Experiment No.

1
Objective:-
To study the Safety practice in Manufacturing processes.

Definition:-
Safety is the state of being "safe" the condition of being protected from harm or other non-desirable
outcomes. Safety can also refer to the control of recognized hazards in order to achieve an
acceptable level.

Purpose of safety:-
The purpose of safety is to protect ourselves and worker in workshop from every unwanted
moment that may cause danger for ourselves and for the others. Safety insurance employees to
work easily without any fear of danger when carrying objects in their job or doing some working
on workshop machines.

Accidents:-
An unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally,
typically resulting in damage or injury called accident.

Causes of accident:-
The industrial safety expert have classified the various causes of accidents in
workshop into two main categories:
1.Unsafe conditions
2.Unsafe acts
1-Unsafe Conditions:
Unsafe conditions are hazards that have the potential to cause injury or death to an
employee. Unsafe conditions can be found in a variety of workplaces, but they pose a special
hazard to workers in industrial, manufacturing, or manual labor positions. Following are the
examples of unsafe conditions which causes very dangerous hazard in working place:
1-Defective tools, equipment or supplies.
2-Improper supports or guards.
3- Failure to utilize necessary safety equipment.
4-Faulty warning systems.
5-Poor Lighting .
6-Naked wires.

2-Unsafe acts:
workshop accidents occurs due to certain acts on the parts of workers.These acts
may be the result of lake of knowledge or skills on the part of worker.Examples of these acts are
as following:
1-Using tool or equipment incorrectly
2-Distracting others from their work or allowing yourself to be distracted
3-Failing to use the appropriate protective equipment
4-Using equipments without having receieved proper training in its use
Safety Equipments:-
Safety equipments are very necessary for the worker. With the help of these
equipments the life of workers are un safe hand and the chance of accidents reduces. Some of these
equipments are as following:
1-Overall.
2-Goggles.
3-Safety Helmet.
4-Ear plugs.
5-Face shield.
6-Shoes.
7-Gloves.

1-Overall:
An overall are a type of garment which is usually used
as protective clothing when working. Overall is a made up of tough
cotton,denim or linen and usually used as protective clothing at
workplace. It is loose fitting pair of pants with supporting cross-strap.
It has full or half sleeves shirt that the worker wearing over regular
shirt,vest and trouser. Overall protect workers from
Heat,Cold,Splashes,Sparks,Flamed and Flying small metal pieces in
the workplace.

2-Goggles:
Goggles or safety glasses are forms of protective eyewear that usually enclose or
protect the area surrounding the eye in order to prevent particulates, water or chemicals from
striking the eyes. They are used in Mechanical Workshops like in machine shop, in wood working
e.t.c. Goggles are often worn when we are using power tools such as drill or saw to prevent us
from flying particles that may damage our eyes.
3-Safety Helmet:
A Safety Helmet is a type of helmet used in workplace environments such as
industrial or construction sites to protect the head from injury due to falling objects, impact with
other objects, debris, rain, and electric shock. Suspension bands inside the helmet spreads the
helmet's weight and the force of any impact over the top of the head. With help of safety helmet
the major part of our body was safe and hence reduce the risk of loss of life.

4-Ear Plugs:
Ear Plugs are the device used to prevent ear from loud noise, foreign bodies, Cold
and strong wind from entering into the ears. They are basically used to prevent hearing damage
caused due by loud noise coming from power tools or heavy machinery in a working environment.

5-Face Shield:
A face shield is a device used to protect wearer's entire face (or part of it) from
impact hazard such as flying objects and road debris, chemical splashes in industry. In addition
also prevent eyes from different hazard.. Face shield made to cover entire face and can be
attached to a helmet or other protective devices. Face Shield comes in varieties of different
forms which used in different conditions.
6-Shoes:
A pair of safety shoes also known as safety boots is a personal protective equipment for
food protection at workplaces. It prevents from getting foot injury due to slippery, heavy falling
or rolling objects, sharp edges of metals, rotating machinery, hot objects, loops of ropes under
tension, splinters, electricity, chemical or even bad weather.

7-Gloves:
Work gloves are personal protective equipment worn during work projects that cover
and protect the hands from the wrist to the fingers. Work gloves are meant to save the user's
hands and fingers from unnecessary wounds such as cuts, blisters, splinters, skin punctures or
heat and chemical burns. No single glove can provide complete protection for every work
situation so it is important to access the risk for each task and select a glove that provide
specialized protection against that danger.
Types of Common Hazards:-
Types of some common hazards are as following:

1-Chemical Hazards:
Chemical hazard is a type of occupational hazards caused by exposure to chemicals
in the workplace. Exposure of chemical in the workplace can cause acute or long-term
detrimental health effects on the life of worker working in that type of environment.

2-Temperature Hazards:
Extreme heat can be particularly hazardous for children, seniors, those with special
needs, and pets. In addition to discomfort and fatigue, high temperatures can cause heat-related
illnesses: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke.

3-Radiation Hazards:
Radiation is energy that emits from a source in the form of electromagnetic
waves or subatomic particles. Light, sound and heat are all type of radiation. The radiation that
is associated with radioactive materials is a subatomic particle. we can ionize the particles in
matter that have charge. This can be caused by unstable atoms which emits different radiations.
These radiations are very dangerous for human health and causes different effects on human.
4-Electrical Hazards:
An electrical hazard is a dangerous condition where a worker can or does
make electrical content with energized equipment or a conductor. From that contact the worker
may get shocked and injured and there the worker receive an electric explosion burn, thermal
burn or blastic injury.

General safety Rules

1. Always listen carefully to the teacher and follow instructions.
2. Do not run in the workshop, you could ‘bump’ into another pupil and cause an accident.
3. Know where the emergency stop buttons are positioned in the workshop. If you see an
accident at the other side of the workshop you can use the emergency stop button to turn
off all electrical power to machines.
4. Always wear an apron as it will protect your clothes and hold loose clothing such as ties
in place.
5. Wear good strong shoes. Training shoes are not suitable.
6. When attempting practical work all stools should be put away.
7. Bags should not be brought into a workshop as people can trip over them.
8. When learning how to use a machine, listen very carefully to all the instructions given by
the teacher. Ask questions, especially if you do not fully understand.
9. Do not use a machine if you have not been shown how to operate it safely by the teacher
10. Always be patient, never rush in the workshop.
11. Always use a guard when working on a machine.
12. Keep hands away from moving/rotating machinery.
13. Use hand tools carefully, keeping both hands behind the cutting edge.
14. Report any damage to machines/equipment as this could cause an accident.
 Experiment No. 2
Objective:-
To study the Tools used in Manufacturing Processes.

Striking Tools:-
In certain cases as tracking tool is the only tool required. These tools are used for striking
purpose like punching ,chipping, marking, bending, straightening and riveting. A striking tool is a
very basic hand tool consisting of a weighted head attached to a handle. Some examples of striking
tools are as follows:

 Ball Peen Hammer:

It has the peen of the shape of a ball. It is the most common type of the hammer and
is mostly used for riveting.

 Straight Peen Hammer:

It has a flat and tapered peen. The width is usually equal to the diameter of the face.
It is used for stretching the metal by hammering.
  Claw Hammer:
It is a hammer with one side of the head split and curved. It is used for extracting
nails.

 Rubber Mallet:
It is hammer made of rubber. It is used when a softer blow is called for than that
delivered by a metal hammer. They are typically used to form sheet metal, since they do not leave
marks and are less likely to dent the work piece. Rubber mallets are also used for forcing tight-
fitting parts together, for shifting plasterboard into place, in upholstery work, and a variety of other
general purposes.

Loosening And Tightening Tools:-

1- Spanner:
A spanner or wrench is a tool for turning nuts and bolts. It is usually made of forged
steel. There are many kinds of spanners some of them are following:

• Open End Spanner:

A one-piece spanner with a U-shaped opening that grips two opposite faces of the
bolt or nut. This spanner is often double-ended, with a different-sized opening at each end. The
ends are generally oriented at an angle of around 15 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the handle.
 • Ring spanner:
A one-piece spanner with an enclosed opening that grips the faces of the bolt or
nut. The recess is generally a six-point or twelve-point opening for use with nuts or bolt heads with
a hexagonal shape.

2-Screw Wrench:
The most common type of adjustable wrench in use today. The adjustable end
wrench differs from the monkey wrench in that the gripping faces of the jaws are displaced to a
(typically) 15 degree angle relative to the tool's handle, a design feature that facilitates the wrench's
use in close quarters.

3-Socket Set:
A set of different sized tools that can fit onto one handle and are used to tighten and loosen nuts.
4-Pliers:
Pliers are a hand tool used to hold objects firmly, possibly developed from tongs used to
handle hot metal. They are also useful for bending and compressing a wide range of materials.

5-Flat Edge Screwdriver:

A flat head screwdriver is a screwdriver with a flat blade end. It is used to tighten or
loosen screws with a linear notch edge in the top.

6- Four Edge Screwdriver:

A four edge driver has a four star point at the end that fits into the corresponding
screw’s shallow, cross-shaped depression. This design allows a user to apply more torque than is
possible with a flathead screwdriver.

7-Allen Key(L-Key):
An L-shaped tool consisting of rod having a hexagonal cross section. It is used to turn the
screw with hexagonal head.
Marking Tools:-
1-Divider:
A pair of compasses, also known simply as a compass, is a technical drawing instrument
that can be used for inscribing circles or arcs. As dividers, they can also be used as tools to measure
distances, in particular on maps. Compasses can be used for mathematics, drafting, navigation and
other purposes.

2-Scriber:
A scriber is a hand tool used in metalworking to mark lines on work pieces, prior to
machining. The process of using a scriber is called scribing and is just part of the process of
marking out.

3-Punches:
A punch is a hard metal rod with a shaped tip at one end and a blunt butt end at the other,
which is usually struck by a hammer. Typically, woodworkers use a ball-peen hammer to strike a
punch. Punches are used to drive objects, such as nails, or to form an impression of the tip on a
work piece.
Measuring Tools:-
1- Steel Rule (Scale):
The flat steel rule is usually 6 or 12 inches long. On one side of the scale are the inch
marks. The longest lines are for 1-inch increments. On one edge of that side, each inch is divided
into eight equal spaces of 1/8 inch each. On the other edge of that side, each inch is divided into
1/16-inch spaces. To make counting easier, the 1/4 inch and the 1/2-inch marks are normally longer
than the smaller division marks. The other side of the steel rule is divided into 32 and 64 spaces to
the inch. Each fourth division in the inch is usually numbered for easier reading.

2-Steel Tape:
It is a common measuring tool. A steel tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible
ruler. It consists of a metal strip with Linear measurement markings.

3- Try Square:
A type of square that consists of a fixed,90-degree angle. It is used mainly in
woodworking, to lay out cutting lines at 90-degree angles, to check (or try) the squareness of
adjoining surfaces, to check a joint to make sure it is square.
4- Vernier Caliper:
A caliper is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides of an
object. The vernier, dial and digital calipers give a direct reading of the distance measured to high
accuracy.

5- Outside Caliper:
It is caliper whose legs turn inward. Outside caliper is used for measuring outside
dimensions, points on its legs curve inward.

6- Inside Caliper:
It is a caliper whose legs turn outward. It can used to measure inside dimensions, as
the inside diameter of a pipe.
7- Micrometer Screw gauge:
The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring accurately the diameter of a thin
wire or the thickness of a sheet of metal. It consists of a U-shaped frame fitted with a screwed
spindle which is attached to a thimble. Parallel to the axis of the thimble, a scale graduated in mm
is engraved.

Cutting And Finishing Tools:-

1- Chisel:
Chisel is a tool with a characteristically shaped cutting edge (such that wood chisels have
lent part of their name to a particular grind) of blade on its end, for carving or cutting a hard
material such as wood, stone, or metal by hand, struck with a mallet, or mechanical power.

2- Hacksaw:
A hacksaw is a hand-held saw used for making straight cuts in metal and other hard
materials. It consists of a thin blade with very fine teeth held under tension in a steel frame.
3- Drill Bits:
Drill bits are cutting tools used to create cylindrical holes. Bits are held in a tool called a
drill, which rotates them and provides torque and axial force to create the hole.

4- File:
A file is a tool used to remove fine amounts of material from a work piece. It is common
in woodworking, metalworking, and other similar trade and hobby tasks. Most are hand tools,
made of a case hardened steel bar of rectangular, square, triangular, or round cross-section, with
one or more surfaces cut with sharp, generally parallel teeth. A narrow, pointed tang is common
at one end, to which a handle may be fitted.

5- Reamer:
A reamer is a type of rotary cutting tool used in metalworking. Precision reamers are
designed to enlarge the size of a previously formed hole by a small amount but with a high degree
of accuracy to leave smooth sides. There are also non-precision reamers which are used for more
basic enlargement of holes or for removing burrs. The process of enlarging the hole is called
reaming.
 Experiment No. 3
Objective:-
To study the casting and processes to cast a material.

Casting:
Casting is a method where a solid material is dissolved, heated to suitable temperature
and is then added into a mold or cavity, which keeps it in a proper form during solidification. As
a result, in just one step, complex or simple designs can be created from any material that can be
dissolved.

Why we use Casting Process:-

It is fact that in some cases, the casting process must give way to other methods of
manufacture, where they may be more efficient. For example, forging helps developing fiber
strength and toughness in steel, machining produces smooth surfaces and dimensional accuracy
not obtainable otherwise, welding provides a easy way of fabricating wrought or cast products
into complex structure s while stamping produce lightweight sheet metal parts.

Types of Casting:-
There are different types of Casting process that are used according to different conditions and
requirements. Some of the types of Casting is described as following:
1-Sand Casting:-
Sand casting is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material.
In this process, we make the cavity of object in the sand and then melt the metal and pour it in to
sand mold. After the solidification, we get our desire product. It is very cheap and fast process that
make all kinds of required product .

Advantages:-
 Inexpensive.

 Complex shapes can be made.

 Large components can be made.

 Wider material choice.

 Low cost of tooling.

Disadvantages:-
 Sand molds can only be used once.
 Surface finish not always good.
 Skilled labor required.
 Slow production rate.
 Low strength.
 Low dimensional accuracy.

Uses:-
Sand casting widely used in manufacturing of Engine block and cylinder heads, Making
fluid handling products such as tanks and boilers, used in medical field for making varieties of
different equipment’s e.t.c.
2-Shell mold casting:-
Shell mold casting or shell molding is a metal casting process in manufacturing
industry in which the mold is a thin hardened shell of sand and thermosetting resin binder that
baked and then we pour our melted metal in it and get required product. As compared to sand
casting, this process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor
requirements. It is used for small to medium parts that require high precision.

Advantages:-
 Good surface quality.
 High dimension accuracy.
 Thin wall thickness and complex castings.
 It can be operate by an semi skilled operator.

Disadvantages:-
 High production costs and casting prices.
 High pattern costs.
 Size and weight limitation.

Uses:-
Most of industrial products like gearbox housing, connecting rod, small size boats, truck hoods,
cylindrical head, Camshaft, valve body etc. are made by shell molding.
3-Investment casting:
Investment casting is a manufacturing process in which a wax pattern is coated with a refractory
ceramic material. Once the ceramic material is hardened its internal geometry takes the shape of
the casting. The wax is melted out and molten metal is poured into the cavity where the wax pattern
was. The metal solidifies within the ceramic mold and then the metal casting is broken out. This
manufacturing technique is also known as the lost wax process.

Advantages:-
 Excellent surface finish.
 High dimensional accuracy.
 Extremely intricate parts are castable.
 No flash or parting lines.
 No machining required.
 Wax can reused.

Disadvantages:-
 It can be difficult to cast objects requiring cores.
 This process is expensive.
 We can cast only limited size products.
 Investment castings require longer production cycles compared to other casting
processes.

Uses:-
We can easily manufacture small in size products, complex parts, Gas turbine blades, Gears, Art
pieces, Jewelry e.t.c.
4-Pressure Dies Casting(Die casting) :-
This casting is mostly used to cast aluminum, lead etc. In this casting a liquid metal is
pumped at high pressure into a metallic die and allow to solidify. The metal is allowed to solidify
there and take out after solidification. The die is again used for next cast.

Advantages:-
 High speed production can be achieved as the whole process is completely automated.
 Possible to obtain fairly complex castings than that feasible by gravity die casting due to
the use of the moveable cores.
 Very small thicknesses can be easily filled as the liquid metal is injected under high
pressure.
 Good surface finish
 Closer dimensional tolerances & better mechanical properties
 Very economical for large scale production.
Disadvantages:-
 High in cost.
 Cannot be used for large castings as the casting machine capacity is limited.
 It is not suitable for all materials because of the limitations of the die materials & the
alloys used must have a low melting point.

Applications:-
 Automotive parts like wheels, blocks, cylinder heads, etc.
 Aerospace castings
 Electric motor housings
 General hardware appliances like pump parts, plumbing parts etc.
5-Ceramic Mold Casting:-
Ceramic mold casting is same as investment casting but it does not use wax pattern. The slurry of
ceramic and liquid binder is pour on pattern which is easily solidify. There is no wax pattern is
used so there is no limitation of size of casting. This type of casting is mainly used to cast heavy
component like valve bodies, military equipment etc.

Advantages:-
 High temperature pours possible therefore suitable for steels and other alloys
 Creative complex designs can be made
 Can be used for mass production
 Casting with accurate dimensional accuracy possible
 Little machining is required therfore difficult-to machine alloys can be cast
 Supports both industry and home foundry operations
 Complicate and innovative designs can be casted.
Disadvantages:-
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture, which can cause problems in casting Mold strength
is lost if over-baked
 Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so limited to lower melting point alloys can be
casted.

Applications:-
Using stainless steel and bronze, Some of casted products are kitchenwares like kettles, industrial
products like impellers, complex cutting tools, plastic mold tooling etc.
6-Centrifugal casting:-
In this casting, the molten metal into a mold is rotated during solidification. The centrifugal force
is relied upon for shaping and feeding the molten metal with the utmost of detail as the liquid metal
is thrown by the force of gravity into the designed crevices and detail of the mold.

Advantages:-
 Castings acquire high density, high mechanical strength and fine grained structure
 Inclusions and impurities are lighter
 Gates and risers are not needed
 High output
 Formation of hollow interiors without cores

Disadvantages:-
 An inaccurate diameter of the inner surface of the casting.
 Not all alloys can be cast in this way.

Applications:-
For casting pipe, bushings, gears, flywheel etc.
 Experiment No. 4
Objective:-
To study the resistance welding.

Theory:-
Resistance welding:
In resistance welding electric current is used to join metallic parts.

Type of resistance welding:

There are different forms of resistance welding,
1. Spot welding
2. Seam welding
3. Projection welding
4. Butt welding.

1-Spot welding:-
In this welding two or more metal sheets are placed between electrode, and electric current is
supplied for a definite time and force is exerted on work piece. One work piece is place with the
moving electrode and one work piece place with fixed electrode. Both work piece are held under
pressure and heavy current is passed between the electrodes for present time. Due to high current,
the area of metals in contact shall be rapidly raised to welding temperature. The pressure between
electrodes, squeezes the hot metal together thus completing the weld.
Parts of spot welding:-
There are two parts of spot welding
 Electrode
 Transformer

 Electrode:
The electrodes are one of the most important factors in the resistance welding process it is
important to consider the electrode material, shape, size, tip profile and cooling. These are mainly
copper alloys with a small percentage of alloying element to improve hardness, while maintaining
good conductivity.

 Transformer:
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux,
which, in turn, induces a varying electromotive force across a second coil wound around the same
core. Electrical energy can be transferred between the two coils, without a metallic connection
between the two circuits.

Fig. no. 1
2-Seam welding:-
Seam welding is similar to spot welding except that it uses disc shaped electrode .A current is
passed through roller to the material in contact with them. Mechanical pressure is applied by roller
on work piece using gas-tight or liquid-tight.

Parts of seam welding:

 Upper and lower electrode wheel
 Ac power supply

 Upper and lower electrode wheel:

The roller wheels rotated over the work piece as welding proceed. The roller electrodes are
pressurized and current is flow through bearing of roller electrode. When the electrode wheel can
be line with throat of machine.

 AC Power supply:
A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The
primary function of a power supply is to convert electric current from a source to the correct
voltage, current, and frequency to power the load.
3-Projection welding:-
It is modification of spot welding, and in this Projections are provided on the surface of one of the
work piece which offer resistance during passage of current and thus generating heat at those points
and weld occur.

4-Butt welding:-
It’s a welding technique use to join two components together and this process done by a gradual
preheating of the two components, and then placing them together under certain pressure. Under
this welding AC current or Dc currents is supply to create electric arc between an metal
sticks(electrode) and the base material to melt the material at that point and metal is cool result in
a binding of the metals
Uses:-
It is used extensively in the automotive industry cars can have several thousand spot
welds. A specialized process, called shot welding, can be used to spot weld stainless
steel.
Advantages of resistance welding:
 Nugget, always by the plastic ring, molten metal and air separation,
metallurgical process is simple.
 Heating time is short, concentrated heat, it is a small heat-affected zone,
deformation and stress is small, usually do not need to arrange to correct the
welding and heat treatment process.
 No wires, rods and other filler metal, and oxygen, acetylene, hydrogen and
other welding materials, welding low cost.
 Simple operation, easy to mechanization and automation, improved working
conditions.
 High production efficiency, no noise and harmful gases, in high-volume
production, with other production processes can be edited to the assembly line.
But due to flash butt spatter need to be isolated.

Disadvantages of resistance welding:

 The lack of reliable non-destructive testing methods, the quality of the
welding process can only rely on destructive test pieces and work pieces to
test and rely on a variety of monitoring techniques to ensure.
 Point seam welding lap will not only increase the weight of the structure, but
also because of the formation of a corner of the two plates, the joint tensile
strength and fatigue strength are very low.
 High degree of mechanization of electrical equipment, high degree of
automation, higher equipment costs, maintenance is more difficult, and
commonly used high-power single-phase AC welder is not conducive to the
balanced operation of the power grid.
 Experiment No. 5
Objective:-
To study of Arc welding

Theory:-
Arc welding:
Under this welding AC current or Dc currents is supply to create electric arc between an metal
sticks(electrode) and the base material to melt the material at that point and metal is cool result in
a binding of the metals.

Types of Arc welding:-

1. Carbon arc welding
2. Metal arc welding
3. Plasma arc welding
4. Gas metal arc welding

1-Carbon Arc welding:

It’s very common welding process in which joining of metals is produce by heating with arc
between a carbon electrodes and the work piece. The arc heat and melts the work piece edges,
forming a joint.

2-Metal Arc welding:

This welding is also known as shielded metal arc welding; it involves striking an arc between a
covered metal electrode and a work piece. The work piece are made part of an electric circuit
known as welding circuit.
3-Plasma Arc welding:
Plasma arc welding is similar to gas tungsten arc welding, in this heat or electric arc is generated
between a non –consumable tungsten electrode and work piece. Difference between plasma arc
welding and gas tungsten arc welding is positioning of electrode within the body of the torch.

4-Gas metal arc welding:

In this electric arc is established between a consumable wire electrode and work piece and weld
area is shielded by an effectively inert atmosphere of argon, helium, carbon dioxide or various
gas mixture. This process is also called as inert gas welding.
Parts of arc welding:-
 Machine
 Electrode cable
 Massa cable
 Welding power source
 Current control
 Electrode holder
 Earth camp
 Switch
 Electrode

 Machine:
Shielded Metal Arc Welding machine is the main parts of this process, because without
machine certainly, we cannot do welding process.

 Electrode Cable:
The function Electrode cable connects the current from welding machine to
electrode which we use to weld the base metal.
 Massa Cable:
Massa Cable has a function for connecting current from machine to base metal, after that
base metal and electrode touch then will welding process is happening.

 Welding Power Source:

Have to function for supply current from electrical source to welding machine.

 Current Control:
For control current output which uses for the welding process, big or little the current
dependent form type or thickness of material (base metal).

 Electrode Holder:
For hold the electrode so we can do welding process easily. Other side holder too has a
function for an electric current to the electrodes.

 Earth Cramp:
To connect the machine to the base metal.

 Switch:
For on or off the welding machine.

 Electrode:
As a filler metal, after the welding process finish then the electrode will change be weld
metal. The electrode has a flux which the function is to protect steel melting when the
welding process takes place.
 Experiment No. 6
Objective:-
To study of oxy acetylene welding

Theory:-
Gas Welding:
Gas welding is the process of welding in which metal parts weld are using different gases with
oxygen. Below are the different type of gas welding.

Types of gas welding:-

1. Oxy-Acetylene
2. Air –Acetylene

1-Oxy-Acetylene:-
Fusion welding performed by a high temperature flame from combustion of acetylene and oxygen

 Flame is directed by a welding torch

 Filler metal is sometimes added
 Composition must be similar to base metal
 Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces and prevent oxidation
2-Air –Acetylene:-
 It’s very simple type of welding process. Where heat or flame is produce from mixture of
acetylene and air.
 Joints are weld without the application of pressure and with or without use of filler metal
 Maximum temperature is 2400 degree centigrade. This welding used where soft solder is
required like copper plumbing

Parts of gas welding:-

1. Acetylene
2. Oxygen

1-Acetylene:
Acetylene is a clear, lighter than air gas with a chemical formula of C2H2. It is man-made and does
not occur in nature. Each molecule of this hydrocarbon compound contains two carbon atoms and
two hydrogen atoms.
The chemical equation of combustion of acetylene in a neutral flame is:
C2H2 + 2.5 O2 ® 2 CO2 + H2O
One part acetylene and two and a half parts oxygen combine to produce a neutral flame. Equal
volumes of acetylene and oxygen from the compressed gas cylinders combine with an additional
one and a half parts of oxygen, which comes from the surrounding atmosphere.
2-Oxygen:
Atmospheric air is repeatedly cooled and compressed until it becomes a very cold liquid. As this
liquid air is gradually warmed, each of its component gases reaches its vaporization temperature,
comes out of the liquid air, and separates into its individual gases, one of which is oxygen. This
process is called the fractional distillation of liquid air. Other gases important in welding, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide and argon are also made using this process. Oxygen can also be made by
electrolysis of water, but for industrial quantities this is not cost-effective due to the expense of
the electricity needed.
Types of Oxy-Acetylene Welding Flames:

 Carburizing Flame:

For this type, we use more acetylene than oxygen. Carburizing flame use application to
soldering, silver welding and braze welding.

 Neutral Flame:

Pressure oxygen and acetylene same. This type can we use for steel welding.

 Oxidizing Flame:

We use more oxygen than acetylene. Usually, we use this flame for cutting materials
from carbon steel.
Advantages of gas welding:-
 It is probably the most versatile processes. It can be applied to a wide variety of manufacturing
and maintenance situations.
 Since the sources of heat and of filler metal are separate, the welder has control over filler-
metal deposition rates.
 The equipment is versatile, low cost, self- sufficient and usually portable.
 The cost and maintenance of the welding equipment is low when compared to that of some
other welding processes.

Disadvantages of gas welding:

 Heavy sections cannot be joined economically.
 Flame temp is less than the temp of the arc.
 Fluxes used with certain welding and brazing operations produce fumes that are irritating to
the eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
 Refractory metals (e.g., tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, etc.) and reactive metals (e.g.,
titanium and zirconium) cannot be gas welded.
 More safety problems are associated with the handling and storing of gases.
 Experiment No. 7
Objective:-
To Study the Injection Molding machine and its parts.

Theory:-
Injection Molding:-
The injection molding process requires the use of an injection molding machine, raw plastic
material, and a mold. The plastic is melted in the injection molding machine and then injected into
the mold, where it cools and solidifies into the final part.

Processes:-
The process cycle for injection molding is very short, typically between 2 seconds and 2 minutes,
and consists of the following four stages:
1. Clamping :
Prior to the injection of the material into the mold, the two halves of the mold must first be
securely closed by the clamping unit. Each half of the mold is attached to the injection molding
machine and one half is allowed to slide. The hydraulically powered clamping unit pushes the
mold halves together and exerts sufficient force to keep the mold securely closed while the
material is injected. The time required to close and clamp the mold is dependent upon the
machine - larger machines (those with greater clamping forces) will require more time. This
time can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine.

2. Injection:
The raw plastic material, usually in the form of pellets, is fed into the injection molding
machine, and advanced towards the mold by the injection unit. During this process, the
material is melted by heat and pressure. The molten plastic is then injected into the mold very
quickly and the buildup of pressure packs and holds the material. The amount of material that
is injected is referred to as the shot. The injection time is difficult to calculate accurately due
 to the complex and changing flow of the molten plastic into the mold. However, the injection
time can be estimated by the shot volume, injection pressure, and injection power.

3. Cooling:
The molten plastic that is inside the mold begins to cool as soon as it makes contact with the
interior mold surfaces. As the plastic cools, it will solidify into the shape of the desired part.
However, during cooling some shrinkage of the part may occur. The packing of material in the
injection stage allows additional material to flow into the mold and reduce the amount of
visible shrinkage. The mold cannot be opened until the required cooling time has elapsed. The
cooling time can be estimated from several thermodynamic properties of the plastic and
the maximum wall thickness of the part.

4. Ejection:
After sufficient time has passed, the cooled part may be ejected from the mold by the ejection
system, which is attached to the rear half of the mold. When the mold is opened, a mechanism
is used to push the part out of the mold. Force must be applied to eject the part because during
cooling the part shrinks and adheres to the mold. In order to facilitate the ejection of the part,
a mold release agent can be sprayed onto the surfaces of the mold cavity prior to injection of
the material. The time that is required to open the mold and eject the part can be estimated
from the dry cycle time of the machine and should include time for the part to fall free of the
mold. Once the part is ejected, the mold can be clamped shut for the next shot to be injected.
After the injection molding cycle, some post processing is typically required. During cooling, the
material in the channels of the mold will solidify attached to the part. This excess material, along
with any flash that has occurred, must be trimmed from the part, typically by using cutters. For
some types of material, such as thermoplastics, the scrap material that results from this trimming
can be recycled by being placed into a plastic grinder, also called regrind machines or granulators,
which regrinds the scrap material into pellets. Due to some degradation of the material properties,
the regrind must be mixed with raw material in the proper regrind ratio to be reused in the injection
molding process.

Injection molded part

Construction:-
Injection molding machines have many components and are available in different configurations,
including a horizontal configuration and a vertical configuration. However, regardless of their
design, all injection molding machines utilize a power source, injection unit, mold assembly, and
clamping unit to perform the four stages of the process cycle.
Injection unit:
The injection unit is responsible for both heating and injecting the material into the mold. The first
part of this unit is the hopper, a large container into which the raw plastic is poured. The hopper
has an open bottom, which allows the material to feed into the barrel. The barrel contains the
mechanism for heating and injecting the material into the mold. This mechanism is usually a ram
injector or a reciprocating screw.

Injection molding machine - Injection unit

Clamping unit:
Prior to the injection of the molten plastic into the mold, the two halves of the mold must first be
securely closed by the clamping unit. When the mold is attached to the injection molding machine,
each half is fixed to a large plate, called a platen. The front half of the mold, called the mold cavity,
is mounted to a stationary platen and aligns with the nozzle of the injection unit. The rear half of
the mold, called the mold core, is mounted to a movable platen, which slides along the tie bars.

Injection molding machine - Clamping unit

Mold base:
The mold core and mold cavity are each mounted to the mold base, which is then fixed to
the platens inside the injection molding machine. The front half of the mold base includes a support
plate, to which the mold cavity is attached, the sprue bushing, into which the material will flow
from the nozzle, and a locating ring, in order to align the mold base with the nozzle. The rear half
of the mold base includes the ejection system, to which the mold core is attached, and a support
plate. When the clamping unit separates the mold halves, the ejector bar actuates the ejection
system. The ejector bar pushes the ejector plate forward inside the ejector box, which in turn pushes
the ejector pins into the molded part. The ejector pins push the solidified part out of the open mold
cavity.

Mold channels:
In order for the molten plastic to flow into the mold cavities, several channels are integrated into
the mold design. First, the molten plastic enters the mold through the sprue. Additional channels,
called runners, carry the molten plastic from the sprue to all of the cavities that must be filled. At
the end of each runner, the molten plastic enters the cavity through a gate which directs the flow.
The molten plastic that solidifies inside these runners is attached to the part and must be separated
after the part has been ejected from the mold. However, sometimes hot runner systems are used
which independently heat the channels, allowing the contained material to be melted and detached
from the part. Another type of channel that is built into the mold is cooling channels. These
channels allow water to flow through the mold walls, adjacent to the cavity, and cool the molten
plastic.

Mold design:
In addition to runners and gates, there are many other design issues that must be considered in the
design of the molds. Firstly, the mold must allow the molten plastic to flow easily into all of the
cavities. Equally important is the removal of the solidified part from the mold, so a draft angle
must be applied to the mold walls. The design of the mold must also accommodate any complex
features on the part, such as undercuts or threads, which will require additional mold pieces.
Advantages of injection molding:-
 Fast production.
 Low labour costs.
 Design flexibility.
 High-output production.
 Multiple materials can be used at the same time.
 Can be used to produce very small parts.
 Leaves little post-production scrap.
 Ability to include inserts.
 Good colour control.
 Good product consistency.
 Reduced requirements for finishing.
 Good dimensional control.

Disadvantages of injection molding:-

 High initial tooling and machinery cost.
 Part design restrictions.
 Small runs of parts can be costly

Experiment No.8

Objective:-
To study the blow molding machine and its parts.

Theory:-

Blow Molding:-
Blow molding is a specific manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed and
can be joined together: It is also used for forming glass bottles or other hollow shapes.
Process:-
The process is similar to injection molding and extrusion.

1. The plastic is fed in granular form into a 'hopper' that stores it.

2. A large thread is turned by a motor which feeds the granules through a heated section.

3. In this heated section the granules melt and become a liquid and the liquid is fed into a mold.

4. Air is forced into the mold which forces the plastic to the sides, giving the shape of the bottle.

5. The mold is then cooled and is removed.

Types of blow molding:-

 Extrusion blow molding
 Injection blow molding
 Stretch blow molding

Extrusion blow molding:-

Extrusion blow molding (EBM), plastic is melted and extruded into a hollow tube (a parison). This
parison is then captured by closing it into a cooled metal mold. Air is then blown into the parison,
inflating it into the shape of the hollow bottle, container, or part. After the plastic has cooled
sufficiently, the mold is opened and the part is ejected.
Injection blow molding:-
The process of injection blow molding (IBM) is used for the production of
hollow glass and plastic objects in large quantities. In the IBM process, the polymer is injection
molded onto a core pin; then the core pin is rotated to a blow molding station to be inflated and
cooled. This is the least-used of the three blow molding processes, and is typically used to make
small medical and single serve bottles.

The process is divided into three steps

 Injection
 Blowing
 Ejection
The injection unit having the melted plastic injected to the hollow mold through Nozzle that also
consists of blowing rod. The injected metal is called” Parison (Preform) “. The blowing rod internal
shape of parison and external shape of mold form. Thus Parison is thick tube of inside in the mold
part.
Stretch blow molding:-
Stretch Blow Molding is the process of manufacturing high quality and very high clarity
bottles. The plastic is melted and then injected into a mold to form a preform. The preform is
then pre heated before being held inside two halves of a mold.

Materials used for plastic blow molding:

 High density polyethylene

 Medium & Low density polyethylene

 polyethylene Terephthalate

 polypropylene

 Polyvinyl Chloride

 Thermoplastic Elastomers

Products By Blow Molding:-

  Bottles
 Tubes
 Water Tanks
 Containers
 Plastic Drums

Advantages-
 Very high volumes are produced
 Little restriction on bottle design
 Preforms can be sold as a completed item for a third party to blow
 Is suitable for cylindrical, rectangular or oval bottles.
Disadvantages-
 High capital cost
 Floor space required is high
 although compact systems have become available
 Experiment No. 9
Objective:-
To study the Pattern and its types.

Theory:-
Pattern:

The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to be made
by the casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are the addition of pattern
allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called
cores are used to create these cavities in the finished product. The quality of the casting produced
depends upon the material of the pattern, its design, and construction. The costs of the pattern and
the related equipment are reflected in the cost of the casting. The use of an expensive pattern is
justified when the quantity of castings required is substantial.

Functions of the Pattern:-

1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core and
need to be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity may form a part
of the pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.

Pattern Material:-

Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has its own advantages,
limitations, and field of application. Some materials used for making patterns are: wood, metals
and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for use, the
pattern material should be:

1. Easily worked, shaped and joined

2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity
7. Available at low cost

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most commonly used pattern
material is wood, since it is readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and
is relatively cheap.
Types of Pattern:-
1. Single piece pattern
2. Split piece pattern
3. Loose piece pattern
4. Gated pattern
5. Match pattern
6. Sweep pattern
7. Cope and drag pattern
8. Skeleton pattern

1-Single Piece Pattern:-

This is the simplest type of pattern, exactly like the desired casting. For making a mold, the pattern
is accommodated either in cope or drag. Used for producing a few large castings, for example,
stuffing box of steam engine.

2-Split Piece Pattern:-

These patterns are split along the parting plane (which may be flat or irregular surface) to facilitate
the extraction of the pattern out of the mold before the pouring operation. For a more complex
casting, the pattern may be split in more than two parts.
3-Loose Piece Pattern:-
When a one piece solid pattern has projections or back drafts which lie above or below the parting
plane, it is impossible to with draw it from the mold. With such patterns, the projections are made
with the help of loose pieces. One drawback of loose feces is that their shifting is possible during
ramming.

4-Gated Pattern:-
A gated pattern is simply one or more loose patterns having attached gates and runners. Because
of their higher cost, these patterns are used for producing small castings in mass production
systems and on molding machines.

5-Match Pattern:-
A match plate pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drags portions mounted on opposite
sides of a plate (usually metallic), called the "match plate" that conforms to the contour of the
parting surface. The gates and runners are also mounted on the match plate, so that very little hand
work is required. This results in higher productivity. This type of pattern is used for a large number
of castings. Piston rings of I.C. engines are produced by this process.
6-Sweep Pattern:-
A sweep is a section or board (wooden) of proper contour that is rotated about one edge to shape
mold cavities having shapes of rotational symmetry. This type of pattern is used when a casting of
large size is to be produced in a short time. Large kettles of C.I. are made by sweep patterns

7-Cope and Drag Pattern:-

A cope and drag pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drag portions each mounted on
separate match plates. These patterns are used when in the production of large castings; the
complete molds are too heavy and unwieldy to be handled by a single worker.
8-Skeleton Pattern:-
For large castings having simple geometrical shapes, skeleton patterns are used. Just like sweep
patterns, these are simple wooden frames that outline the shape of the part to be cast and are also
used as guides by the molder in the hand shaping of the mold. This type of pattern is also used in
pit or floor molding process
 Experiment No. 10
Objective:-
To study the Cupola Furnace.

Theory:-
Cupola Furnace:
This is a melting device. We used this device in the forging operation where Cast Iron, Bronze,
and other alloying elements are melted. This is a very old device we used in the manufacturing for
melting because this system produces good cast iron from Pig Iron. The shape of this device is
cylindrical but others size is also available. While choosing cupola furnace we keep some valid
factor that is- Melting Point Temperature, Shapes and many more.

Shape:-
A typical cupola melting furnace consists of a water-cooled vertical cylinder which is lined with
refractory material
\
Construction:-
1-Legs:
Legs are provided for supporting purpose there.

2-Slag Hole or Slag spout:

The slag hole is used for removing or extracting the slag from the melting iron.

3-Sand Bed:
This is in taper form and from this, the melted iron comes out easily.

4-Tuyeres:
By tuyeres, we enter the gas to proper burn of fuel.

5-Preheating Zone:
In Preheating zone the heating process started and heats the metal charge about 1090 degree
Celsius.

6-Melting Zone:
In the melting zone, we do not provide much heat to melt the metal charge because it’s already
melted in the preheating zone with temperature about 1090 degree Celsius.

7-Charging door:
From here we supply the charge to the furnace. The various charges are for the cupola furnace-Pig
Iron, Coke and limestone.

8-Brick lining and Steel shell:

The shell of the cupola furnace is being usually made of steel and it’s called a steel shell.

9-Spark Arrester:
This device used in the system for preventing the emission from the fireplace.
Charging of Cupola Furnace:-

 Before the blower is started, the furnace is uniformly pre-heated and the metal and
coke charges, lying in alternate layers, are sufficiently heated up.
 The cover plates are positioned suitably and the blower is started.
 The height of coke charge in the cupola in each layer varies generally from 10 to 15
cms. The requirement of flux to the metal charge depends upon the quality of the
charged metal and scarp, the composition of the coke and the amount of ash content
present in the coke.

Working of Cupola Furnace:-

 The charge, consisting of metal, alloying ingredients, limestone, and coal coke for fuel
and carbonization (8-16% of the metal charge), is fed in alternating layers through an
opening in the cylinder
 Air enters the bottom through tuyeres extending a short distance into the interior of the
cylinder. The air inflow often contains enhanced oxygen levels.
 Coke is consumed. The hot exhaust gases rise up through the charge, preheating it. This
increases the energy efficiency of the furnace. The charge drops and is melted.
 Although air is fed into the furnace, the environment is a reducing one. Burning of coke
under reducing conditions raises the carbon content of the metal charge to the casting
specifications.
 As the material is consumed, additional charges can be added to the furnace.
 A continuous flow of iron emerges from the bottom of the furnace
 Depending on the size of the furnace, the flow rate can be as high as 100 tones per
hour. At the metal melts it is refined to some extent, which removes contaminants. This
makes this process more suitable than electric furnaces for dirty charges.
 A hole higher than the tap allows slag to be drawn off.
 The exhaust gases emerge from the top of the cupola. Emission control technology is
used to treat the emissions to meet environmental standards.
 Hinged doors at the bottom allow the furnace to be emptied when not in use
Type of Molten Metal:-
Cupola is employed for melting scrap metals or (over 90 %) of the pig iron used in the production
of iron castings. Gray Cast iron, nodular cast iron, some malleable iron castings and some copper
base alloys can be produced by Cupola Furnace.

Heat Energy Source:-

The cupola is a tubular furnace which produces cast iron by melting scrap and alloys using the
energy generated from the oxidation (combustion) of coke, a coal derivative.

Advantages:-

 For operation purpose, this is a simple and economical device.

 A wide range of material can be melt.
 This device used for removing the slag present in the Iron.
 Comparison of electric furnace This is very less harmful.
 This is having high melting heat i.e 100 tones/hour
 Floor space required is less.
 and to perform the operation skilled operator not required.

Limitations:-
 Since molten iron and coke are in contact with each other, certain elements like si, Mn are
lost and others like sulphur are picked up. This changes the final analysis of molten metal.
 Close temperature control is difficult to maintain

Application:-

 A number of more types of cast iron is produced from this device like Malleable, Grey cast
iron.
 The copper base alloy is also manufactured by this device.
 Experiment No. 11
Objective:-
To study the Fastening and its types in manufacturing process.

Theory:-
Fastening:
A fastening is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together.
In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed or
dismantled without damaging the joining components.Welding is an example of creating
permanent joints. Steel fasteners are usually made of stainless steel, carbon steel, or alloy steel.

Types of Fastening:-
1. Temporary Fastening
2. Permanent Fastening
1-Temporary Fastening:-
The type of fastening in which; when we separate the fastener then there will no material loss
called Temporary Fastening. For example; Nut and Bolt, Screws, Keys, Pins, Washers e.t.c.

Nut and Bolt:-

A bolt is a threaded fastener which is always coupled with a nut. Bolts have external male thread and
nuts have internal male thread. A bolt comprises of a head, cylindrical body and threads along its
length. Bolts are generally have the flat head which means there is no grove on the head. It generally
has the design on its periphery to get driven by the wrench tool and same goes for the nut.
Screws:
These are the fasteners which create their own threads while fastening into the material. They
typically have a head, and a shank with a helical threads .They have different types of head style
and recess or drive style such as slotted, Pozidriv, Phillips, hex, Torx, Robertson etc.

Washers:
These are the thin plate, disc shape with a hole in the middle and generally the outer diameter is
twice of the inner, which is used to distribute load over which it is fasten such as on screw or nut.
These can also be used as a spacer, locking device, wear pad etc. in many applications. It can be
of metal, plastic or rubber according to the requirement.
2-Permanent Fastening:-
The type of fastening in which; when we separate the fastener then there will material losses called
Permanent Fastening. For example; Rivets, Snap rings, Anchors e.t.c.

Rivets:
It is a permanent fastener, consist of head, shank and tail, which means it cannot be disassemble
without damaging the joints. The process by which two material join together by applying force,
can be hand driven or power driven, known as riveting. They are very strong in nature.

Snap Rings:
These are also known as retaining rings and are the small metal rings that broken at one end of the
circle , at the end of the circle there is a grooved shape which are used to hold and grip components
onto a shaft while setting into a machined groove. They are commonly found in car engine parts,
shocks absorber.
Anchors Fasteners:
These are widely used in construction and masonry or stone industries and are used to connect
structural and non- structural material to the concrete or other materials. This is generally installed
by drilling a larger hole, compare to the fastener diameter, and in the base material and then the
anchor is inserted into the hole to a depth known as embedment depth. These are generally of two
types: mechanical anchor fasteners and chemical anchor fasteners.

Importance of Fasteners:-
The main importance of using fasteners is that; we made our product in small chunks/parts. These
parts are attach with each other using fasteners. As the one of part is damaged of our product we
should only replace those particular part not the whole product. The other advantage of the
fasteners is that they gives strength to our whole product body. Make them strong to bear loading
force and vibrations produced in the body.

Material of a Fastener:-
1. Carbon steel fasteners
2. Stainless steel fasteners
3. Aluminum fasteners
4. Titanium fasteners
5. Brass and Broze fasteners
6. Non-matellic fasteners
 Experiment No.12
Objective:-
To measure the diameter of the given nuts and bolts by using Vernier caliper.

Apparatus:-
1. Nut and Bolt
2. Vernier Caliper

Vernier Caliper:-
Vernier calipers are used for more accurate measuring than can be achieved with a measuring
rule or a slide caliper. It is capable of measuring internal and external dimensions and can also be
used as a depth gauge.

Least count of Vernier caliper:-

The least count as the name suggests is the finest measurement you can take with the help of
that vernier calipers. It is measures by dividing the least count of the main scale by the total number
of divisions on the vernier scale. The Least Count (LC) of vernier scale is given as

Least count = Least count of main scale

No. of division on Vernier caliper
Procedure:-
1. First of all, take the Vernier caliper and check the zero error.
2. Take the object and place it width wise in the two jaws of Vernier caliper but don’t apply
to much pressure.
3. Fix the two jaws by using thumb screw.
4. Note the Main scale in the observation table.
5. Note the Vernier scale reading and multiply it with least count (0.05)
6. Repeat the experiment for next three readings at different position
7. Take the mean of readings.

Observation and calculations:-

Sr Main scale reading Vernier scale reading Outer Diameter

No. (cm) (cm) (cm)

Result:-