Transportation Geotechnics 14 (2018) 52–60

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Transportation Geotechnics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trgeo

Soil stabilization with non-conventional eco-friendly agricultural waste

materials: An experimental study
Mohammad Ali Rahgozar a,⇑, Mohammad Saberian b, Jie Li b
a
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Transportation, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
b
School of Engineering, RMIT University, 376-392 Swanston Street, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Highway construction and maintenance are usually expensive, and cost control efficiency is imperative.
Received 12 April 2017 Although there are several stabilization methods, soil stabilization with agricultural waste materials,
Revised 10 September 2017 such as rice husk ash (RHA), is among the most eco-friendly and affordable methods. The aim of this
Accepted 11 September 2017
study is to experimentally investigate the effects of adding RHA and ordinary Portland cement on the
Available online 12 September 2017
geotechnical properties of the clayey sand sampled from the Sejzi area, which lies east of the city of
Isfahan, Iran. First, the oxide compounds of RHA, cement, and soil were determined using the X-ray flu-
Keywords:
orescence (XRF) test. Five different compounds of the soil with 2, 4, 6, and 8% of cement were mixed, and,
Soil stabilization
Rice husk ash
later, different percentages of RHA (0, 2, 4, 6, and 8%) were added to determine the unconfined compres-
Clayey sand sive strength (UCS), California bearing ratio (CBR), optimum moisture content (xopt), and maximum dry
Environment density (cd) of the stabilized soil compounds with 7, 14, and 28 curing days. The results showed that by
Agricultural waste management increasing the content of RHA, the xopt of the specimens increased, while the cd decreased. The 28-day-
cured specimen with 6% RHA and 8% cement showed the highest values of UCS and CBR at 25.44 and 18.2
times more than those of the values for untreated soil, respectively. The scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) test of the aforementioned stabilized soil was characterized as a well-structured soil matrix with
very small pores, which can be attributed to the pozzolanic reactions of the cement and RHA. The effec-
tiveness, abundance, and the low cost of RHA will attract considerable environmental interest in this
research.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction
The city of Isfahan is located in the centre of Iran and is consid-
ered to be the most important intersection of roads and railways.
The Sejzi area, which is located to the east of the city, is the starting
edge of a vast desert (called the Namak Desert) where the domi-
nant soil is clayey sand. The construction of many major civil pro-
jects is planned in the Sejzi area including railway stations for both
goods and passengers. However, the foundation soil at the site of
these projects (later shown in the current study to be clayey sand
with a UCS of 114 kPa at its optimum moisture content) is too
weak to bear most of the highway and railway design loads. The
ASTM D4609-08 [8] (Standard guide for evaluating the effective-
ness of admixtures for soil stabilization) states that an increase
in the UCS of 345 kPa (50 psi) or more must be achieved for treat-
ment to be considered effective.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rahgozar@eng.ui.ac.ir (M.A. Rahgozar), s3609245@student.
rmit.edu.au (M. Saberian), jie.li@rmit.edu.au (J. Li).
Growing rice is quite popular among the farmers in the environs
of Isfahan city as it is bisected by the Zayandeh-Roud River. An
inevitable consequence of this is an abundance of rice husk the dis-
posal of which can be both financially and environmentally costly.
One eco-friendly alternative is to utilize rice husk ash (RHA) for
stabilizing problematic soils, such as those in the Sejzi area to
the east of Isfahan city.
In the context of geotechnical engineering, soils can be
improved by different stabilization methods, such as adding stabi-
lizer agents to improve the geotechnical properties of the soil. Due
to the growth in the population and the lack of stable ground for
the construction of civil projects, it is vital to improve the soft
and problematic soil deposits through appropriate stabilization
methods. Based on the soil depth, there are several stabilization
methods, such as the application of preloading, removal and
replacement of the weak layer, stone columns, piles, surcharge
loading, compaction control, and, finally, the application of differ-
ent additives, such as cement, lime, gypsum, sodium bentonite, cal-
cium chloride, nano-chemical additives, fly ash, pond ash, blast
furnace, and waste tyre chips and powders. The most significant

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2017.09.004
2214-3912/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M.A. Rahgozar et al. / Transportation Geotechnics 14 (2018) 52–60
purpose of adding the mentioned stabilizers is to improve the
geotechnical properties of weak soils, such as UCS, cohesion, angle
of internal friction, modulus of elasticity, permeability, durability,
deformability, and the California bearing ratio, etc. (Khabiri [32],
Wong et al. [58], Cong et al. [21], Rahgozar and Saberian [43], Che-
meda et al. [18], Rahgozar and Saberian [44], Saberian and Khabiri
[48], Cheshomi and Hassanpour [19], Esaifan et al. [25], Esmaeili
and Khajehei [26], Jahandari et al. [29], Jahandari et al. [30], Jahan-
dari et al. [31], Saberian et al. [49], Saberian et al. [50]).
Some of the aforementioned methods can be expensive or inef-
fective, such as piling, stone columns, compaction controls, and
removal and replacement [51,48]. As a viable alternative, RHA is
abundant and considered to be an agricultural waste product in
many countries. Therefore, it is affordable, economic, and eco-
friendly compared to chemical additives. In addition, it has been
observed that the production of certain chemical additives, such
as cement, releases high amounts of CO2 emissions around the
world [22,52]. Due to the increasing demand for urbanization,
the production of chemical additives, especially cement, is surging
substantially, and the CO2 emissions are also booming [16,13].
Some developed countries, such as Poland, have decided to use
eco-friendly and natural materials for soil stabilization, such as
RHA in order to reduce the CO2 emissions [46,57]. Typically,
cement production results in CO2 emissions of about 1 t/t of
cement product depending on the production process and the fuel
used; while, the CO2 emission factor for rice husk combustion
makes up roughly 0.8 g/kg of RHA [55,36].
Rice is produced in more than 75 countries, and husk is consid-
ered to be an agricultural waste resulting from the grinding of rice.
The annual global production of rice husk has been estimated to
amount to 108 tons. Rice husk ash is the residue from the combus-
tion of rice husks [14,53], and SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, and Fe2O3 are the
most common oxide compounds of RHA at about 70%, 10%, 5%,
and 2%, respectively [40,28]. These oxide compounds tend to
undergo a significant reaction with Ca(OH)2 and create other
chemical cementitious compounds. Moreover, the compounds
generate and accelerate pozzolanic reactions to strengthen the sta-
bilized soil. Thus, rice husk ash can be considered to be a natural
pozzolan. Natural pozzolans are commonly identified as highly vit-
reous and fine materials that are predominantly composed of silica
(SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3), and can be used to alleviate the alkali
silica reaction during the first step in the curing of cement. How-
ever, their most important role is to neutralize the excessive alka-
linity of cement with silica acid (H2SiO4) [42,58].
Some studies have been conducted to study the effects of RHA
on the geotechnical properties of soils. Different percentages of
RHA and cement kiln dust (2, 5, 10, 15, and 20%) were added to clay
soil by Khandaker and Anwar Hossain [33], and the stabilized spec-
imens were cured for different periods (7, 28, 56, and 91 days).
Based on the laboratory tests, it was observed that the UCS, split-
ting tensile strength, shrinkage, and CBR increased by increasing
the curing time, the percentage of RHA, and the percentage of
cement kiln dust [33]. Moreover, the specimen of 15% RHA and
5% cement kiln dust showed the maximum values for the UCS,
splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and CBR after 91
curing days at 3.70 MPa, 0.59 MPa, 4.34 GPa, and 176%, respec-
tively [33]. Roy [47] carried out an investigation on the influence
of RHA along with pond ash and lime on the compaction and
CBR properties of stabilized soil as a subgrade for roads. It was
observed that by increasing the percentages of the materials, the
optimum water content and CBR increased, while the maximum
dry density decreased. Based on the studies of Koteswara et al.
[35] on the stabilization of expansive soils with different percent-
ages of RHA (10, 20, 30, and 40%), gypsum (2, 3, 4, 5, and 6%), and
5% lime after 7, 14, and 28 days of curing, it was found that the UCS
of the specimens increased with the curing time. Moreover, the
53
specimen of 20% RHA, 3% gypsum, and 5% lime after 28 curing days
provided the highest value of UCS 810 kPa. Also, the aforemen-
tioned specimen provided highest value of CBR at 36% after 14 cur-
ing days. Milani and Labaki [37] partially replaced the sandy soil
with 7.5 and 10% RHA, and the addition of 7, 10, and 13% cement.
It was illustrated that the optimum moisture content, water
absorption, permeability, rupture modulus, and elastic modulus
of the specimen comprising 92.5% soil, 7.5% ash, and 10% cement
were 17%, 18%, 0.66  10 6 cm/s, 4.5 MPa, and 5900 MPa, respec-
tively. Muntohar et al. [38] investigated the effects of lime, RHA,
waste plastic fibre on the UCS, tensile strength, CBR, secant modu-
lus, angle of internal friction, and cohesion of silty soil. The results
indicated that the UCS, tensile strength, and CBR of the stabilized
soil increased by up to 4, 5, and 3.6 times more than that of the
untreated soil. Eberemu et al. [24] added 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% RHA
to lateritic clay contaminated with tannery effluent and conducted
Atterberg limits, pH, and index tests on the specimens. It can be
inferred from the results that the liquid limit, plastic limit, and
pH increased, while the concentrations of iron, calcium, and chro-
mium decreased by increasing the percentage of RHA. Celik and
Canakci [17] investigated the rheological properties of cement-
based grout mixed with different percentages of RHA at 5, 10, 20,
and 30% using three different water to binder ratios (w/b = 0.75,
1, and 1.25%). It was concluded that by increasing the RHA content,
the Marsh cone flow time, plate cohesion, plastic and apparent vis-
cosity, and the yield stress increased, while the mini slump diam-
eter decreased. Ashango and Patra [12] studied the UCS, shear
strength, and dynamic properties of stabilized clay soil with differ-
ent percentages of steel slag, RHA, and lime. They concluded that
the optimum mix design employed the following proportions:
65% clay, 20% steel slag, 5% lime, and 10% RHA. The CBR, UCS,
and shear modulus of the optimum stabilized mix design increased
by up to 97.5%, 96%, and 78%, respectively, compared to the
untreated clay. In addition, the plasticity of the stabilized soil
increased by up to 96%.
Previous research has been mostly carried out on the effects of
adding RHA to clayey soils. However, the effects of RHA along with
other additives, such as cement (C), on the properties of sandy or
clayey sands are still limited. Therefore, the objective of this
research is to study the effects of RHA along with cement on the
properties of the clayey sand taken from the Sejzi area in Isfahan
Province, Iran. As part of the research, the results of X-ray fluores-
cence (XRF), California bearing ratio (CBR), standard Proctor com-
paction, and unconfined compression strength (UCS) tests are
investigated. In addition, a scanning electron micrograph (SEM)
test is performed to observe the microstructure of the soil, and a
comprehensive series of experimental tests concerning the effects
of RHA and cement on the different mechanical properties of
clayey sand is conducted.
Properties of the used materials
Clayey sand
Based on the Unified Soil Classification System, the soil was
classified as clayey sand (SC) [5]. It was sampled from the Sejzi area
in Isfahan Province, Iran (Fig. 1). The particle size distribution of
the soil is provided in Fig. 2 based on ASTM D422-63 [6]. Moreover,
the physical and geotechnical properties of the soil are provided in
Table 1. To chemically characterize the soil, the X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) test was conducted using the Bruker S4-Explorer X-ray fluo-
rescence (1 kW) apparatus. The oxide compounds of the soil are
given in Table 2. Based on the results of XRF on the clayey sand,
it can be asserted that quartz (SiO2) is the major mineral in the soil
at 78.25%. This is due to the effect of sand in the soil.
54 M.A. Rahgozar et al. / Transportation Geotechnics 14 (2018) 52–60

Table 1
Physical and geotechnical properties of the soil.

Standard Value Property

Soil type A-2-6 AASHTO (1986) [1]
Soil classification SC ASTM D2487-11 [5]
Specific gravity (Gs) 2.66 ASTM D854-10 [11]
Liquid limit (LL) 31 ASTM D4318-10e1 [7]
Plastic limit (PL) 13 ASTM D4318-10e1 [7]
Plastic index (PI) 18 ASTM D4318-10e1 [7]
Optimum moisture content (xopt) 17% ASTM D698-12e2 [10]
Maximum dry density (cd) 1.92 (g/cm3) ASTM D698-12e2 [10]
Unconfined compressive 114 (kPa) ASTM D5102-09 [9]
strength (UCS)

Table 2
Oxide compounds of clayey sand, cement, and RHA.

Component oxides Soil (%) Cement (%) RHA (%)

Calcium oxide (CaO) 0.02 63.54 1.71
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.36 2.31 0.54
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) 0.45 – –
Silica (SiO2) 78.25 21.51 73.36
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 2.12 3.82 0.96
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 10.55 5.15 0.26
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) – 2.01 0.69
Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) – – 0.65
Potassium oxide (K2O) 1.02 – 6.20
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.16 – 0.12
Manganese(II) oxide (MnO) – – 0.01
Cupric oxide (CuO) – – 0.015
Zinc oxide (ZnO) – – 0.012
Strontium oxide (SrO) – – 0.008
Loss on ignition 6.02 0.72 13.02
Total 98.97 99.06 97.555

Fig. 1. Location of the site where the clayey sand was collected. Top: location of
Isfahan Province (yellow filled shape) within Iran and location of the Sejzi area
(green filled circle) within Isfahan Province. Bottom: Sejzi area and its surroundings, respectively, making the sum of 74.58% (Table 2). ASTM C618 [3]
showing the location of the sampling soil near the Railway (red circle). (For recommends that a material is characterized as a natural pozzolan,
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
provided that the sum of the three compounds exceeds 70%. There-
fore, from the XRF results, it can be confirmed that the RHA consid-
ered here is a natural pozzolan.

Sample preparation and test methodologies

Preparation of RHA

For providing the RHA, a two-phase ignition method was used.

Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of the soil.
Cement
The applied cement in this study is ordinary Portland cement
(Type I). From Table 2 it can be seen that the cement is mainly
characterized by Al2O3, SiO2, CaO, and Fe2O3.
Rice husk ash
The RHA used in the current study contains pozzolanic com-
pounds of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 at 73.36%, 0.26%, and 0.96%,
First, rice husk was provided and cleaned to separate any impuri-
ties, before being dried under indirect sunlight at room tempera-
ture. Then the dried rice husk was burned in a kiln at 300 °C.
This stage is known as the carbonization of rice husk (Fig. 3(a)).
In the second phase, which is called carbon elimination, the car-
bonized rice husk was burned in an electric furnace at 650 °C to
completely eliminate carbons (Fig. 3(b)). Naji Givi et al. [39] stud-
ied the effects of the rice husk ash particle size on the strength,
water permeability, and workability of binary blended concrete,
and reported that fine-grained RHA less than 95 microns led to
more improvements. After extraction from the furnace and cooling,
it was passed through sieve number 200 (i.e., mesh size of 75
micrometers) to homogenize and remove coarse particles (Fig. 3
(c)). About 22% of the rice husk used was turned into ash (RHA).
Sample preparation
After preparation of the RHA, different percentages of ordinary
Portland cement were added to the soil (2, 4, 6, and 8% by dry
weight of soil) and mixed; then the compaction, UCS, and CBR tests
were conducted on the specimens after 7, 14, and 28 curing days.
Then, to study the effects of RHA, different percentages of RHA (0,
 M.A. Rahgozar et al. / Transportation Geotechnics 14 (2018) 52–60 55

Fig. 3. Preparation of RHA.

2, 4, 6, and 8% by dry weight of soil) were added to the mixtures of
soil–cement and mixed, and then tested using the aforementioned
tests after curing for 7, 14, and 28 days. It is worth adding that for
each specimen, three replicate specimens were created and tested
in the compaction, CBR, and UCS tests. The mean values of the
results of the three replicate specimens were measured and
reported. Therefore, in total, 429 specimens were prepared for
the compaction, CBR, and UCS tests. Fig. 4 shows a view of some
of the specimens.
California bearing ratio (CBR) test
The CBR is used for determination of the bearing capacity of
compacted soils and the strength of improved soils. To prepare
the specimens for the CBR test based on ASTM D1883-16 [4], the
specimens at their optimum moisture contents were placed into
the mould in three layers. Each layer of the mixture was com-
pacted with a 2.5 kg hammer by 56 blows. The total weight of each
specimen was 4.5 kg. After curing, the upper ring of the mould was
removed, and the surface of each specimen was smoothened with a
steel ruler. Finally, the specimens were tested using the CBR test
apparatus.
Standard Procter compaction and unconfined compression strength
(UCS) tests
The standard Proctor compaction test was carried out in accor-
dance with ASTM D698-12e2 [10] to determine the maximum dry
density and optimum moisture content of each specimen in order
to make the specimens at 100% compaction for CBR and UCS tests.

Fig. 4. A view of some of the prepared specimens.

56 M.A. Rahgozar et al. / Transportation Geotechnics 14 (2018) 52–60

The UCS test is one of the most common tests for the evaluation
of the strength of soils and for determination of the required con-
tents of the stabilizer agents. The UCS test was carried out based on
ASTM D5102-09 [9]. First, the specimens at their optimum mois-
ture contents were placed into the mould in three layers. The inter-
nal diameter and the height of the mould were 4.1 cm and 18 cm,
respectively; however, the diameter and height of the specimens
were 4.1 and 12 cm, respectively. Each layer of the mixture was
compacted using a 2.5 kg hammer and 25 blows, and tamping to
a height of 30 cm. Finally, the cured specimens were tested using
the UCS test apparatus at a loading rate of 1 mm/min.

Scanning Electron Micrograph (SEM)

To examine the microstructure of the untreated soil and stabi-

lized soil, the VEGA3 TESCAN apparatus (TESCAN USA Inc.) was Fig. 6. Relationship between the water content and the dry density of the
used to obtain the scanning electron micrographs. specimens with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8% RHA along with 4% cement.

Result

Standard Procter compaction test

Figs. 5–8 illustrate the relationship between the dry density (cd)
and the water content (x) of the specimens based on the different
percentages of cement (C) and RHA. In addition, the compaction
results of the untreated clayey sand are provided.

California bearing ratio (CBR) test

Figs. 9 and 10 show the CBR results of the specimens with dif-
ferent percentages of cement, and specimens with different per-
centages of cement and RHA based on different curing times,
respectively.

Fig. 7. Relationship between the water content and the dry density of the
Unconfined compression strength (UCS) test
specimens with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8% RHA along with 6% cement.

Table 3 provides the maximum UCS results of the stabilized

specimens with different percentages of cement and RHA after 7,
14, and 28 curing days. The percentages of improvement (increase)
in the UCS values due to the addition of cement and RHA compared
to that of the untreated soil (114 kPa) are also shown in this table.

Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) test

Fig. 11 depicts the SEM results of air-dried untreated soil, and

air-dried treated soil with 8% cement and 6% RHA after 28 curing
days. According to Table 3, this specimen shows the highest
improvement in the UCS. In addition, the formation of crystals,

Fig. 8. Relationship between the water content and the dry density of the
specimens with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8% RHA along with 8% cement.

such as calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium aluminate

hydrate (CAH), can be seen (red circle in Fig. 11b), which can be
attributed to the pozzolanic reactions of the cement and RHA.

Discussion

The stabilized clayey sand sampled from Sejzi area in Isfahan,

Iran, was experimentally tested using the XRF, compaction, CBR,
Fig. 5. Relationship between the water content and the dry density of the UCS, and SEM tests. Therefore, the results were interpreted based
specimens with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8% RHA along with 2% cement. on the aforementioned tests.
 M.A. Rahgozar et al. / Transportation Geotechnics 14 (2018) 52–60 57

Fig. 9. CBR results of specimens with different percentages of cement after 7, 14, and 28 curing days.

Fig. 10. CBR results of specimens with different percentages of cement and RHA after 7, 14, and 28 curing days.

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) Standard Procter compaction test

From the XRF results, quartz (SiO2) was the major mineral in the
soil at 78.25%. This was due to the effect of sand in the soil. In addi-
tion, cement was mainly characterized by Al2O3, SiO2, CaO, and
Fe2O3. Moreover, the RHA contained pozzolanic compounds of
SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 at 73.36%, 0.26%, and 0.96%, respectively,
making a total of 74.58%; therefore, the RHA was a natural
pozzolan.
The optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of
the untreated soil specimen were found to be 17% and 1.92 Mg/
m3, respectively. Compared to the untreated soil, the xopt and cd
of the stabilized soil increased and decreased, respectively, with
the addition of cement and rice husk ash. Moreover, by increasing
the percentage of cement from 2 to 8%, the xopt and cd increased
from 19.5 to 23.2% and decreased from 1.76 to 1.69 Mg/m3, respec-
58 M.A. Rahgozar et al. / Transportation Geotechnics 14 (2018) 52–60

Table 3
Maximum UCS of specimens with different percentages of cement and RHA 7, 14, and 28 curing days.

Curing days RHA (%) Maximum UCS (kPa)

2% C Increase (%) 4% C Increase (%) 6% C Increase (%) 8% C Increase (%)
7 0 1615 1416.67 1711 1500.88 1802 1580.70 1960 1719.30
14 1671 1465.79 1749 1534.11 1856 1628.07 2015 1767.54
28 1710 1500 1802 1580.70 1891 1658.77 2178 1910.53
7 2 1632 1431.58 1754 1538.60 1822 1598.25 2100 1842.11
14 1707 1497.37 1852 1624.56 1904 1670.18 2152 1887.72
28 1744 1529.82 1977 1734.21 2059 1806.14 2261 1983.33
7 4 1786 1566.67 1850 1622.81 1899 1665.79 2382 2089.47
14 1819 1595.61 2401 2106.14 2430 2131.58 2551 2237.72
28 1900 1666.67 2486 2180.70 2507 2199.12 2595 2276.32
7 6 1892 1659.65 2438 2138.60 2494 2187.72 2609 2288.60
14 2155 1890.35 2753 2414.91 2802 2457.89 2863 2511.40
28 2200 1929.82 2842 2492.98 2885 2530.70 2900 2543.86
7 8 1663 1458.78 1884 1652.63 1911 1676.32 2105 1846.49
14 1714 1503.51 1957 1716.67 2000 1754.39 2241 1965.79
28 1802 1580.70 2039 1788.60 2120 1859.65 2307 2023.68

the stabilized specimens with 4% RHA, the xopt and cd increased

from 22.8 to 26% and decreased from 1.69 to 1.63 Mg/m3, respec-
tively. This observation is consistent with that reported previously
for other stabilized clayey soils with cement [34,2,15,60,27].
Furthermore, by increasing the percentage of RHA for a given
percentage of cement, the optimum moisture content and maxi-
mum dry density of the stabilized soils increased and decreased,
respectively. As an illustration, by increasing the RHA from 2 to
8% for the stabilized specimens with 8% cement, the xopt and cd
of the stabilized specimens increased and decreased from 23.2 to
29.5% and from 1.69 to 1.54 Mg/m3, respectively. The decrease in
the maximum dry density with higher RHA content is not uncon-
nected from the initial simultaneous flocculation and agglomera-
tion of the clay particles caused by the cation exchange, which
led to an increase in the volume and decrease in the dry density.
Moreover, the increase in the optimum moisture content with
higher RHA content is due to the increase in fines from the RHA
with a large surface area that requires more water for hydration.
Similar trends were also observed in some studies on the effects
of RHA on clay soils [45,41,23].

California bearing ratio (CBR) test

The major application of the CBR is considered for the construc-

Fig. 11. SEM results of the air-dried specimens of (a) untreated soil and (b) treated
soil with 8% cement and 6% RHA after 28 curing days.
tively. In addition, for a given percentage of RHA, by increasing the
cement content, the xopt and cd also increased and decreased,
respectively. For instance, increasing the cement from 2 to 8%, for
tion of pavements. The minimum required CBR value for the base
course has been suggested as being 80% [56]. The CBR value of
the untreated soil was 5%, while, after 28 curing days, the stabi-
lized specimen with 8% cement attained a maximum CBR value
of 50%. Furthermore, by increasing the cement content and number
of curing days, the CBR values of the stabilized specimens
increased. The increase in CBR is due to the fact that the soil parti-
cles are surrounded by cement and RHA. Therefore, the soil parti-
cles can withstand a higher force and the CBR increases. The
cementing and pozzolanic reactions are the other reasons for the
increase in the CBR. For example, after 28 curing days, the CBR
for the cement treated specimens increased from 19 to 50% by
increasing the percentage of cement from 2 to 8%. In addition, by
increasing the curing times from 7 to 28 days for the stabilized
specimens with 8% cement, the CBR increased from 35 to 50%. Sim-
ilar trends were also observed by Chu and Kao [20], Senol et al.
[54], and Garzón et al. [27] on the effects of cement on the CBR val-
ues of the clay soils.
The highest value of CBR was achieved by the stabilized soil
with 8% cement and 6% RHA after 28 curing days at 91%. Moreover,
for a given percentage of RHA, the CBR improved by increasing the
 M.A. Rahgozar et al. / Transportation Geotechnics 14 (2018) 52–60
curing time and cement. For instance, for the stabilized specimens
with 4% RHA, after 28 curing days, the CBR improved from 64 to
88% by increasing the percentage of cement from 2 to 8%. In addi-
tion, for the treated specimens with a lower percentage of cement
(i.e., treated specimens with 2 and 4% cement), the CBR initially
improved by increasing the RHA from 2 to 4% and then decreased
by increasing the RHA from 4 to 8%. Moreover, for the stabilized
specimens at higher percentages of cement (i.e., treated specimens
with 6 and 8% cement), the CBR at first increased by increasing the
RHA from 2 to 6% and then decreased by increasing the RHA from 6
to 8%. For example, after 28 curing days, for the stabilized speci-
mens with 6% cement, the CBR initially increased from 73 to 88%
by increasing the RHA from 2 to 6% and then decreased from 88
to 81% by increasing the RHA from 6 to 8%. Finally, although the
minimum required CBR value (i.e., 80%) was observed for a few sta-
bilized specimens with RHA and cement, it was not achieved by
any of the cement-treated specimens. Khandaker and Anwar Hos-
sain [33] also observed similar trends based on the studies of the
effects of RHA, lime, and cement on lateritic soil.
Unconfined compression strength (UCS) test
From the UCS test results indicated in Table 3, it is obvious that
the cement, RHA, and curing days have significant effects on the
UCS of the specimens. For the cement-only-treated soils, after
28 days of curing, the UCS increased significantly from 1710 to
2178 kPa (i.e., 1500–1910.53% improvement) by increasing the
percentage of cement from 2 to 8%. However, after 28 curing days,
the stabilized specimen with 6% RHA and 8% cement provided the
highest value of UCS at 2900 kPa, which was about 25 times that of
the untreated soil (114 kPa). Although, increasing the content of
RHA led to an increase in the UCS, the addition of higher percent-
ages of RHA of more than 6% led to a reduction in the UCS. For
example, for the stabilized specimens with 6% cement, after 7 cur-
ing days, the UCS improved from 1822 to 2494 kPa i.e., 1598.25 to
2187.72% (improvement compared to the untreated one) by
increasing the RHA from 2 to 6%. However, the UCS decreased from
2494 to 1911 kPa (i.e., 2187.72–1676.32% reduction compared to
the untreated one by increasing the RHA from 6 to 8%). Yogananda
and Jagadish [59], and Khandaker and Anwar Hossain [33] reported
a similar trend.
Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) test
From Fig. 11 it can be seen that the untreated clayey sand is
characterized by several voids in random order. However, the indi-
cated area, in which the soil is cemented by the cement and RHA, is
characterized as being a well-structured matrix with very small
voids due to the RHA filling a large portion of the voids, while
the pozzolanic reactions, cementation, and creation of CSH and
CAH crystals, which firmly bond the soil particles to the RHA and
cement, led to an increase in the geotechnical properties.
Conclusion
The important points of the study are concluded as follows.
From the XRF results, due to the sand, quartz (SiO2) was the
major mineral in the soil at 78.25%. In addition, cement was mainly
characterized by Al2O3, SiO2, CaO, and Fe2O3 at 5.15, 21.51, 63.54,
and 3.82, respectively. Moreover, the RHA contained pozzolanic
compounds of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 at 73.36%, 0.26%, and 0.96%,
respectively, making a total of 74.58%; therefore, the RHA was a
natural pozzolan.
By increasing the cement content, the xopt and cd increased and
decreased, respectively. In addition, for a given percentage of RHA,
59
by increasing the cement content, the xopt and cd increased and
decreased, respectively. On the other hand, for a given percentage
of cement, by increasing the percentage of RHA, the optimum
moisture content and maximum dry density of the stabilized soils
increased and decreased, respectively.
The increase in CBR is due to the fact that the soil particles are
surrounded by cement and RHA; therefore, the soil particles can
endure higher forces and the CBR increases. The cementing and
pozzolanic reactions are the other reasons for the increase in the
CBR. In addition, for a given percentage of RHA, the CBR increased
by increasing the curing time and the percentage of cement. Also,
for the treated specimens with a lower percentage of cement (i.e.,
treated specimens with 2 and 4% cement), the CBR initially
improved by increasing the RHA from 2 to 4% and then it decreased
by increasing the RHA from 4 to 8%. Moreover, for the stabilized
specimens with higher percentages of cement (i.e., treated speci-
mens with 6 and 8% cement), the CBR at first improved by increas-
ing the RHA from 2 to 6%, and then decreased by increasing the
RHA from 6 to 8%.
For the cement-treated soils, after 28 days of curing, the UCS
improved significantly from 1710 to 2178 kPa by increasing the
cement content from 2 to 8; the stabilized specimen with 6%
RHA and 8% cement after 28 curing days provided the highest
value of UCS at 2900 kPa. Although increasing the content of RHA
led to an improvement in the UCS, the addition of higher percent-
ages of RHA of more than 6% led to a reduction in the UCS.
From the SEM results, it can be concluded that the untreated
clayey sand is characterized by several voids in random order.
However, the indicated area, in which the soil is cemented by
the cement and RHA, is characterized as a well-structured matrix
with very small voids due to the RHA filling a large portion of
the voids, while the pozzolanic reactions, cementation, and cre-
ation of CSH and CAH crystals, which firmly bond the soil particles
to the RHA and cement, led to an increase in the geotechnical
properties.
The effectiveness, abundance, and the low cost of RHA will
attract considerable environmental interest in this research.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2017.09.
004.
References
[1] AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials).
Standard specification for transportation materials and methods of sampling
and testing. Part II. 14th ed. Washington, DC: AASHTO; 1986.
[2] Al-Rawas AA, Hago W, Al-Sarni H. Effect of lime, cement and Sarooj (artificial
pozzolan) on the swelling potential of an expansive soil from Oman. Build
Environ 2005;40(5):681–7.
[3] ASTM C618-15. Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined
natural pozzolan for use in concrete. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM
International; 2015.
[4] ASTM D1883-16. Standard test method for California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of
laboratory-compacted soils. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International;
2016.
[5] ASTM D2487-11. Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering
purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM
International; 2011.
[6] ASTM D422-63(2007)e2. Standard test method for particle-size analysis of
soils. (Withdrawn 2016). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 2007.
[7] ASTM D4318-10e1. Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and
plasticity index of soils. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 2010.
[8] ASTM D4609-08. Standard guide for evaluating effectiveness of admixtures for
Soil stabilization (Withdrawn 2017). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM
International; 2008.
[9] ASTM D5102-09. Standard test methods for unconfined compressive strength
of compacted soil-lime mixtures. West Conshohocken: ASTM International;
2009.
60 M.A. Rahgozar et al. / Transportation Geotechnics 14 (2018) 52–60
[10] ASTM D698-12e2. Standard test methods for laboratory compaction
characteristics of soil using standard effort (12 400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/
m3)). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 2012.
[11] ASTM D854-10. Standard test methods for specific gravity of soil solids by
water pycnometer. West Conshohocken: ASTM International; 2010.
[12] Ashango AA, Patra NR. Behavior of expansive soil treated with steel slag, rice
husk ash, and lime. J Mater Civ Eng 2016. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)
MT.1943-5533.0001547, 06016008.
[13] Atta AY, Jibril BY, Aderemi BO, Adefila SS. Preparation of analcime from local
kaolin and rice husk ash. Appl Clay Sci 2012;61:8–13.
[14] Anisur Rahman MD. The potentials of some stabilizers for the use of lateritic
soil in construction. Build Environ 1986;21(1):57–61.
[15] Basha EA, Hashim R, Mahmud HB, Muntohar AS. Stabilization of a residual soil
with rice husk ash and cement. Constr Build Mater 2005;19(6):448–53.
[16] Cao Z, Shen L, Zhao J, Liu L, Zhong S, Yang Y. Modeling the dynamic mechanism
between cement CO2 emissions and clinker quality to realize low-carbon
cement. Resour Conserv Recycl 2016;113:116–26.
[17] Celik F, Canakci H. An investigation of rheological properties of cement-based
grout mixed with rice husk ash (RHA). Constr Build Mater 2015;91:187–94.
[18] Chemeda YC, Deneele D, Christidis GE, Ouvrars G. Influence of hydrated lime
on the surface properties and interaction of kaolinite particles. Appl Clay Sci
2015;107:1–13.
[19] Cheshomi A, Hassanpour AE. Effect of lime and fly ash on swelling percentage
and Atterberg limits of sulfate-bearing clay. Appl Clay Sci 2016. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.09.019.
[20] Chu SC, Kao HS. A study of engineering properties of a clay modified by fly ash
and slag. In: Sharp KD, editor. Fly ash for soil improvement ASCE geotechnical
special publication no. 36. New York: ASCE; 1993. p. 89–99.
[21] Cong M, Longzhu C, Bing C. Analysis of strength development in soft clay
stabilized with cement-based stabilizer. Constr Build Mater 2014;71:354–62.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.08.087.
[22] Cook DJ, Pama RP, Paul BK. Rice husk ash-lime-cement mixes for use in
masonary units. Build Environ 1977;12(4):281–8.
[23] Eberemu A, Amadi A, Sule J. Desiccation effect on compacted tropical clay
treated with rice husk ash. Geo-Frontiers 2011:1192–201. https://doi.org/
10.1061/41165(397)122.
[24] Eberemu A, Tukka D, Osinubi K. Potential use of rice husk ash in the
stabilization and solidification of lateritic soil contaminated with tannery
effluent. In: Geo-Congress, technical papers. p. 2263–72. https://doi.org/
10.1061/9780784413272.221.
[25] Esaifan M, Khoury H, Aldabsheh I, Rahier H, Hourani M, Wastiels J. Hydrated
lime/potassium carbonate as alkaline activating mixture to produce kaolinitic
clay based inorganic polymer. Appl Clay Sci 2016;126:278–86.
[26] Esmaeili M, Khajehei H. Mechanical behavior of embankments overlying on
loose subgrade stabilized by deep mixed columns. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng
2016;254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2016.02.006.
[27] Garzón E, Cano M, O’Kelly BC, Sánchez-Soto PJ. Phyllite clay–cement
composites having improved engineering properties and material
applications. Appl Clay Sci 2015;114(2015):229–33.
[28] Ikpong AA, Okpala DC. Strength characteristics of medium workability
ordinary Portland cement-rice husk ash concrete. Build Environ 1992;27
(1):105–11.
[29] Jahandari S, Li J, Saberian M, Shahsavarigoughari M. Experimental study of the
effects of geogrids on elasticity modulus, brittleness, strength, and stress-
strain behavior of lime stabilized kaolinitic clay. GeoResJ 2017;13:49–58.
[30] Jahandari S, Saberian M, Zivari F, Li J, Ghasemi M, Vali R. Experimental study of
the effects of curing time on geotechnical properties of stabilized clay with
lime and geogrid. Int J Geotech Eng 2017:1–12.
[31] Jahandari S, Toufigh MM, Li J, Saberian M. Laboratory study of the effect of
degrees of saturation on lime concrete resistance due to the groundwater level
increment. Geotech Geol Eng 2017:1–12.
[32] Khabiri MM. The effect of stabilized subbase containing waste construction
materials on reduction of pavement rutting depth. Electron J Geotech Eng
2010;15:1211–9.
[33] Khandaker M, Anwar Hossain M. Stabilized soils incorporating combinations
of rice husk ash and cement kiln dust. J Mater Civ Eng 2011;23(9).
[34] Kolias S, Kasselori V, Karahalios A. Stabilization of clayey soils with high
calcium fly ash and cement. Cem Concr Compos 2005;27(2):301–13.
[35] Koteswara RD, Pranav PRT, Anusha M. Stabilization of expansive soil with rice
husk ash, lime and Gypsum-an experimental study. Int J Eng Sci Technol
(IJEST) 2011;3:8076–85.
[36] Kwofie EM, Ngadi M, Sotocinal S. Energy efficiency and emission assessment of
a continuous rice husk stove for rice parboiling. Energy 2017;122:340–9.
[37] Milani A, Labaki L. Physical, mechanical, and thermal performance of cement-
stabilized rammed earth–rice husk ash walls. J Mater Civ Eng 2012:775–82.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000439.
[38] Muntohar A, Widianti A, Hartono E, Diana W. Engineering properties of silty
soil stabilized with lime and rice husk ash and reinforced with waste plastic
fiber. J Mater Civ Eng 2013:1260–70. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-
5533.0000659.
[39] Naji Givi A, Abdul Rashid S, Aziz FNA, Mohd Salleh MA. Assessment of the
effects of rice husk ash particle size on strength, water permeability and
workability of binary blended concrete. Constr Build Mater 2010;24
(11):2145–50.
[40] Okpala DC. Some engineering properties of sandcrete blocks containing rice
husk ash. Build Environ 1993;28m(3):235–41.
[41] Osinubi KJ, Eberemu AO, Kasham LS. Influence of bagasse ash content on the
hydraulic conductivity of compacted lateritic soils at reduced Proctor effort.
In: Proceedings of bi-monthly meetings/workshops. Nigeria: Materials Society
of Nigeria (MSN) Zaria Chapter, ABU Zaria; 2007. p. 17–25.
[42] Oyetola EB, Abdullahi M. The use of rice husk ash in low-cost sandcrete block
production. Leonardo Electronic J Practices Technol 2006;5(8):58–70.
[43] Rahgozar MA, Saberian M. Physical and chemical properties of two Iranian
peat types. Mires Peat 2015;16(07):1–17.
[44] Rahgozar MA, Saberian M. Geotechnical properties of stabilized peat soil with
shredded waste tyre chips. Mires Peat 2016;18:1–12. https://doi.org/
10.19189/MaP.2015.OMB.205. Article 03.
[45] Rahman MA. A comparative study of the potentials of rice husk ash on
cohesive and cohesionless soils. Build Environ 1987;22(4):331–7.
[46] Rai M, Dave NG. Building materials for low-cost housing. Build Environ
1991;26(3):295–300. Special Issue Urban Shelter Programmes - The Indian
Scenario.
[47] Roy T. Influence of lime on alluvial soil strengthened with pond ash and rice
husk ash for construction of subgrade of road. Paving Mater Pavement Anal
2010:385–91. https://doi.org/10.1061/41104(377)48.
[48] Saberian M, Khabiri MM. Effect of oil pollution on function of sandy soils in
protected deserts and investigation of their improvement guidelines (case
study: Kalmand area, Iran). Environ Geochem Health 2016:1–12. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10653-016-9897-y.
[49] Saberian M, Jahandari S, Li J, Zivari F. Effect of curing, capillary action, and
groundwater level increment on geotechnical properties of lime concrete:
Experimental and prediction studies. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 2017:1–10.
[50] Saberian M, Mehrinejad Khotbehsara M, Jahandari S, Vali R, Li J. Experimental
and phenomenological study of the effects of adding shredded tire chips on
geotechnical properties of peat. Int J Geotech Eng 2017:1–10. https://doi.org/
10.1080/19386362.2016.1277829.
[51] Saberian M, Rahgozar MA. Geotechnical properties of peat soil stabilised with
shredded waste tyre chips in combination with gypsum, lime or cement. Mires
Peat 2016;18(16):1–16. https://doi.org/10.19189/MaP.2015.OMB.211.
[52] Sear LKA. Should you be using more PFA. In: Proc int conf cement combination
for durable concrete, held at the University of Dundee, Scotland, UK; 2005, p.
693–700.
[53] Seco A, Ramírez F, Miqueleiz L, García B, Prieto E. The use of non-conventional
additives in Marls stabilization. Appl Clay Sci 2011;51(4):419–23.
[54] Senol A, Edil TB, Bin-Shafique MS, Acosta HA, Benson CH. Soft subgrades’
stabilization by using various fly ashes. Resour Conserv Recycl 2006;46
(4):365–76.
[55] Shivaram MS. Measures to contain pollution caused due to cement
productions:-A review. Int J Emerging Technol Adv Eng 2014;4(11).
[56] UFGS 32 11 23. Aggregate and/or graded-crushed aggregate base course. In:
USACE/NAVFAC/AFCEC/NASA. United State of America: Bibliogov. Department
of Defense, Unified Facilities Guide Specifications (UFGS); 2013, p. 1–22.
[57] Van Ruijven BJ, Van Vuuren DP, Boskaljon W, Neelis ML, Saygin D, Patel MK.
Long-term model-based projections of energy use and CO2 emissions from the
global steel and cement industries. Resour Conserv Recycl 2016;112:15–36.
[58] Wong LS, Hashim R, Ali FH. Utilization of sodium bentonite to maximize the
filler and pozzolanic effects of stabilized peat. Eng Geol 2013;152:56–66.
[59] Yogananda MR, Jagadish KS. Pozzolanic properties of rice husk ash, burnt clay
and red mud. Build Environ 1988;23(4):303–8.
[60] Yong N, Ouhadi VR. Experimental study on instability of bases on natural and
lime/cement-stabilized clayey soils. Appl Clay Sci 2007;35(3–4):238–49.