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Docente:
Ph.D. Walter Humberto Orozco Tupacyupanqui
POSGRADOS
MAESTRÍA EN ELECTRÓNICA Y AUTOMATIZACIÓN
Objetivo de la asignatura:
Esta asignatura tiene como objetivo profundizar el estudio de los sistemas de control digital, partiendo desde la
comprensión de los fundamentos matemáticos de los sistemas discretos y se complementa con el desarrollo de
habilidades para la utilización de herramientas matemáticas y computacionales para la representación, el análisis, el
diseño y la implementación de sistemas de control lineales y no lineales.
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝐾𝑇 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑝 , 𝑝 < 𝑇
𝑘=−∞
∞
Fig.1 A uniform-rate sampler with finite
sampling duration 𝑓𝑝∗ (𝑡) = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝐾𝑇 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑝
𝑘=−∞
Since the unit pulse train 𝑝(𝑡) is a periodic function with period 𝑇, it can be
represented by a Fourier series:
∞
2𝜋
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑠 𝑡 𝜔𝑠 = = 2𝜋𝑓𝑠 [rad/s]
𝑇
𝑘=−∞
Fig.3 Typical input and output wveforms of a
𝑇 𝑝 uniform-rate sampler
1 −𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑠 𝑡
1
𝐶𝑛 = 𝑃 𝑡 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑝 𝑡 = 1, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑝
𝑇 0 𝑇 0
∞ ∞
Folding frequency
Sampling theorem: The requieren that 𝜔𝑠 be at least twice as large as the A low sampling frequency normally has a detrimental effect
highest frequency (Nyquist frequency 𝜔𝑐 ) contained in the signal is formally on the stability of a closed-loop system.
known as the sampling theorem
∞ ∞
𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔𝑠 𝑝/2 −𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑝/2 𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔𝑠 𝑝/2 −𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑝/2
𝐹𝑝∗ (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑒 𝑠 𝐹 𝑗𝜔 + 𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑠 𝐹𝑝∗ (𝑠) = 𝑒 𝑠 𝐹 𝑠 + 𝑗𝑛𝜔𝑠
𝑇 𝑛𝜔𝑠 𝑝/2 𝑇 𝑛𝜔𝑠 𝑝/2
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
Laplace Transform [𝐹(𝑠) has 𝑘 simple poles] Laplace Transform [𝐹(𝑠) has 𝑘 poles with multiplicity 𝑚𝑛 ≥ 1]
𝑘 𝑘 𝑚𝑛
𝑁 𝛾𝑛 1−𝑒 −𝑝(𝑠−𝛾𝑛 ) (−1)𝑚𝑛 −𝑖 𝐾𝑛𝑖 𝜕 𝑚𝑛−𝑖 1 − 𝑒 −𝑝𝑠
𝐹𝑝∗ 𝑠 = 𝐹𝑝∗ 𝑠 =
𝐷 ′ 𝛾𝑛 (𝑠 − 𝛾𝑛 ) 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇(𝑠−𝛾𝑛 ) 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑖 ! 𝜕𝑠 𝑚𝑛−𝑖 𝑠(1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 ) 𝑠=𝑠−𝑠𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑖=1
𝑁 𝛾𝑛 1 𝜕 𝑖−1 𝑚𝑛
𝐹 𝛾 = 𝐾𝑛𝑖 = 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑛 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐷 𝛾𝑛 𝑖 − 1 ! 𝜕𝑠 𝑖−1 𝑠=𝑠𝑛
If the sampling duration 𝑝 is very much smaller tan the sampling period 𝑇 and the smallest time constant of the signal 𝑓(𝑡), the sampler output 𝑓𝑝∗ (𝑡)
can be approximated by a sequence of flat-topped pulses.
𝑓 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑘𝑇 + 𝑝
𝑓𝑝∗ (𝑡) = 𝑘 = 0,1,2, ⋯
0 𝑘𝑇 + 𝑝 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ (𝑘 + 1)𝑇
∞ ∞
Expressed as 1 − 𝑒 −𝑝𝑠 −𝑘𝑇𝑠
𝑓𝑝∗ (𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑘𝑇) 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝐾𝑇 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑝 an Infinite 𝐹𝑝∗ (𝑠) = 𝑓(𝑘𝑇) 𝑒
series 𝑠
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
∞
An ideal simpler is defined as a sampler which closes
𝐹∗ 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 𝑒 −𝑘𝑇𝑠 and opens instantaneously, every 𝑇 seconds, for a zero
𝑘=0 duration.
Alternative expresions :
𝑭(𝒔) has 𝒌 simple poles: 𝑭(𝒔) has 𝒌 simple poles with multiplicity 𝒎𝒏 ≥ 𝟏:
𝑘 𝑚𝑛
𝑘
∗
(−1)𝑚𝑛 −𝑖 𝐾𝑛𝑖 𝜕 𝑚𝑛 −𝑖 1
𝑁 𝛾𝑛 1 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝐹∗ 𝑠 = 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑖 ! 𝜕𝑠 𝑚𝑛 −𝑖 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 𝑠=𝑠−𝑠𝑛
𝐷′ 𝛾𝑛 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇(𝑠−𝛾𝑛 ) 𝑛=1 𝑖=1
𝑛=1
1 𝜕 𝑖−1 𝑚𝑛
𝑁 𝛾𝑛 𝐾𝑛𝑖 = 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑛 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐹 𝛾 = 𝑖 − 1 ! 𝜕𝑠 𝑖−1 𝑠=𝑠𝑛
𝐷 𝛾𝑛
The residue at the pole γ = 𝛾𝑛 which has a
𝑑𝐷 𝛾 multiplicty of 𝑚𝑛 ≥ 1
𝐷′ 𝛾𝑛 =
𝑑𝛾 𝛾=𝛾𝑛 1 𝜕 𝑚𝑛 −1 𝑚𝑛
1 Fig.6 Ideal sampler operator
𝛾 − 𝛾𝑛 𝐹(𝛾)
𝑚𝑛 − 1 ! 𝜕𝛾 𝑚𝑛 −1 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇(𝑠−𝛾)
𝛾𝑛 : nth simple pole of 𝐹 𝛾 , 𝑛 = 1,2, ⋯ , 𝑘 𝛾=𝛾𝑛
𝑘
𝑁 𝛾𝑛 1 𝑁 𝛾𝑛 1
𝐹 𝑠 = = ′
𝐷 𝛾𝑛 = 1 𝐹∗ 𝑠 =
𝐷 𝛾𝑛 𝛾+𝑎 𝐷′ 𝛾𝑛 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇(𝑠−𝛾𝑛 )
𝑛=1
1
Simple pole at 𝛾1 = −𝑎 𝐹∗ 𝑠 =
1 − 𝑒 −𝑇(𝑠+𝑎)
Multiple-order poles:
1
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑢(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐾=1 𝑠1 = 0 𝑚1 = 2
𝑠2 2
∗
(−1)2−𝑖 𝐾1𝑖 𝜕 2−𝑖 1
𝐹 𝑠 =
1 𝜕 𝑖−1 2 − 𝑖 ! 𝜕𝑠 2−𝑖 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 𝑠=𝑠, 𝑧=𝑒 𝑇𝑠
𝑚1 𝑖=1
𝐾1𝑖 = 𝑠 − 𝑠1 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑖 − 1 ! 𝜕𝑠 𝑖−1 𝑠=𝑠1
∗
𝜕 1 𝑇𝑒 −𝑇𝑠
1 𝜕1−1 1 1 1 𝐹 𝑠 =− =
𝐾11 = 𝑠 2 𝐾11 = 𝑠 2
=1 𝜕𝑠 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 2
When the sampled-data or digital signals appear in a control system, they should be first converted into analog signals before being applied to the
controlled process.
The problem of data construction can be regarded as: Given a sequence of numbers, 𝑓 0 , 𝑓 𝑇 , 𝑓 2𝑇 , ⋯ , 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 , ⋯ , a continuous-data signal
𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0, is to be reconstructed from information contained in the sequence.
Extrapolation process
𝑓𝑘 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑘𝑇 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑘 + 1 𝑇
𝑛
𝑑 𝑓(𝑡) The derivatives of the function 𝑓(𝑡) must be obtained at the sampling
𝑓 𝑛
𝑘𝑇 = 𝑛 = 1,2, …
𝑑𝑡 (𝑛) 𝑡=𝑘𝑇
instants.
Since the only available information on 𝑓(𝑡) is its magnitudes at the sampling
instants, the derivatives of 𝑓(𝑡) must be estimated from the values of 𝑓(𝑘𝑇).
1
𝑓 (1) 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑓 𝑘 − 1 𝑇
𝑇
1 1 1
𝑓 (2) 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑓 𝑘 − 1 𝑇 − 𝑓 𝑘 − 1 𝑇 − 𝑓 𝑘 − 2 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
1
𝑓 (2) 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑓 𝑘 − 1 𝑇 − 𝑓 𝑘 − 1 𝑇 + 𝑓 𝑘 − 2 𝑇
𝑇2
The number of delayed pulse data required to approximate the value of 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑘𝑇) is 𝑛 + 1.
The number of delays depends on the degree of accuracy of the estimate of the time function 𝑓(𝑡) during the Interval 𝑘𝑇 to (𝑘 + 1)𝑇.
𝑓𝑘 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑘 + 1 𝑇
1 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠
𝐺ℎ𝑜 𝑠 = − =
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑔ℎ𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇)
Frequency representation:
Fig. 7 Impulse response of zero-order hold.
1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑇
𝐺ℎ𝑜 𝑗𝜔 =
𝑗𝜔
Magnitude
2𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝜋/𝜔𝑠
𝐺ℎ𝑜 𝑗𝜔 =
𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝜋/𝜔𝑠
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝜋/𝜔𝑠
𝐺ℎ𝑜 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑇
𝜔𝜋/𝜔𝑠
𝑇 = 2𝜋/𝜔𝑠
Phase
𝑓 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑓 𝑘 − 1 𝑇
𝑓𝑘 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 + 𝑓 (1) 𝑘𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇 𝑓𝑘 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 + 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇
𝑇
𝑘𝑇 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑘 + 1 𝑇
1
𝑓 (1) 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑓 𝑘 − 1 𝑇
𝑇
𝑓 0 − 𝑓 −1 𝑇 𝑡
k=0 𝑓0 𝑡 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑡 For a unit impulse: 𝑓 0 = 1, 𝑓 −1 𝑇 = 0 𝑓0 𝑡 = 1 + 0≤𝑡<𝑇
𝑇 𝑇
𝑓 𝑇 −𝑓 0 𝑡
k=1 𝑓1 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑇 + 𝑡−𝑇 For a unit impulse: 𝑓 0 = 1, 𝑓 𝑇 = 0 𝑓1 𝑡 = 1 − T ≤ 𝑡 < 2𝑇
𝑇 𝑇
𝑓 2𝑇 − 𝑓 1 𝑇
k=2 𝑓2 𝑡 = 𝑓 2𝑇 + 𝑡 − 2𝑇
𝑇
For a unit impulse: 𝑓 𝑇 = 0, 𝑓 2𝑇 = 0 𝑓2 𝑡 = 0 2T ≤ 𝑡 < 3𝑇
The impulse response of the foh for 𝑡 > 2𝑇 is zero
𝑡 2 𝑡−𝑇 𝑡 − 2𝑇
𝑔ℎ1 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑇 − 2𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑇 − 𝑢 𝑡−𝑇 + 𝑢 𝑡 − 2𝑇 𝑢 𝑡 − 2𝑇 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 2𝑇)
𝑇 𝑇 𝑡
2 2
1 + 𝑇𝑠 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 1 + 𝑇𝑠 2 1 + 𝑇𝑠 1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑇
𝐺ℎ1 𝑠 = 𝐺ℎ1 𝑠 = 𝐺ℎ0 𝐺ℎ1 𝑗𝜔 =
𝑇 𝑠 𝑇 𝑇 𝑗𝜔
Magnitude
2
2𝜋 4𝜋 2 𝜔 2 sin(𝜋𝜔/𝜔𝑠 )
𝐺ℎ1 𝑗𝜔 = 1+
𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑠2 (𝜋𝜔/𝜔𝑠 )
Phase
2𝜋𝜔 2𝜔𝜋
∡𝐺ℎ1 𝑗𝜔 = tan−1 −
𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑠
Magnitude
2
2𝜋 4𝜋 2 𝜔 2 sin(𝜋𝜔/𝜔𝑠 )
𝐺ℎ1 𝑗𝜔 = 1+
𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑠2 (𝜋𝜔/𝜔𝑠 )
2
4𝜋 2 𝜔 2 sin(𝜋𝜔/𝜔𝑠 )
𝐺ℎ1 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑇 1 +
𝜔𝑠2 (𝜋𝜔/𝜔𝑠 )
𝑇 = 2𝜋/𝜔𝑠
Phase
2𝜋𝜔 2𝜔𝜋
∡𝐺ℎ1 𝑗𝜔 = tan−1 −
𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑠
∡𝐺ℎ1 𝑗𝜔 = tan−1 𝑇𝜔 − 𝑇𝜔
2
(1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 )2 𝑇𝑠 𝐺ℎ0
𝐺ℎ𝑝 𝑠 = 𝑒 𝐺ℎ𝑝 𝑠 = 𝑒 𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠 2 𝑇
2
𝐺ℎ0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 )2
𝐺ℎ𝑠 𝑠 = =
𝑇 𝑇𝑠 2
(1 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑇 )2
𝐺ℎ𝑠 𝑗𝜔 = −
𝑇𝜔 2
Phase Magnitude
2𝜔𝜋 2 1 − cos(𝜔𝑇)
∡𝐺ℎ𝑠 𝑗𝜔 = − 𝐺ℎ𝑠 𝑗𝜔 =
𝜔𝑠 𝑇𝜔 2
Fig. 13. Gain and phase characteristic of the slewer holder.
Fig. 14. Gain and phase characteristic of the zero-order-hold, first-order hold and slewer hold.
Consider the sequence 𝑦 𝑘 , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … , where 𝑦(𝑘) could represent a sequence of numbers or events. The z-transform of 𝑦(𝑘) is defined as:
We represent the sequence 𝑦 𝑘𝑇 , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … as a train of impulses separated by the time interval 𝑇 (Sampling period).
This situation occurs quite often in digital and sampled-data control systems in which a signal 𝑦(𝑡) is digitized or sampled every 𝑇 seconds to form a
time sequence that represents the signal at the sampling instants.
𝑌 𝑧 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑇𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘
𝑘=0
Convergence
∞
𝑌 𝑧 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑇 𝑧 −1 𝑘
𝑒 −𝛼𝑇 𝑧 −1 < 1
𝑘=0
1
𝑌 𝑧 =
1 − 𝑒 −𝛼𝑇 𝑧 −1
The following development shows how 𝐹(𝑧) can be determined directly from 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝑁 𝛾𝑛 1 𝑁 𝛾𝑛 1 𝑁 𝛾𝑛 1
𝐹∗ 𝑠 = 𝐹∗ 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑧 =
𝐷′ 𝛾𝑛 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇(𝑠−𝛾𝑛 ) 𝐷′ 𝛾𝑛 1 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑛𝑇 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 𝐷 ′ 𝛾𝑛 1 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑛𝑇 𝑧 −1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
𝑘 𝑚𝑛
∗
(−1)𝑚𝑛 −𝑖 𝐾𝑛𝑖 𝜕 𝑚𝑛 −𝑖 1
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑚𝑛 − 𝑖 ! 𝜕𝑠 𝑚𝑛 −𝑖 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 𝑠=𝑠−𝑠𝑛 , 𝑧=𝑒 𝑇𝑠
𝑛=1 𝑖=1 For a pole at 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑛 with multiplicity 𝑚𝑛 > 1
1 𝜕 𝑚𝑛 −1 𝑚𝑛
1
1 𝜕 𝑖−1 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑛 𝐹(𝛾)
𝐾𝑛𝑖 = 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑛 𝑚𝑛
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑚𝑛 − 1 ! 𝜕𝑠 𝑚𝑛−1 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 𝑧 −1 𝑠=𝑠𝑛
𝑖 − 1 ! 𝜕𝑠 𝑖−1 𝑠=𝑠𝑛
𝑘
𝑁 𝛾𝑛 1 𝑁 𝛾𝑛 1
′ 𝐹 𝑧 =
𝐹 𝛾 = = 𝐷 𝛾𝑛 = 1
𝐷 𝛾𝑛 𝛾+𝑎 𝐷′ 𝛾𝑛 1 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑛𝑇 𝑧 −1
𝑛=1
Multiple-order poles:
1 1
Simple pole at 𝛾1 = −𝑎 𝐹 𝑧 = =
1 − 𝑒 𝛾1 𝑇 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑇 𝑧 −1
1
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑢(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐾=1 𝑠1 = 0 𝑚1 = 2
𝑠2 2
∗
(−1)2−𝑖 𝐾1𝑖 𝜕 2−𝑖 1
1 𝜕𝑖−1 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝐾1𝑖 = 𝑠 − 𝑠1 𝑚1
𝐹(𝑠) 2 − 𝑖 ! 𝜕𝑠 2−𝑖 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 𝑠=𝑠, 𝑧=𝑒 𝑇𝑠
𝑖−1 ! 𝜕𝑠 𝑖−1 𝑠=𝑠1 𝑖=1
𝜕 1
𝜕𝑖−1 𝜕2−1
𝐹∗ 𝑠 = −
𝐾1𝑖 =
1
𝑠 2 1
𝐾12 =
1
𝑠 2 1 𝜕𝑠 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 𝑧=𝑒 𝑇𝑠
𝑖−1 ! 𝜕𝑠 𝑖−1 𝑠2 𝑠=0 2−1 ! 𝜕𝑠 2−1 𝑠2 𝑠=0
1. Partial-fraction expansion
2. Power-series method
3. The inverse formula
Partial-fraction expansion:
Based on the z-transform definition, it is we can clearly see that in the sampled case
the coefficient of 𝑧 −𝑘 in 𝑌(𝑧) is simply 𝑦(𝑘𝑇). Thus, if we expand 𝑌(𝑧) into a power
series in powers of 𝑧 −𝑘 , we can find the values of 𝑦 𝑘𝑇 for 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … .
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑓 𝑇 𝑧 −1 + 𝑓 2𝑇 𝑧 −2 + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 𝑧 −𝑘 + ⋯
Given the function 𝐹(𝑧), the best way to express it into a power series is to divide its numerator by its denominator by long division.
The main difference bewteen the partial-fraction expansion method and the series expansion method is that the former gives a closed-form solution
to 𝑓(𝑘𝑇) whereas the latter gives a sequence of numbers.
𝐹 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑘𝑇 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑘𝑇
𝑘=0
The time sequence 𝑦(𝑘𝑇) can be determined from 𝑌(𝑧) by use of the inversion formula:
which is a contour integration along the path Γ, that is, a circle of radius
𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑐𝑇 centered at the origin in the z-plane, and 𝑐 is a value such that the
poles of 𝑌(𝑧)𝑧 𝑘−1 are inside the circle.
1 𝑧(1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑇 )
𝑌 𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑘−1 𝑑𝑧 𝑓 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑌 𝑧 𝑧 𝑘−1 𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑌(𝑧)
2𝜋𝑗 𝑧 − 1 (𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑇 )
Γ
𝑧=1 𝑧 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑇
Poles:
𝑓 𝑘𝑇 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑘𝑇 𝑘 = 0,1,2, …
The inverse z-transform of the last equation can be obtained by expanding 𝑌(𝑧)
into a power series in 𝑧 −1 by long division. We have
𝑌 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑧 −1 + 𝑧 −2 − 𝑧 −3 + ⋯ 𝑦(0)
y 𝑘 = −1 𝑘 𝑦(0) 𝑘 = 0,1,2, …
Example:
The output of the ZOH is a staircase approximation of the input to the ideal
sampler, 𝑟(𝑡). As the sampling period 𝑇 approaches zero, the output of the
ZOH, ℎ(𝑡) approaches 𝑟(𝑡), that is,
Fourier Series
Fig. 18. Discrete-data system with a fictitious sampler.
Pulse-Transfer Function
The fictitious sampler 𝑆2 has the same sampling
period 𝑇 and is synchronized to the original sampler 𝑆1 .
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐺1 (𝑠)𝐺2 (𝑠)
Important:
𝐺1 (𝑧)𝐺2 (𝑧) ≠ 𝐺1 𝐺2 (𝑧)
1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠 1 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠
𝐺ℎ0 𝑧 =𝑍 =𝑍 −𝑍 =
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 1
𝐺ℎ0 𝑧 = − 𝑧 −1 = 1 − 𝑧 −1 =1 1−𝑧 −1
𝑍
𝑧−1 𝑧−1 𝑧−1 𝑠 Fig. 23. Impulse response of the ZOH.
Plant
Example:
𝐸 ∗ 𝑠 = 𝑅∗ 𝑠 − 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ (𝑠)
𝐸 ∗ 𝑠 = 𝑅∗ 𝑠 − 𝐺𝐻 ∗ 𝑠 𝐸 ∗ (𝑠)
Fig. 26. Closed-loop discrete-data system
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)𝑌 ∗ (𝑠)
𝑌∗ 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 ∗
− 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) ∗ 𝑌 ∗ (𝑠)
𝑌 ∗ 𝑠 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) ∗ 𝑌 ∗ (𝑠) = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 ∗
Fig. 26. Closed-loop discrete-data system
∗ 𝑌 ∗ 𝑠 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) ∗
= 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 ∗
𝐺𝑅 𝑠 𝐺𝑅 𝑧
𝑌∗ 𝑠 = Y 𝑧 =
1 + 𝐺𝐻 ∗ 𝑠 1 + 𝐺𝐻 𝑧 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 ∗
∗
𝑌 𝑠 = ∗
Important: 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
Of interest in this case is the fact taht we can no longer define the input-output transfer
function of this system. Since the input 𝑟(𝑡) is not directly sampled bu a sampler, the
sampled signal 𝑟 ∗ (𝑡) simply does not exist.
Modelo dinámico: Se define como el conjunto de ecuaciones que relacionan las variables de interés del proceso y permiten reproducir su
comportamiento.
y = 3u
Los sistemas lineales se representan por ecuaciones lineales, pudiendo ser tanto
ecuaciones estáticas como ecuaciones dinámicas (ODEs).
2𝑦 + 4𝑦 − 10𝑦 = 0.5𝑢
2𝑦 + 4𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
Los sistemas no lineales se representan por ecuaciones no lineales, pudiendo ser
tanto ecuaciones estáticas como ecuaciones dinámicas (ODEs).
𝑚𝑙𝜃 = −mg sin 𝜃 − 𝑘𝑙𝜃
La no linealidad del sistema implica que la aplicación de la misma señal en dos puntos de operación diferentes genera respuestas diferentes.
No se cumple la propiedad de aditividad: la suma de las salidas No se cumple la propiedad de homogeneidad: la multiplicación de
individuales es distinta, tanto en los aspectos dinámicos como estáticos, a una constante por la señal de entrada, modifica en la misma
la salida que se obtiene si se le aplica la señal de entrada suma de las antes proporción la señal de salida.
consideradas.
Puede existir una zona muerta (rango de variaciones de entrada en las que el
componente es insensible) que afecte a las señales de pequeña magnitude.
El porque de la linealización:
𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑘 𝑑∆𝑦(𝑡)
𝐵 =𝛽 𝑡 − 𝑦(𝑡) 𝐵 = ∆𝛽 𝑡 − 𝑘∆𝑦(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Aproximación lineal
Modelo matemático
lineal
Linealice la ecuación no lineal 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 en la region 5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7, 10 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 12. Encuentre el error si se usa la ecuación linealizada para el valor de 𝑧
cuando 𝑥 = 5, y = 10.
𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥0 + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 )
𝜕(𝑥𝑦) 𝜕(𝑥𝑦)
𝑎= 𝑏=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑥=𝑥0 ,𝑦=𝑦0
𝑥=𝑥0 ,𝑦=𝑦0
𝑥 = 5, y = 10 𝑧 = 11𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 66
𝑎 = 11 𝑏=6 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 𝑦0 = 66
𝑧 = 55 + 60 − 66 = 49
𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥0 + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 ) 𝑧0 = (5)(10) = 50
𝑧 − 66 = 11 𝑥 − 𝑥0 + 6(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 ) 50 − 49
𝑒= × 100 = 2%
50
𝑧 − 66 = 11 𝑥 − 6 + 6(𝑦 − 11) 𝑧 = 11𝑥 − 66 + 6𝑦 − 66 + 66
𝑧 = 11𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 66
Si el interés esta centrado en los pequeños movimientos del péndulo alrededor del punto
de operación 𝜃 = 0, entonces el proceso implica linealizar el modelo alrededor de este
punto de operación.
∞
𝑔 𝑑2 𝜃 𝑔 𝜃 𝑘 𝑑𝑘
𝜃+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑘! 𝑑𝜃 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝜃=0
𝑔 𝑑2 𝜃 𝑔 𝜃3
𝜃+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 2 + 𝜃 − +⋯ =0
Fig. 29. Péndulo.
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 3!
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑔
+ 𝜃=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿
POSGRADOS
MAESTRÍA EN ELECTRÓNICA Y AUTOMATIZACIÓN
Temas revisados:
Referencias bibliográficas
[1] Kuo, Banjamin. Sistema de control automático. Pearson.
[2] Ogata, Katuhiko. Ingeniería de control moderna. Prentice
[3] Dorf, Richard and Bishop, Robert. Sistemas de control moderno. Pearson.
[4] Ogata, Katsuhiko. Ingeniería de control utilizando MATLAB. Prentice.