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Knowledge And Science

A. History

The history of the emergence of science Based on the Philosophy of Science book written
by Alexander Bird (1998) which explains that around 1995 there had been a major debate in
America regarding the use of religious teachings in the scriptures or the knowledge that was
made the basis of the formation of life and the universe. American society strongly adheres to
religious teachings before science masters their mindset. According to them, what has been
included in the holy book (the Gospel) need not be debated and it is certainly true. In fact, the
knowledge of the formation of life or the universe is forbidden to be taught in school because it
is considered to be contrary to religious science. On the other hand, experts do not want to only
trust the scriptures without knowing it themselves how the universe formed. They want to know
whether science can explain the process of its formation and whether there is a development of
science that can be learned after studying how the universe formed.

In 1925, Scopes carried out experiments and observations of evolution known as the
Monkey experiment. Scopes was found guilty and convicted of experimenting and teaching the
results of his experiments to schools. Scopes are considered to violate the law that has been
initiated that there should be no knowledge that is contrary to religious law, but this idealism of
science by Christian fundamentalists does not last long. In 1957 an artificial satellite called
Sputnik was launched. This satellite is proof that science can make a big contribution to human
civilization. It is also proof that with science, humans can be higher in degree than humans who
are not knowledgeable. Christian fundamentalists begin to realize the importance of science and
they must not curb its development.

In its development, the process for knowledge to be recognized and allowed to develop
freely is not easy. Many questions related to science, such as "What is science?", "When is
something considered scientific?" This is where philosophy can be used to answer these
questions. According to law enforcers who are currently handling the debate between science
and religion, scientific theory must have the following conditions:

1. There is control of natural law.


2. There must be an explanation whose reference is from natural law.
3. Can be tested to respond or test empirical theories.
4. The conclusion is debatable and is not the final.
5. Something can be said as a science if it can be modified.

B. Science (Logos)
Science is a systematic thing that builds and regulates knowledge in the form of
explanations and predictions that can be tested through scientific methods about the universe
(Mirriam Webster, 2018). Science consists of two things, namely the body of knowledge, and the
process by which knowledge is produced. The knowledge process gives the individual a way of
thinking and knowing the world. Often, individuals only see the first component of science,
namely the body of knowledge. Individuals are presented with scientific concepts in the form of
statements with little background about the process that leads to that knowledge and why
individuals can believe it. The scientific process is a way of building knowledge and making
predictions about the world in such a way that it can be tested, such as the question "Is the Earth
flat or round?" Can be tested and studied through research, there is evidence to evaluate and
determine whether it supports a round or flat earth. Different scientific goals usually use different
methods and approaches to investigate the world, but the testing process is at the core of the
scientific process for all scientists (Carpi & Egger, 2011).

In the process of analyzing and interpreting data, scientists produce hypotheses, theories,
or laws which help them to explain the findings and place them in the context of broader
scientific knowledge. These kinds of explanations are tested by scientists through additional
experiments, observation, modeling, and theoretical studies. Thus, scientific knowledge is built
on previous ideas and continues to develop. This is deliberately shared with others through the
peer review process and then through publications in the scientific literature, where there is
evaluation and integration by the larger community. One of the advantages of scientific
knowledge is that it can develop and changing, because new data is collected and reinterpretation
of existing data. The main theories, which are supported by a lot of evidence, are rarely changed
completely, but new data and proven explanations add nuances and details (Carpi & Egger,
2011).

The scientific way of thinking is something that can be used by anyone, at any time, even
though it is in the process of developing new knowledge and explanations. Thinking
scientifically involves asking questions that can be answered analytically by collecting data or
modeling and then testing one's ideas. Scientific thinking includes creativity in approaching
explanations while remaining within data boundaries. Thinking scientifically does not mean
rejecting culture and background, although explanations that can be tested are important
components in thinking scientifically, there are other valid ways of thinking about the world
around that do not always produce explanations that can be tested. These different ways of
thinking complement each other, not in competition, but because they discuss different aspects of
human experience (Carpi & Egger, 2011).

The nine main characteristics of science according to Mondal (2018) are:

1. Objectivity
Scientific knowledge is objective. Objectivity means the ability to see and accept facts as they
are. To be objective, one must be aware of their own biases, beliefs, hopes, values, and
preferences. Objectivity requires that one must set aside all kinds of subjective considerations
and prejudices.
2. Verifiability
Science relies on sensory data, which is data collected through our senses, namely the eyes,
ears, nose, tongue, and touch. Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable evidence, through
concrete factual observations so that other observers can observe, weigh or measure the same
phenomenon and examine observations for accuracy.
3. Ethical neutrality
Science is ethically neutral. Science only seeks knowledge. How this knowledge will be used
will be determined by social values. Knowledge can be used differently. Ethical neutrality
does not mean that scientists have no value. It simply means that he must not allow his values
to change the design and behavior of his research.
4. Systematic exploration
A scientific study adopts certain sequential procedures, organized plans or research designs to
collect and analyze facts about the problem under study. Generally, this plan includes several
scientific steps, such as formulating hypotheses, gathering facts, analyzing facts, and
interpreting results.
5. Reliability
Scientific knowledge must occur under conditions that are determined not once but repeatedly
and can be reproduced in the circumstances stated anywhere and anytime. Conclusions based
on only memories without scientific evidence are very unreliable.
6. Precision
Scientific knowledge must be precise, not vague like some literary writing. Precision requires
the right number, data or size.
7. Accuracy
Scientific knowledge is accurate. Accuracy simply means truth or truth of a statement,
describing things in the right words as they are without jumping to unwarranted conclusions,
there must be clear data and evidence.
8. Abstract
Science continues in the field of abstraction. General scientific principles are very abstract.
Not interested in giving a realistic picture.
9. Predictability
Scientists not only describe the phenomenon being studied, but also try to explain and predict
too.
According to Sumarna (2006) science can mean something that results from scientific
knowledge that departs from a combination of deductive (rational) and inductive (empirical)
thinking processes. So this is what distinguishes science and knowledge.
In his book entitled Methods in Psychological Research, Evans and Rooney (2008) argue
that from a psychological point of view where studying individuals as their subject, science has
four functions, including:
a. To Describe
b. To Explain
c. To Predict
d. To Control

C. Knowledge (Episteme)
Knowledge is familiarity, awareness, or understanding of someone or something, such as
facts, information, descriptions, or skills which obtained through experience or education by
perceiving, discovering, or learning. Knowledge can refer to the theoretical or practical
understanding of a subject. This can be obtained implicitly, with practical or explicit skills or
expertise, with a theoretical understanding of a subject and can be adjusted formally or
systematically (Oxford dictionary, 2018). Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive
processes such as perception, communication, and reasoning (Cavell, 2002). Dr. M.J. Langeveld
says that knowledge is the unity of subjects who know with known objects. Whereas according
to James K. Feibleman, knowledge is the relationship between subject and object. Notoatmodjo
(2007) states that knowledge or cognitive is a domain that is very important for the formation of
one's actions, through experience and research turns out that behavior based on knowledge will
be more lasting than behavior that is not based on knowledge. Before people adopt new
behaviors. New behaviors within a person occur sequential processes, namely:
a. Awareness
The individual is aware of or knows in advance the stimulus (object).
b. Interest
Individuals feel attracted to the stimulus or object. Here individual attitudes have begun to
arise.
c. Evaluation
Individuals consider whether or not the stimulus is for him.
d. Trial
Attitudes where individuals begin to try to do things according to what is desired by the
stimulus.
e. Adaptation
Individuals have behaved new in accordance with their knowledge, awareness and attitude
towards stimulus.

According to Notoatmodjo (2007) there are 6 levels of knowledge, namely:


a. Know
Remembering a material that has been studied before. It also includes recalling something
specific from all the material learned or stimuli that have been received by mentioning,
describing, defining, and so on.
b. Comprehension
An ability to explain correctly about objects that are known and can interpret the material
correctly.
c. Application
The ability to use material that has been learned in the actual situation. Applications can be
interpreted as the use of laws, formulas, methods, principles and so on.
d. Analysis
An ability to describe a material into components, but still within the organizational structure
that is still related to one another can be shown by describing, distinguishing, grouping, and so
on.
e. Synthesis
An ability to put or connect parts in a whole new form by being able to form new
formulations.
f. Evaluation
The ability to make an assessment of a research material is based on a self-determined
criterion or an existing criterion. Knowledge is measured by interviews or questionnaires
about the material to be measured from the object of research.

Philosophy Knowledge Science

Try to formulate questions for


answers. Looking for general What is learned is limited
Mainly about things learned
principles, not limiting aspects because it is only the ability
from a book.
of their views and even tend to within us to know something.
look at things in general.

Science is the study of the


All that is available Limited research object
material world.
Assessing objects of reflection
Does not judge objects from a Science is an experimental
with a meaning. For example:
particular value system. definition.
religion, morality, justice, etc.

Science can produces the truth


Focused on integrating
Focused on giving the answer through logical conclusions
sciences.
from empirical observations.
A priori, that is, conclusions
Aposteriori, conclusions are
are drawn without testing, The results is knowing, or
drawn after repeated empirical
because they are free from any everything that is known
testing.
sensory experience
Example:
→ Science = Physics (can explain the concept of density)
→ Knowledge = An object has lighter weight in water
→ Knowledge can also be in the form of myths
D. Differences in knowledge with knowledge

Based on the theoretical framework in the previous section, it can be concluded that
science is different from knowledge. The difference between knowledge and science can be seen
from their sources. Knowledge is what the individual thinks is right or what is known correctly
about anything. Individuals can have knowledge of design, history, art, music, or other fields.
Knowledge related to knowing. Knowing through other people or a description of characteristics
of certain things. The things that individuals know come from consciousness and come from
perception, sensation, common sense or experience. What individuals know is belief or judgment
about a particular phenomenon that is not necessarily proven true. Some beliefs can be supported
by evidence and some may not. Beliefs that are supported by evidence are called justified beliefs
and only this belief is classified as knowledge.

Knowledge requires explanation and this is explained by science. Science includes a field
of knowledge that is related to the natural and physical world and most of the individual
knowledge in science comes from experiment and observation. Science requires a systematic
investigation or test to prove the truth, whereas knowledge does not have to go through the
testing process to prove its truth. The scientific method is an approach to ensuring knowledge of
something. Science contains empirical stages that apply different approaches, methods, analyzes
and interpretations to each knowledge. Knowledge and science are not always the same. Science
implies knowledge, but not vice versa, therefore, all science are knowledge, but not all
knowledge are science.

Science is organized and systematic, while knowledge is a mixture of various facts.


Science is knowledge that has been compiled systematically, while knowledge has not been
systematically compiled because it has not been tried and tested. Science applies specific
methods to prove its truth, but knowledge comes from observations that do not have a specific
method. Science is more appropriate and organized than knowledge. Science is more objective
because it is based on empirical evidence and knowledge is more subjective because it is based
on untested assumptions. Knowledge is broader because science is limited by the results of
hypothesis, so that science provides guidance and limits the scope of its range.

References

Bird, Alexander. Philosophy of Science (University College London :UCL Press 1998)
Carpi, A & Egger, A. E. 2011 “The Nature of Scientific Knowledge” Visionlearning. 3 (2).
Dekel, G. (2009). 08. Methodology (pt 2 of 2) | Inspiration: a functional approach to creative
practice.. [online] Insight.poeticmind.co.uk. Available at:
http://www.insight.poeticmind.co.uk/8-methodology-pt-2-of-2/ [Accessed 25 Aug. 2018].
Evans, A. N., & Rooney, B. J. (2008). Methods in Psychological Research. California: Sage
Publications, Inc.
Knowledge: Definition of knowledge in Oxford Dictionary. (2018). [online] Available at:
https://web.archive.org/web/20100714023323/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/view/e
ntry/m_en_us1261368 [Accessed 25 Aug. 2018].
Mondal, P. (2018). Top 9 Main Characteristics of Science – Explained!. [online] Your Article
Library. Available at: http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/science/top-9-main-
characteristics-of-science-explained/35060 [Accessed 25 Aug. 2018].
Notoadmodjo, Soekidjo.(2007) Promosi Kesehatan dan Ilmu Perilaku. Jakarta:Rineka Cipta.
Science: definition of science in Mirriam Webster Online Dictionary, (2018). [online] Available
at:https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/science?utm_campaign=sd&utm_medium=serp&utm_source=jso
nld [Accessed 25 Aug. 2018].
Suriasumantri, Jujun S. Filsafat Ilmu Sebuah Pengantar Populer. Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar
Harapan.2010

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