2015 International EURASIP Workshop on RFID Technology (EURFID)
A 13.56MHz class E power amplifier for inductively
coupled DC supply with 95% Power Added
Efficiency (PAE)
F. Stubenrauch, N. Seliger, M. Schustek, A. Lebedev
University of Applied Sciences Rosenheim
83024 Rosenheim
Email: franz.stubenrauch@fh-rosenheim.de
Abstract—Recent development of GaN power transistors with
blocking voltages up to 650V enables novel power electronics
applications with outstanding performance in high-frequency
operation. This paper demonstrates a class E power amplifier
with 13.56MHz switching frequency for inductively coupled DC
power supplies. Continuous wave output power up to 200W is
achieved with 95% Power Added Efficiency (PAE).
I. I NTRODUCTION
Wireless power transfer (WPT) systems have gained
increasing attraction for power supplies in recent years. In
particular, inductive power transfer (IPT) has become an
established technology to power devices and systems ranging
from mW [1] to kW [2] rated power.
Applications for inductive power supplies have been
successfully demonstrated in industry [3], in transport [4],
medical [5] and for sensors [6]. Due to the manifold
applications and consequently different specifications for such
systems, numerous techniques for IPT have been proposed [7].
In addition to that, the frequencies for inductive power transfer
are ranging from the LF [6] to HF [8] and even to V HF
and U HF [9].
Designing wireless power transfer systems for operation
frequency in the HF frequency band has several advantages.
The coupling effect between the two coils becomes stronger,
thus smaller lighter components can be used. Choosing
frequencies in the Industrial, Scientific and Medical band
(ISM, e.g. 13.56MHz), which is an Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID) operating frequency [10], will allow
users to transmit high power. On the other hand, parasitic
effects from stray inductances and capacitances become more
dominant which requires more efforts in system modelling
and characterization [11]. Jang et al. [12] report on difficulties
in maintaining high quality factors Q in the case of magnetic
resonant coupling. Recently, efficient power conversion in the
HF range utilizing class E amplifiers has been enabled by
the introduction of Gallium Nitride Power Transistors (GaN)
with blocking voltages greater than 200V and over 10A
current rating. Akuzawa et al. obtained over 99% efficiency
at 6.78MHz [13], efficiency reported data at 13.56MHz
are ranging from 71% [14] to 94% [8]. To our knowledge
efficiencies beyond 95%, however, are not yet reported for
output power levels greater than 150W. Within this study we
present a class E amplifier with a GaN power switch operated
978-3-200-03735-9/15/$31.00 ©2015 IEEE
D. Schmitt-Landsiedel
Technical University Munich
Institute of Technical Electronics
Email: dsl@tum.de
at 13.56MHz with 95% efficiency at an output power of 200W.
The paper is organized as follows: the next section gives
a detailed description of the design and experimental set-up
of the class E amplifier. Section III provides measurement
results obtained on a prototype. The results are discussed and
compared to reference designs in Section IV. The proposed
inductive coupling geometry is presented in Section V
with a full wave analysis of the transformer structure.
The full system is verified experimentally on a prototype
set-up. Final remarks are summarized in a Conclusions section.
II. D ESIGN OF CLASS E AMPLIFIER FOR 13.56MH Z
The circuit design is based on the design approach
proposed by [15], the classical circuit schematics with a
MOSFET as switching device is depicted in Figure 1.
The amplifier is designed for an input voltage of
Vin = 100V and a continuous maximum output power of
Pout = 250W .
Lf Lr
ir
T1 C1 Cr
Vin VDS Ri Vo
Fig. 1: Circuit schematics of class E amplifier.
Although promising results for class E amplifiers utilizing
SiC MOSFETs [16] and Si Superjunction Transistors have
been reported for frequencies of 1-3MHz [17], we have
found significant limitations for those devices when operation
frequencies are beyond 10MHz. Our results on preliminary
prototypes have shown that the following device characteristics
impose limits on the efficiency for frequencies above 10MHz:
- the internal gate resistance RG (ranging from 1Ω to 11Ω)
- the on resistance Ron (ranging from 0.2Ω to 0.6Ω)
- the switch output capacitance Coss (ranging from 800pF
to 3nF )
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 2015 International EURASIP Workshop on RFID Technology (EURFID)

On the other hand, GaN based power transistors with

comparable blocking voltages of 650V and current ratings of
10A have remarkably different (smaller) values of RG , Ron
and Coss , respectively. In the proposed set-up the Transphorm
Gallium Nitride (GaN) Switch TPH3002LD [18] is used. The
PQFN package allows small gate drive loop inductances and
efficient heat removal via thick Cu vias of 1.5mm thickness
embedded into the printed circuit board (PCB).

For an operation frequency f = 2π ω

= 13.56M Hz, a duty
cycle of D = 0.5 and the GaN switch output capacitance of
Coss = 36pF , the parallel capacitor C1 , the required resonant
capacitor Cr and resonant inductor Lr values are computed
according to [15]:
8
C1 = = 68pF (1)
π(π 2 + 4)ωRi
Fig. 2: Measurement set-up of class E amplifier. Numbers in
� 2
�−1 the photograph indicate: 1 voltage probe, 2 current measure-
1 π(π − 4)
Cr = QL − = 150pF (2) ment, 3 resonance air coil, 4 gate drive signal, 5 power supply
ωRi 16 gate drive, 6 class E power supply, 7 output to load resistor,
8 heat sink, 9 cooling fan.
Q L Ri
Lr = = 1µH (3)
ω
with the specified quality factor of the resonant circuit QL = 9 current results in Ir,rms = 4.7A and the load voltage reaches
and the load impedance Ri = 10Ω. Vload,rms = 112V . The load voltage is determined over the
power load resistor of 50Ω after the series-L-shunt-C matching
For operation close to the specified load impedance of network. The drain-source voltage waveform shows an almost
Ri = 10Ω, a series-L-shunt-C matching network is employed ideal resonant zero voltage switching condition.
to match to the power load resistor of Rload = 50Ω in the
experimental set-up. The series inductor of the matching
circuit is included in the resonant inductor for convenience.
The feed inductor Lf is a general purpose single layer ferrite
coil. The resonant inductor is realized as an air coil solenoid
with Cu wire of rectangular cross section (1mm thickness).
The geometry and number of windings are derived from
Finite Element (FEM) computation of the inductance [19].
The final inductance is verified by measurement with an LCR
bridge.
The gate is driven by a commercial gate driver circuit with
9A peak current capability.

By application of the manufacturer’s SPICE model [18]

which includes the package parasitics and considering
resistive losses of the resonant inductor, the PAE of the class
E amplifier is computed in LTSpice [20] as a function of
output power. Figure 4 indicates a simulated PAE in the high
90% range over a wide output power range from 50W to
250W. The simulated device voltage and current waveforms
confirm the design values and show resonant switching
conditions for an input voltage range from Vin = 40 − 90V .
III. E XPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR CLASS E AMPLIFIER
The class E amplifier has been realized on a two-layer
PCB sizing 100x66mm. Figure 2 shows the experimental
set-up of the prototype.
The class E amplifier achieves a maximum output power of
250W at a DC supply voltage of 90V. Representing transient
waveforms at this operation point are plotted in Figure 3. The
drain-source voltage peaks up to V̂DS = 350V , the resonant
Fig. 3: Measured transient device voltage vDS and resonant
current ir at 90V DC input voltage: blue vDS , light blue: ir ,
green: vload .
The efficiency of the power converter is measured for
different supply voltages, which results in different output
power levels. Figure 4 depicts the results. For computation of
the power-added efficiency (PAE) in Figure 4 the gate driver
circuit input power and the RF input power are measured as
1.5W and 0.5W, respectively. The simulated PAE matches
well with the experimental results and shows a maximum
deviation of 2%. The simulated PAE remains almost constant
for high output power levels since self-heating effects have
not been taken into account in the LTSpice amplifier model.

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 2015 International EURASIP Workshop on RFID Technology (EURFID)

100 inductance. A more detailed analysis of the feed inductor (see

Section IV) could identify the root cause for the losses. The
95 resonant inductor, however, is heated up as expected with
ΔT = 14.9K (Figure 6).
η [%], PAE [%]

90

85

80

75

70 η measured
PAE measured
PAE simulated
65
0 50 100 150 200 250
output power [W]
Fig. 6: Temperature of DC feed inductor (left) and resonant
Fig. 4: Efficiency of class E amplifier as a function of out-
inductor (right) at full load.
put power. Comparison between measurements and LTSpice
simulation [20].

IV. D ISCUSSION OF RESULTS FOR CLASS E AMPLIFIER

At low output power levels smaller than 50W, the gate
drive circuit and RF input power are relative large with
respect to the output power. Therefore, the PAE significantly
drops in that region.
In order to verify the sources of power losses, IR
thermography is applied to measure the temperature increase
in the power components at different power levels. Figure 5
presents the steady state temperature increase of the GaN
package. The maximum device temperature is still beyond the
specified limit at maximum output power.
In order to find the root cause for the unexpected increased
losses in the current feed inductor, a harmonic finite element
method (FEM) analysis [19] of the magnetic structure has
been carried out. Figure 7 depicts the axial symmetric structure
of the ferrite core and winding arrangement. Applying a
sinusoidal current of 1A amplitude and 13.56MHz frequency
results in a highly inhomogeneous current distribution in
the windings (Figure 7). This is attributed to enhanced eddy
currents induced by the large stray field of the 1mm air gap.
As a consequence, the AC resistance at 13.56MHz is about
1500 times higher than the DC resistance. This effect explains
and confirms the observed high power loss in the experiment.

120

100

80
ΔT [K]

60

40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
output power [W]
Fig. 7: Current density in current feed inductor (FEM mod-
Fig. 5: Temperature increase of GaN power switch as a elling result). The arrow points to the air gap in the central leg
function of output power. of the MnZn core.

Temperature measurement on the feed inductor (Figure 6) A possible counteraction to reduce the losses in this
reveals an increase by ΔT = 60.7 − 25 = 35.7K. This component would be a distributed air gap which can be best
indicates unexpected high losses, since the high-frequency realized by sintered iron powder cores.
current ripple is small due to the intentionally chosen large

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 2015 International EURASIP Workshop on RFID Technology (EURFID)

Despite the losses in the feed inductor the efficiency of side according to Low et al. [25]. Efficient class E operation
the class E amplifier is above 95% for output power levels is maintained by the primary and secondary coil inductance
from 20W to 210W. The Power Added Efficiency (PAE) L1 = L2 = 2.7µH and the coupling coefficient √ of k = 0.8,
differs here from the efficiency at small output power levels, determining the mutual inductance M = k L1 L2 . With a
where the gate drive power consumption and RF input power parallel compensation capacitor of C2 = 470pF the real part
have a more noticeable contribution. Table I compares the of the primary side impedance is Ri = 10Ω for an external
efficiency of this work with data published recently for HF power load resistor Rload = 50Ω at the resonant frequency of
power conversion at 13.56MHz. f = 13.56M Hz. Matching the imaginary part of the primary
side impedance for efficient class E operation needs a small
wire loop inductor of Lr = 210nH added in series to the
Reference Output power [W] PAE [%] resonant capacitor Cr .
[21] 13.4 89.6
[22] 31 94.6 The coils can have different types of realization. But here
we will look at a single layer spiral coil made on a printed
[14] 139 71.0 circuit board. From [26] for a square planar spiral inductor we
[23] 1000 86 get the self inductance L1 :
this work 200 95 � � � �
1.27 · µ0 N 2 davg 2.07 2
L1 = ln + 0.18ϕ + 0.13ϕ (4)
TABLE I: Comparison of recently published results of output 2 ϕ
power and power-added efficiency (PAE) of HF-amplifier where N is the number of turns, davg is the average diameter
operating at 13.56MHz. (di + do )/2 (see Figure 9) and ϕ is the fill factor:
do − di
ϕ= (5)
As can be seen in Figure 4, the efficiency peaks at the do + di
lowest power level where zero voltage switching (ZVS) is
achieved. At output power levels below the maximum ef-
ficiency operation point the ZVS condition for the power
switch is not fulfilled, since at low VDS bias the strongly
voltage dependent device output capacitance dominates the
shunt capacitance C1 (Figure 1). At high output power the
efficiency decreases again due to increased conduction losses
caused by increased RMS currents in the power switch and
resonant components. Additionally these losses are aggravated
by self-heating effects.
V. D ESIGN OF I NDUCTIVE COUPLING STRUCTURE
The inductive power transmission is based on magnetic
near-field coupling of two concentric air coils which are
realized as planar windings on a printed circuit board. In this
study the primary and secondary coils have the same size, i.e.
the primary and secondary self inductances L1 and L2 are Fig. 9: Layout of planar square inductor [26].
equal to each other. A parallel compensation on the secondary
side is chosen providing a current source characteristic to the The outer diameter can be calculated as:
load [24]. The class E amplifier with the inductive coupling
circuit is depicted in Figure 8. do = di + 2wN + 2s(N − 1) (6)
where w is the trace width, s is the spacing between traces.
Solving iteratively numerically together Eq. (4), Eq. (5) and
Cr M Eq. (6) for L1 = 2.7µH, di = 15mm, w = 4mm and
Lf
s = 2mm we obtain N = 7 and do = 95mm, the estimated
self-inductance for these parameters is 2.68µH derived by
T1 Eq. (4).
L1
Vin C1 C2 Rload
ir L2 In a next step, the geometry of the inductive link is analysed
by means of a 3-D Finite-Difference Time Domain Method
(3-D FDTD) [27] in order to verify the inductance matrix
Fig. 8: Inductive coupling circuit for DC power supply (the and to identify the parasitic elements. Figure 10 shows the
secondary side rectifier is not shown). geometrical model in openEMS [27].

From the FDTD simulation extracted primary and

Due to the geometry specifications for the inductive link, secondary inductance values agree well with the analytical
i.e. the coil area and coil separation, the transformer circuit solutions. The first resonant frequency due to inter winding
is designed based on the load transformation to the primary capacitive coupling is observed at a sufficient high level of

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 2015 International EURASIP Workshop on RFID Technology (EURFID)

parameter matrix S by application of Eq. (7):

Z0
Z=
1 − S 11 − S 22 + det(S)

� �
1 + S 11 − S 22 − det(S) 2 · S 12
2 · S 21 1 − S 11 + S 22 − det(S)
(7)

with a reference impedance Z0 = 50Ω and det(S) the

Fig. 10: 3D model of coupled square flat coils in OpenEMS. determinant of the complex S-parameter matrix S.
1 exciting port with 100 Ω internal resistance, 2 measuring
port with ∞ internal resistance.
120

transfer impedance |Z21| [dBΩ]

100
f = 35M Hz. The corresponding inter winding capacitance
is calculated to approximately Cp = 8pF . In addition, the
80
input impedance Z11 is measured on the prototype of a single
coil according to Figure 13 with a vector network analyser.
Figure 11 depicts the simulated and measured absolute value 60
of the input impedance |Z11 |.
40

100 20
input impedance |Z11| [dBΩ]

simulated
measured
0
80 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
frequency [MHz]

60 Fig. 12: FDTD-Modeling result and measurement of the ab-

solute value of the transfer impedance |Z21 | as a function of
frequency for the geometry shown in Figure 10.
40

20
simulated
0 a limitation imposed on the measured S-parameters for the
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
frequency [MHz]
Fig. 11: Simulated and measured absolute value of input
impedance Z11 of a single square coil (primary coil).
The full wave simulation confirms the mutual inductance
of the chosen geometry of M = 2.24µH which is obtained
from the forward transfer impedance |Z21 | at 13.56MHz in
Figure 12. A resonant frequency due to inter winding capaci-
tive coupling in the two coil system is found at f = 25.5M Hz
which is well above the operation frequency. In addition,
the forward transfer impedance |Z21 | is extracted from S-
parameter measurements performed on the prototype of the
inductive link coil arrangement with a vector network analyser.
The complex impedance matrix Z is computed from the S-
It should be noted that our S-parameter measurements are
limited to impedance values less than 1kΩ. Hence there is
measured
40 45 50 high impedance conditions at the parallel resonant frequency
of f = 25M Hz in Figure 12. Applying the computation
of the Z-parameter from the limited S-parameters according
to Eq. (7) does not reveal the correct forward transfer
impedance value close to the self-resonance. For the operation
frequency of f = 13.56M Hz and besides the self-resonance,
however, the agreement between simulation and experiment
is remarkable in Figure 12, especially the matching of the
resonant frequency.
The mutual inductance M of the rectangular spiral coils
is further calculated based on a simplified analytical model,
i.e. by an analytical solution of coupled single turn square
filament wire loops. For two coaxial single turn square loops
with an average radius ai and cj which are separated by
a vertical distance z the mutual inductance Mij can be
calculated according to [28]:

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 2015 International EURASIP Workshop on RFID Technology (EURFID)

�
� �
2µ0
Mij = 2(ai + cj )2 + z 2 + 2(ai − cj )2 + z 2
π
�
− 2 2a2i + 2c2j + z 2
� �
ai + c j
− (ai + cj ) · arctanh �
2(ai + cj )2 + z 2
� �
ai − c j
− (ai − cj ) · arctanh �
2(ai − cj )2 + z 2
 
ai + c j
+ (ai + cj ) · arctanh  � 
2ai + 2c2j + z 2
2

 �
ai − c j
+ (ai − cj ) · arctanh  �  (8)
2a2i + 2c2j + z 2

Since each winding of the spiral coils is represented by a Fig. 13: Prototype of one of the square flat coils fabricated on
single rectangular wire loop, the total mutual inductance M is a PCB substrate (FR4 material) with thickness of 1.5mm and
the matrix sum over the mutual coupling elements Mij : standard Cu-layer of 35µm.
N �
� N
M= Mij (9)
i=1 j=1

Using the above geometry dimensions and the specified

vertical distance of the transmitter and receiver coil of
z = 3mm, Eq. (9) gives M = 2.16µH in very good
agreement to the full wave modelling result. The coupling
factor is then k = 0.8 as intended.

From the analysis of the coil structures we conclude that a

very economic realization of the inductive link is feasible. The
prototype of one of the square flat coils fabricated on a PCB
substrate (FR4 material) is shown in Figure 13. In this first
sample, a standard Cu layer of 35µm is chosen for the top side
metallization. The bottom side is the unstructured dielectric
material. The receiver coil contacts the transmitter coil at the
bottom side with its unstructured counterpart dielectric surface. Fig. 14: Experimental results on the inductive link prototype.
Measured transient device voltage vDS , transformer primary
voltage vL1 and resonant current ir at 80V DC input voltage.
VI. E XPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON INDUCTIVE COUPLING Blue curve: vDS , light blue curve: ir , green curve: vL1 .
The inductive coupling structure is finally loaded to
the class E amplifier. The class E switching conditions are
confirmed in the experiment by the drain-source voltage
waveform vDS in Figure 14. The resonant current ir and slightly to the resistive losses. On the other hand, resistive
the transformer primary voltage vL1 differ from the ideal losses due to proximity effect are pronounced in this coil
waveforms at the resonant condition due to near field magnetic geometry [29]. Figure 15 shows the full wave modelling
coupling to the current probe and capacitive coupling to the result of the current density at the resonance frequency. As
voltage probes in the prototype set-up. a consequence the actual prototype system has a maximum
overall efficiency of 61%.
With the prototype inductive link set-up a maximum
output power of Po = 150W has been achieved.

It should be noted that the resonant current ir in Figure 14

with 6A peak induces remarkable losses in the PCB coil
structure. At the resonant frequency of f = 13.56M Hz the
skin depth in the Cu layer is δ = 17µm, which contributes

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 2015 International EURASIP Workshop on RFID Technology (EURFID)
Fig. 15: Full wave modelling result of the logarithmic scaled
current density in the primary coil at the resonant frequency
f = 13.56M Hz.
VII. C ONCLUSIONS
This study presents a class E amplifier operating at
13.56MHz which makes advantage of the device characteristics
of novel GaN power devices with blocking voltages of 650V.
An experimental prototype of the class E amplifier achieves
a power added efficiency of more than 95% for an output
power ranging from 60W to 200W. Furthermore, an inductive
power transmission system utilizing the highly efficient power
converter is designed, analysed by full wave modelling and
verified by experiments on a prototype.
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