!."1 degreedid the studentmeetinb criteriontevbt'in
3' Wasthe instructional the objective?
activityadequate to assistthe studentto meetthe
criterionlevel?
4. Wqrgthe sequences of the instructionadequate?
5. Did the instruction
provideenoughexamplds?
TESTVALIDITYAND RELIABILITY
when developing a test,the instructor mustdealwit! two closelyrelatedproblems.
The knowledge and skillsto measuremustbe identified. Thisis caltedvalidity,which
is the extentto whicha testmeasures whatitlsiup'posedto measure.The
problemdealswithconstru.cting second
the mostdepenoaote means to measure the
performance. This is calledret6bility, whichis the degreeto whichperformance,
shownin the testscore,remainsconsistent as
whenthetestis takenrepeatedly. A test
cannotbe validunlessit is alsoretiable. However, the reverseis not necessarily
Testvalidityis a functionof reliability. true.
T.gJrerLoiiiiyis nota functionof vatidity. Test
validityaddresses the question, "Arethe
itemsin a'testspecificto the task(s)theyare
expectedto measure?" Fourtypesof validitycan be checkedin relationto this
questionand its answer:
1' ContentValiditY.which tasksor_objectives do the test itemsrepresentand
how closeis ilris representation?
2' ConcurrentValidity. Withwhatotherpresentobservations of the students,
performance do the testsscoresagreeandto whatOegreedo theyagree?
3' PredictiveValidity.What kindsof filtureperformrn." .ln be predicted
the testscoresand howaccurateis thisprediction? by
4' ConstructValidity. Tlrisis the mosttheorbtical typeof validityand askswhat
otherpsychological featuresaccountfor someObgreeof the testor
performance.
Validityis not something "in the
test."lt is a bridgebetweenlearningand the
qualityof performance the test is expectedto demonstrate.
PLANNINGYOURTEST
Before.writingthe actualtestitems,the instructor
mustdevelopa,,blueprint,,for
assigningthe numberof itemsto adequately testachievementof the leirning-
performance objectivesand the masteryof ifrecorrse content.
The followingchartis basedon bloom'sTaxonomy(Bloom,1gs6)and
proposesa modelfor developlng " testblueprint.
Sucha'biuepiiniis the toolan
instructor
shoulduseto builcjbilance,or.appropriate represehtationof all teaining
tasksintothe test.Assigning the numberitdrirsundertne oOle.iiu"sto be achievedfor

19-6
 weightor importancein evaluating
each unit of coursecontentrePresentstheir relative
a student'soverallPerformance.
PLE A FII.JAL UEPRINT
Defineor Recognize Applv AnalYzea
Cbiective Corrector Principlesto Problem and
State
lncorrect Solve a Solvelt
Conceptsand
PrinciPles Applications Given
of ConcePts Problem
and
Principles
TOTAL
ITEMS
1
1
3
2
2. The natureof illness 10
3. Mentalhealth and mental 2
illness 14
3 3 3 5
4. The Patientin surgery 11
1 3 3 4
5. EmergencYand firstaid 2 11
2 2 5
6. The older adult and dYing
patient 18
2 6 6
7. The criticallYill and dYing
patient 14
2 6 4
B. Maternalhealth care 2
2 3 5 12
2
L Child healthcare 2 6
1 1 2
10. LegalasPectsof nursing 31 100
20 17 32
TOTAL ITEMS

TESTITEMSTO LEARNING PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

MATCHING in measurable language that
performance objectivesdeicribestudentperformance done'
it is satisfactorily
ies wnaiisto be done; howit is tg bb done;and when
specif be designed to measurethe
studentassessment proc"drr*, (criterionl.rtr;should
(cyrs, 1987). These criterion
performance describedin ir," p*rior*"n.e objectives described the
in
fesfsare deveroped to refrectitrecircumstances of assessment
has performed
performance objectiv""nJ"iro* us to rulge *hen the student typeof behavior
or competentry.
satis{actoriry Jh" typeoi iJrt willdependon the
describedin the learningperformance objective. ,
tesiiiems fromlearningperformance objectives
A procedurefor wriing ;riterion
consists of tgn steps: r .,, - --r ^^l^ rhrr o behavior
nani{in h
specific oh
1. Readthe performance objectives carefully and not9..the
to.*t"'init.ts fJrtnerclarification necessary?
thatthe studentis required or manual?
2. ls thisbehavioipiimarilycognitive,attitudinal,
ooe5it reqJir"o'nivmemorization or a higherreverof
3. rf cognitive,
intellectualskill?
contentspeci{icor contentgeneral?
4. ts ifre objective an appropriate answerfrom
5. Doesthe actioncallfor the iiro"nt to select
severalprovided,as in murtrpL-choice, or doesthe studenthaveto recall
andwriteoutthe answer,os in essayor fill-in?

19-7
 6. lf the studentis askedto remember andwriteoutthe answer,willa few
wordssufficeor willthe studenthaveto writeseveralparagraphs or a
completeessay?
7. Are adequatecriteriaspecified to judgethe successful
performance of this
behavior?
8. Willthe expectedperformance requireinteraction
withotherstudentsor
instructors?
9. Willthe assessment of thisobjectiverequireperformanceor willpaperand
pencilmethodssuffice?
10. Haveall alternative assessment methodsthatwouldvalidlymeasurethis
objectivebeen identified?
EXAMPLESOF PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES DERIVEDFROMSTATEMENTS
OF SUBJECTMATTER
Givenstatements of subjectmatter,it is possibleto specifylearningperformance
objectives
at differentintellectual
skilllevels.

INTELLECTUALLEVEL Comprehension.The student paraphrasesthe information

SUBJEOTMATTER frSJ,"l"tf;s three basic effects on carbohydrate metabotism.

tNrELLEcruAL
LEVEL ts"*;rirg:?*:l?" paraphrases
student information
SUBJECTMATTER lnsulinpreparedin a suspensiondhouldbe rolledgently between
the palms of the hands to mix, since shaking will folm bubbles and
resuhin inaccuratedoses of the medication.
PERFORMANCE
OBJECTIVE
possibleconsequences.
INTELLECTUAL
LEVEL Application.The studentmust apply previous knowledgeto new
and unfamiliarsituations.
SUBJECT
MATTER In treatme4tof pneumonia,prolongeduse of oxygen at high
concentrationmay cause a fibrosisd lung tissue,impairingthe
abilityto expand.
Grven a dlsease, ldenlfy the symptoms.
INTELLECTUAL
LEVEL Comprehension.The student recallsinformationand paraphrases
it. lf the objectivewas, "Giventhe symptoms,identifythe dibease,"
studentswould work at the criticalanalysis level, evaluatingand
deciding which proceduresand informationto apply.
SUBJECTMATTER Symptomsof hyperthyroidisminclude nervousness,apprehension,
and irritability.The patientseemsto be in constant motion-turning,
twisting-and excessivelyconcerned aboutthings.The patient will
have a rapid pulse even when at rest.Althouqhthe oatient mav
have an ihcrdasedappetite,there will be profressiv'eweight lciss
due to the abnormal activity.

TYPESOF TESTS
Thereare two majorclassesof tests,whichincludeperformance
testsand paperand
penciltests.

19-8
PERFORMANCE TESTS
Performancetestsrequirethe studentto performan actualtaskundersimulated
or real
worldconditions.
The test utilizesratingor observation
scalesandassessmentcenter
methodology.

PAPERAND PENCILTESTS:EssayTests
Paperand penciltestsare eitheressayor objective. An essaytestis occasionally
calleda discussion typetest.The studentresponds to a questionusinghis/herown
wordsto expressconclusions andthe reasons for reaching them.Duringan objective
testa statement is presented or a questionis posed. The studentmusteitherselectthe
correctresponsefroma numberof plausible alternativeanswersthatare provided, or
supplyan answerlimitedto onewordor shortphrases.
Manyinstructors preferthe essaytestbecauseof its apparenteaseof
preparation relativeto a 50- to 7S-itemmultiple-choice test.
Thereare a numberof advantages to an essaytest.Manyfacultyfeelthatthey
are easyto prepareand administer. Essayssupportthe development of expressive
writingskillsfor the studentas theypreparetheiranswers. The essaycantesta very
widerangeof cognitive skills,suchas criticalthinking, as wellas allowthe studentto
expressfeelingsand emotions.
Countering theseapparent advantages, thereare a numberof significant
disadvantages. Thistest is veryunreliable andsubjectto scoringbias.lt is tediousand
difficult
to scoreaccurately and it willrequiremoretimeto grade.Articulate students
usuallyscorehigherbecauseof theirexcellent writingskills.
lf the purposeof the essayis recallof factualinformation, it is not efficient
or
desirable. lt is bestusedfor the expression of critical
thinkingskills.
lf an instructor decidesto useessayquestions, therearea numberof guidelines
thatwillbe of benefit.
SUGGESTED GUIDELINES FORTHEESSAYTEST
1. Selectquestions to samplea broadrangeof cognitive and affective
objectives and content.
2. Requirethatall opinionsbe supported withdata.
3. Be surethatstudentshavewell-developed writingskills.
4. Guidethe studenttowardthe desiredresponseratherthanusingvery
general,open-ended questions.
5. Suggestthe numberof pointsthe question is givenandthe recommend
amountof timethatshouldbe spent.
6. Developa criterionchecklisfagainstwhichthe instructorwill evaluatethe
testquestion:
a. Cite howthe answershouldbe organized;
b. Determine how manypointsfor writingskillas wellas completeness of
the answer;
c. Determine key elementsthatshouldbe coveredin the answerandthe
numberof points assignedto eachelement;
d. Determine if spellingand grammararc important and how manypoints
will be assigned;

19-9
 e. Re-quire
the studentto answereachquestionratherthanprovidea
. choiceof questions sincethiswilllessenreliability.
7- Problem-oriented andsimulation questionslendtherirselves
to thistypeof
test.
8. Tuckman(1975)suggests thatan essaytesthavea centerstructure:
a. Statement of the situation,
b. Statement of the problem,
c. Responseinstructions.
BASICSCORINGTECHNIQUES
Scoringthe essaytest is alwaysa tedioustaskbutcan be madesimpleand more
reliableif:
1. Usean answerkeyor criterion checkrist.
2. Scorethe answersquestionby question,ratherthanstudentby studentin a
singlesitting.
3. Concealthe identityof the studentwhoseansweris beingscored.
4. writingstyleshourdnot be confusedwithcontent.
5. Ask a.collea-gYe to ratea sampleof the answersusingthe answerkey.
6. Provideusefulandconstructive feedbackon the ansrier.
TWOSCORINGMETHODS
FOREACHESSAYITEM
A. COMPONENT SCORING
1. Usingthe criterionchecklist,identifysignificant pointson eachstudent's
9.s9ay based on your idearanswer. Asiign a poiitive value.
2. Us.ing the samecriterionchecklist,identifyinaccuracies and irrelevant
points.Assigna positivevalue.
3. Analyzethe overallorganizational structure of the answerand identify
the student'sabilityto integrate
the mostsignificant points. Assigna
positive value.
4. Construct writtencomments to eachstudentconcerning the assessment
of his/herresponse.Assigna positiveor negativevatu6.
5. Totalthe positiveand negativevaluesfor eich item. Recordstudent
score.
B. COMPARATIVE QUALITYSCORING
1. Quicklyreadeachstudentanswer.
2. Sortanswersintopilesrepresenting high,middle,and low quality.
-'
3. 9arefullyrevieweachset of answeisin tnelrrespectivepiles.
4- Usingan answering.keyor criterion
checklist,shiftdeserving answers
intoa moreappropriatepile.
5. score eachpilefromhighestto lowestquality.

PAPERAND PENCTL:Multiple-Choice Tests

One of the most.popularald frequentlyusedformsof paperand penciltestformatsis
tfe multiple-choice
form.Although it a|pearsfairlyeasyto develop,this is veiy
-are
deceiving.Multiple-choice
tests diificultand time-c6nsuming
if iney Oeal-rniitn

19-10
 skillsabovesimplerecallandcomprehension.
intellectual Thereare several
advantages test.Students
to a multiple-choice can be testedon a large_sample of the
coursecontentin a relativelyshortperiodof time.Theyarequickand efficient to score
by handusingan answer key but machine processing is usually availablein the
c6mputercen-ter. can measurea widerangeof intellectual
The testite-rns skillsfrom
recailof factualdata,understanding, application,andcriticalthinking. Guessingis
reducedto one in fiveas opposedto a 50/50chancein true/false items.
A disadvantage of tests
multiple-choice is the difficultyof themwith
constructing-
gooddistractors. Thereis too oftena greatdeal of ambiguity in the choiceof the
correctanswer.
All multiple-choiceitemshavethreemainparts.Theseincludethe stem
(statement or question),which beginsthe multiple-choice item;the distractors
(incorrectresponses whichusuallynumberthree); and the lastpartis the correct
response.
GUIDELINES
lf youchooseto construct multiple-choice testitems,therearea numberof guidelines
to you.Grammatical
tfrit willbe beneficial formshouldbe consistent in eachof the
distractors andthe correctanswer.Inconsistency couldprovideunnecessary cuesto
the students. The length of the responsesmust be consistent. Matcheach test itemto
the performance objeltive it is designedto evaluate in order to maintain validity.Write
reasonable distractorsthatarewithinthe comprehension of the students. Try to avoid
unnecessary jargonunlessit was coveredduringclass.Avoidobviouscluesin the
stemwhichaie repeatedin the distractors. Useeitherfouror fivedistractors and avoid
the use of the "keyed
the useof negative in stem
statements the "none or response. Limit
response" SUCh aS"allOfthe above"Of Ofthe above."

OF DIFFERENT
SAMPLES ITEMS
TYPESOF MULTIPLE.CHOICE

DESCRIPTIVEVS.LABEL RESPONSES
Thetermdistalmeans
A. Nearestthe originof a structure
B. Farthestfromthe originof a structure
C. Nearestthe midlineof a structure
D. Farthestfromthe midlineof a structure

in the overallsizeof a tissueor organis

An increase
A. Atrophy
B. Extrophy
C. Hypertrophy
D. Dystrophy

19-11
NEGATIVE STEM
It is not a functionof the cerebellumto
A. RegulatebodYtemPerature
B. Maintainbody balance
C. Coordinateworkingof muscles
D. Aid in maintainingmuscletone

BEST ANSWER
A reflex is best describedas
A. The responseone gets from tappingthe kneecap
B. A sign of meningealirritation
C. An involuntarymuscularcontractionin responseto a stimulus
D. A voluntarymovementof the skeletalmuscle

INTRODUCTORYSENTENCE
A patientis admittedfor an exploratorylaparotomy.The surgicalpreparation
would includeshaving
A. From the nippleline to the perineum
B. The perinealarea
C. Fromthe umbilicusto the perineum
D. From the scapularareato the perineum

REPETITIOUS
Which is the best definitionof a vein?
A. A bloodvesselcarryingbloodgoingto the heart
B. A blood vessel carryingblue blood
C. A bloodvesselcaringimpureblood
D. A blood vessel carryingblood away from the heart

CASE STUDY APPROACH

Ms. Andrews,age 21, is admittedto the hospitalwith a historyof general
malaise,nausea,vomiting,and evidenceof jaundice.The admittingdiagnosis
is infectioushePatitis.
Hepatitisis an inflammationof the
A. Gall bladder
B. Liver
C. Small intestine
D. Stomach

PAPER/PENCILTESTS: True/False ltems

The true/falsetest item is somewhatsimilarto a multiple-choiceitem. The true/false
item is a two-choicetest item.
The advantagesof the true/falsetest item includesthe ease of constructionas
well as the ease of lcoring by hand, with an answer key, or by computer.This type of
test item allows for the taJte6tstudent responseand can cover a broad range of
subjectmatter.True/falseitems can form ihe basis for a future pool of multiple-choice
items.

19-12
 An obviousdisadvantageis the susceptibility to guessingwith a 50o/"chancefor I
a correct response.Unfortunately,the ease of preparationleads to an overabundance
of low level recallitemsthat are oftenvery ambiguous.lf used exclusivelythey will
overlyinfluencestudentsto learn lower levelskills.
Well-constructedtrue/falsetest items can measureknowledgeat a varietyof
levels.
COGNITIVELEVEL SAMPLETRUE/FALSETEST ITEMS
FACT tr)
size of lymph nodes.
EXPLANATION (F) A paraltjzeil patient must be watched very carefullyfor
evidenceof pressuresores, since nourishmentto the area
is decreased.
COMPUTATION fI) ln orderto converta Fahrenheitreadingto a centigrade
readingyou would subtract32 from the Fahrenheitreading
and multiplythe fractionby 5/9.
APPLICATION (F) In taking blood pressure,you musttake the systolicreading
at the point where the sound stops.
ANALYSIS f[) Signsof increased intercranialpressureare indicatedby
vomiting,elevatedbloodpressure,slowing of pulse,
slowingof respirations,and unequalpupils.
JUDGMENT (F) lt is better for the nurseto have childrenof her own if she
expectsto have an adequate understandingof the sick
child.

THE ARGUMENT FOR TRUE/FALSEIESTS

The basis for educationalachievementis the commandof usefulverbal knowledge.All
verbalknowledgecan be expressedin true or false verbalpropositionsor sentences.
The extentof a person'scommandof a particularareaof knowledgeis indicatedby
his/hersuccessin determiningthe truth or falsenessof relatedpropositions.Having
commandof knowledgemeans one can use it to make decisions,draw logical
inferences,or solve problems.lt is knowledgethat is availablefor use. True/falsetests
reflectusable knowledge.

HOW TO PREPARE EFFECTIVE ITEMS

1. Locate sources presentingbits of special
knowledge:paragraphs,written procedures,
etc
2. Derivea propositionon which to base test
items.
3. Restatethe original idea in differentwords:
the true and false versionsare writtenin pairs.
The false item is a contradictionthat is
worded to sound plausible.
Paragraph:
"One of the effectsof digitalisis to makethe heart
BH?n'",'o
3fr3f!?:hl,:"#t"?"i,,'!?"?5iT#,[',,]
withholdthe medicationuntilshe notifiesthe
physician."
Proposition:
Digitalismust not be administeredby the nurseto
the patientif the pulse rateis below 60.
ltems:
f|-) In giving digitalisthe nurse must always take
and recordthe pulse.
(D In givingdigitalisthe nursemust alwaystake
and recordthe blood pressure.

19-13
 4. fnterpretthe basic idea in terms of another
one similarto the original.
OR
5. Developanotherway of lookinqat the basic
idea: true and false Version.lf
novelsituationsto exemplifythe .fossible, create
proposition.
More items:
(I) A patientis given digitalisto slow the heart
(R f;f";,,"n, is given digitatisto increasethe
heart rate.
More items:
CD lf a patientdoes not exhibitsigns of
bradycardia,the nursewill ad"miniiterthe
prescribedamountof digitalis.
(D The nursewill administerthe prescribed

3tr?H,* ihepatient
3[X'g't?";':ly.#!en
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOODTRUE/FAISEITEM
Goodtrue/falsetest itemsare basedon an importantidearatherthantrivia.Theytest
moreunderstanding than rotememory.The correctansweris defensibleand not
ambiguous.The wronganswerwouldseemreasonable to someonewho doesnot
possessthe appropriate knowledge.The test itemis basedon a singleideathat is
conciseand clearlyexpressed.

CHECKPOINTSTO OBSERVEWHENWRITINGA TRUilFALSE TESTITEM

' Use morefalsestatements (perhapstwo falseto onetrue).
' Minimizeuse of inadvertentcluesthat may be usedby the test-wisestudent.
' Use phrasesin falsestatements thatgivethemthe impression of truth.
' Writethe contentor statementin bothtrueand falseversion.
. Avoidvagueterms.
'Avoid qualifiedstatements
"generally." suchas "often,""occasionallv,"
"never,""mayi'or

' Makeall itemsapproximately the samelengthto avoidgivingstudentcues

that one type may be longeror shorter.
. Avoidtrickyquestions.
' True/falseitemsare dependent on a varietyof sentenceforms.
' Testingat an appropriatelevelof achievement, in largepart,is relatedto the
sentenceform.
Thefollowingchartmay be usedas a guidein selectingsomeof the key introductory
wordsor phrasesto be usedin itemstestingvariousaspectsof learnin!.Onviously,
thereare slightvariationspossiblewithwordsor phrases,as well as others
appropriateto a particularaspectof learning.Sinceall objectiveitemsrelyon
commandof knowledge that is essentially
verbal,the chartis usefulfor othertypesof
testsas well.

19-14
P-P#EARIU"
RELATING

EXPLAINING

iiliy.ill5x'*n
PREDICTING
APPLYING

COMPUTING
EVALUATING

" "T-
if::*f;:flIr.H,!,lFr?=3,:,g,r["i.l,:i;l$l:H$:l;ii'T
oescrined
words.
woluD' Lt'tev'
,"rox,l3"t'l'"'l,irltlTlT::
as".onIt-,u.t"o
choicetest item'
*. r, -r:^ 6^r-r,
nervous systemts p a f t o f t h e
Stem:Theparasympathetic system'
Answer; autonomicnervous
iautvt
AnSWer'
aSin the above
u, an incompletesentence
The stemcan be q,"::ll*

ffi nt"_f;;'J*$:rtgt3to1"1X".1l;'#;,,bodytemperature?
ITEMS
lrElns
EXA^/IPLE9-- F" , ,N'nn sHoRI ANSWER
oR aHORT tN,swER throughthe
.ALLEDFrLL-lN il; the left";;;ffi" flows
pu*p"t
stem:Btood
Answer.' aottic valve
Answer; oontt - .-a+rrrNrQ
Ll3il:j8lJ5r$nouo
is:fJt['ffi:T]?;1"'.?f
3ly#,IiF"?J5,t:ffi
th" nutse do? patient on his side, put the bed pan
in place' and roll
the

Answer; Ro* the

oRorHER
N,MBER'
pHRAsE,
ArERM,
1*X}il':uppLrEs hours'
in
SYMBOL
peak effectof insulinis reached
Stem:The

1 9 - 15
 ANY COMBINATION O F S T E MA N D A N S W E R .
The student in each case is requiredto r"."ll the response
has predeterminedas correct.These test it"*r should that the instructor
always be precededwith
specificdirections:

EXAMPLE
on the blank followingeach of the questions,paftiat
statements,or words,you
are to write the word, shofi phrase,or number'that
seems most appropriate.
lf the answer is too obviouslycued in.a multiple-choice
test item, then a completionor short answer item (or selectedresponse)
l
may be preieii"o.
previous
examplei
oi.orpletionitemswiththeirmuttipte-
choice?:[i#3 n",",#:
The parasympathetic neryoussystemis partof the
A. centralneruoussystem
B. autonomicneruoussystem
C. sympathetic neruoussystem
D. all of the above
Bodytemperature is controlledby
A. thalamus
B. thyroid
C. hypothalamus
D. noneof the above
ADVANTAGES
. Easyto writecertainitems.
' Studentmustrecallthe answer(more
apparentthanreal)
DISADVANTAGES
' Limitedto questions thatcan be answered
witha word,phrase,or symbol.
' scoringtendsto be tediousand subjectiu".
' Difficultto writeitemsrequiringshort,
sometimes
specificanswersthattest
higherlearninglevels.
GUIDELINES
1. Allowsufficient
spacefor the studentresponse.
2. Keepall responseblanksof equallengtlito avoidcuing.
3' A questionformatis oftenmoredesira6lethani .t"t"rent completion.
grammatical The
styleof the lattercouldinfluencethe choiceof answer.
PAPERAND pENctL TESTS:The Matchingttem
Matchingitemscan measurea rangeof behav]o,but are mostcommonly
measurerecallbehavior.A matchrng usedto
testconsistsof a set of "stems,,
or ,qr"rtLn.',
on
the lefthandsideto whicha set of r-esponses on the righthandsioeare matchedby
the student.

19-16
ADVANTAGES
. Fairlyeasy to PrePare.
. Efficientin the respectthat the same set of responsescan be used
"stems'"
with severalsimilar

DISADVANTAGES
. Difficultto measurehigherlevelsof learning.
' Usuallytoo many trickyquestions'

GIJIDELINESFON EFFECTIVE MATCHING ITEM CONSTRUCTION

1. Keep the style and contentof the stem and responsecolumns
homogeneous.lt is preferableto use short responsesof even
lengthto avoid unnecessaryclues'
2. Limitthe numberof stemsfrom six to ten. Additionalmatches
introducefatigueand confusionto the matchingprocess'

EXAMPLES OF MATCHING TEST ITEMS

periodof
Matchthe developmentalphase with the appropriatechronological
a person'slife:
1. OediPal a. 0-1 year
2. MaturitY b. 1-3years
3. Oral c. 3-6 years
4. Adolescence d. 6-12 years
5. LatencY e. 12-21 years
6. Anal f. 21 years
-- g. 35 years

19-17
,-

Foreachtermin cofumn
(responses t Ft"mises), selectthe statementin cofumnB
that bestdefineiire term;i;r
appropriate A).
_column
linein cofumnA. ftrere is'only Markyouransweron the
term. on" cdirectdefinition
for each
A
1 . Split-hatfretiabitity. B
a. An.estimateof the degree of
correlation
betweenatternate
toiiiJ ot-i iJrt.
Coefficientof stability.
b. An estimateof the relationship
-between two
measuresof the same person.
Coefficientof equivatence.
A measure of the internal consistency
test results. of
4. Concurrentvalidity.
d. An estimateof
.thecorrelationbetween the
resultsof two differentmeiiures obtained
at the same time.
5. Predictivevalidity.
e. An estimateof the correlation
between the
resultsof some measureanO tne'ie"s"ultd';;
some criterionof measureobtaineOLl -'
later date. i
ANSWERSTO TlE EXAMPLESABOVE
1.c 2 .g g.a 4.d 5.e
fn the foflowingiremsyou a::i:^*:,^gl"t"
the time period
duringwhicha
fil5*Ti,9ll?ffit#if#:llj::;ilil can
best
bd used
Fore-achitem,
A. 1-3 months
B. 4-6 months
C. 7-10 months

A B c
17. Colostrumexpressed
18. Mate
1 9 . G o o d elf' s s i g n
20. BraxtonHicks contractions
21. Cervicalmucuspositivefern
22. Ballottement
23. Leakingcolostrum

Directions:
on the bfankbeforethe nameof each
precedesthe medication diseaseplacethe lette,*,ut
for whichilre Jiseaseis knownto respond
Disease best.
Medication
1. parkinson'
a. atropine
2. Addison,
b' levodope
3. Murtiprescrerosis
c. corticoidpreparation
d. unknown
FINAL TESTING CONSIDERATIONS
Regardlessof the type ot fott of test
thatyou have chosen,each item shoufd
based on a stated learningperform"n." be
ooi".tiu" to-irprove the test validity.
In

19-18
 shouldmake everyeffortto reducetest errCIr' Toward
ccnstructinga test the ir":structor
this end severalguidelinesare suggested:
1. Advisif,* studentsin Jclvancewhichtest formatwill be used.
2. Beforethe tesi informthe studentswhich learningper{ormance
objectivesand contentareaswill be covered.
to
3. Fieviewthe gradingpolicyand value of each test as it relates
the finaigrade'
test to
4. nriang; ieveral of the easiestitemsat the beginningof the
reduceanxietY.
5. Arrangeall test itemsin randomorder'
6. Make*testinstructionsspecificand explicit.
7 . lf possible,have a colleaguecheckthe test itemsfor ambiguity'

ALTERNATIVESTUDENTASSESSMENTPROCEDURES
take.nthe forms of the test types
f"pu, and p"n.it testinghas traditionally
just described.From the p-rspectiveof ieachingfaculty,these appearto be
techniques
safest.However,there are-anumberof othersiudentassessment
that deserueconsideration.
procedureallowsthe
Open Book Examinations. This type of assessment class
studentto use any referencesavailable,includingthe textbook,
of material, the
notes,and handouts.Ratherthan memorizinga lot
tables,
instructorwantsthe studentsto applyskillsby usingformulas,
is on application of essential skills
graphs,and so for1h.Tr'" emphaii's
This technique tends to
ratherthan memoryand restatementof data.
there is no clear
reducestudentanxiety.The researchindicatesthat
benefitin achieu"*"nt of learningoutcomes(Boniface1985)'
One .,rariationof the open book test is to allow the studentto use
or
crib sheetsor providethem with the essentialformulas,tables,
graphs,withoutthebenefitoftheopenbook.
Some instructorscombinethe open book with the standard
classroomtest.
the
Take-HomeExaminations. Theseallowthe studentto take period'The
examinationhome to completewithina prescribed time
student is expectedto synihesizea lot of backg.round reading'Eq
logical summary to ihe assignment' This
references,and ptoOu"ria
requiredon
type of exam is usefulwhen ihere is a greit deal of writing
student can explore
the part of the student.Using-this formal,the
is available
mucl-rbroaderimplicationsdt an issue,sincemore time
for reflectionand oridge-ouilding of ideas T9 be fair to all students,
be spent
the instructorstroulOJpecifythJamount of time that should
pages elPected, G.1a{ing on this .
on each answeruno the numberof
that are shared
type of examinationmust be basedbnlpecific criteria
take-home
with the studentsbeforethey take the examination.The
examinationcan be combinedwith the in-class test'
they are rarelyused
oral Examinations . Usuallyused at the graduatelevel, should be
for undergraduatei;;iln+ ro be abiolutely objective,there

19-19
 more than one instructoradministering an oral exam.They are time-
consumingto give and difficultto grade.The oral exam createsundue
stressand anxietyon the pafi of the students,who must "thinkon their
feet."Most studentshave not been trainedon how to take an oral
examinationand are easilyintimidated,since it is very difficultto bluff
or guess.lf this exam formatis usedwith a numberof students,the
instructorshoulduse a preparedlist of questionsthat are asked of all
the students.Studentsshouldbe informedin advanceof the test
exactlywhat is expectedand any time parametersunderwhich they
must respond.
Mastery Testing . This approachallowsthe studentto repeata different
form of the test a numberof times.lt is widelyused in the teaching
strategyknown as the KellerPlan or PersonalizedSystemof
Instruction. A largebank of test itemsis requiredfor the alternative
tests,which must be equivalentin difficultylevel.Most studentsare
requiredto retakethe test withinthreeto five days of the original
testing.
CollaborativeTesting . A smallgroupof students,usuallythreeto five,
consultwith each other duringthe test. Althoughthey questionand
teach each other,they must turn in individualanswersheets.This type
of participatorytestingstill requiresindividualaccountabilityon the
part of each student.Questionsmust be formattedat the critical
thinkingor applicationlevelof thinking.Knowledgeand simple
comprehension questionsare inappropriate sincethese have only
one correctresponse.
PairedTesting . This is a form of collaborative testingusingpairsof
students.
PerformanceTesting . Studentsmust not only know and understanda
procedure,they must apply it in frontof the instructor,who assesses
the processesused by the studentsas well as the final product.The
instructormust have availablea set of prespecifiedperformance
criteriathat matchesthe lear"ning performanceobjectives.These are
sharedwith and explainedto the studentpriorto assessmenttime.
The per{ormancecriteriaare usuallyin the form of listsor rating
scales.Lists requirethe instructorto determinea yes-nocheck as to
the presenceor absenceof a skill.Ratingscales,on the other hand,
allowthe instructorto specifythe degreeof accuracyon a continuous
scale.
Journal . This is a cross betweena studentnotebookand a writer'sdiary
(Stanley1991).The studentsrecordtheir reactionsto reading
assignmentsas well as class sessions.They identifyideasand
connectionsamong ideasthat they have troubleunderstanding. They
list questionsthey have and speculationsaboutthe material.The
studentsare requiredto reflecton and think aboutthe materialthey
are studying.The journalcan be kept outsideof class or the instructor
can providethe last five minutesof each class periodfor the students

19-20
 I
are coilectedperiodically and
to makejournarentries.Journars
returnedwithcommentsfromtheinstructor. be usedto
The instructor needsto provideipeciticcriteriathatwill
iudgethe journalentries'providedevaluative criteriafor studentsor
some instructors have
for peerreview.In some
hadthe studentsg"n"iute'theiro*n criteria gradetheirown
instances, the instrucioi.t uu" hadthe students
"a collectionof student
porttoilJl"xiirdent porrfotio is definedas pqrposeful
workthatte||sthestoryofthe_student'sefforts,progress'or The portfolio,
achievement in a givehur"u,,tnrterand spandetissz;.workand
of ifre student's
keptby the student,[rovidesa gampfe obiectives'The portfolio
progrJr; i;;;r; the'learningp"rfor[i"n."student'lt can contain
providesa samplegf the bestworkof the in theatreor music'
poetry,papers,artifacis,videosoi pertormance portfoliois
speeches,'afiwork, musicar.orpolitionr, andso fo'th.The
of the coursefor
corectedat mid-term"no again;iid.orpr"tion portfolios shouldalwaysbe
evaluationand commentby tr" inriructor.
returnedto the student'

19-21