Definations------------------------------------------------------

Base width modulation= Base width modulation/Early effect is basically the variation in the width of the base in a bipolar transistor
due to a variation in the applied base-to-collector voltage.

For example a greater reverse bias across the collector-base junction increases the collector-base depletion width.

Thermal runaway of BJT= The problem with increasing temperature causing increasing collector current is that more current increase the
power dissipated by the transistor which, in turn, increases its temperature. This self-reinforcing cycle is known as thermal run away, which
may destroy the transistor.

Input bias current of OPAMP= The term “input bias current” (I ) in op amps is – refers to the DC currents flowing into or out of the amplifier’s input pins to
B

create a defined operating point during normal operation.

Tiny amounts of current actually do flow into both the non-inverting and inverting inputs of your component. These currents are referred to as the input
bias currents, IB+ and IB-. The causes of them are inherent to the design of the op-amp. They are used to bias the internal FETs or BJTs that make up the
internal circuitry of the part

Bandwidth of OPAMP= The operational amplifiers bandwidth is defined as the band of

frequencies for which the gain remains constant and its

frequency range over which the voltage gain of
the amplifier is above 70.7% or -3dB (where 0dB is the maximum) of its maximum
output value.

Slew rate of OPAMP= The rate at which the output of an op-amp can change
with respect to the input is called Slew Rate.

In other words how quick my Δv changes i.e with respect to Δt is slew rate.
Slew rate=Δv /Δt

CMRR of OPAMP= It is defined as the ratio of differential mode gain to common mode gain taken in magnitude., and it has the ability
of an operational amplifier to reject common mode signal present between the inverting and non-inverting inputs.

Offset voltage= Offset voltage is the differential voltage needed at the input of an amplifier, especially an operational amplifier to make the
output zero.

The input offset voltage arises as a result of the unavoidable mismatches present in the input differential stage inside the op-amp.

Offset current= It is the current that flows through the output terminal of op-amp when both the input terminals(inverting and non-
inverting) are precisely grounded. Ideally this current should be zero as inputs are grounded (or both terminals are at same potential). But
practically, there would be some current reading (though very small in magnitude) that can seen in the Digital Multi-meter connected to
the output terminal.

This current produced at the output is due to the mismatch in the base currents of inverting and non-inverting terminals.

(Input offset current: The input current which nullifies the effect of ouput offset current.

It is the current which is responsible for producing the output offset current. It means that, we need to apply an input current either at
the inverting or non-inverting terminal to cancell the output offset current (making it zero). If the output offset voltage is positive, then the
current at the inverting terminal is to applied and vice-versa, so that the current reading at the output is zero.)
Depletion region= In semiconductor physics, the depletion region, also called depletion layer, depletion zone is an insulating region within a
conductive, doped semiconductor material where the mobile charge carriers have been diffused away, or have been forced away by an electric field. The only elements
left in the depletion region are ionized donor or acceptor impurities.
The depletion region is so named because it is formed from a conducting region by removal of all free charge carriers, leaving none to carry a current.

Built-in potential= The built-in potential in a semiconductor equals the potential across the depletion region in thermal equilibrium. Since thermal equilibrium
implies that the Fermi energy is constant throughout the p-n diode, the built-in potential equals the difference between the Fermi energies, EFn and EFp, divided by the
electronic charge.

Energy barrier= The potential/ Energy barrier in the PN-junction diode is the barrier in which the charge requires additional force for
crossing the region. In other words, the barrier in which the charge carrier stopped by the obstructive force is known as the
potential/energy barrier.

Junction capacitance = Junction capacitance is the capacitance which forms in a PN junction diode under reverse bias. In a normal capacitor, the two parallel
conducting plates are electrodes which allow the conduction. Whereas, the medium between two parallel conducting plates is purely insulating dielectric material which does not
allow conduction.

When reverse bias voltage applied across a PN junction diode, the two regions P and N are behaves as electrodes (with less resistance) and the depletion region between two
regions acts as dielectric medium (with more resistance). The P, N regions (electrodes) and depletion region (dielectric medium) allows the storage of charge in electric field. This
ability of storing the charge is nothing but capacitance which in fact is termed in PN junction diode as junction capacitance or transition capacitance or depletion capacitance.

It depends on the width of the depletion layer, which increases with increased reverse bias voltage across the junction.

Here, Cj is junction capacitance, ε s is permittivity of semiconductor material, A is area of P and N type regions (electrodes) and w is width of the depletion
region.

Clipper and Clamper circuit=

Clipping Circuit
The circuit with which the applied waveform is shaped by removing or clipping a portion of that wave is known as a clipping circuit.
It is also known as a limiter.

The important diode clippers are :

1. Positive Clipper
2. Biased Clipper
3. Combination Clipper
A positive clipper is that which removes the positive half-cycles of the input voltage.

To remove the negative half cycle of the input, the only thing to be done is to reverse the polarities of the diode in the
circuit . Such a clipper is known as negative clipper.

To remove a small portion of positive or negative half cycle of the signal voltage.

Application of Clippers
Clippers are used to perform one of the following two functions:

1. Changing the shape of a waveform

2. Circuit transient protection
Clamping Circuit
A circuit that places either the positive or negative peak of a signal at a desired d.c. level is known as a clamping circuit.

The clamper adds the d.c. component and pushes the signal upward so that the negative peaks falls on the zero level.

It may be noted that the shape of the original signal has not changed; only there is a vertical shift in the signal. Such a clamper is
known as positive clamper.

The following points may be noted carefully:

 1. The clamping circuit does not change the peak-to-peak or r.m.s. value of the waveform.
2. A clamping circuit changes the peak value and average value of a waveform.

PIV of a P-N junction diode = Peak Inverse Voltage or PIV is the maximum voltage appearing across the p-n junction diode when it is
non-conducting. A diode do not conducts when it is reversed biased. This means peak inverse voltage is the maximum reversed biased
voltage across the diode terminals when it is put in a circuit.

PIV of a rectifier= For rectifier applications, Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV) refer to the maximum voltage a diode
or other device can withstand in the reverse-biased direction before breakdown. Also may be called Reverse Breakdown Voltage.

Sensitivity of feedback amplifier = Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of percentage change in voltage gain withfeedback to the
percentage change in voltage gain without feedback.

Pinch-off voltage of JFET= Pinch off voltage is the drain to source voltage after which the drain to source current becomes almost
constant and JFET enters into saturation region and is defined only when gate to source voltage is zero.

Barkhausen criterion= Barkhausen criterion are a set of two mathematical conditions which a linear electronic circuit must follow to act
as an electronic oscillator.
According to Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillation:

1. The magnitude of the product of open loop gain of the amplifier and the magnitude of the feedback factor is
unity, i.e., |βA|=1|βA|=1where A is the gain of the amplifying element in the circuit and β(jω)β(jω) is the transfer
function of the feedback path.
2. The total phase shift around the loop is 00 or integral multiples of 2π2π.

Virtual Ground= In opamps the term virtual ground means that the voltage at that particular node is almost equal to ground voltage (0V).