ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 1

PATRICIA KAYE T. DUMANDAN

lecturer
 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
• deals with the functions and activities of life or of living matter (as organs,
tissues of cell) and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved
• the study of how animal body works
• Emphasis is on mechanisms, it starts with the question of “How..”

• WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
 HOMEOSTASIS
• To which physiology is built upon
• Homeostasis refers to maintaining internal stability within an organism and
returning to a particular stable state after a fluctuation
• Coined by Walter Cannon to describe internal constancy
• Mechanisms of physiological regulation is maintenance of internal constancy
 HOMEOSTASIS

• Maintains stable internal conditions

• Temperature
• Ionic concentrations
• Blood sugar levels, etc.
 INTERNAL “CHALLENGES”
• Changes to the internal environment come from:
• Metabolic activities require a supply of materials (oxygen, nutrients, salts,
etc) that must be replenished.
• Waste products are produced that must be expelled.
 REGULATION

• Regulation depends on:

• Receptor sensitive to a particular stimulus
• Effector that affects the same stimulus
 RECEPTOR
Normal Information
Thermometer
condition affects
disturbed
STIMULUS:
Room temperature
rises

HOMEOSTASIS CONTROL CENTER

Normal (Thermostat)
room
temperature

RESPONSE:
Room temperature 20o 30o 40o
drops
Normal
condition EFFECTOR Sends
restored Air conditioner commands
turns on to
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

• Variation outside normal limits triggers

automatic corrective response
• Response negates disturbance
 ANTAGONISTIC EFFECTORS

• Several effectors working to maintain homeostasis which have

antagonistic actions
• Push-pull activity
• Where the increasing activity of one effector is accompanied by
decreasing activity of an antagonistic effector
THERMOREGULATION
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK

• Stimulus produces response that reinforces the stimulus

• Response rapidly completes critical process
 MEDICAL IMPORTANCE

• Homeostasis and Disease

• Failure of homeostatic regulation
• Symptoms appear
• Organ system malfunction
 CELL PHYSIOLOGY:
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN CELLS AND THE EXTRACELLULAR
ENVIRONMENT
 Cell is the basic unit of living things.

 Intracellular Fluid – fluid inside the cell.

•Extracellular Fluid – are the ions and nutrients needed by the cell for
maintenance of cellular life.
-internal environment of the body

 Cells are capable of living, growing and performing their special functions.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
• made of cells that contain genetic material
• maintain order inside their cells and bodies
• regulate their systems
• respond to signals in the environment
• transfer energy among themselves and between themselves and
their environment
• grow and develop
• reproduce
• have traits that evolved over time
 THE CELL
• the smallest structural and functional unit of an
organism
• Most cells are between 1
and 100 ~m in diameter
yellow region of chart)
and are therefore visible
only under a microscope.
(Campbell and Reece, 2008)
GENERAL CELL COMPONENTS
organelles

genetic material
 CELL TYPES
• Prokaryote
• Eukaryote
EUKARYOTIC CELL
 PLASMA/ CELL MEMBRANE

• semipermeable bounding membrane of the protoplast

• lipid bilayer, interspersed with proteins, partially or completely embedded in the
layer, in a mosaic pattern
• other component in some membranes is carbohydrate, linked covalently either to
lipid (glycolipids) or to proteins (glycoproteins).
• dynamically involved in the transport of small molecules either by active or passive
means and large molecules through membrane flow
 CELL MEMBRANE
• Fluid Mosaic Model: SJ Singer & GL Nicolson, 1972
 ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

• A series of membranes in which molecules are

transported in the cell

• It consists of the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum,

Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and vesicles
 NUCLEUS
• contain the DNA-the genetic material
• Two concentric membranes separated by a
perinuclear space, 10-15 nm in width, bound
the DNA
• Each membrane has basic unit structure
similar to the plasma membrane.
• The outer membrane is occasionally
continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum
and has ribosomes attached to it.
 NUCLEUS

• Pores are formed by the fusion of outer and inner membranes

• A highly organized annular material (annulus) consisting of eight
protein granules surrounds a pore.
• Pore complex: pore and annulus
• Pore functions in the exchange of molecules between the nucleus
and the cytoplasm, while the annulus regulates the entry and exit
of molecules by occluding the passageway
 NUCLEOLUS
• a suborganelle of the nucleus can be seen as a
prominently staining region of the nucleoplasm
• composed of groups of ribosomal genes (rDNA)
surrounded by their rRNA transcripts, together
with many proteins
• site of ribosomal RNA transcription and the
assembly of ribosomal subunits
 PARTS OF NUCLEOLUS
• Granular zone - occupies the peripheral region
and is surrounded by chromatin; made up of
granules, 15-20 nm in diameter and contains
RNA
• Fibrillar zone – occupies the central regions;
made up of fine fibers 5-10 nm in diameter and
contains RNA
• Matrix or Pars Amorpha – amorphous
background of nucleolus, consisting of many
proteins.
• Nucleolar Associated Chromatin – chromatin
situated around and even extending into the
nucleolus; composed of both DNA and RNA
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• forms most extensive
membrane system in
most cells
• occasionally
continuous with the
outer nuclear
membrane and the
plasma membrane
 TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• rough ER (rER) may have ribosomes; for synthesis, modification, and
transport of secretory proteins; consists of a series of interconnected
flattened sacs (cisternae)
• smooth ER (sER) lacks ribosomes; for synthesis of lipids and hormones, as
well as, the detoxification of drugs; generally more tubular in appearance
• these two are interconnected to form a single membrane system
GOLGI APPARATUS/
COMPLEX/ BODY

• pile of platelike membrane

structure called cisternae
• modification and packaging of
secretory proteins and the
formation of primary
lysosomes
• involved in the synthesis and
secretion of glycoproteins
 LYSOSOMES
• Single-membraned organelles that store
hydrolytic enzymes (e.g., proteases, nucleases,
lipases, etc)
• These substances aid in the digestion of
biological molecules.
• plays a part in protecting the cell against
foreign materials by engulfing and degrading
them
• Aging cell structure are “eaten up” (autophagy)
by this organelle and during conditions of
starvation, it digests subcellular parts to be
used as immediate fuel
 MICROBODIES

• heterogenous group of small, vesicle-like, single-membraned

organelles containing enzymes for oxidation
• peroxisomes contain flavin oxidases and catalases and function
for oxidation of substrates
 MITOCHONDRIA
• Two unit membranes : smooth outer membrane
and an inner one that form infolding called
cristae are present
• Respiratory chain and phosphorylation
systems are located in the inner membrane.
• Inside the inner membrane is a matrix
containing DNA, and granules, which are
binding sites for magnesium and calcium
cations
• Except for succinate dehyrogenase, enzymes
of the TCA cycle are located in the matrix
HOW ARE ATP MADE?
GLYCOLYSIS
TRANSITION REACTION

40
CITRIC ACID CYCLE

41
 ELECTRON
TRANSPORT CHAIN
OVERALL ENERGY
YIELDED
PER GLUCOSE
MOLECULE
 RIBOSOMES
• made up of RNA and proteins and consist of a small and large subunit; for protein synthesis
• 40s and 60s subunits which associate to form 80s complex
• appear as dense granules that may be free in the cytoplasm or bound to the endoplasmic
reticulum or nuclear membranes via proteins on the surfaces of these organelles
• functionally related ribosomes, or polyribosomes, are formed in large amounts during times of the
protein synthesis
• also located in the mitochondria and chloroplasts which synthesize some of the proteins needed
by these organelles
 OTHER PLASTIDS
• Plastids other than chloroplasts are also double-membraned and
possess an internal genome. These generally function for storage
of metabolically important substances:
• starch grains (amyloplasts)
• oils (elaioplasts)
• proteins (proteinoplasts)
• colored pigments (chromoplasts)
 CYTOSOL
• comprises about 55% of the cell volume
• approximately 20% by weight protein and has a gel-like
consistency
• Many of the cytosolic proteins are enzymes for cellular
metabolism
• However, not all metabolic pathway occur in the cytosol
(unlike the majority in prokaryotic cells) since some of
these are localized in the membrane organelles
• Another distinct feature of the cytosol in eukaryotic
cells is the presence of the cytoskeleton.
 CYTOSKELETON
• orderly and extensive framework of
proteins
• provides mechanical support to the cell
and has important functions in cell
motility, cell migration, change in cell
shape, the movement of organelles
within the cell, and in the separation of
chromosomes during cell division

Three distinct
structure proteins
 MICROFILAMENTS

• are 6-7 nm in diameter and are composed of the protein actin

 INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
• are 8-11 nm in diameter; they are intermediate in
diameter between microfilaments and microtubules.
• Five proteins: vimentin, desmin, glieal fibrillary acidic
protein (GFAP), neurofilament (NF) and cytokeratin
have been detected in different intermediate
filaments.
 MICROTUBULES
• appear as hollow
tubules, 25nm in
diameter and are
made up of tubulin
subunits.
 CENTRIOLES
• can be found only in animals, protozoans, and some
fungi
• consist of two hollow cylinders lying at right angles
to one another
• walls of the cylinder have nine sets of
microtubules, each set being a triplet of fibers
• During the cell cycle, the centrioles divide to form
daughter centrioles that migrates to opposite poles
during cell division.
• The centrioles are involved in spindle fiber
formation or organization during cell division.
 CILIA AND FLAGELLA

• Cilia and flagella are found only in certain eukaryotic cells.

• Both are composed of microtubules with a diameter of 0.5
µm, but while cilia are 2-10 µm long. Flagella are about
100-200 µm in length.
• Cilia may be found in small intestine while spermatozoa
has flagellum
 FLAGELLA

• Flagella are thin, rigid, curved rods protruding from the cell that
are found in many kinds of bacteria to which they confer motility
• Made up of single filaments of globular protein called flagellin
• A basal body anchors the filament to the cell membrane and
serves as motor for rotating the flagellum.
FLAGELLA
 Flagella

ANIMAL
CELL Centrosome

Lifted from: Lysosome

Campbell and
Reece, 2008
1. Rough ER 6.Flagellum 11.Cytoskel 16.Microvilli
eton
2. Lysosome 7.Chromatin 12.Smooth 17.
ER Microtubules
3. 8.Endoplasm 13.Golgi 18.
Centrosome ic Reticulum Apparatus Intermediate
(ER) filaments
4. 9.Mitochondr 14.Nucleus 19. Nuclear
Microfilament ion envelope
s
5. Nucleolus 10.Peroxiso 15.Plasma 20.
me Membrane Ribosomes
A.region where the cell's microtubules are initiated; contains a pair of centrioles
B.material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible as individual chromosomes in a
dividing cell
C.reinforces cell's shape, functions in cell movement; components are made of
protein
D.network of membranous sacs and tubes; active in membrane synthesis and other
synthetic and metabolic processes
E.ER that has ribosomes; makes secretory and membrane proteins
F.absence of ribosomes; makes lipids
G.locomotion organelle present in some animal cells
H.organelle active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products
I.digestive organelles where macromolecules are hydrolyzed
J.projections that increase the cell's surface area
K.fibrous proteins that hold /anchor organelles in place
L. fibrous proteins that form the cellular cortex
M. organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is
generated
N. membrane-bound organelle that contains the genetic material
O. double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores;
continuous with ER
P. structure involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has one or
more nucleoli
Q. organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces
hydrogen peroxide as a by-product, then converts it to water
R. membrane enclosing the cell
S.complexes (small brown dots) that make proteins; free in cytosol
or bound to rough ER or nuclear envelope
ANSWERS
1. Rough ER 6.Flagellum 11.Cytoskeleton 16.Microvilli
(E) (G) (C) (J)
2. Lysosome 7.Chromatin 12.Smooth ER 17.
(I) (B) (F) Microtubules
(L)
3. Centrosome 8.Endoplasmic 13.Golgi 18.
(A) Reticulum (ER) Apparatus (H) Intermediate
(D) filaments (K)
4. 9.Mitochondrion 14.Nucleus (O) 19. Nuclear
Microfilaments (N) envelope
(M) (P)
5. Nucleolus 10.Peroxisome 15.Plasma 20.
(Q) (R) Membrane (S) Ribosomes (T)