History of aviation

The history of aviation extends for more than two thousand years, from the
earliest forms of aviation such as kites and attempts at tower jumping to
supersonic and hypersonic flight by powered, heavier-than-air jets.

Kite flying in China dates back to several hundred years BC and slowly spread
around the world. It is thought to be the earliest example of man-made flight.

Leonardo da Vinci's 15th-century dream of flight found expression in several

rational but unscientific designs, though he did not attempt to construct any of
them.

The discovery of hydrogen gas in the 18th century led to the invention of the The Wright Military Flyer aboard a wagon
in 1908.
hydrogen balloon, at almost exactly the same time that the Montgolfier
brothers rediscovered the hot-air balloon and began manned flights.[1] Various
theories in mechanics by physicists during the same period of time, notably fluid
dynamics and Newton's laws of motion, led to the foundation of modern
aerodynamics, most notably by Sir George Cayley.

Balloons, both free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from
the end of the 18th century, with the French government establishing Balloon
Companies during theRevolution.[2]

The term aviation, noun of action from stem of Latin avis "bird" with suffix -ation
meaning action or progress, was coined in 1863 by French pioneer Guillaume
Joseph Gabriel de La Landelle (1812–1886) in "Aviation ou Navigation aérienne
sans ballons".[3][4]

Experiments with gliders provided the groundwork for heavier-than-air craft, and by
the early-20th century, advances in engine technology and aerodynamics made
controlled, powered flight possible for the first time. The modern aeroplane with its
characteristic tail was established by 1909 and from then on the history of the
aeroplane became tied to the development of more and more powerful engines.
French reconnaissance balloon
The first great ships of the air were the rigid dirigible balloons pioneered by L'Intrépide of 1796, the oldest
Ferdinand von Zeppelin, which soon became synonymous with airships and existing flying device, in the
dominated long-distance flight until the 1930s, when large flying boats became Heeresgeschichtliches Museum,
popular. After World War II, the flying boats were in their turn replaced by land Vienna.

planes, and the new and immensely powerful jet engine revolutionised both air
travel and military aviation.

In the latter part of the 20th century the advent of digital electronics produced great advances in flight instrumentation and "fly-by-
wire" systems. The 21st century saw the large-scale use of pilotless drones for military, civilian and leisure use. With digital controls,
inherently unstable aircraft such as flying wings became possible.

Contents
Primitive beginnings
 Tower jumping
Kites
Man-carrying kites
Rotor wings
Hot air balloons
The Renaissance
Lighter than air
Beginnings of modern theories
Balloons
Airships
Heavier than air
Leonardo da Vinci's Ornithopter
The 17th and 18th centuries
design.
The 19th century
Sir George Cayley and the first modern aircraft
The age of steam
Learning to glide
Langley
Whitehead
The Wright brothers
The Pioneer Era (1903–1914)
Pioneers in Europe
Flight as an established technology
Rotorcraft
Military use
World War I (1914–1918)
Combat schemes
Between the World Wars (1918–1939)
World War II (1939–1945)
The postwar era (1945–1979)
The digital age (1980–present)
21st century
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Articles
Media

Primitive beginnings

Tower jumping Aviation timeline

From the earliest legends there have been stories of men strapping birdlike
wings, stiffened cloaks or other devices to themselves and attempting to fly, typically by jumping off a tower. The Greek legend of
Daedalus and Icarus is one of the earliest known; others originated from India, China and the European Middle Age. During this
early period the issues of lift, stability and control were not understood, and most attempts ended in serious injury or death.
In the seventeenth century, the Algerian historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari
stated that the Andalusian scientistAbbas ibn Firnas (810–887 A.D.) made a jump in
Cordoba, Spain, covering his body with vulture feathers and attaching two wings to
his arms.[5][6] No other sources record the event.[5] Writing in the twelfth century,
William of Malmesbury stated that the eleventh century Benedictine monk Eilmer of
Malmesbury attached wings to his hands and feet and flew a short distance. Beyond
those based on William's account, there are no other known sources documenting
Eilmer's life.[5]

Many others made well-documented jumps in the following centuries. As late as

1811, Albrecht Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and jumped into the Danube at
Ulm.[7]

Kites
The kite may have been the first Daedalus working on Icarus' wings.
form of man-made aircraft.[1] It
was invented in China possibly as
far back as the 5th century BC by Mozi (Mo Di) and Lu Ban (Gongshu Ban).[8]
Later designs often emulated flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and
mythical. Some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while
flying.[9][10][11] Ancient and medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used to
measure distances, test the wind, lift men, signal, and communicate and send
messages.[12]

Kites spread from China around the world. After its introduction into India, the kite
further evolved into thefighter kite, where an abrasive line is used to cut down other
kites.

Woodcut print of a kite from John

Man-carrying kites
Bate's 1635 book The Mysteryes of
Nature and Art. Man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China, for
both civil and military purposes and sometimes enforced as a punishment. An early
recorded flight was that of the prisoner Yuan Huangtou, a Chinese prince, in the 6th
Century AD.[13] Stories of man-carrying kites also occur in Japan, following the introduction of the kite from China around the
[14]
seventh century AD. It is said that at one time there was a Japanese law against man-carrying kites.

Rotor wings
The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo-copter, an ancient Chinese toy.[15][16] The
[17]
similar "moulinet à noix" (rotor on a nut) appeared in Europe in the 14th century AD.

Hot air balloons

From ancient times the Chinese have understood that hot air rises and have applied the principle to a type of small hot air balloon
called a sky lantern. A sky lantern consists of a paper balloon under or just inside which a small lamp is placed. Sky lanterns are
traditionally launched for pleasure and during festivals. According to Joseph Needham, such lanterns were known in China from the
3rd century BC. Their military use is attributed to the general Zhuge Liang (180–234 AD, honorific title Kongming), who is said to
have used them to scare the enemy troops.[18]
There is evidence that the Chinese also "solved the problem of aerial navigation" using
.[19]
balloons, hundreds of years before the 18th century

The Renaissance
Eventually some investigators began to
discover and define some of the basics of
rational aircraft design. Most notable of
these was Leonardo da Vinci, although his
work remained unknown until 1797, and so
had no influence on developments over the
next three hundred years. While his designs
were at least rational, they were not based A sky lantern.
One of Leonardo's sketches on particularly good science.[20]

Leonardo studied bird flight, analyzing it and anticipating many principles of

aerodynamics. He did at least understand that "An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object."[21] Newton
would not publish theThird law of motion until 1687.

From the last years of the 15th century on he wrote about and sketched many designs for flying machines and mechanisms, including
ornithopters, fixed-wing gliders, rotorcraft and parachutes. His early designs were man-powered types including ornithopters and
rotorcraft, however he came to realise the impracticality of this and later turned to controlled gliding flight, also sketching some
designs powered by a spring.[22]

Lighter than air

Beginnings of modern theories

In 1670 Francesco Lana de Terzi published a work that suggested lighter than air flight would be possible by using copper foil
spheres that, containing a vacuum, would be lighter than the displaced air to lift an airship. While theoretically sound, his design was
not feasible: the pressure of the surrounding air would crush the spheres. The idea of using vacuum to produce lift is now known as
vacuum airship but remains unfeasible with any currentmaterials.

In 1709 Bartolomeu de Gusmão presented a petition to King John V of Portugal, begging for support for his invention of an airship,
in which he expressed the greatest confidence. The public test of the machine, which was set for June 24, 1709, did not take place.
According to contemporary reports, however, Gusmão appears to have made several less ambitious experiments with this machine,
descending from eminences. It is certain that Gusmão was working on this principle at the public exhibition he gave before the Court
on August 8, 1709, in the hall of theCasa da Índia in Lisbon, when he propelled a ball to the roof by combustion.

Balloons
1783 was a watershed year for ballooning and aviation. Between June 4 and December 1, five aviation firsts were achieved in France:

On 4 June, the Montgolfier brothers demonstrated their unmannedhot air balloon at Annonay, France.
On 27 August, Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers (Les Freres Robert) launched the world's first unmanned
hydrogen-filled balloon, from theChamp de Mars, Paris.
On 19 October, the Montgolfiers launched thefirst manned flight, a tethered balloon with humans on board, at the
Folie Titon in Paris. The aviators were the scientistJean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, the manufacture managerJean-
Baptiste Réveillon, and Giroud de Villette.
On 21 November, the Montgolfiers launchedthe first free flight with human passengers. King Louis XVI had originally
decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier , along with the
Marquis François d'Arlandes, successfully petitioned for the honor. They drifted 8 km (5.0 mi) in a balloon powered
by a wood fire.
 On 1 December, Jacques Charles and theNicolas-
Louis Robert launched their manned hydrogen
balloon from the Jardin des Tuileries in Paris, as a
crowd of 400,000 witnessed. They ascended to a
height of about 1,800 feet (550 m)[15] and landed
at sunset in Nesles-la-Vallée after a flight of 2
hours and 5 minutes, covering 36 km. After Robert
alighted Charles decided to ascend alone. This
time he ascended rapidly to an altitude of about
9,800 feet (3,000 m), where he saw the sun again,
suffered extreme pain in his ears, and neverflew
again.
Ballooning became a major "rage" in Europe in the late 18th
century, providing the first detailed understanding of the
relationship between altitude and the atmosphere.

Non-steerable balloons were employed during the American

Civil War by the Union Army Balloon Corps. The young
Ferdinand von Zeppelin first flew as a balloon passenger
with the Union Army of the Potomac in 1863.

In the early 1900s ballooning was a popular sport in Britain.

These privately owned balloons usually used coal gas as the
lifting gas. This has half the lifting power of hydrogen so the
balloons had to be larger, however coal gas was far more Lithographic depiction of pioneering events (1783 to 1846).
readily available and the local gas works sometimes
provided a special lightweight formula for ballooning
events.[23]

Airships
Airships were originally called "dirigible balloons" and are still sometimes called dirigibles
today.

Work on developing a steerable (or dirigible) balloon continued sporadically throughout the
19th century. The first powered, controlled, sustained lighter-than-air flight is believed to have
taken place in 1852 when Henri Giffard flew 15 miles (24 km) in France, with a steam engine
driven craft.

Another advance was made in 1884, when the first fully controllable free-flight was made in a
French Army electric-powered airship, La France, by Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs. The
170-foot (52 m) long, 66,000-cubic-foot (1,900 m3) airship covered 8 km (5.0 mi) in 23
minutes with the aid of an 8½ horsepower electric motor
.

However, these aircraft were generally short-lived and extremely frail. Routine, controlled Santos-Dumont's "Number
flights would not occur until the advent of the internal combustion engine (see below
.) 6" rounding the Eiffel Tower
in the process of winning the
The first aircraft to make routine controlled flights were non-rigid airships (sometimes called Deutsch de la Meurthe
"blimps".) The most successful early pioneering pilot of this type of aircraft was the Brazilian Prize, October 1901.
Alberto Santos-Dumont who effectively combined a balloon with an internal combustion
engine. On October 19, 1901 he flew his airship Number 6 over Paris from the Parc de Saint
Cloud around the Eiffel Tower and back in under 30 minutes to win the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. Santos-Dumont went on to
design and build several aircraft. Subsequent controversy surrounding his and others' competing claims with regard to aircraft
overshadowed his great contribution to the development of airships.
At the same time that non-rigid airships were starting to have some success, the first successful rigid airships were also being
developed. These would be far more capable than fixed-wing aircraft in terms of pure cargo carrying capacity for decades. Rigid
airship design and advancement was pioneered by the German countFerdinand von Zeppelin.

Construction of the first Zeppelin airship began in 1899 in a floating assembly hall on Lake Constance in the Bay of Manzell,
Friedrichshafen. This was intended to ease the starting procedure, as the hall could easily be aligned with the wind. The prototype
airship LZ 1 (LZ for "Luftschiff Zeppelin") had a length of 128 m (420 ft) was driven by two 10.6 kW (14.2 hp) Daimler engines and
balanced by moving a weight between its two nacelles.

Its first flight, on July 2, 1900, lasted for only 18 minutes, as LZ 1 was forced to land on the lake after the winding mechanism for the
balancing weight had broken. Upon repair, the technology proved its potential in subsequent flights, bettering the 6 m/s speed
attained by the French airshipLa France by 3 m/s, but could not yet convince possible investors. It would be several years before the
Count was able to raise enough funds for another try
.

Although airships were used in both World War I and II, and continue on a limited basis to this day, their development has been
largely overshadowed by heavier-than-air craft.

Heavier than air

The 17th and 18th centuries

Italian inventor Tito Livio Burattini, invited by the Polish King Władysław IV to his court in Warsaw, built a model aircraft with four
fixed glider wings in 1647.[24] Described as "four pairs of wings attached to an elaborate 'dragon'", it was said to have successfully
lifted a cat in 1648 but not Burattini himself.[25] He promised that "only the most minor injuries" would result from landing the
craft.[26] His "Dragon Volant" is considered "the most elaborate and sophisticated aeroplane to be built before the 19th Century".
[27]

The first published paper on aviation was "Sketch of a Machine for Flying in the Air" by Emanuel Swedenborg published in 1716.
This flying machine consisted of a light frame covered with strong canvas and provided with two large oars or wings moving on a
horizontal axis, arranged so that the upstroke met with no resistance while the downstroke provided lifting power. Swedenborg knew
that the machine would not fly, but suggested it as a start and was confident that the problem would be solved. He wrote: "It seems
easier to talk of such a machine than to put it into actuality, for it requires greater force and less weight than exists in a human body.
The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advantages and requisites are
observed, perhaps in time to come some one might know how better to utilize our sketch and cause some addition to be made so as to
accomplish that which we can only suggest. Yet there are sufficient proofs and examples from nature that such flights can take place
without danger, although when the first trials are made you may have to pay for the experience, and not mind an arm or leg."
Swedenborg would prove prescient in his observation that a method of powering of an aircraft was one of the critical problems to be
overcome.

On May 16, 1793, the Spanish inventor Diego Marín Aguilera managed to cross the river Arandilla in Coruña del Conde, Castile,
flying 300 - 400 m, with a flying machine.[28]

The 19th century

Balloon jumping replaced tower jumping, also demonstrating with typically fatal results that man-power and flapping wings were
useless in achieving flight. At the same time scientific study of heavier-than-air flight began in earnest. In 1837 French
mathematician and brigadier general Isidore Didion stated, "Aviation will be successful only if one finds an engine whose ratio with
the weight of the device to be supported will be larger than current steam machines or the strength developed by humans or most of
the animals."[29]

Sir George Cayley and the first modern aircraft

Sir George Cayley was first called the "father of the aeroplane" in 1846.[30] During the last years of the previous century he had
begun the first rigorous study of the physics of flight and would later design the first modern heavier-than-air craft. Among his many
achievements, his most important contributions to aeronautics include:

Clarifying our ideas and laying down the principles of heavier-than-air flight.
Reaching a scientific understanding of the principles of bird flight.
Conducting scientific aerodynamic experiments demonstrating drag and streamlining, movement of the centre of
pressure, and the increase in lift from curving the wing surface.
Defining the modern aeroplane configuration comprising a fixed wing, fuselage and tail assembly
.
Demonstrations of manned, gliding flight.
Setting out the principles of power-to-weight ratio in sustaining flight.
Cayley's first innovation was to study the basic science of lift by adopting the whirling arm test rig for use in aircraft research and
using simple aerodynamic models on the arm, rather than attempting to fly a model of a complete design.

In 1799 he set down the concept of the modern aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion,
and control.[31][32]

In 1804 Cayley constructed a model glider which was the first modern heavier-than-air flying machine, having the layout of a
conventional modern aircraft with an inclined wing towards the front and adjustable tail at the back with both tailplane and fin. A
movable weight allowed adjustment of the model'scentre of gravity.[33]

In 1809, goaded by the farcical antics of his contemporaries (see above), he began the
publication of a landmark three-part treatise titled "On Aerial Navigation" (1809–1810).[34] In
it he wrote the first scientific statement of the problem, "The whole problem is confined
within these limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power
to the resistance of air." He identified the four vector forces that influence an aircraft: thrust,
lift, drag and weight and distinguished stability and control in his designs. He also identified
and described the importance of the cambered aerofoil, dihedral, diagonal bracing and drag
reduction, and contributed to the understanding and design ofornithopters and parachutes.

In 1848 he had progressed far enough to construct a glider in the form of a triplane large and
[35][36]
safe enough to carry a child. A local boy was chosen but his name is not known.

He went on to publish in 1852 the design for a full-size manned glider or "governable
parachute" to be launched from a balloon and then to construct a version capable of launching
from the top of a hill, which carried the first adult aviator across Brompton Dale in 1853. "Governable parachute"
design of 1852
Minor inventions includedthe rubber-powered motor, which provided a reliable power source
for research models. By 1808 he had even re-invented the wheel, devising the tension-spoked
[37]
wheel in which all compression loads are carried by the rim, allowing a lightweight undercarriage.

The age of steam

Drawing directly from Cayley's work, Henson's 1842 design for an aerial steam carriage broke new ground. Although only a design,
it was the first in history for a propeller-driven fixed-wing aircraft.

1866 saw the founding of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain and two years later the world's first aeronautical exhibition was
held at the Crystal Palace, London, where John Stringfellow was awarded a £100 prize for the steam engine with the best power-to-
weight ratio.[38][39] In 1848 Stringfellow achieved the first powered flight using an unmanned 10 ft wingspan steam-powered
monoplane built in a disused lace factory in Chard, Somerset. Employing two contra-rotating propellers on the first attempt, made
indoors, the machine flew ten feet before becoming destabilised, damaging the craft. The second attempt was more successful, the
machine leaving a guide wire to fly freely, achieving thirty yards of straight and level powered flight.[40][41][42] Francis Herbert
Wenham presented the first paper to the newly formed Aeronautical Society (later the Royal Aeronautical Society), On Aerial
Locomotion. He advanced Cayley's work on cambered wings, making important findings. To test his ideas, from 1858 he had
constructed several gliders, both manned and unmanned, and with up to five stacked wings. He realised that long, thin wings are
better than bat-like ones because they have more leading edge for their area. Today this relationship is known as the aspect ratio of a
wing.

The latter part of the 19th century became a period of intense study
, characterized by the "gentleman scientists" who represented most
research efforts until the 20th century. Among them was the British scientist-philosopher and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton,
who studied lateral flight control and was the first to patent anaileron control systemin 1868.[43][44][45][46]

In 1871 Wenham and Browning made the firstwind tunnel.[48]

Meanwhile, the British advances had galvanised French researchers. In 1857 Félix
du Temple proposed a monoplane with a tail plane and retractable undercarriage.
Developing his ideas with a model powered first by clockwork and later by steam,
he eventually achieved a short hop with a full-size manned craft in 1874. It achieved
lift-off under its own power after launching from a ramp, glided for a short time and
returned safely to the ground, making it the first successful powered glide in history
.
Félix du Temple's 1874 Monoplane.
In 1865 Louis Pierre Mouillard published an influential book The Empire Of The
Air (l'Empire de l'Air).

In 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first flight higher than his point of
departure, by having his glider "L'Albatros artificiel" pulled by a horse on a beach.
He reportedly achieved a height of 100 meters, over a distance of 200 meters.

Alphonse Pénaud, a Frenchman,

advanced the theory of wing contours
and aerodynamics and constructed
successful models of aeroplanes,
Jean-Marie Le Bris and his flying
helicopters and ornithopters. In 1871 he
machine, Albatros II, 1868.
flew the first aerodynamically stable
fixed-wing aeroplane, a model
monoplane he called the "Planophore", a distance of 40 m (130 ft). Pénaud's model
incorporated several of Cayley's discoveries, including the use of a tail, wing dihedral Planophore model aeroplane by
Alphonse Pénaud, 1871
for inherent stability, and rubber power. The planophore also had longitudinal stability,
being trimmed such that the tailplane was set at a smaller angle of incidence than the
wings, an original and important contribution to the theory of aeronautics.[49] Pénaud's later project for an amphibian aeroplane,
although never built, incorporated other modern features. A tailless monoplane with a single vertical fin and twin tractor propellers, it
also featured hinged rear elevator and rudder surfaces, retractable undercarriage and a fully enclosed, instrumented cockpit.

Equally authoritative as a theorist was Pénaud's fellow countryman Victor Tatin. In 1879
he flew a model which, like Pénaud's project, was a monoplane with twin tractor
propellers but also had a separate horizontal tail. It was powered by compressed air.
Flown tethered to a pole, this was the first model to take of
f under its own power.

In 1884 Alexandre Goupil published his work La Locomotion Aérienne (Aerial

The Aeroplane of Victor Tatin,
Locomotion), although the flying machine he later constructed failed to fly
.
1879.
In 1890 the French engineer Clément Ader completed the first of three steam-driven
flying machines, the Éole. On October 9, 1890 Ader made an uncontrolled hop of
around 50 m (165 ft); this was the first manned airplane to take off under its own power.[50] His Avion III of 1897, notable only for
having twin steam engines, failed to fly:[51] Ader would later claim success and was not debunked until 1910 when the French Army
published its report on his attempt.
Sir Hiram Maxim was an American engineer who had moved to England. He built
his own whirling arm rig and wind tunnel, and constructed a large machine with a
wingspan of 105 feet (32 m), a length of 145 feet (44 m), fore and aft horizontal
surfaces and a crew of three. Twin propellers were powered by two lightweight
compound steam engines each delivering 180 hp (130 kW). Overall weight was Clément Ader Avion III (1897
8,000 pounds (3,600 kg).It was intended as a test rig to investigate aerodynamic lift: photograph).

lacking flight controls it ran on rails, with a second set of rails above the wheels to
restrain it. Completed in 1894, on its third run it broke from the rail, became
airborne for about 200 yards at two to three feet of altitude[52] and was badly
damaged upon falling back to the ground. It was subsequently repaired, but Maxim
abandoned his experiments shortly afterwards.[53]

Maxim's flying machine

Learning to glide
In the last decade or so of the 19th century, a number of key figures were refining
and defining the modern aeroplane. Lacking a suitable engine, aircraft work focused
on stability and control in gliding flight. In 1879 Biot constructed a bird-like glider
with the help of Massia and flew in it briefly. It is preserved in the Musee de l'Air,
France, and is claimed to be the earliest man-carrying flying machine still in
existence.

The Englishman Horatio Phillips made key contributions to aerodynamics. He

conducted extensive wind tunnel research on aerofoil sections, proving the
principles of aerodynamic lift foreseen by Cayley and Wenham. His findings
The Biot-Massia glider, restored and
underpin all modern aerofoil design. Between 1883-1886, the American John Joseph on display in the Musee de l'Air.
Montgomery developed a series of three manned gliders, before conducting his own
independent investigations into aerodynamics and circulation of lift.

Otto Lilienthal became known as the "Glider King" or "Flying Man" of Germany. He
duplicated Wenham's work and greatly expanded on it in 1884, publishing his research
in 1889 as Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation (Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der
Fliegekunst). He also produced a series of hang gliders, including bat-wing, monoplane
and biplane forms, such as the Derwitzer Glider and Normal soaring apparatus. Starting
in 1891 he became the first person to make controlled untethered glides routinely, and
the first to be photographed flying a heavier-than-air machine, stimulating interest
around the world. He rigorously documented his work, including photographs, and for
Otto Lilienthal, May 29, 1895.
this reason is one of the best known of the early pioneers. Lilienthal made over 2,000
glides until his death in 1896 from injuries sustained in a glider crash.

Picking up where Lilienthal left off, Octave Chanute took up aircraft design after an early retirement, and funded the development of
several gliders. In the summer of 1896 his team flew several of their designs eventually deciding that the best was a biplane design.
Like Lilienthal, he documented and photographed his work.

In Britain Percy Pilcher, who had worked for Maxim, built and successfully flew severalgliders during the mid to late 1890s.

The invention of the box kite during this period by the Australian Lawrence Hargrave would lead to the development of the practical
biplane. In 1894 Hargrave linked four of his kites together, added a sling seat, and flew 16 feet (4.9 m). Later pioneers of manned kite
flying included Samuel Franklin Codyin England and Captain Génie Saconney in France.

Langley
After a distinguished career in astronomy and shortly before becoming Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution, Samuel Pierpont Langley started a serious investigation
into aerodynamics at what is today the University of Pittsburgh. In 1891 he
published Experiments in Aerodynamics detailing his research, and then turned to
building his designs. He hoped to achieve automatic aerodynamic stability, so he
gave little consideration to in-flight control.[54] On May 6, 1896, Langley's
Aerodrome No. 5 made the first successful sustained flight of an unpiloted, engine-
driven heavier-than-air craft of substantial size. It was launched from a spring- First failure of Langley's manned
actuated catapult mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near Aerodrome on the Potomac River,
October 7, 1903
Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that afternoon, one of 1,005 metres
(3,297 ft) and a second of 700 metres (2,300 ft), at a speed of approximately 25
miles per hour (40 km/h). On both occasions the Aerodrome No. 5 landed in the water as planned, because in order to save weight, it
was not equipped with landing gear. On November 28, 1896, another successful flight was made with the Aerodrome No. 6. This
flight, of 1,460 metres (4,790 ft), was witnessed and photographed by Alexander Graham Bell. The Aerodrome No. 6 was actually
Aerodrome No. 4 greatly modified. So little remained of the original aircraft that it was given a new designation.

With the successes of the Aerodrome No. 5 and No. 6, Langley started looking for funding to build a full-scale man-carrying version
of his designs. Spurred by the Spanish–American War, the U.S. government granted him $50,000 to develop a man-carrying flying
machine for aerial reconnaissance. Langley planned on building a scaled-up version known as the Aerodrome A, and started with the
smaller Quarter-scale Aerodrome, which flew twice on June 18, 1901, and then again with a newer and more powerful engine in
1903.

With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he then turned to the problem of a suitable gine.
en He contracted Stephen Balzer
to build one, but was disappointed when it delivered only 8 hp (6.0 kW) instead of 12 hp (8.9 kW) he expected. Langley's assistant,
Charles M. Manly, then reworked the design into a five-cylinder water-cooled radial that delivered 52 hp (39 kW) at 950 rpm, a feat
that took years to duplicate. Now with both power and a design, Langley put the two together with great hopes.

To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too fragile. Simply scaling up the original small models resulted in a design that was
too weak to hold itself together. Two launches in late 1903 both ended with the Aerodrome immediately crashing into the water. The
pilot, Manly, was rescued each time. Also, the aircraft's control system was inadequate to allow quick pilot responses, and it had no
method of lateral control, and theAerodrome's aerial stability was marginal.[54]

Langley's attempts to gain further funding failed, and his efforts ended. Nine days after his second abortive launch on December 8,
the Wright brothers successfully flew their Flyer. Glenn Curtiss made 93 modifications to the Aerodrome and flew this very different
aircraft in 1914.[54] Without acknowledging the modifications, the Smithsonian Institution asserted that Langley's Aerodrome was the
first machine "capable of flight".[55]

Whitehead
Gustave Weißkopf was a German who emigrated to the U.S., where he soon changed his name to Whitehead. From 1897 to 1915 he
designed and built early flying machines and engines. On August 14, 1901, two and a half years before the Wright Brothers' flight, he
claimed to have carried out a controlled, powered flight in his Number 21 monoplane at Fairfield, Connecticut. The flight was
reported in the Bridgeport Sunday Heraldlocal newspaper. About 30 years later, several people questioned by a researcher claimed to
have seen that or other Whitehead flights.

In March 2013 Jane's All the World's Aircraft, an authoritative source for contemporary aviation, published an editorial which
accepted Whitehead's flight as the first manned, powered, controlled flight of a heavier-than-air craft.[56] The Smithsonian Institution
(custodians of the original Wright Flyer) and many aviation historians continue to maintain that Whitehead did not fly as
suggested.[57][58]

The Wright brothers

Using a methodological approach and concentrating on the controllability of the
aircraft, the brothers built and tested a series of kite and glider designs from 1900 to
1902 before attempting to build a powered design. The gliders worked, but not as
well as the Wrights had expected based on the experiments and writings of their
19th-century predecessors. Their first glider, launched in 1900, had only about half
the lift they anticipated. Their second glider, built the following year, performed
even more poorly. Rather than giving up, the Wrights constructed their own wind
tunnel and created a number of sophisticated devices to measure lift and drag on the
200 wing designs they tested.[59] As a result, the Wrights corrected earlier mistakes
in calculations regarding drag and lift. Their testing and calculating produced a third The No. 21 monoplane seen from the
glider with a higher aspect ratio and true three-axis control. They flew it successfully rear. Whitehead sits beside it with
daughter Rose in his lap; others in
hundreds of times in 1902, and it performed far better than the previous models. By
the photo are not identified.
using a rigorous system of experimentation, involving wind-tunnel testing of airfoils
and flight testing of full-size prototypes, the Wrights not only built a working
aircraft, the Wright Flyer, but also helped advance the science of aeronautical engineering.

The Wrights appear to be the first to make serious studied attempts to

simultaneously solve the power and control problems. Both problems proved
difficult, but they never lost interest. They solved the control problem by inventing
wing warping for roll control, combined with simultaneous yaw control with a
steerable rear rudder. Almost as an afterthought, they designed and built a low-
powered internal combustion engine. They also designed and carved wooden
propellers that were more efficient than any before, enabling them to gain adequate
performance from their low engine power. Although wing-warping as a means of
The Wright Flyer: the first sustained
lateral control was used only briefly during the early history of aviation, the
flight with a powered, controlled
aircraft. principle of combining lateral control in combination with a rudder was a key
advance in aircraft control. While many aviation pioneers appeared to leave safety
largely to chance, the Wrights' design was greatly influenced by the need to teach
themselves to fly without unreasonable risk to life and limb, by surviving crashes. This emphasis, as well as low engine power, was
the reason for low flying speed and for taking off in a head wind. Performance, rather than safety, was the reason for the rear-heavy
design, because the canard could not be highly loaded; anhedral wings were less affected by crosswinds and were consistent with the
low yaw stability.

According to the Smithsonian Institution and Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI),[60][61] the Wrights made the first
sustained, controlled, powered heavier-than-air manned flight at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, four miles (8 km) south of Kitty
Hawk, North Carolinaon December 17, 1903.[62]

The first flight by Orville Wright, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was recorded in a famous photograph. In the fourth flight of the
same day, Wilbur Wright flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59 seconds. The flights were witnessed by three coastal lifesaving crewmen, a
[62]
local businessman, and a boy from the village, making these the first public flights and the first well-documented ones.

Orville described the final flight of the day: "The first few hundred feet were up and down, as before, but by the time three hundred
feet had been covered, the machine was under much better control. The course for the next four or five hundred feet had but little
undulation. However, when out about eight hundred feet the machine began pitching again, and, in one of its darts downward, struck
the ground. The distance over the ground was measured to be 852 feet (260 m); the time of the flight was 59 seconds. The frame
supporting the front rudder was badly broken, but the main part of the machine was not injured at all. We estimated that the machine
could be put in condition for flight again in about a day or two."[63] They flew only about ten feet above the ground as a safety
precaution, so they had little room to maneuver, and all four flights in the gusty winds ended in a bumpy and unintended "landing".
Modern analysis by Professor Fred E. C. Culick and Henry R. Rex (1985) has demonstrated that the 1903 Wright Flyer was so
unstable as to be almost unmanageable by anyone but the W t 1902 glider.[64]
rights, who had trained themselves in he
The Wrights continued flying at Huffman Prairie near Dayton, Ohio in 1904–05. In May 1904 they introduced the Flyer II, a heavier
and improved version of the original Flyer. On June 23, 1905 they first flew a third machine, the Flyer III. After a severe crash on 14
July 1905, they rebuilt the Flyer III and made important design changes. They almost doubled the size of the elevator and rudder and
moved them about twice the distance from the wings. They added two fixed vertical vanes (called "blinkers") between the elevators,
and gave the wings a very slight dihedral. They disconnected the rudder from the wing-warping control, and as in all future aircraft,
placed it on a separate control handle. When flights resumed the results were immediate. The serious pitch instability that hampered
Flyers I and II was significantly reduced, so repeated minor crashes were eliminated. Flights with the redesigned Flyer III started
lasting over 10 minutes, then 20, then 30. Flyer III became the first practical aircraft (though without wheels and needing a launching
device), flying consistently under full control and bringing its pilot back to the starting point safely and landing without damage. On
[65]
5 October 1905, Wilbur flew 24 miles (39 km) in 39 minutes 23 seconds."

According to the April 1907 issue of the Scientific American magazine,[66] the Wright brothers seemed to have the most advanced
knowledge of heavier-than-air navigation at the time. However, the same magazine issue also claimed that no public flight had been
made in the United States before its April 1907 issue. Hence, they devised the Scientific American Aeronautic Trophy in order to
encourage the development of a heavier-than-air flying machine.

The Pioneer Era (1903–1914)

This period saw the development of practical aeroplanes and airships and their early application, alongside balloons and kites, for
private, sport and military use.

Pioneers in Europe
Although full details of the Wright Brothers' system of flight control had been
published in l'Aerophile in January 1906, the importance of this advance was not
recognised, and European experimenters generally concentrated on attempting to
produce inherently stable machines.

Short powered flights were performed in France by Romanian engineer Traian Vuia
on March 18 and August 19, 1906 when he flew 12 and 24 meters, respectively, in a
self-designed, fully self-propelled, fixed-wing aircraft, that possessed a fully
wheeled undercarriage.[67][68] He was followed by Jacob Ellehammer who built a The 14-bis, or Oiseau de proie.
monoplane which he tested with a tether in Denmark on September 12, 1906, flying
42 meters.[69]

On September 13, 1906, a day after Ellehammer's tethered flight and three years
after the Wright Brothers' flight, the BrazilianAlberto Santos-Dumont made a public
flight in Paris with the 14-bis, also known as Oiseau de proie (French for "bird of
prey"). This was of canard configuration with pronounced wing dihedral, and
covered a distance of 60 m (200 ft) on the grounds of the Chateau de Bagatelle in
Paris' Bois de Boulogne before a large crowd of witnesses. This well-documented Early Voisin biplane
event was the first flight verified by the Aéro-Club de France of a powered heavier-
than-air machine in Europe and won the Deutsch-Archdeacon Prize for the first
officially observed flight greater than 25 m (82 ft). On November 12, 1906, Santos-Dumont set the first world record recognized by
the Federation Aeronautique Internationale by flying 220 m (720 ft) in 21.5 seconds.[70][71] Only one more brief flight was made by
[72]
the 14bis in March 1907, after which it was abandoned.

In March 1907 Gabriel Voisin flew the first example of his Voisin biplane. On 13 January 1908 a second example of the type was
flown by Henri Farman to win the Deutsch-Archdeacon Grand Prix d'Aviation prize for a flight in which the aircraft flew a distance
f. The flight lasted 1 minute and 28 seconds.[73]
of more than a kilometer and landed at the point where it had taken of
Flight as an established technology
Santos-Dumont later added ailerons, between the wings in an effort to gain more
lateral stability. His final design, first flown in 1907, was the series of Demoiselle
monoplanes (Nos. 19 to 22). The Demoiselle No 19 could be constructed in only 15
days and became the world's first series production aircraft. The Demoiselle
achieved 120 km/h.[74] The fuselage consisted of three specially reinforced bamboo
booms: the pilot sat a seat between the main wheels of a conventional landing gear
whose pair of wire-spoked mainwheels were located at the lower front of the
airframe, with a tailskid half-way back beneath the rear fuselage structure. The
Demoiselle was controlled in flight by a cruciform tail unit hinged on a form of
universal joint at the aft end of the fuselage structure to function as elevator and Alberto Santos-Dumont flying the
Demoiselle over Paris
rudder, with roll control provided through wing warping (No. 20), with the wings
only warping "down".

In 1908 Wilbur Wright travelled to Europe, and starting in August gave a series of flight demonstrations at Le Mans in France. The
first demonstration, made on 8 August, attracted an audience including most of the major French aviation experimenters, who were
astonished by the clear superiority of the Wright Brothers' aircraft, particularly its ability to make tight controlled turns.[75] The
importance of using roll control in making turns was recognised by almost all the European experimenters: Henri Farman fitted
ailerons to his Voisin biplane and shortly afterwards set up his own aircraft construction business, whose first product was the
influential Farman III biplane.

The following year saw the widespread recognition of powered flight as something other than the preserve of dreamers and
eccentrics. On 25 July Louis Blériot won worldwide fame by winning a £1,000 prize offered by the British Daily Mail newspaper for
a flight across the English Channel, and in August around half a million people, including the President of France Armand Fallières
and David Lloyd George, attended one of the first aviation meetings, theGrande Semaine d'Aviation at Reims.

Rotorcraft
In 1877, Enrico Forlanini developed an unmanned helicopter powered by a steam engine. It rose to a height of 13 meters, where it
remained for 20 seconds, after a vertical take-off from a park in Milan.

The first time a manned helicopter is known to have risen off the ground was on a
tethered flight in 1907 by the Breguet-Richet Gyroplane. Later the same year the
Cornu helicopter, also French, made the first rotary-winged free flight at Lisenux,
France. However, these were not practical designs.
Paul Cornu's helicopter, built in 1907,
was the first manned flying machine
Military use to have risen from the ground using
rotating wings instead of fixed wings.
Almost as soon as they were invented, airplanes were used for military purposes.
The first country to use them for military purposes was Italy, whose aircraft made
reconnaissance, bombing and artillery correction flights in Libya during the Italian-Turkish war (September 1911 – October 1912).
The first mission (a reconnaissance) occurred on 23 October 1911. The first bombing mission was flown on 1 November 1911.[76]
Then Bulgaria followed this example. Its airplanes attacked and reconnoitered the Ottoman positions during the First Balkan War
1912–13. The first war to see major use of airplanes in offensive, defensive and reconnaissance capabilities was World War I. The
Allies and Central Powers both used airplanes and airships extensively
.

While the concept of using the airplane as an offensive weapon was generally discounted before World War I,[77] the idea of using it
for photography was one that was not lost on any of the major forces. All of the major forces in Europe had light aircraft, typically
derived from pre-war sporting designs, attached to their reconnaissance departments. Radiotelephones were also being explored on
airplanes, notably the SCR-68, as communication between pilots and ground commander grew more and more important.
World War I (1914–1918)

Combat schemes
It was not long before aircraft were shooting at each other, but the lack of any sort of
steady point for the gun was a problem. The French solved this problem when, in
late 1914, Roland Garros attached a fixed machine gun to the front of his plane, but Nieuport IV, operated by most of the
while Adolphe Pegoud would become known as the first "ace", getting credit for world's air forces before WW1 for
five victories, before also becoming the first ace to die in action, it was German reconnaissance and bombing,
Luftstreitkräfte Leutnant Kurt Wintgens, who, on July 1, 1915, scored the very first including during the Italian-Turkish
aerial victory by a purpose-built fighter plane, with a synchronized machine gun. war.

Aviators were styled as modern-day knights, doing individual combat with their
enemies. Several pilots became famous for their air-to-air combat; the most well known is
Manfred von Richthofen, better known as the Red Baron, who shot down 80 planes in air-to-
air combat with several different planes, the most celebrated of which was the Fokker Dr.I. On
the Allied side, René Paul Fonck is credited with the most all-time victories at 75, even when
later wars are considered.

France, Britain, Germany and Italy were the leading manufacturers of fighter planes that saw
action during the war,[78] with German aviation technologist Hugo Junkers showing the way
to the future through his pioneering use of all-metal aircraftfrom late 1915.

Between the World Wars (1918–1939)

The years between World War I and World War II saw great advancements in aircraft
technology. Airplanes evolved from low-powered biplanes made from wood and fabric to German Taube monoplane,
sleek, high-powered monoplanes made of aluminum, based primarily on the founding work of illustration from 1917
Hugo Junkers during the World War I period and its adoption by American designer William
Bushnell Stout and Soviet designer Andrei Tupolev. The age of the great rigid airships came
and went. The first successful rotorcraft appeared in the form of the autogyro, invented by Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva and
first flown in 1919. In this design, the rotor is not powered but is spun like a windmill by its passage through the air. A separate
powerplant is used to propel the aircraft forwards.

After World War I, experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their skills.
Many American pilots became barnstormers, flying into small towns across the
country and showing off their flying abilities, as well as taking paying passengers for
rides. Eventually the barnstormers grouped into more organized displays. Air shows
sprang up around the country, with air races, acrobatic stunts, and feats of air
superiority. The air races drove engine and airframe development—the Schneider
Trophy, for example, led to a series of ever faster and sleeker monoplane designs
culminating in the Supermarine S.6B. With pilots competing for cash prizes, there
Flagg biplane from 1933.
was an incentive to go faster. Amelia Earhart was perhaps the most famous of those
on the barnstorming/air show circuit. She was also the first female pilot to achieve
records such as crossing of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Other prizes, for distance and speed records, also drove development forwards. For example, on June 14, 1919, Captain John Alcock
and Lieutenant Arthur Brown co-piloted a Vickers Vimy non-stop from St. John's, Newfoundland to Clifden, Ireland, winning the
£13,000 ($65,000)[79] Northcliffe prize. The first flight across the South Atlantic and the first aerial crossing using astronomical
navigation, was made by the naval aviators Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral in 1922, from Lisbon, Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, with only internal means of navigation, in an aircraft specifically fitted for
himself with an artificial horizon for aeronautical use, an invention that
revolutionized air navigation at the time (Gago Coutinho invented a type of sextant
incorporating two spirit levels to provide an artificial horizon).[80][81] Five years
later Charles Lindbergh took the Orteig Prize of $25,000 for the first solo non-stop
crossing of the Atlantic. Months after Lindbergh, Paul Redfern was the first to solo
the Caribbean Sea and was last seen flying over V
enezuela.

Australian Sir Charles Kingsford Smith was the first to fly across the larger Pacific Qantas De Havilland biplane, c. 1930
Ocean in the Southern Cross. His crew left Oakland, California to make the first
trans-Pacific flight to Australia in three stages. The first (from Oakland to Hawaii)
was 2,400 miles, took 27 hours 25 minutes and was uneventful. They then flew to Suva, Fiji 3,100 miles away, taking 34 hours 30
minutes. This was the toughest part of the journey as they flew through a massive lightning storm near the equator. They then flew on
to Brisbane in 20 hours, where they landed on 9 June 1928 after approximately 7,400 miles total flight. On arrival, Kingsford Smith
was met by a huge crowd of 25,000 at Eagle Farm Airport in his hometown of Brisbane. Accompanying him were Australian aviator
Charles Ulm as the relief pilot, and the Americans James Warner and Captain Harry Lyon (who were the radio operator, navigator
and engineer). A week after they landed, Kingsford Smith and Ulm recorded a disc for Columbia talking about their trip. With Ulm,
Kingsford Smith later continued his journey being the first in 1929 tocircumnavigate the world, crossing the equator twice.

The first lighter-than-air crossings of the Atlantic were made by airship in July 1919 by His Majesty's Airship R34 and crew when
they flew from East Lothian, Scotland to Long Island, New York and then back to Pulham, England. By 1929, airship technology had
advanced to the point that the first round-the-world flight was completed by the Graf Zeppelin in September and in October, the same
aircraft inaugurated the first commercial transatlantic service. However, the age of the rigid airship ended following the destruction
by fire of the zeppelin LZ 129 Hindenburg just before landing at Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937, killing 35 of the 97 people
aboard. Previous spectacular airship accidents, from the Wingfoot Express disaster (1919) to the loss of the R101 (1930), the Akron
(1933) and the Macon (1935) had already cast doubt on airship safety, but with the disasters of the U.S. Navy's rigids showing the
importance of solely using helium as the lifting medium; following the destruction of the Hindenburg, the remaining airship making
international flights, the Graf Zeppelin was retired (June 1937). Its replacement, the rigid airship Graf Zeppelin II, made a number of
flights, primarily over Germany, from 1938 to 1939, but was grounded when Germany began World War II. Both remaining German
zeppelins were scrapped in 1940 to supply metal for the German Luftwaffe; the last American rigid airship, the Los Angeles, which
had not flown since 1932, was dismantled in late 1939.

Meanwhile, Germany, which was restricted by the Treaty of Versailles in its development of powered aircraft, developed gliding as a
sport, especially at the Wasserkuppe, during the 1920s. In its various forms, in the 21st century sailplane aviation now has over
400,000 participants.[82][83]

In 1929 Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument flight.

1929 also saw the first flight of by far the largest plane ever built until then: the Dornier Do X with a wing span of 48 m. On its 70th
test flight on October 21 there were 169 people on board, a record that was not broken for 20 years.

Less than a decade after the development of the first practical rotorcraft of any type with the autogyro, in the Soviet Union, Boris N.
Yuriev and Alexei M. Cheremukhin, two aeronautical engineers working at the Tsentralniy Aerogidrodinamicheskiy Institut,
constructed and flew the TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter, which used an open tubing framework, a four blade main rotor, and
twin sets of 1.8-meter (5.9 ft) diameter anti-torque rotors; one set of two at the nose and one set of two at the tail. Powered by two M-
2 powerplants, up-rated copies of the Gnome Monosoupape rotary radial engine of World War I, the TsAGI 1-EA made several
successful low altitude flights. By 14 August 1932, Cheremukhin managed to get the 1-EA up to an unofficial altitude of 605 meters
(1,985 feet) with what is likely to be the first successful single-lift rotor helicopter design ever tested and flown.

Only five years after the German Dornier Do-X had flown, Tupolev designed the largest aircraft of the 1930s era, the Maksim Gorky
in the Soviet Union by 1934, as the largest aircraft ever built using the Junkers methods of metal aircraft construction.
In the 1930s development of the jet engine began in Germany and in Britain – both countries would go on to develop jet aircraft by
the end of World War II.

World War II (1939–1945)

World War II saw a great increase in the pace of development and production, not only of aircraft but also the associated flight-based
weapon delivery systems. Air combat tactics and doctrines took advantage. Large-scale strategic bombing campaigns were launched,
fighter escorts introduced and the more flexible aircraft and weapons allowed precise attacks on small targets with dive bombers,
fighter-bombers, and ground-attack aircraft. New technologies like radar also allowed more coordinated and controlled deployment
of air defense.

The first jet aircraft to fly was the Heinkel He 178 (Germany), flown by Erich
Warsitz in 1939, followed by the world's first operational jet aircraft, the Me 262, in
July 1942 and world's first jet-powered bomber, the Arado Ar 234, in June 1943.
British developments, like the Gloster Meteor, followed afterwards, but saw only
brief use in World War II. The first cruise missile (V-1), the first ballistic missile (V-
2), the first (and to date only) operational rocket-powered combat aircraft Me 163—
with attained velocities of up to 1,130 km/h (700 mph) in test flights—and the first
vertical take-off manned point-defense interceptor, the Bachem Ba 349 Natter, were
Me 262, world first operational jet
also developed by Germany. However, jet and rocket aircraft had only limited
fighter
impact due to their late introduction, fuel shortages, the lack of experienced pilots
and the declining war industry of Germany.

Not only airplanes, but also helicopters saw rapid development in the Second World War, with the introduction of the Focke Achgelis
Fa 223, the Flettner Fl 282 synchropter in 1941 in Germany and theSikorsky R-4 in 1942 in the USA.

The postwar era (1945–1979)

After World War II, commercial aviation grew rapidly, using mostly ex-military
aircraft to transport people and cargo. This growth was accelerated by the glut of
heavy and super-heavy bomber airframes like the B-29 and Lancaster that could be
converted into commercial aircraft. The DC-3 also made for easier and longer
commercial flights. The first commercial jet airliner to fly was the British de
Havilland Comet. By 1952, the British state airlineBOAC had introduced the Comet
into scheduled service. While a technical achievement, the plane suffered a series of
highly public failures, as the shape of the windows led to cracks due to metal
fatigue. The fatigue was caused by cycles of pressurization and depressurization of D.H. Comet, the world's first jet
the cabin, and eventually led to catastrophic failure of the plane's fuselage. By the airliner. As in this picture, it also saw
time the problems were overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to the RAF service
skies.

USSR's Aeroflot became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on September 15, 1956 with the
Tupolev Tu-104. The Boeing 707 and DC-8 which established new levels of comfort, safety and passenger expectations, ushered in
the age of mass commercial air travel, dubbed theJet Age.

In October 1947 Chuck Yeager took the rocket-powered Bell X-1 through the sound barrier. Although anecdotal evidence exists that
some fighter pilots may have done so while dive bombing ground targets during the war, this was the first controlled, level flight to
exceed the speed of sound. Further barriers of distance fell in 1948 and 1952 with the first jet crossing of the Atlantic and the first
nonstop flight to Australia.
The 1945 invention of nuclear bombs briefly increased the strategic importance of
military aircraft in the Cold War between East and West. Even a moderate fleet of
long-range bombers could deliver a deadly blow to the enemy, so great efforts were
made to develop countermeasures. At first, the supersonic interceptor aircraft were
produced in considerable numbers. By 1955 most development efforts shifted to
guided surface-to-air missiles. However, the approach diametrically changed when a
new type of nuclear-carrying platform appeared that could not be stopped in any
feasible way: intercontinental ballistic missiles. The possibility of these was
demonstrated in 1957 with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union. This action Play media
started the Space Race between the nations. A 1945 newsreel covering various
firsts in human flight
In 1961, the sky was no longer the limit for manned flight, as Yuri Gagarin orbited
once around the planet within 108 minutes, and then used the descent module of
Vostok I to safely reenter the atmosphere and reduce speed from Mach 25 using friction and converting the kinetic energy of the
velocity into heat. The United States responded by launching Alan Shepard into space on a suborbital flight in a Mercury space
capsule. With the launch of the Alouette I in 1963, Canada became the third country to send a satellite into space. The space race
between the United States and theSoviet Union would ultimately lead to thelanding of men on the moon in 1969.

In 1967, the X-15 set the air speed record for an aircraft at 4,534 mph (7,297 km/h) or Mach 6.1. Aside from vehicles designed to fly
in outer space, this record was renewed byX-43 in the 21st century.

The Harrier Jump Jet, often referred to as just "Harrier" or "the Jump Jet", is a British
designed military jet aircraft capable of Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing (V/STOL) via
thrust vectoring. It first flew in 1969, the same year that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set
foot on the moon, and Boeing unveiled the Boeing 747 and the Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde
supersonic passenger airliner had its maiden flight. The Boeing 747 was the largest
commercial passenger aircraft ever to fly, and still carries millions of passengers each year,
though it has been superseded by the Airbus A380, which is capable of carrying up to 853
passengers. In 1975 Aeroflot started regular service on the Tu-144—the first supersonic
passenger plane. In 1976 British Airways and Air France began supersonic service across the
Atlantic, with Concorde. A few years earlier the SR-71 Blackbird had set the record for
crossing the Atlantic in under 2 hours, and Concorde followed in its footsteps.
Apollo 11 lifts off on its
In 1979 the Gossamer Albatross became the first human powered aircraft to cross the English mission to land a man on
channel. This achievement finally saw the realization of centuries of dreams of human flight. the moon

The digital age (1980–present)

The last quarter of the 20th century saw a change of emphasis. No longer was
revolutionary progress made in flight speeds, distances and materials technology.
This part of the century instead saw the spreading of the digital revolution both in
flight avionics and in aircraft design and manufacturing techniques.

In 1986 Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager flew an aircraft, the Rutan Voyager, around
the world unrefuelled, and without landing. In 1999 Bertrand Piccard became the
Concorde, G-BOAB, in storage at
first person to circle the earth in a balloon.
London Heathrow Airportfollowing
the end of all Concorde flying. This
Digital fly-by-wire systems allow an aircraft to be designed with relaxed static
aircraft flew for 22,296 hours
stability. Initially used to increase the manoeuvrability of military aircraft such as
between its first flight in 1976 and
the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, this is now being used to reduce drag final flight in 2000.
on commercial airliners.
The U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission was established in 1999 to encourage the broadest national and international participation
in the celebration of 100 years of powered flight.[84] It publicized and encouraged a number of programs, projects and events
intended to educate people about the history of aviation.

21st century
21st century aviation has seen increasing interest in fuel savings and fuel diversification, as well as low cost airlines and facilities.
Additionally, much of the developing world that did not have good access to air transport has been steadily adding aircraft and
facilities, though severe congestion remains a problem in many up and coming nations. 20,000 city pairs are served by commercial
aviation, up from less than 10,000 as recently as 1996.

There appears to be newfound interest in returning to the supersonic era whereby waning demand and bureaucratic hurdles in the turn
of the 20th century made flights unprofitable, as well as the final commercial stoppage of the
Concorde due to a fatal accident.

In the beginning of the 21st century, digital technology allowed subsonic military aviation to begin eliminating the pilot in favor of
remotely operated or completely autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In April 2001 the unmanned aircraft Global Hawk
flew from Edwards AFB in the US to Australia non-stop and unrefuelled. This is the longest point-to-point flight ever undertaken by
an unmanned aircraft, and took 23 hours and 23 minutes. In October 2003 the first totally autonomous flight across the Atlantic by a
computer-controlled model aircraft occurred. UAVs are now an established feature of modern warfare, carrying out pinpoint attacks
under the control of a remote operator.

Major disruptions to air travel in the 21st century included the closing of U.S. airspace due to the September 11 attacks, and the
closing of most of European airspace after the2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull.

In 2015, André Borschberg flew a record distance of 4481 miles (7212 km) from Nagoya, Japan to Honolulu, Hawaii in a solar-
powered plane, Solar Impulse 2. The flight took nearly five days; during the nights the aircraft used its batteries and the potential
energy gained during the day.[85]

See also
Aviation archaeology
Claims to the first powered flight
Early flying machines
List of firsts in aviation
Timeline of aviation

References

Notes
1. Crouch, Tom (2004). Wings: A History of Aviation from Kites to theSpace Age. New York, New York: W.W. Norton &
Co. ISBN 0-393-32620-9.
2. Hallion (2003)
3. "Archived copy" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term%3Daviation). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
160304061354/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=aviation)from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved
2013-07-18.
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Bibliography
Deng, Yinke; Wang, Pingxing (2005). Ancient Chinese Inventions. China Intercontinental Press.ISBN 7-5085-0837-
8.
Ege, L. (1973). Balloons and airships. Blandford.
Fairlie, Gerard; Cayley, Elizabeth (1965). The life of a genius. Hodder and Stoughton.
Hallion, Richard P. (2003). Taking Flight:Inventing the Aerial Age, from Antiquity through the First World War. New
York: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0195160355.
Needham, Joseph (1965a). Science and Civilisation in China. IV (part 1).
Needham, Joseph (1965a). Science and Civilisation in China. IV (part 1).
White, Lynn Townsend, Jr. (Spring 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of
Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition". Technology and Culture. 2 (2): 97–111. doi:10.2307/3101411.
Wragg, D.W. (1974). Flight before flying. Osprey. ISBN 0850451655.

Further reading
Celebrating a History of Flight, NASA Office of Aerospace Technology HQ, United States Air Force
Harry Bruno (1944) Wings over America: The Story of American Aviation, Halcyon House, Garden City, New York.
Jourdain, Pierre-Roger(1908), "Aviation In Frances In 1908", Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution: 145–159, retrieved 2009-08-07
Post, Augustus (September 1910),"How To Learn To Fly: The Different Machines And What They Cost", The
World's Work: A History of Our Time, XX: 13389–13402, retrieved 2009-07-10 Includes photos, diagrams and
specifications of many c. 1910 aircraft.
Squier, George Owen (1908), "The Present Status of Military Aeronautics", Annual Report of the Board of Regents of
the Smithsonian Institution: 117–144, retrieved 2009-08-07 Includes photos and specifics of many c. 1908 dirigibles
and airplanes.
 Van Vleck, Jenifer (2013).Empire of the Air: Aviation and the AmericanAscendancy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.

External links
E. C. Vivian (October 1920). History of Aeronautics.
"The Gaston and Albert Tissandier Collection". Rare Book & Special Collections. Library of Congress. "Publications
relating to the history of aeronautics, (1,800 titles dispersed in the collection)
"
Carroll F. Gray. "Flying Machines".
Peter Whalley. "History of Flight - Key events". Knowledge Media Institute. Open University.
Julian Rubin. "Wright Brothers' Early Experiments With Kites and Gliders". Following the Path of Discovery.
"Historical archive since 1919". Aerospace Industries Association.

Articles
Carroll F. Gray (August 2002). "The five first flights". WW1 AERO - The Journal of the Early Aeroplane
.
Jürgen Schmidhuber (2003). "First Powered Flight - Plane Truth". Nature (421). p. 689.
Richard Harris (December 2003)."First Flyers—They're not who you think..."In Flight USA.
Richard P. Hallion (July 2008). "Airplanes that Transformed Aviation". Air & space magazine. Smithsonian.
"American Aviation Heritage" (PDF). National Park Service. March 2011.

Media
"Transportation Photographs - Airplanes". Digital Collections. University of Washington Libraries. in the Pacific
Northwest region and Western United States during the first half of the 20th century.
"strut design airplanes". University of Houston Digital Library. 1911.
Michael Maloney (2009).A Dream of Flight (Documentary on the first powered flight by a Briton in Britain, JTC
Moore Brabazon, in 1909). Countrywide Productions.

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