Building and Environment 112 (2017) 88e98

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Building and Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Utilization potential of low temperature hydronic space heating

systems: A comparative review
Petr Ovchinnikov a, *, Anatolijs Borodiņecs b, Ksenia Strelets a
a
Peter the Great St.Petersburg Polytechnical University, Polytechnycheskaya, Str., h. 29, St. Petersburg, 195251, Russia
b
Riga Technical University, Kipsalas, Str., h. 1, Riga, LV-1658, Latvia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recently, there has been a rising concern for hydronic space heating systems of various configurations for
Received 4 October 2016 low temperature water heating applications due to constantly tightening energy codes and regulations.
Received in revised form Current tendencies in Russian legislation system aim to transfer local building sector for low-exergy
31 October 2016
systems. The current work aims at reviewing the recent researches conducted on the low-temperature
Accepted 14 November 2016
Available online 15 November 2016
hydronic space heating systems and heat emitters with a view of evaluating their practical application
in Russian building sector. The review is based on the comparison of various key performance data for
systematic representation of studied concepts. It was stated that having a wide range of different ap-
Keywords:
Low-temperature heating systems
proaches and performance criteria increases the difficulty of examining a specific system and comparing
Low-temperature district heating it with the others. Studies and practicies, analyzed in similar to Russia weather conditions, indicate
Energy efficiency distinct prospects of utilization of low-temperature hydronic heating systems. An optimum hydronic
Energy performance space-heating configuration can be identified for the specific case but it is strongly dependent on initial
Thermal comfort boundary conditions.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.1. Available heat sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
1.2. 4th generation district heating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2. Types of heat emitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3. Energy and thermal performance of building heating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.1. Use of low temperature space heating systems in existing and non-retrofitted buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.2. Use of low-temperature heating systems in modern and renovated buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4. Thermal and energy performance simulation of heat emitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.1. Simulation of natural convection heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2. Simulation of forced convection heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5. Review of studies on heating supply and building energy consumption in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.1. Tendencies in low-temperature heating research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

1. Introduction

Previously, high-energy consumption that was attributed to the

building stock has raised the need for studying low exergy systems.
* Corresponding author.
For instance, as it was estimated in European buildings, the total
E-mail address: pshenichca@hotmail.com (P. Ovchinnikov). energy consumption reaches approximately 40% of primary energy

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.11.029
0360-1323/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 P. Ovchinnikov et al. / Building and Environment 112 (2017) 88e98 89

usage [1], and a part of consumption, that is demanded for heating, heat from industrial processes and from cooling processes in
accounts for more than 70% [2]. Nonetheless, there is a large po- commercial buildings e.g. supermarkets) [2,12];
tential in the building segment in terms of saving energy, i.e. by d Biomass [13] and condensing gas boilers (the condensing
applying materials with low heat transfer coefficient (U-value), boiler performs very well in low return and supply temper-
increasing of envelope's air-tightness, relying on renewable energy atures and the steady energy consumption) [14].
resources, using modern high-effective equipment for heating. Ful-
filling these steps can substantially reduce the length of a heating
1.2. 4th generation district heating system
season and the total heating demand. Ultimately, this measures aim
to transform the existing buildings and to design the new ones ac-
Modern houses with low energy demand can be connected to
cording to net zero energy/emissions buildings concept [3].
DH that encompasses sources of renewable energy. This DH is
House space heating (SH) and domestic hot water (DHW) in
called 4th generation district heating system (4GDH). This concept
urban areas are predominantly provided by combined heat and
encompasses innovations, that have been implemented in the DH
power plants (CHP) using 3rd generation district heating system
over the past years. It allows for the wide use of CHP together with
(3GDH). As an example, in Russia, 3GDH has supply/return tem-
renewable energy sources such as geothermal energy and solar
perature at level 95/70
C and up to 150/70
C. Previously, higher
thermal heat and the utilization of waste heat from various in-
temperatures, such as 90/70 and 80/60
C have been used in
dustrial surplus heat sources. The trend throughout three genera-
Sweden (i.e. Denmark e 80/40
C, Finland e 70/40
C), partly
tions of DH has been towards lower distribution temperatures.
because there were no incentives for low temperatures in systems
Following these identified direction, 4GDH should comprise lower
with boilers, but also because smaller radiators could be employed.
distribution temperatures, assembly-oriented components, and
The advantages of low temperatures have led to lower tempera-
more flexible pipe materials.
tures being used today, e.g. 60/45, 60/40 or 55/45
C. Since 1982,
By using substations without storage of DHW at the end user
temperatures higher than 55
C are not allowed in new heating
and pipes with only a small volume between the heat exchanger
systems, which should promote the use of low-temperature heat-
and the taps, the hot water volume is so small that the potential
ing systems [4].
problem with legionella bacteria is minimised. Therefore, it may be
Current tendencies in Russian legislation system aim to transfer
possible to use 40e50
C supply temperature of DHW. In this way,
local building sector for low-exergy systems. EU main energy effi-
the temperature level of the district heating supply to the buildings
ciency targets can be easily implemented on Russian market.
can be as low as 45e55
C [9].
However, main barriers such as high final energy consumption and
In large buildings, local DHW heat exchangers are used to
low inhabitants energy awareness should be removed. Tendencies
ensure a very small volume of DHW supply pipes. Heat supply for
for building sustainable environment are legally established by the
space heating and the DHW heat exchangers are provided by a
Federal Law N
261 only in 2009 [5]. While Russian regulations are
circulation pipe in the building. By use of twin pipes with the
being constantly actualized, practices of using low-exergy systems
supply pipe in the centre and the return pipe located at the
are still being obstructed by obsolete 3rd generation district heat-
isotherm equal to the return temperature, the heat loss can be
ing (3GDH), inherited from soviet times, and currently there is no
reduced and the heat exchange between supply and return pipes
real evidence of transition from high temperature to low temper-
eliminated. Insulation materials may be improved by adding opa-
ature district heating. As of 2007, the district heating (DH) and
cifiers to reduce the heat transfer caused by thermal radiation [2].
combined heat and power (CHP) plants in Russia included around
The economic feasibility and high level of comfort for occupants
500 CHP plants and 65 000 boiler houses connected to the end-
have been demonstrated in a pilot low-temperature DH project in
users by means of 200 000 km of DH networks. In Russia, these
Lystrup, Denmark, where low-temperature DH supplies an area
systems operate at sufficiently low level of energy efficiency
with 42 low-energy single-family houses [9,15]. This concept can
compare to the most technologies used internationally [6]. The new
also guarantee upon 16e20% discount in energy bills, which was
Energy Efficiency Strategy of Russia to 2030, supported by the
recently showed by Tunzi and Østergaard [16].
Russian Federation Government (Decree N
1715-r [7]), sets the
strategic goals of increasing DH/CHP- and end-hange in tempera-
ture demand may be further improved by introducing heating Nomenclature
systems that can use supply temperatures of 40
C and cool down
SFH single-family house CHP combined heat and
the district heating water to near room temperature (20e22
C). power plant
MFH multi-family house CFD computational
fluid dynamics
1.1. Available heat sources RS Republic of Serbia UFH under-floor heating
DK Denmark FCH floor-ceiling heating
FI Finland CH ceiling heating
In order to ensure supply/return temperatures below required SE Sweden WH wall heating
standards, next sources of energy can be considered: BE Belgium HTR conventional radiator
EE Estonia LTR low-temperature radiator
d Air exhaust and geothermal heat pumps (COP for low- 3GDH 3rd generation district VLTR ventilation low
heating temperature radiator
temperature fluids is higher in heat pumps, current prac- SH space heating BLTR baseboard low
tices show that air exhaust heat pumps are more beneficial temperature radiator
and ready to use compare to others) [1]; DHW domestic hot water eFH electric floor heating
d Solar assisted heat pumps are popular in research domain nCGB non-condensing n50 air leakage rate (h-1)
gas boiler
but not as broadly used in northern and eastern Europe as air
CGB condensing gas boiler Um value mean U-value (W m-2 K-1)
exhaust heat pumps for little efficiency in heating applica- eFH electric floor heating U value heat transfer
tion [10,11]; coefficient (W m-2 K-1)
d Waste heat from industrial processes (with a low- eaHP exhaust air heat pump PMV predicted mean vote
temperature DH network with supply and return of about COP coefficient of PPD predicted percentage
performance of dissatisfied
50/20
C, there is much higher potential for usable waste
90 P. Ovchinnikov et al. / Building and Environment 112 (2017) 88e98

Fig. 1. Typical heating schemes for a) multi-story building, b) single-family house.

Generally, multi-family houses are supplied by district heating equation:

(Fig. 1a) and single-family houses by a variety of sources such as
n
boilers and/or heat pumps (Fig. 1b). P ¼ k·A·Dqlmtd ; (1)
The main objective of this study is to present a comparative
review of the recent researches and developments on space heating
qwater;in  qwater; out
systems for low temperature water heating applications in order to Dqlmtd ¼
 ; (2)
q q
assess potential of their utilization in Saint Petersburg region. ln q water;in qair
water; out air
Investigated researches are mainly aimed at assessing different
types of LTHH systems such as: under-floor heating (UFH), wall
heating (WH), ceiling heating and introduce new radiator types like
1=k ¼ 1=ains þ d=l þ 1=aout ; (3)
where.
baseboard heating (BR) and ventilation radiators (VLTR).
The article is divided into the following parts:
A surface area of the radiator (m2 ),
k total heat transfer coefficient (mW2 K),
d energy performance of space heating systems;
d energy and thermal comfort simulation of heating units; n radiator exponent, usually set to 1.3 [16].
d tendencies in researches and conclusions. ains  heat transfer coefficient between internal water and
radiator (mW2 K),
aout  heat transfer coefficient between radiator and air that
2. Types of heat emitters contains radiative and convective parts (mW2 K),
W ),
l conductivity (mK
There exist different types of heat emitters arranged into various
categories and, generally, they can be divided into four groups as
d  radiator wall thickness (m),
shown in Table 1 with corresponding type of heating system [8]. Dqlmtd  logarithmic mean temperature difference between
Studies that were conducted in residential and office buildings with heated surface and ambient air (
CÞ;
various low temperature heating units show that people in build- qair  mean room air temperature (
CÞ,
ings equipped with low temperature heating units are generally qwater;in  water inlet temperature (
CÞ,
more satisfied with indoor climate than those living in houses with qwater; out  water outlet temperature (
CÞ.
conventional heat emitters.
A typical conventional two-panel radiator is shown on Fig. 2a. From Eq. (2) it can be concluded that if the water inlet tem-
Panels can be connected as parallel or, to some extent, serial [17] perature (qwater;in ) decreases, logarithmic mean temperature dif-
(Fig. 2b and c), typical internal convection fin geometry is shown ference between heated surface and ambient air (Dqlmtd ) decreases
on Fig. 2d. as well. Thus, in order to keep the same heat output (P), must be
Radiator's heat output P (W) can be found using the following increased either:

Table 1
Types of hydronic heating systems.

System Supply flow (
C) Return flow (
C) Type of heating units

High temperature (HT) up to 95 up to 70 Conventional hydronic radiator (Fig. 2a), baseboard radiator
Medium temperature (MT) 55 35e40 Low temperature radiators
Low temperatures (LT) 45 25e35 Ventilation radiator (Fig. 3b), ventilation baseboard
Very low temperature 35 25 radiator (Fig. 3a), wall/floor/ceiling heating (Fig. 4)
 P. Ovchinnikov et al. / Building and Environment 112 (2017) 88e98 91

Fig. 2. Traditional natural convection two-panel radiator (a), b) parallel connection of panels, c) serial connection of panels, d) internal convection fins.

1. the heat transfer coefficient (k) or

2. the surface area of the radiator (A).
Q cv ¼ f cl hcl 1:8ðtcl  tair Þ þ 1:8·0:014Mð34  tair Þ; (5)
The heat transfer coefficient of the heat emitter can be sub-
stantially improved by increasing the convective part of heat ( pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
transfer that means transition from natural to forced convection ·2:38ðhcl  tair Þ0:25 for 2:38ðtcl  tair Þ0:25 > 12:1 vair ;
hcl ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 0:25 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
radiators. This could be accomplished by combining either base- ·12:1 vair for 2:38ðtcl  tair Þ < 12:1 vair ;
board heater or conventional radiator with ventilation intake in (6)
external wall, as it shown on Fig. 3. Current practices and re-
searches show that the supply/return temperature can be reduced
to 35/28
C without compensating the heat output and, conse-

·1:00 þ 1:29Icl for Icl < 0:078;
quently, without compromising thermal comfort [18]. f cl ¼ (7)
·1:05 þ 0:645Icl for Icl > 0:078;
The second solution for compensating reduction of supply
temperature is to enlarge the surface area of the heat emitter. The
examples of such approach are floor- (Fig. 4a), wall- (Fig. 4b) or

Q rad;occ ¼ 1:8·3:96·108 f cl t4cl  t4mrt ; (8)
ceiling heating and their combinations. As an example, studies
conducted in single-family house in Serbia [19] show that com-
bined flooreceiling heating systems outperform underfloor heating
 
and ceiling heating in terms of exergy efficiency, CO2 emissions and HumOcc ¼ 1:8 3:05·103 5733  6:99fM·58  Wg  Pvap
total heating output (Tables 2 and 3).
þ 0:42½fM·58  Wg  58:15
 .
þ 1:7·105 M·58 5867  Pvap 2501000;
3. Energy and thermal performance of building heating
systems (9)
where,
A number of experimental studies have been scrutinized, most
f cl  ratio of man's surface area while clothed to man's surface
of them present comparative studies on performance of traditional
area while unclothed;
high-temperature radiators and low-temperature radiators. The
majority of them used IDA ICE simulation tool which allows user hcl  convective heat transfer coefficient between air and
conducting comprehensive dynamic simulation of heat transfer clothes (mW2 K);
and air flow in building with a view to calculating heating and Pvap  partial water vapour pressure (Pa);
cooling loads. This tool also helps predicting thermal comfort pa- tair  air temperatures (
C);
rameters as well as air quality and some other parameters defined tcl  surface temperature of clothing (
C);
by the user. The mathematical model in IDA ICE is simulated using tmrt  mean radiant temperature (
C);
the equations from the mathematical library. The moisture and vair  relative air velocity to human body (m s );
heat loads from people are modeled with the equations from ISO W ).
W external work (m 2
7730 [20]: Equation (5) show convective heat load (Qcv, W), (8) e
radiative heat load (Qrad,occ, W) and (9) e moisture load from oc- Validation of this software was conducted in a number of
kg
cupants (HumOcc, s ). studies [21e24].
92 P. Ovchinnikov et al. / Building and Environment 112 (2017) 88e98
Fig. 3. Forced convection radiators, a) ventilation baseboard radiator, b) ventilation radiator.
Fig. 4. Natural convection heating systems: under-floor heating (a), wall heating (b).
3.1. Use of low temperature space heating systems in existing and
non-retrofitted buildings
Østergaard and Svendsen [25] took four typical Danish single-
family houses, built in 1930's, and performed a heating load
simulation. The purpose of this study was to estimate the potential
of lowering the supply/return temperatures in systems by replacing
obsolete and ineffective radiators. The obtained data show that the
supply/return temperatures in every case could be decreased to 50/
27
C.
Studies provided by Brand et al. [26], Wang and Ploskic [27e29]
were concerned of existing building and consequent integration of
low-temperature space heating on different stages of building
retrofitting. Brand and Svendsen [23] show that a typical non-
renovated single-family house in Denmark built in 1970's can be
heated by low-temperature DH with supply temperature 50
C to
an operative temperature of 22
C roughly for 59% of year. At the
same time, results obtained by Wang and Ploskic [27e29] indicate
that exchanging obsolete radiators with low temperature ventila-
tion radiators would not improve thermal comfort inside building
without minimal renovation measures. With this, primary energy
could be saved at the level of 52.8e55.3% in case of full-scale ret-
rofitting and transferring conventional space heating emitters to
low-temperature ventilation radiators specifically.
Van den Veken et al. [14] studied efficiency of condensing and
non-condensing gas boilers coupled with LTR, HTR and UFH. Re-
sults show that UFH only then consume less energy and maintain
constant air temperature compared to LT and HT water radiators
when coupled with condensing gas boiler. Otherwise, LTR outper-
form UFH. Additionally, it was testified [29] that an additional ab-
sorption heat pump can reduce fuel consumption of the gas boiler
while keeping the same amount of the produced energy.
Table 2 represents a piece of information regarding space
heating systems with basic boundary conditions.
Table 3 represents a piece of information regarding energy
performance of systems and other adjacent parameters.
3.2. Use of low-temperature heating systems in modern and
renovated buildings
Research by Hesaraki and Holmberg [1] was conducted in five
new-built Swedish detached houses that are equipped with space
heating system combining UFH and VLTR with exhaust air heat
pump as the heat source. Additionally, the heat pump is coupled
with electric heater when instantaneous hot water is needed. Re-
sults showed that the houses provide good thermal comfort (PMV-
based PPD is 12%, lower than 15% required by ISO 7730) and in
every case consume less energy than required by Swedish energy
requirements (55 kWh/m2 per year). According to obtained data it
was stated that VLTR have potential of raising the temperature of
incoming cold winter air by up to 30
C. However, envelope's air-
tightness influence on total consumption and efficiency of VLTR
critically.
Studies by Hasan and Kurnitsk [31] was aimed to find the
thermal performance and required energy consumption in three
flats in multi-story apartment building in Finland. The compared
systems were hydronic UFH, LTR and their combinations. Despite
low supply temperatures (that is less than 45
C), the results
indicate that combination of low temperature heat emitters twice
decrease the required primary energy compared to traditional HTR
while keeping the air temperature on the level 20
C.
Researches by Maivel [32] studied heat losses depending on
different supply/return temperature curves for detached houses
and MFH. They indicate that traditional supply/return curve 70/
55
C drastically increases the losses. According to obtained data,
for detached houses it was recommended to use heating curve of
45/35
C and 40/30
C for MFH.
Additionally, Kazanci and Shukuya [33] concentrated on heat
 P. Ovchinnikov et al. / Building and Environment 112 (2017) 88e98 93

Table 2
Literature review e types of studied space heating systems.

Authors Study case Boundary conditions Simulation tool On-site/ laboratory System information
monitoring
Country Application Energy source Type of space heater Supply/return
T (
C)
SH DHW

Boji

c et al. [19] SFH RS X Energy plus nCGB UFH 37/-
FCH 37/-
CH 37/-
WH 37/-
Brand et al. [26] SFH DK X X IDA ICE X 3GDH HTR 78-53/
40-25
LTR 67-50/
28-24
Hasan et al. [31] Flats (x3) FI X IDA ICE 3GDH HTR þ eFH 70/40
UFH 40/35
LTR þ UFH 45/35
Hesaraki et al. [1] SFH (x5) SE X X IDA ICE X eaHP þ add heater VLTR 45/30
UFH 30/-
Veken et al. [14] SFH BE X TRNSYS CGB, nCGB HTR 90/40
LTR 50/25
UFH 50/25
Wang et al. [27, 28] MFH SE X X IDA ICE 3GDH þ add heater HTR 75/50
VLTR 45/30
Ploskic et al. [29] MFH SE X X IDA ICE SimaPro X 3GDH HTR 75/50
eaHP þ 3GDH BLTR 45/35
VLTR 45/35
Kazanci et al. [33] SFH DK X Laboratory testing X CGB UFH 40-33/ 36-29
eaHP UFH 40-33/ 36-29
CGB HTzR 90-45/ 70-35
eaHP HTR 90-45/ 70-35
Maivel et al. [32] SFH MFH EE X IDA ICE X GB HTR 70/55
HP LTR 45/35
HP UFH 35/28
SFH MFH DE X IDA ICE X GB HTR 70/55
HP LTR 45/35
HP UFH 35/28
Østergaard et al. [25] SFH (x4) DK X X IDA ICE CGB LTR 50/27

source performance coupled with UFH and LTR. It was stated that
UFH outperform LTR in terms of exergy demand and consumption.
With this, a condensing gas boiler coupled with UFH is not an
efficient combination due to the mismatch of the exergy supply and
demand as it was indirectly confirmed by Van der Veken [14]. The
better match for the exergy demand provides utilizing of a heat
pump.
4. Thermal and energy performance simulation of heat
emitters
Performance of heat emitters can be studied thorough via lab-
oratory measurements and CFD modelling. Here the indoor climate,
flow patterns, i.e. air velocity or cold draughts, and temperature
distribution can be predicted with a good precision. Eq. (1) serves
as a simple example of how heat output of the radiator can be
computed in the CFD modelling.
In most cases, natural and forced convective flows in rooms is
predicted using so-called k-ε model since it shows sufficiently good
agreement with EN-442-2 [34]. However, this standard k-ε model
has to be improved since without specific blending function be-
tween laminar and turbulent flow, it was found to over-estimate
heat transfer [35]. Moreover, recently [36] it was shown that k-ε
model must content user-defined wall functions on all surfaces
with large temperature differences towards the air, radiators and
windows that theoretically ensures even better agreement with
measurements according to EN-442-2.
4.1. Simulation of natural convection heaters
Studies conducted by Myhren et al. [8] and Golkarfard et al. [37]
were concerned of comparison between hydronic radiators and
large heat-transferring surfaces. It was established that while
compared systems give acceptable results in terms of indoor
climate (which can be confirmed by laboratory testing of temper-
ature fluctuations carried by Hasan et al. [30]) floor heating and
wall heating poorly resist cold downflows. This was indirectly
proved by Hesaraki and Holmerg [1]. At the same time UFH per-
forms better in removing impurities from the occupation zone
since all airborne particles are transferred to ceiling.
Sevilgen et al. [38] have shown that energy savings can be
improved without compromising PMV level by additional insu-
lation of walls and consequent reducing of supply temperature to
40
C. Embaye et al. [39] and Shati et al. [40] derivated that emitters
heat output can be significantly improved by, respectively, using a
flow pulsation mode of a pump and applying saw-tooth black
surface to an insulated wall behind a radiator. All the investigated
data are summarized in Table 4.
Additionally, Maivel [17] performed comparative studies of ra-
diators with serial and parallel connected panels. It was established
that overall performance of traditional two-panel radiator with
parallel connection is better for low-temperature heating systems
due to their faster dynamic response.
All the laboratory testing data are presented in Table 5.
4.2. Simulation of forced convection heaters
Developing their previous ideas [8], Myhren and Holmberg
[35,41,42] investigated possibility of introducing a new type of low
temperature radiators with integrated air supply that would resist
cold draughts, which is called ventilation radiator (VLTR, Fig. 3b). As
cold airflow passes through the inlet in wall behind the radiator it
94 P. Ovchinnikov et al. / Building and Environment 112 (2017) 88e98

Table 3
Literature review e energy performance and adjacent parameters.

Authors Study case System information Renovation U values, Primary energy Other parameters
(W/m2
C) consumption,
Energy source Type of Supply/Return Operative
kWh/m2$year
space heater T (
C) T (
C)

Boji

c et al. [19] SFH nCGB UFH 37/- 20e21 Uwin ¼ 2.72 57 CO2 emissions
FCH 37/- 19e20 Um ¼ 0.57 44 (January)
CH 37/- 19e20 60 UFH ¼ 2043 kg
WH 37/- 20e21 49 FCH ¼ 1662 kg
CH ¼ 2176 kg
WH ¼ 1857 kg
Brand et al. [26] SFH 3GDH HTR 70/40 20 Non-renovated Uwin ¼ 3.2 120 (demand Hydronic flow
HTR 78/33 22 Uroof ¼ 0.48 for 20
C) rate 245-264 l/h
LTR 67/27 22
HTR 62/27 20 Light Uwin ¼ 1.50 92e87 (demand
HTR 67/30 22 renovation n50 ¼ 0.41 h1 for 20
C)
LTR 59/26 22 (0.278 l/m2s)
HTR 53/25 20 Extensive Uroof ¼ 0.14 66e60 (demand
HTR 57/28 22 renovation Uwin ¼ 0.90 for 20
C)
LTR 50/24 22 þ300 mm
wall insulation
Hasan et al. [31] Flats (x3) 3GDH HTR þ eFH 70/40 21 Renovated Uwall ¼ 0.25 48
UFH 40/35 20e22 building Uwin ¼ 1.40 24 PPD < 1%
LTR þ UFH 45/35 21 n50 ¼ 1 h1 24
Hesaraki SFH (x5) aHP þ VLTR 45/30 21 New-built Uroof ¼ 0.13 51e55 Heat pump
et al. [1] add boiler Ufloor ¼ 0.15 COP ¼ 2.7
UFH 30/- 21 Uwall ¼ 0.15 PPD ¼ 12%
Uwin ¼ 1.10
Udoor ¼ 1.50
Um ¼ 0.28
n50 ¼ 0.63 l/m2s
Veken SFH CGB, nCGB HTR 90/40 21 Non-renovated Um ¼ 0.80 hc ¼ 77.6%
et al. [14] hnc ¼ 76.1%
LTR 50/25 21 hc ¼ 84.5%
hnc ¼ 78.7%
UFH 50/25 21 hc ¼ 77.4%
hnc ¼ 70.1%
Wang MFH 3GDH HTR 75/50 18e21 Non-renovated n50 ¼ 2.5 h1 149 PPDnr ¼ 22%
et al. [27,28] Ufloor ¼ 0.26
Uwall ¼ 0.48
Uwin ¼ 2.85
3GDH VLTR 45-35/40-28 21e22 Extensive Ufloor ¼ 0.18 70 PPDer ¼ 6.2%
renovation Uwall ¼ 0.18
Uwin ¼ 0.80
n50 ¼ 1 h1
þheat recovery
Ploskic MFH 3GDH HTR 75/50 19e21 Non-renovated n50 ¼ 2.0 h1 127
et al. [29] Ufloor ¼ 0.26
Uwall ¼ 0.48
Uwin ¼ 2.85
eaHPþ 3GDH HTR 50-35/- 20 Extensive e 101 COPHTR ¼ 3.0
VLTR 43-30/- 20 renovation 91 COPVLTR ¼ 3.4
BLTR 40-27/- 20e21 91 COPBLTR ¼ 3.6
Kazanci SFH CGB UFH 40-33/36-29 20 New-built Uwall ¼ 0.09
et al. [33] eaHP UFH 40-33/36-29 20 Uwin ¼ 1.04 COPUFH ¼ 2.57
CGB HTR 90-45/70-35 20
eaHP HTR 90-45/70-35 20
Maivel SFH/MFH GB HTR 70/55 21 Uwall ¼ 0.17 SFH 44/MFH 22 COP ¼ 4.3
et al. [32] (EE) HP LTR 45/35 21 Uwin ¼ 0.80 SFH 46/MFH 22
HP UFH 35/28 21 Uroof ¼ 0.14
SFH/MFH GB HTR 70/55 21 Ufloor ¼ 0.17
(DE) HP LTR 45/35 21 n50 ¼ 0.167 h1
HP UFH 35/28 21
Østergaard SFH (x4) CGB LTR 50/27 20 Non-renovated Uwall ¼ 0.78
et al. [25] Uwin ¼ 1.50
Uroof ¼ 0.20
Ufloor ¼ 0.48

enters the channels formed by fins and panels where it is getting
pre-heated to comfort air temperature level. Here, air movement is
ensured by indoor-outdoor pressure differences and partly by
buoyancy forces. The major part of pressure losses is in the channel
filter that protects indoor space from incoming outdoor particles.
Simulations along with laboratory measurements indicate that,
depending on different fin geometry, VLTR provides the same heat
output with 35
C supply water temperature as the conventional
HTR with 55
C supply water temperature while keeping the PPD
level on 12% in both cases and indoor temperature within 20e25
C.
Theoretical approach by Ploskic and Holmberg [43] analyzed the
functioning of hydronic baseboard heating system with integrated
 P. Ovchinnikov et al. / Building and Environment 112 (2017) 88e98 95

air supply in an office (Fig. 3a). Measurements and simulations
indicated that the proposed system with 45
C supply water tem-
perature guarantees a balance with ventilation thermal demand.
This balance is possible also when the baseboard channel is
approximately 1.55 m long per one air supply inlet. The studied
system produces 2.1 (air supply rate 7.0 l/s, air inlet
temperature 6.0
C) times more heat than conventional HTR. The
important relation here is that convective heat part contributed
nearly 80% of total heat emission and thermal radiation only 20%. In
contrary, traditional HTR, which has now forced convection emis-
sion, had ratio 46/54%, respectively. Moreover, baseboard heater
counteracts cold draught more efficiently e PPD at ankle height
ranged from 5 to 13%.
Additionally, comparative experimental study by Hesaraki et al.
[44] showed that with the same set operative temperature UFH
outperform ventilation radiators in terms of energy savings and
CO2 emissions. The mean supply water temperature for UFH was
30
C, however it was close to VLTR, that is 33
C. The supply water
temperature for conventional radiator was 45
C, which is signifi-
cantly higher. As for the energy consumption, it was reduced by 17
and 22%, when using VLTR and UFH respectively.
All the obtained data is presented in Table 6.
5. Review of studies on heating supply and building energy
consumption in Russia
Arising popularity of sustainable development in Russia, the
corresponding regulation development, involved local scientists in
researches that were directly or indirectly aimed at low-exergy
systems. Korppoo and Korobova noted in their article [45] that
modernization campaign of residential heating in late 2000's
although is undoubtedly the positive undertaking, but it does not
address the main problems of the heating sector e notable changes
could not be achieved without comprehensive reform of the
heating chain, that is from DH/CHP to end-use. Later, Stennikov and
Iakimetc proposed the dependence of heat density on such pa-
rameters as height of buildings, density, fuel cost, type of a heat
source and scales of system as the main criteria prior in developing
an effective heat supply systems [46].
In 1994 Matrosov [47] made an overview of annual primary
energy consumption in Russian single- and multi-family houses.
Mean data by that time was in a range from 220 to 630 (kWh/
m2$year) depending on building envelope, infiltration rate and
energy source which exceeds modern recommendations greatly.
Recent researches conducted by Vatin and Gorshkov [48e50] show
that mean primary energy consumption for typical multy-storey
building in Moscow can be improved by optimization of building
envelope from 130 to approximately 60 (kWh/m2$year). The series
of studies conducted by Gagarin [51e54] develop ideas of building
envelope improvements for consequent reducing of energy de-
mand and energy losses. Scientists Tabunshchikov and Brodach
studied microclimate demand-controlled ventilation and low-
potential heat exchangers [55,56].
As for renewable energy sources, calculations performed by
Marchenko [57] for remote North regions of Russia showed that
energy, generated by wind turbines, exceeds energy demand in
electricity and heat supply. More recently, Vasilyev confirmed the
expediency of using geothermal heat pumps for heating and cool-
ing purposes over practically the whole territory of the Russian
Federation (COPmax ¼ 4.14e4.24 in the south of Russia, and
COPmax ¼ 2.73e2.87 in the North, COPmax ¼ 3.4e3.2 in Central
Russia) [58]. Strebkov studied photovoltaic panels including

Table 4
Various natural convection space heaters and flow patterns investigated in reviewed studies with CFD modelling.

Reference Type of space heater/component Investigated parameter Obtained data

Embaye et al. [39] Single finned panel hydronic radiator
Golkarfard et al. [37] Hydronic radiator and UFH
Shati et al. [40] Single finned panel hydronic radiator
Sevilgen et al. [38] Two-panel hydronic radiator
Myhren et al. [8] High and a mediumehigh
temperature radiators, UFH and WH
The effect of flow pulsation on thermal comfort
of occupants compared to the conventional
constant flow
Comparison of deposition and dispersion of
airborne particles in radiator and floor heating
systems
The effect of varying the emissivity and the
roughness of a wall behind a radiator on the
radiator heat output.
Comparison: the smooth black, smooth shiny,
saw-tooth black and saw-tooth shiny walls at
40 mm, 50 mm and 75 mm air gaps.
The dependence of thermal comfort and
radiator's heating performance on a building
envelope and a type of radiator.
Investigation of forced and natural convective
airflow patterns, differences in vertical air
temperature gradients and energy
consumption.
Comfort parameters with pulse flow: indoor
temperature 20 ± 1.5
C, air velocity <0.15 m/s,
the draught rating parameters <15%; comfort
temperature response is app. 10% faster than
with constant flow due to improving the
thermal inertia.
Energy consumption: energy consumption can
be of up to app. 12% lowered; specific heat
output can be improved by app. 25%.
UFH causes a large number of deposited
particles on the ceiling and the radiator one
causes the most deposition on the floor.
UFH removes the suspended particles from the
occupied zones and carries them to the ceiling.
Increasing the wall surface emissivity causes
increasing the radiator's heat output by 17%.
Increasing the wall surface emissivity and
roughness simultaneously causes increasing the
total radiator's heat output by 26% compared to
a smooth, shiny surface.
Ultimately, a saw-tooth black wall surface was
recommended to be used for insulated walls.
Using better insulation and a low-temperature
panel radiator ensure better thermal comfort
and more energy savings.
PMV(Tsup ¼ 40
C, Um ¼ 0.24) ¼ e 0.4,
Qloss ¼ 567 W
PMV(Tsup ¼ 60
C, Um ¼ 0.85) ¼ e 0.2,
Qloss ¼ 1334 W
Large heat-transferring surfaces have weakness
in counteracting cold down flows from air
supply unit. As a sequence, cold draught
problem arises. However, all the investigated
emitters ensure acceptable thermal comfort in a
room.
96 P. Ovchinnikov et al. / Building and Environment 112 (2017) 88e98

Table 5
Various natural convection space heaters and flow patterns investigated in reviewed studies with laboratory testing.

Reference Type of space Investigated parameter Obtained data

heater/component

Hasan Hydronic LTR and UFH The vertical differences in vertical air temperature Although all fluctuations are within the limits of ASHRAE
et al. [31] gradients. LTR and UFH in a test room are used Standard 55e2004, LTR shows less temperature fluctuation
with outside air temperature: 0, 6, 10, 18
C compare to UFH:
LTR: temperature deviation at the level 1.1 and 0.1 m (head
and ankle levels for a sitting occupant) is 0.18e0.29
C;
UFH: temperature deviation at the level 1.1 and 0.1 m
is 0.08 e (0.14)
C.
Maivel Two panel hydronic radiator Possible energy savings for radiators with Serial connection: the front panel temperature appeared to
et al. [17] with parallel and serial parallel and serial connected panels. Measurements be 4
C higher, which resulted in slightly higher radiation
connected panels are conducted in EN 442-2 test room. share. The rear panel temperature was 3
C lower which
could have some energy saving effect in the case of poorly
insulated walls.
Parallel connection: up to 3% higher heat output at T ¼ 50
C
increased to about 10% higher heat output at T ¼ 25
C
which gives some advantage to parallel radiator in low
temperature heating. Overall, showed slightly faster
dynamic response and higher heat output.

purpose of low-temperature heating [59,60] and Trushevskiy made
an overall review of different heat pumps for low-temperature
heating [10].
Overall, recent researches, to author's knowledge, led indirectly
towards low-temperature heating applications conducting either
generous review of a buildings life cycle or studying particular
matters. Consequent investigation of low-temperature hydronic
space heating systems, therefore, is new and of importance today.
6. Discussion
A range of space heating systems and heat emitters was
presented in the comparative study. However, it was recognized
that various performance criteria was applied in researches and this
incoherence complicated the possibility of performing a proper
comparison among the broad range of system studies. Therefore, a
set of standardized characteristics such as thermal performance,
energy consumption and environmental impact criteria were
implemented for analysis and comparison of different space heat-
ing systems. It was also noted that variety of configurations, types
and factors make it challenging to examine a particular system and
match with the others.
Studied practices in Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Estonia etc.
indicate distinct prospects of utilization of low-temperature

Table 6
Various forced convection space heaters and flow patterns investigated in reviewed studies with CFD modelling.

Reference Type of space heater/component Investigated parameter Obtained data

Ploskic et al. [43] Baseboard heater with ventilation
supply and conventional HTR
Myhren et al. [41] VLTR with comparison to conventional
two-panel radiator
Myhren et al. [35] Internal fins of ventilation radiator
Myhren et al. [42] VLTR of different convection fin
configuration
Hesaraki et al. [44] Conventional radiator, LTR, and UFH
with different supply temperature
Thermal performance analyses
Energy performance and thermal
comfort analyses
Optimization of radiator's heat output
by varying the form of vertical
convection fins
Energy performance tests of several
ventilation radiator models
Energy performance, thermal comfort
and environmental impact
Comfort parameters: PPD at ankle level 5e13%. Vertical and
horizontal temperature differences in both cases are less
than 1.5
C.
Thermal performance: supply water temperature 45
C is
enough to pre-heat incoming air from 6 to 21
C (air
supply rate 7.0 l/s, length of a channel 1.55 m).
In this case, when supply airflow is more than 7.0 l/s, i.e.
10 l/s, and inlet air temperature is 12
C, the supply water
temperature cannot be less than 55
C.
Thermal performance: under the same conditions and while
still fulfilling heating requirements, the surface temperature
of VLTR can be app.7.8
C lower compared to the traditional
HTR. Energy savings in that case can reach the level of 5
e10%.
The narrower the air channels formed by the fins (not less
than 6e8 mm) the better overall performance of VLTR for it
increases air velocity and the heat transfer. With this,
internal geometry should not increase pressure drop.
Different convection fin configurations were studied.
Specified optimal distance between convection fins in the
range 6e8 mm. Optimal configuration provides app.20%
improvement in heat output, app.10% in ventilation rate
and ensures 3e5
C higher air supply temperature into a
room compared to HTR.
Thermal comfort: in every case was achieved acceptable
level of thermal comfort with set temperature 22
C.
Energy savings: supply water temperature can be lowered
by 12e15
C when using low temperature heat emitters
compared to a conventional heat emitter. Energy savings
reach values of 17e22%.
Environmental impact: CO2 emissions reduction by 18e21%
in low temperature heat emitters compared to a
conventional heat emitter.
 P. Ovchinnikov et al. / Building and Environment 112 (2017) 88e98
heating systems in Russia that can reduce energy losses and
decrease energy demand substantially. Nevertheless, it is crucially
important to apply a holistic approach in developing of inner
building heating systems and outer district heating, corresponding
renewable heating sources and green regulations.
6.1. Tendencies in low-temperature heating research
Lowering temperatures for the purposes of SH and DHW is way
of utilization of renewable and waste energy, reduction of carbon
emissions and energy demand without compromising and, in some
cases, increasing thermal comfort. Currently it is likely to recognize
growing demands for improved energy efficiency, reduced impact
on environment, and better utilization of renewable energy sources
at lower total cost.
Today there is an undergoing process of moving towards 4th
generation district heating based totally or mainly on renewable
sources of energy and at the same time more researches on low-
temperature hydronic space heating are being developed. In
some EU countries, i.e. Denmark and Sweden, practice of imple-
menting such systems keeps up with theory and sometimes even
outpace it. Results obtained so far look very promising [1,9] e uti-
lization of forced convection radiators and floor/wall-surface
heaters coupled with heat pumps or low-temperature DH shows
big potential in terms of lowering of energy bills. It is also crucial to
take into account possible climate change. That can significantly
reduce energy demand, for instance it was predicted that the
annual sum of delivered energy consumed in heating and cooling
for Finland is likely to decrease by 20e35% by 2100 [61].
7. Conclusion
In the current study, a number of past and current works on low
temperature hydronic space heating systems has been presented.
Reviewed studies indicate that:
d Referring to the works of various researchers, an optimum
hydronic space heating configuration can be identified but it
is highly dependent on initial boundary conditions;
d The most effective sources for LT SH are condensing boilers,
heat pumps, waste energy and consequently 4GDH;
d In order to ensure good quality of DHW (on the subject of
legionella bacteria) the supply water has to be higher or
equal to 55
C, otherwise no water storages can be installed.
Another practical solution e specific DHW substations that
are installed in houses;
d Low-temperature heating provide better or the same level of
comfort for occupants than conventional HT heating;
d Over the past years the tendency in decreasing radiant part
and increasing forced convectional part in radiators
appeared e that decreases PPD by removing the effect of cold
draughts;
d Giving to previous statement e the use of ventilation radia-
tors forces removing of thermal bridges and redundant
leakages in building envelope in order to ensure proper level
of air-tightness. Apart from that, ventilation radiators can
conflict with house's balanced ventilation coupling heat
recovery;
d Energy performance of radiators can be significantly
improved by applying simple solutions, i.e. use of high-
emissivity rough surfaces behind radiator (when wall is
insulated);
d UFH counteract cold draughts the worst but removes im-
purities from occupation zones better than radiators;
97
d In most cases, UFH outperform low-temperature radiators in
terms of environmental impact and energy consumption and
insignificantly outperform low temperature forced convec-
tion radiators;
d Low-temperature heating is efficient in existing building
stock to a certain limit and ensures sufficient thermal com-
fort in case of minimal retrofitting (increasing of air-
tightness, exchanging of windows), energy efficiency grows
significantly only when coupling with extensive retrofitting.
Practices, analyzed in similar to Russia weather conditions,
indicate distinct prospects of utilization of low-temperature hy-
dronic heating systems. Ultimately, considering large residential
building stock in Russia, which has not undergone basic renovation,
general application of low-temperature heating is predominant. In
order to implement low-temperature heating systems in Russian
apartment buildings, the legislation on thermal performance of
building envelope should be revised and have a strong requirement
on airtightness. It is recommended to set up U-values for opaque
buildings elements less than 0.1 W/(m2$K) and airtightness n50 less
than 1.5 m3/(m2$h). However, existing studies have shown that
several new-built districts as well as retrofitted buildings located in
and around densely populated cities with appartmenet buildings
that have proper U-values and acceptable airtight envelopes are
ready for pilot testing of low-exergy systems including as well low-
temperature DH.
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