Color of chemicals

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The color of chemicals is a physical property of chemicals that in most cases comes from the excitation of electrons due to an absorption of energy performed by the chemical. What is seen by the eye is not the color absorbed,
but the complementary color from the removal of the absorbed wavelengths. This spectral perspective was first noted in atomic spectroscopy.

The study of chemical structure by means of energy absorption and release is generally referred to as spectroscopy.

Theory

The UV-vis spectrum for a compound that appears orange in Dimethylformamide

All atoms and molecules are capable of absorbing and releasing energy in the form of photons, accompanied by a change of quantum state. The amount of energy absorbed or released is the difference between the energies of
the two quantum states. There are various types of quantum state, including, for example, the rotational and vibrational states of a molecule. However the release of energy visible to the human eye, commonly referred to as visible
light, spans the wavelengths approximately 380 nm to 760 nm, depending on the individual, and photons in this range usually accompany a change in atomic or molecular orbital quantum state. The perception of light is governed
by three types of color receptors in the eye, which are sensitive to different ranges of wavelength within this band.

The relationship between energy and wavelength is determined by the equation:

where E is the energy of the quantum (photon), f is the frequency of the light wave, h is Planck's constant, λ is the wavelength and c is the speed of light.

The relationships between the energies of the various quantum states are treated by atomic orbital, molecular orbital, and Ligand Field Theory. If photons of a particular wavelength are absorbed by matter, then when we observe
light reflected from or transmitted through that matter, what we see is the complementary color, made up of the other visible wavelengths remaining. For example, beta-carotene has maximum absorption at 454 nm (blue light),
consequently what visible light remains appears orange .

Colors by wavelength
Below is a rough table of wavelengths, colors and complementary colors. This utilizes the scientific CMY and RGB color wheels rather than the traditional RYB color wheel.[1]

Wavelength Complementary
Color
(nm) color

400–424   Violet   Green-yellow

424–491   Blue   Yellow

491–570   Green   Red

570–585   Yellow   Blue

585–647   Orange   Cyan-blue

647–700   Red   Cyan

This can only be used as a very rough guide, for instance if a narrow range of wavelengths within the band 647-700 is absorbed, then the blue and green receptors will be fully stimulated, making cyan, and the red receptor will be
partially stimulated, diluting the cyan to a greyish hue.
By category
The vast majority of simple inorganic (e.g. sodium chloride) and organic compounds (e.g. ethanol) are colorless. Transition metal compounds are often colored because of transitions of electrons between d-orbitals of different
energy. (see Transition metal#Coloured compounds). Organic compounds tend to be colored when there is extensive conjugation, causing the energy gap between the HOMO and LUMO to decrease, bringing the absorption band
from the UV to the visible region. Similarly, color is due to the energy absorbed by the compound, when an electron transitions from the HOMO to the LUMO. Lycopene is a classic example of a compound with extensive conjugation
(11 conjugated double bonds), giving rise to an intense red color (lycopene is responsible for the color of tomatoes). Charge-transfer complexes tend to have very intense colors for different reasons.

Examples
Colors of metallic ions
Name Formula Color

Alkaline earth metals M2+ Colorless

Scandium(III) Sc3+ Colorless

Titanium(III) Ti3+   Violet

Titanium(IV) Ti4+ Colorless

Titanyl TiO2+ Colorless

Vanadium(II) V2+   Lavender

Vanadium(III) V3+   Dark grey-green

Vanadyl(IV) VO2+   Blue

Vanadate(IV) (vanadite) V4O2−

9   Yellow

Vanadyl(V) (pervanadyl) VO+2   Yellow

Metavanadate VO−3 Colorless

Orthovanadate VO3−
4 Colorless

Chromium(II) Cr2+   Bright blue

Chromium(III) Cr3+   Blue-green-grey

Chromium(III) Sulfate CrSO4+   Dark Green

Chromium(III) Hydroxide Cr(OH)63−   yellowish

Chromate CrO2−
4   Yellow

Dichromate Cr2O2−
7   Orange

Manganese(II) Mn2+   Pale pink

Manganese(III) Mn3+   Deep pink/red

Manganate(V) MnO3−
4   Deep blue

Manganate(VI) MnO2−
4   Dark green

Manganate(VII) (permanganate) MnO−4   Deep purple

Iron(II) Fe2+   Very pale green

Iron(III) Fe3+   Very pale violet/brown

Iron(III) tetrachloro complex FeCl−4   Yellow/brown

Cobalt(II) Co2+   Pink

Cobalt(III) ammine complex Co(NH3)3+

6   Yellow/orange

Nickel(II) Ni2+   Light green

Nickel(II) ammine complex Ni(NH3)2+

6   Lavender/blue

Copper(I) ammine complex Cu(NH3)+2 Colorless

Copper(II) Cu2+   Blue

Copper(II) ammine complex Cu(NH3)2+

4   Indigo-blue

Copper(II) tetrachloro complex CuCl2−

4   Green

Zinc(II) Zn2+ Colorless

Silver(I) Ag+ Colorless

Silver(III) (in conc. HNO3) Ag3+   Dark brown

It is important to note, however, that elemental colors will vary depending on what they are complexed with, often as well as their chemical state. An example with vanadium(III); VCl3 has a distinctive reddish hue, whilst V2O3
appears black.

Salts

Predicting the color of a compound can be extremely complicated. Some examples include:

Cobalt chloride is pink or blue depending on the state of hydration (blue dry, pink with water) so it is used as a moisture indicator in silica gel. *Zinc oxide is white, but at higher temperatures becomes yellow, returning to white as
it cools.
Colors of various salts
Name Formula Color Picture

Chromium (III) Hydroxide Cr(OH)3 Green

Copper(II) sulfate (anhydrous) CuSO4 White

Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate CuSO4·5H2O Blue

Copper(II) benzoate Cu(C7H5O2)2 Blue

Cobalt(II) chloride CoCl2 Deep blue

Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate CoCl2·6H2O Deep magenta

Manganese(II) chloride tetrahydrate MnCl2·4H2O Pink

Copper(II) chloride dihydrate CuCl2·2H2O Blue-green

Nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate NiCl2·6H2O Green

Lead(II) iodide PbI2 Yellow

Ions in flame
Colors of alkali metal and alkaline earth metal ions in flame[2]
Name Formula Color

Lithium Li   Red

Sodium Na   Yellow/orange

Magnesium Mg   Brilliant white

Potassium K   Lilac/violet

Calcium Ca   Brick red

Rubidium Rb   Pink/red

Strontium Sr   Red

Caesium Cs   Light blue

Barium Ba   Green/yellow

Copper Cu   Blue/Green(Often with white flashes)

Lead Pb   Grey/White

Gases
Colors of various gases
Name Formula Color

Hydrogen H2 colorless

Oxygen O2 colorless

Ozone O3   very pale blue

Fluorine F2   very pale yellow/brown

Chlorine Cl2   greenish yellow

Bromine Br2   red/brown

Iodine I2   dark purple

Chlorine dioxide ClO2   intense yellow

Dichlorine monoxide Cl2O   brown/yellow

Nitrogen dioxide NO2   dark brown

Trifluoronitrosomethane CF3NO   deep blue

Diazomethane CH2N2   yellow

Bead tests

A variety of colors, often similar to the colors found in a flame test, are produced in a bead test, which is a qualitative test for determining metals. A platinum loop is moistened and dipped in a fine powder of the substance in
question and borax. The loop with the adhered powders is then heated in a flame until it fuses and the color of the resulting bead observed.
Colors exhibited by metals in the bead test
Metal[3] Oxidizing flame Reducing flame

Aluminum colorless (hot and cold), opaque colorless, opaque

Antimony colorless, yellow or brown (hot) gray and opaque

Barium colorless

Bismuth colorless, yellow or brownish (hot) gray and opaque

Cadmium colorless gray and opaque

Calcium colorless

Cerium red (hot) colorless (hot and cold)

Chromium Dark yellow (hot), green (cold) green (hot and cold)

Cobalt blue (hot and cold) blue (hot and cold)

Copper green (hot), blue (cold) red, opaque (cold), colorless (hot)

Gold golden (hot), silver (cold) red (hot and cold)

Iron yellow or brownish red (hot and cold) green (hot and cold)

Lead colorless, yellow or brownish (hot) gray and opaque

Magnesium colorless

Manganese violet (hot and cold) colorless (hot and cold)

Molybdenum colorless yellow or brown (hot)

Nickel brown, red (cold) gray and opaque (cold)

Silicon colorless (hot and cold), opaque colorless, opaque

Silver colorless gray and opaque

Strontium colorless

Tin colorless (hot and cold), opaque colorless, opaque

Titanium colorless yellow (hot), violet (cold)

Tungsten colorless brown

Uranium Yellow or brownish (hot) green

Vanadium colorless green

References
1. http://www.sapdesignguild.org/resources/glossary_color/index1.html
2. Flame Tests at chemguide.co.uk
3. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. CRC Press. 1985. ISBN 0-8493-0466-0.

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Last edited 13 days ago by Qzd

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