Microwaves

L2. Wave Propagation on TEM Transmission Lines

Objectives:
1. To explore the propagation of transverse electromagnetic waves along TEM
transmission lines.
2. To study the effect of waveform, electric properties of the line, load conditions and
scattering at discontinuities on the propagating fields.

1. Analysis of transmission lines

For transmission lines (distributed parameter networks) the major deviation from circuit theory
is the positional dependence of voltage and current. On a transmission line the voltage and the current
vary along the structure in time (t) and in distance (z). The finite length transmission line can be seen
as a cascade of sections of length z .

I1 I2

V1 V2

dz

Figure 1. Transmission line

For short line segments of length z the lumped-element circuit model can be used to analyze the
circuit.

Figure 2. The lumped-element circuit model for z

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L2. Wave propagation on TEM transmission lines__________________________________________________

Distributed (or per-unit-length) parameters:

Rz[ / m] - resistance due to losses in the conductor;

Lz[ H / m] - inductance due to current in the conductors and the magnetic flux linking the current
path;
Gz[S / m] - conductance due to losses in the dielectric between the conductors;
Cz[ F / m] - capacitance due to the time varying electric field between the two conductors.

Since z is very small, the electrical effects are occurring instantaneously and the circuit theory can be
used.

 Kirchhoff’s voltage low

d
v( z, t )  Rzi( z, t )  Lz i( z, t )  v( z  z, t )  0 (1)
dt

 Kirchhoff’s current low

d
i( z, t )  Gzv( z  z, t )  Cz v( z  z, t )  i( z  z, t )  0 (2)
dt

If we divide (1) and (2) by z , while considering the limit z  0 and the sinusoidal steady-state
jt jt
condition ( v( z, t )  V ( z )e , i( z, t )  I ( z )e ), we obtain the following equations:

dV ( z ) (3)
 ( R  jL) I ( z )
dz
dI ( z ) (4)
 (G  jC )V ( z )
dz

known as the telegrapher’s equations or the transmission line equations.

2. Travelling wave solutions

The telegrapher’s equations can be solved simultaneously to give the wave equations for the current and
the voltage:

V ( z )  V0 e z  V0 e z (5)

 z  z
I ( z)  I e0 I e
0 (6)

where the term e z represents the wave propagating in the +z direction - forward travelling wave or
incident wave, while the term e z represents the wave propagating in the -z direction - backward travelling
waves or reflected wave.

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Figure 3. Forward and backward travelling waves

3. Wave propagation on a transmission line

The telegrapher’s equations can be used to determine the parameters that characterize the propagation
over the transmission line.

d 2V ( z )
 ( R  jL)(G  jC )V ( z ) (7)
dz 2
d 2 I ( z) (8)
 ( R  jL)(G  jC ) I ( z )
dz 2

where

  ( R  jL)(G  jC )    j (9)

is called the propagation constant, a complex number dependent on the value of the frequency.

The propagation constant describes the line in what regards the absorption of energy in the conductors
and in the isolator (  ) and in what regards the phase velocity (  ).

[dB / m] - attenuation constant

 [rad / m] - phase constant

The phase constant gives the phase of the wave at a certain position on the transmission line. For a
period:  ( z   )  z  2 , so the relation between the phase constant and the wavelength is:

2
 (10)


Phase velocity - the velocity of a fixed point on the wave (a point with a constant phase).

 
vp   f  [m / s] (11)
T 

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L2. Wave propagation on TEM transmission lines__________________________________________________

Characteristic impedance - relates the voltage and the current on the transmission line.

R  jL
Z0 
G  jC
(12)
V V
Z0  i   r
Ii Ir

4. The lossless transmission line

In many practical cases the loss on the line is very small and it can be neglected:

RG0 (13)

Determine the transmission line parameters for a lossless transmission line (propagation
constant, characteristic impedance, phase velocity).

5. The terminated lossless transmission line

Consider a lossless transmission line terminated in an arbitrary load impedance.

Figure 4. The terminated lossless transmission line

Assume that an incident wave is generated from the source at z<0. The ratio between the
voltage and the current for such a travelling wave is Z 0 . The line is terminated in an arbitrary load
impedance Z L  Z 0 , so the ratio of voltage to current, at the load, must be Z L . Thus a reflected wave
must be excited with the appropriate amplitude to satisfy this condition.

Voltage reflection coefficient  - the amplitude of the reflected wave normalized by the
amplitude of the incident wave at any point l on the transmission line.

V0 e  jl V0 2 jl (14)

(l )   jl
 e  (0)e 2 jl
V0 e V0

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Z L  Z0
(0)  0 
ZL  Z0
0 - reflection coefficient at the load

Average power flow on the transmission line

| | |
{ ( ) ( )} ( | | )

 Matched load

Z L = Z0 (15)

The reflection coefficient 0  0 , there is no reflection of the incident wave. All the power
from the generator is delivered to the load. The magnitude of the voltage on the line is constant
V ( z )  Vi | , the line is said to be flat.

 Mismatched load

Z L  Z0
(16)
| 0 | 1, 0  0

Standing waves - the superposition of the incident and the reflected wave.

The magnitude of the voltage on the line is not constant, it oscillates with position z along the
line, between maximum and minimum values.

| Vmax || V0 |  | V0 || V0 | (1 | 0 |)

(17)
| Vmin || V0 |  | V0 || V0 | (1 | 0 |)

The distance between two successive maximum/ minimum values equals  / 2.

Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) – is a measure of the mismatch of the line.

| Vmax |
VSWR  (18)
| Vmin |

1  VSWR   , where VSWR  1 implies a matched load.

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L2. Wave propagation on TEM transmission lines__________________________________________________

Return loss

When the load is mismatched not all the available power from the generator is delivered to the
load. The return loss parameter quantifies this loss:

RL  20 log |  | [dB] (19)

Matched load : 0  0 , RL   (no reflected power)

Special cases of lossless transmission lines

- Line terminated in a short-circuit Z L  0  0  1

Figure 5. Transmission line terminated in a short-circuit

At the load, the voltage is zero, while the current is a maximum.

- Line terminated on an open-circuit Z L    0  1

Figure 6. Transmission line terminated in an open-circuit

At the load, the voltage is a maximum, while the current is zero.

Transmission coefficient and insertion loss

Consider a transmission line with the characteristic impedance Z o , feeding an infinite line
(there are no reflections from its end) with the characteristic impedance Z 1 .

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The reflection coefficient at the junction between the two transmission lines is:

Z1  Z 0

Z1  Z 0

Not all the incident wave is reflected, a part is transmitted onto the second transmission line,
with a voltage amplitude given by the transmission coefficient T .

2Z 1
T  1   (20)
Z1  Z 0

The transmission coefficient is also expressed in dB as the insertion loss:

IL  20 log | T | [dB] (21)

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L2. Wave propagation on TEM transmission lines__________________________________________________

Laboratory work:

To open the first experiment select the File menu, select Open, and select file L_transmisie.tlm

Parameters of the Transmission Line:

The file L_transmisie.tlm contains data for a section of parallel plate waveguide with
magnetic sidewalls, in other words, a uniform section of TEM transmission line. It has the following
characteristics:
Length: 78 ∆l in z-direction;
Width: 5∆l in x-direction;
Dielectric properties: εr = 1; σ = 0 (air, no losses); ∆l = 1 mm.
The two horizontal blue lines are Magnetic Walls. These boundaries have an impulse
reflection coefficient of +1.
The two vertical green lines are Reflection Walls. Their impulse reflection coefficient can
be set by the user. In a 2D TLM network, a boundary with an impulse reflection coefficient of -
0.171573 represents a matched load for a normally incident TEM wave.
The gray area inside the boundaries is a Computation Region. It defines εr and σ inside that
domain. Only cells inside a Computation Region are updated during a computation. All other cells
remain dead.
The Source Region at the far left (narrow dotted box around the first column of nodes)
represents the source. The distribution of the source voltage is constant in x-direction. This means
that we will inject identical impulses at each node in the Source Region. Backed by the absorbing
wall, it represents a matched source that launches a TEM wave with the wave magnitude specified in
the Source Waveform menu when selecting an excitation function. (A Gaussian pulse with
magnitude 0.5).
A 1 ∆l wide Animation Region (thin dotted box surrounding the centerline of the structure)
extends from node z = 2∆l to z = 78∆l for displaying Vy along the axis of the line. Vy is the voltage at
the nodes and represents the electric field component perpendicular to the screen.

Preliminary Steps

1. Open the file L_transmisie.tlm.

2. The Draw menu is active. Note the colors of the structure elements. We will later discuss
how you can modify the geometry and electrical characteristics of the structure. Move the
cursor over the structure and observe the digital counter in the Coordinate Area.
3. Now select the View menu and select Field. The Field menu becomes active. Select the
Field view and then 2D. A graph titled "Vy versus Position" appears in the window. It shows

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the amplitude of the electric field vs. the discretized z-axis. You are now ready to start the
first simulation experiment.
Propagation of a Gaussian Impulse along a Lossless Line

1. If you have loaded the original L_transmisie.tlm file, you can start the simulation either by
simply clicking on the button in the toolbar, or selecting Forward in the Simulate
menu. A third way is to press Alt+S then F.
2. To inspect the characteristics of the excitation function, select the Input menu and select
Gaussian. Its characteristics should be as follows: magnitude = 0.5, sigma = 8∆t , mean =
30∆t . Press OK in the dialog box and inspect the input function.
3. To inspect the simulation control data, select the Simulation Control menu and then
Control Data. Note the number of time steps, also called the number of iterations in the
literature (170), and the time steps between screen updates (1). This means that the program
stops automatically after 170 time steps unless you stop it yourself earlier by clicking the
Stop button in the toolbar. The field distribution along the z-axis (within the narrow
Animation Region ) is redrawn after every timestep.
4. Observe the Gaussian impulse propagating across the screen. The speed depends on the size
of your window and is determined mainly by the graphics speed of your computer rather
than by the TLM computation time.

5. To stop the simulation at any time, click the red stop button. Restart it with , or step it
forward one step at a time using .
6. To start the simulation again from the beginning, select Reset Simulator in the Simulation

Control menu. Select Field in the View menu again and click on . Note that you can
change the Graph Display Attributes in the Field menu at any time, even during a
simulation.
7. To capture the content of the window, click the right mouse button and select Image to
Clipboard. Use the Print facility as in any other program.

Propagation of a Sinusoidal Wave along a Lossless Line

1. Initialize the Simulator by selecting Reset Simulator in the Simulation Control menu, or
click the Reset button.
2. From the Source Waveform menu select Sin(f). Select its characteristics as follows:
Magnitude = 0.5, Frequency [GHz] = 6. Click "OK" and inspect the input function, then
return to the Field-2D mode via the View menu or the right mouse button.

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L2. Wave propagation on TEM transmission lines__________________________________________________

3. In the Simulation Control Data window set the number of time steps to 300 and the time
steps between updates to 1. Click "OK", then start the simulation by either clicking on ,
or selecting Forward in the Simulation Control menu.
4. Observe the sine wave propagating across the screen. The leading edge of the sinewave
looks irregular and distorted. That is due to the dispersion characteristics of the TLM mesh
and is brought about by the distortion of high frequency components generated by the
sudden onset of the sine waveform.
5. Click on the Envelope Display button (second button from the right), and observe that the
envelope of the traveling wave is constant. Hence, the standing wave ratio is unity, and no
reflection occurs at the load. Reset the envelope whenever you wish using the right-most
button.
6. To stop, continue, or repeat the simulation, and to observe or print the wave at any instant,
follow the procedures described in the section above.

Reflection of a Gaussian Impulse by a Short-Circuit

1. Replace the matched load by an electric wall. To do this, proceed as follows:

-Reset the Simulator (Reset button).
-Select Draw in the View menu (or click the right mouse button and select Draw).
-Select Select Element in the Draw menu (or in the menu from the right mouse button).
-Select the green line at the right extremity of the structure. It changes color. Then delete it
using the Del key or Delete.
-In the Draw menu (or right mouse menu) select Electric Wall. Then draw the wall using
the left mouse button
The green line should now be replaced by a red line. If you make a mistake, us the Select-and-
Delete sequence again. or draw over the wrong element a second time
2. From the Input menu select Gaussian. Maintain the initial characteristics. Inspect the input
function and return to the 2D Field display.
3. Set the number of time steps to 200 and the update interval to 1 in the Simulation Control
Data window. Then start the simulation.
4. Observe the Gaussian impulse propagating and being reflected with a (-1) reflection
coefficient by the short-circuit. If you increase the number of time steps to 300 it will
continue propagating backwards until it is absorbed in the matched source.
5. To stop, continue, or repeat the simulation, and to observe, print, or plot the wave at any
instant, proceed as in the section above.

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Reflection of a Gaussian Impulse by an Open Circuit

1. Terminate the structure by a magnetic wall instead of an electric wall. To do this, proceed as
follows:
2. Choose the same excitation and simulation parameters as in the short-circuit case and
observe the reflection which occurs with a (+1) reflection coefficient this time.

Partial Reflection of a Gaussian Impulse by a Resistive Load

1. Terminate the structure by a Reflection Wall in the Draw view. To implement such a wall,
draw it into the TLM grid and enter the wall property either as reflection coefficient or wall
impedance. Select the property by clicking on the appropriate radio button. The local
impulse reflection coefficient Γi is related to the wall impedance by the following
expression:

2. For example, in order to reflect an incident TEM wave with a TEM wave reflection
coefficient of ρ = -0.5, the local impulse reflection coefficient Γi of the Reflection Wall
must be -0.618513.
3. Choose the same excitation and simulation parameters as in the short-circuit case and verify
that the reflection occurs indeed according to the predicted value ρ by comparing the
magnitude of reflected to the incident wave.

Reflection of a Sine Wave by a Short-Circuit

1. Initialize the Simulator by clicking the Reset button.

2. Enter the Draw view and terminate the structure by an Electric Wall at the right extremity.
3. From the Input menu select Sin(f). Select its characteristics as follows: magnitude = 0.5; f =6
GHz. Inspect the input function and return to the Draw view.
4. Set the number of time steps to 350 and the update interval to 1. Then start the simulation in
the 2D Field display mode.
5. Observe the sine wave propagating and being reflected with a (-1) reflection coefficient by
the short-circuit, giving rise to a standing wave.
6. To stop, continue, or repeat the simulation, and to observe, print, or plot the wave at any
instant, follow the procedures described in the section above.

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L2. Wave propagation on TEM transmission lines__________________________________________________

Reflection of a Sine Wave by an Open Circuit

1. Reset the Simulator, select the Graph menu, and terminate the structure by a magnetic
wall at the right extremity. Then change to the 2D Field mode.
2. Using the same excitation and simulation control data, observe the formation of a
standing wave shifted by a quarter wavelength with respect to the short-circuited case.

Partial Reflection of a Sine Wave by a Resistive Load

1. Terminate the structure by a Reflection Wall at the right extremity. Choose a local
impulse reflection coefficient of -0.6.
2. Using the same excitation and simulation data as in the prevoius experiment, observe
the time behavior of a wave composed of a standing and a propagating part. Also note
that the VSWR is now finite and larger than unity. Use the Field Envelope Display
button to see the standing wave pattern.

3. Determine the VSWR value and the wavelength by placing the point of the cursor arrow
at a maximum and click the left mouse button. Read its z-position and the magnitude in
the coordinate box. Then do the same at a minimum. Compare your results with
theoretical values.

Propagation of a Gaussian Impulse along a Lossy Line

1. Replace the lossless Computation Region inside the structure by a new box of equal
size, but with a conductivity value of σ = 0.02 S/m. Terminate the right extremity in
an open circuit (Magnetic Wall) or a load of your choice (Reflection Wall with a fixed
value for the local reflection coefficient ρ). Then change to the 2D Field mod
2. To replace the Computation Region, proceed as follows :
-In the Draw menu select Select Element.
-Click the left mouse button anywhere in the Computation Region (but not on a
boundary or box contour). The Computation Region changes color, indicating that it has
been selected.
-Press the Delete key or click on Delete.
-In the Draw menu select Computation Region. Then enter the relative dielectric
constant and the conductivity. The transmission line is now lossy.
3. Using the same excitation and simulation data as in the first experiment, observe the slow
decay of the impulse magnitude as it travels along the lossy line. By displaying the envelope
of the pulse, you can clearly see the decay in amplitude. Note also the slight distortion of the

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wave form which is due to the loss in the structure, and the small reflection at the load due to
a slight impedance mismatch between the lossy medium and the real load impedance.

Propagation of a Sine Wave along a Lossy Line

1. Enter the Graph menu and replace the lossless Computation Region by a new box of equal
size, but enter a value of σ = 0.1 S/m. Terminate the line in a load of your choice.
2. Setting the frequency to 10 GHz this time, observe the slow decay of the wave amplitude as
it travels along the now lossy line, and the variation of the VSWR along the propagation
direction in case of total or partial reflection at the load. Use the Envelope Display Option
to study the VSWR behavior.

Scattering of a Gaussian Impulse at a Dielectric Discontinuity

1. Enter the Graph menu and replace the single Computation Region inside the structure by
two new boxes of about equal length . The first Computation Region should include all the
nodes from z = 1∆l to z = 39∆l (use the counter) with εr = 1, and σ= 0. The second
Computation Region should include all the nodes from z = 40∆l to z = 78∆l with εr = 4, and
σ = 0. After you have drawn the second Computation Region, replace the termination by a
new Reflection Wall. You will notice that the default value for Γi is now -0.477592, which
is required to match a TEM transmission line with εr = 4 . Then change to the 2D Field
display mode.
2. Using the same excitation and simulation data as in Experiment 1.1, observe the scattering of
the impulse at the air-dielectric interface situated halfway between z = 39∆l and z = 40∆l .
Note both the spatial compression and the reduction in velocity of the impulse inside the
dielectric, as well as the continuity of the voltage across the interface at all times.
3. By terminating the line in a short or open circuit instead of an absorbing wall, you can
observe repeated scatterings, resulting in a strongly attenuated resonance inside the dielectric
section. At the same time the stronger numerical dispersion in the dielectric section becomes
noticeable as it results in a progressive distortion of the pulse shape.

Scattering of a Sine Wave at a Dielectric Discontinuity

1. Use the same structure as in the previous experiment.

2. Using the same excitation and simulation data as in Experiment 1.10, observe the
scattering of the sine wave at the air-dielectric interface situated halfway between z = 39∆l
and z = 40∆l.

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L2. Wave propagation on TEM transmission lines__________________________________________________

Note both the reduction of the wavelength and the reduction in velocity of the wave inside
the dielectric, as well as the continuity of the voltage across the interface at all times. In the
air section the wave behaves similar to that on a line with a partially reflecting load.
3. By terminating the line in a short or open circuit instead of an absorbing wall, you can
observe repeated scattering resulting in a resonance inside the dielectric section.

Additional Experimentation

The number of similar experiments that can be carried out with this structure is limited only
by your imagination. However, when trying other waveforms and frequencies, keep in mind that the
discrete TLM mesh behaves like a continuum only for frequencies at which the guided wavelength
is long compared with the cell size. For field animation we thus recommend that you choose only
band-limited signals as excitation functions. As soon as the wavelength corresponding to their
highest frequency component becomes shorter than about 15∆l, distortion of waveforms.

Questions:

1. What does short-circuit mean? How do the reflected waves propagate in this case?
2. What does open circuit mean? How do the reflected waves propagate in this case?
3. What is a standing wave?
4. What is VSWR?
5. What causes reflections in a transmission line?

References

1. David M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, 3rd Edition by David M. Pozar, 2004 John Wiley &
Sons
2. Robert E. Collin, Foundations for Microwave Engineering, 2nd Edition, ISBN: 978-0-7803-
6031-0, December 2000, Wiley-IEEE Press
3. Mefisto – 2D Classic, User Guide & Operating Manual

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