CHAPTER-1

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

1.0. INTRODUCTION
The manufacturing of various products is done at different scales ranging from humble domestic
production of say candlesticks to the manufacturing of huge machines including ships,
aeroplanes and so forth. The word manufacturing technology is mainly used for the latter range
of the spectrum of manufacturing, and refers to the commercial industrial production of goods
for sale and consumption with the help of gadgets and advanced machine tools. Industrial
production lines involve changing the shape, form and /or composition of the initial products
known as raw materials into products fit for final use known as finished products.

1.1. MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

The subject of manufacturing technology is very vast and includes various types of machines
tools required to manufacture finished products which range from simple hand-held tools, lathe
machines, grinders, milling machines to highly versatile and complicated computerised
numerical control or CNC machines and so forth. Of course it also involves several different
techniques of manufacturing which can be a subject matter of different details discussion and
some of these include casting, forging, alloying, welding, soldering, brazing etc. each of these
techniques have their own advantages and limitations and are a specialized field of knowledge in
their own right

1.1.1. Machining
Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired final
shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. The processes that have this common
theme, controlled material removal, are today collectively known as subtractive manufacturing in
distinction from processes of controlled material addition, which are known as additive
manufacturing. Exactly what the "controlled" part of the definition implies can vary, but it
almost always implies the use of machine tools (in addition to just power tools and hand tools).
Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can also be used on
materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composites. A person who specializes in machining
is called a machinist. A room, building, or company where machining is done is called a machine
shop. Much of modern-day machining is carried out by computer numerical control (CNC), in
which computers are used to control the movement and operation of the mills, lathes, and other
cutting machines.

1
Fig. 1.1 Machining

2
 CHAPTER-2

DRILLING MACHINE

2.0. INTRODUCTION
Drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. It was designed to
produce a cylindrical hole of required diameter and depth on metal workpieces. Though holes
can be made by different machine tools in a shop, drilling machine is designed specifically to
perform the operation of drilling and similar operations. Drilling can be done easily at a low cost
in a shorter period of time in a drilling machine. Drilling can be called as the operation of
producing a cylindrical hole of required diameter and depth by removing metal by the rotating
edges of a drill. The cutting tool known as drill is fitted into the spindle of the drilling machine.
A mark of indentation is made at the required location with a centre punch. The rotating drill is
pressed at the location and is fed into the work. The hole can be made upto a required depth.

2.1. CONSTRUCTION OF A DRILLING MACHINE

The basic parts of a drilling machine are a base, column, drill head and spindle. The base made
of cast iron may rest on a bench, pedestal or floor depending upon the design. Larger and heavy
duty machines are grounded on the floor. The column is mounted vertically upon the base. It is
accurately machined and the table can be moved up and down on it. The drill spindle, an electric
motor and the mechanism meant for driving the spindle at different speeds are mounted on the
top of the column. Power is transmitted from the electric motor to the spindle through a flat belt
or a ‘V’ belt.

2.2. TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINES

Drilling machines are manufactured in different types and sizes according to the type of
operation, amount of feed, depth of cut, spindle speeds, method of spindle movement and the
required accuracy.

The different types of drilling machines are:

1. Portable drilling machine (or) Hand drilling machine

2. Sensitive drilling machine (or) Bench drilling machine
3. Upright drilling machine
4. Radial drilling machine
5. Gang drilling machine
6. Multiple spindle drilling machine
7. Deep hole drilling machine

3
2.3. DRILLING MACHINE OPERATIONS
Though drilling is the primary operation performed in a drilling machine, a number of similar
operations are also performed on holes using different tools. The different operations that can be
performed in a drilling machine are:
1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Counter boring
5. Countersinking
6. Spot facing
7. Tapping
8. Trepanning

Fig.2.1 Vertical Drilling

4
2.4. DRILLING AND INTERNAL KEYWAY IN DRILLING AND
SLOTTING MACHINE

2.4.1. Aim :-
To make drill holes using radial drilling machine and make the internal keyways using slotting
machine

2.4.2. Material Required :

Cast iron dia 50 mm

All Dimensions are in mm

Fig.2.2 Drilling and Internal Keyway

2.4.3. Tools Required:-

 Square nose cutting tool,
 Drill bit for required diameter,
 Try square, Parallel block,
 6” Vernier caliper,
 Cleaning brush,
 Ball peen hammer,
 Double end spanner,
 Vernier height gauge,
 chalk Powder

5
2.4.4. Procedure:-

 Check the given material size to required dimension

 Marking and punching on the job for given dimension as per figure using the vernier
height gauge
 Place the job on the table using the parallel block in machine vice in radial drilling
machine
 Set the drill bit (for required diameter) in spindle of the radial drilling machine
 Switch on the radial drilling machine and make the drill holes using down ward
movement of the spindle.
 After making the drill holes release the job from drilling machine and it should be hold
on the slotting machine.
 Hold the single point square nose cutting tool in ram of the slotter machine
 Set the stroke length of table for required machining length of the job
 Switch on the machine and give Cross feed and longitudinal feed by using the table
movement for making the internal key ways on the job
 And then make the external profile on the job using rotary table movement of the slotting
machine
 Finally, check the dimension and finishing accuracy using the Vernier caliper.

2.4.5. Result:-
Thus the required shape and size of the work piece was done by using Drilling
machine and slotting machine

6
2.5. DETERMINE THE THRUST FORCE AND TORQUE
MEASUREMENT IN DRILLING OPERATION

2.5.1. Aim:
To measure the thrust force and torque of the machined component in drilling machine

2.5.2. Tools required:

 Drill bit
 Drill chuck with key
 Drill tool dynamometer

2.5.3. Procedure:

 Place the object in vice. After positioning the object, place & position the drill bit
in drill chuck.
 The holes are drilled at different speeds and feed rate.
 The speed is varied by changing the belt positions on the stepped cone pulley and change
the feed rate.
 To measure the thrust force and torque in drill tool dynamometer.

Drill diameter Spindle Speed

in mm in rpm Thrust force Torque
S.No
Kgf N Kg-m Nm

7
2.5.4. Result:
Thus the thrust force and torque of the machined component in drilling machine was
measured.

8
2.6. DRILLING AND TAPPING

2.6.1. Aim:
To drill and tap the given work piece required dimensions.

2.6.2. Material Required:

Mild steel of size 100×50 mm

All Dimensions are in mm

Fig.2.3 Drilling and Tapping

2.6.3. Tools required:

 Vernier caliper
 Vernier height gauge
 Steel rule
 Drill bits (10mm,12mm)
 Punch and hammer
 Scriber
 Try square
 M12 tapset
 Tap wrenches

9
2.6.4. Procedure:

 Check the given material size for sketch dimensions.

 Do the marking and punching by using Vernier height gauge and center punch.
 Fix the job in the vice.
 The 10 mm dia drill bit is fixed in the machine spindle using drill chuck.
 Set the drill bit for punch marking by adjusting the ram.
 Run the machine and drill the hole by hand feed,
 Then change the 12mm dia drill bit.
 The same procedure is repeated for 12mm hole.
 Fix the job in bench vice fit the tapset and taping on the holes using M12 tap
 Then the job is removed and the dimensions are checked and noted readings in the table.

2.6.5. Result:
Thus the Drilling machine operation was done on the given workpiece.

10
 CHAPTER-3
LATHE MACHINE

3.0. INTRODUCTION

The lathe is a very versatile and important machine to know how to operate. This machine
rotates a cylindrical object against a tool that the individual controls. The lathe is the forerunner
of all machine tools. The work is held and rotated on its axis while the cutting tool is advanced
along the line of a desired cut. The lathe is one of the most versatile machine tools used in
industry. With suitable attachments, the lather may be used for turning, tapering, form turning,
screw cutting, facing, dulling, boring, spinning, grinding, polishing operation. Cutting operations
are performed with a cutting tool fed either parallel or at right angles to the axis of the work. The
cutting tool may also be fed at an angle, relative to the axis of the work, for machining taper and
angles. On a lathe, the tailstock does not rotate. Instead, the spindle that holds the stock rotates.
Collets, centers, three jaw chucks, and other work-holding attachments can all be held in spindle.
The tailstock can hold tools for drilling, threading, reaming, or cutting tapers. Additionally, it can
support the end of the workpiece using a center and can be adjusted to adapt to different
workpiece lengths.

Fig.3.1 Lathe Machine

11
3.1 LATHE SAFETY
As always we should be aware of safety requirements and attempt to observe safety rules in
order to eliminate serious injury to ourselves or others.
Wear glasses, short sleeves, no tie, no rings, no trying to stop the work by hand. Stop the
machine before trying to check the work. Don’t know how it works? –“Don’t run it.” Don’t use
rags when the machine is running.

1. Remove the chuck key from the chuck immediately after use. Do not turn the lathe on if
the chuck is still in the chuck key.

2. Turn the chuck or faceplate through by hand unless there are binding or clearance issues.

3. It is important that the chuck or faceplate is securely tightened onto the lathe’s spindle.

4. Move the tool bit to a safe distance from the chuck, collet, or face plate when inserting or
removing your part.
5. Place the tool post holder to the left of the compound slide. This will ensure that the
compound slide will not run into the spindle or chuck attachments.

6. When installing and removing chucks, face plates, and centers, always be sure all mating
surfaces are clean and free from burrs.

7. Make sure the tool bit is sharp and has correct clearance angles.

8. Clamp the tool bit as short as possible in the tool holder to prevent it from vibrating or
breaking.

9. Evenly apply and maintain cutting fluids. This will prevent morphing.

10. Do not run a threaded spindle in reverse.

11. Never run the machine faster than the recommended speed for the specific material.

12. If a chuck or faceplate is jammed on the spindle nose, contact an instructor to remove it.

13. If any filing is done on work revolving in the lathe, file left handed to prevent slipping
into the chuck.

14. Always stop the machine before taking measurements.

15. Stop the machine when removing long stringy chips. Remove them with a pair of pliers.

16. Make sure that the tailstock is locked in place and that the proper adjustments are made if
the work is being turned between centers.

12
 17. When turning between centers, avoid cutting completely through the piece.

18. Do not use rags while the machine is running.

19. Remove tools from the tool post and tailstock before cleaning.

20. Do not use compressed air to clean the lathe.

21. Use care when cleaning the lathe. The cutting tools are sharp, the chips are sharp, and the
workpiece may be sharp.

22. Make sure the machine is turned off and clean before leaving the workspace. Always
remove the chuck wrench after use, avoid horseplay, keep floor area clean. Use care
when cleaning the lathe, the cutting tools are sharp, the chips are sharp, and the
workpiece may be sharp.

3.2. LATHE OPERATIONS

The engine lathe is an accurate and versatile machine on which many operations can be
performed. These operations are:

1. Plain Turning and Step Turning

2. Facing
3. Parting
4. Drilling
5. Reaming
6. Boring
7. Knurling
8. Grooving
9. Threading
10. Forming
11. Chamfering
12. Filling and Polishing
13. Taper Turning

13
3.3. BUSH TURNING IN CAPSTAN LATHE

3.3.1. Aim:-
To Make a Bush turning and drilling used in capstan lathe machine as per given dimensions

3.3.2. Material Required:

MS dia 25x 15mm

All Dimensions are in mm

Fig. 3.2 Bush

3.3.3. Tools required:-

 Steel rule,
 Vernier caliper,
 Collet chuck,
 Cutting tool,
 Drill bit

14
3.3.4. Procedure

 Check the raw material size

 Hold the job in a collet chuck
 Face one end, Turn the outside diameter
 Hold the center drill in a chuck mounted on to the tail stock barrael and center drill the
work.
 Fix a drill bit of smaller diameter in a drill chuck, fitted to the barrel of the tail stock and
drill a pilot hole for the required depth.
 Move the tail stock to the required position and lock it
 Feed the drill bit slowly until the required depth is obtained.
 Turn the outside diameter, Reverse the work and reset it ,the turned diameter
 Check the dimension with vernier caliper

3.3.5. Result

Thus the required shape and size of the work piece was done by using Surface
Capstan lathe

15
 3.4. MAKING SQUARE ROD TO ROUND ROD USING CENTRE LATHE

3.4.1. Aim:
To generate a square to rounded on the given work piece in a Lathe

3.4.2. Material Required:

MS Square 25x 200mm

Fig.3.3 Round Rod

3.4.3. Tools required:

 Steel rule,
 Vernier caliper,
 Single point cutting tool (HSS)
 Marking gauge

16
3.4.4. Procedure:

 The job was checked to the given dimensions.

 The job was attached in the work holding device.
 The job was checked for perpendicular dimension.
 Then the square to round was obtained in the lathe machine.
 The work piece was removed and burns are removed with accuracy
 was checked

3.4.5. Result:
Thus the square to round was performed on the given dimension in a lathe machine with
the required dimensions.

17
3.5 ASSEMBLY OF HOLE AND SHAFT

3.5.1. Aim:
To make an assembly of hole and shaft from the given job using lathe machine.

3.5.2. Material Required:

MS DIA 30x50mm - 2 Nos

All Dimensions are in mm

Fig.3.4 Assembly of Hole and Shaft

3.5.3. Tools required:

 Single point cutting tool (HSS)
 Verniercalliper
 Steel rule
 Chuck key
 Tool post key

18
3.5.4. Procedure:

 The given work piece is taken and checked for its dimensions.
 In the shaft facing, turning, grooving, thread cutting operation were done to the required
dimensions.
 To obtain the required hole dimension pilot drill is properly fixed in the tail stock. The
drill is moved along the axis of the job to carry out the drilling operation.
 External thread cutting operation is carried out to the required TPI.
 Finally the matching parts are fitted together to check assembly.

3.5.5. Result:
Thus work piece wasdone by using lathe as per the given dimensions.

19
 CHAPTER-4

GRINDING

4.0. INTRODUCTION
Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting tool.

4.1. A wide variety of machines are used for grinding:

 Hand-cranked knife-sharpening stones (grindstones)
 Handheld power tools such as angle grinders and die grinders
 Various kinds of expensive industrial machine tools called grinding machines
 Bench grinders

Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of manufacturing and toolmaking. It can produce
very fine finishes and very accurate dimensions; yet in mass production contexts it can also
rough out large volumes of metal quite rapidly. It is usually better suited to the machining of
very hard materials than is "regular" machining (that is, cutting larger chips with cutting tools
such as tool bits or milling cutters), and until recent decades it was the only practical way to
machine such materials as hardened steels. Compared to "regular" machining, it is usually better
suited to taking very shallow cuts, such as reducing a shaft’s diameter by half a thousandth of an
inch or 12.7 μm.

Grinding is a subset of cutting, as grinding is a true metal-cutting process. Each grain of abrasive
functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high negative rake angle), and
shears a tiny chip that is analogous to what would conventionally be called a "cut" chip (turning,
milling, drilling, tapping, etc. However, among people who work in the machining fields, the
term cutting is often understood to refer to the macroscopic cutting operations, and grinding is
often mentally categorized as a "separate" process. This is why the terms are usually used
separately in shop-floor practice.

20
 Fig.4.1 Grainding machine

4.2. TYPES OF GRAINDING

4.2.1. Surface Grinding

Surface grinding uses a rotating abrasive wheel to remove material, creating a flat surface. The
tolerances that are normally achieved with grinding are ±2×10−4 inches (5.1 μm) for grinding a
flat material and ±3×10−4 inches (7.6 μm) for a parallel surface.
The surface grinder is composed of an abrasive wheel, a workholding device known as a chuck,
either electromagnetic or vacuum, and a reciprocating table.
Grinding is commonly used on cast iron and various types of steel. These materials lend
themselves to grinding because they can be held by the magnetic chuck commonly used on
grinding machines and do not melt into the wheel, clogging it and preventing it from cutting.
Materials that are less commonly ground are aluminum, stainless steel, brass, and plastics. These
all tend to clog the cutting wheel more than steel and cast iron, but with special techniques it is
possible to grind them.

4.2.2. Cylindrical grinding

Cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding) is used to grind the cylindrical surfaces
and shoulders of the workpiece. The workpiece is mounted on centers and rotated by a device
known as a drive dog or center driver. The abrasive wheel and the workpiece are rotated by
separate motors and at different speeds. The table can be adjusted to produce tapers. The wheel
head can be swiveled. The five types of cylindrical grinding are: outside diameter (OD) grinding,
inside diameter (ID) grinding, plunge grinding, creep feed grinding, and centerless grinding.
A cylindrical grinder has a grinding (abrasive) wheel, two centers that hold the workpiece, and a
chuck, grinding dog, or other mechanism to drive the work. Most cylindrical grinding machines
include a swivel to allow the forming of tapered pieces. The wheel and workpiece move parallel
to one another in both the radial and longitudinal directions. The abrasive wheel can have many
21
shapes. Standard disk-shaped wheels can be used to create a tapered or straight workpiece
geometry, while formed wheels are used to create a shaped workpiece. The process using a
formed wheel creates less vibration than using a regular disk-shaped wheel.
Tolerances for cylindrical grinding are held within ±0.0005 inches (13 μm) for diameter and
±0.0001 inches (2.5 μm) for roundness. Precision work can reach tolerances as high as ±0.00005
inches (1.3 μm) for diameter and ±0.00001 inches (0.25 μm) for roundness. Surface finishes can
range from 2 microinches (51 nm) to 125 microinches (3.2 μm), with typical finishes ranging
from 8 to 32 microinches (0.20 to 0.81 μm).

4.3.2. Creep-feed grinding

Creep-feed grinding (CFG) was invented in Germany in the late 1950s by Edmund and Gerhard
Lang. Unlike normal grinding, which is used primarily to finish surfaces, CFG is used for high
rates of material removal, competing with milling and turning as a manufacturing process choice.
Depths of cut of up to 6 mm (0.25 inches) are used along with low workpiece speed. Surfaces
with a softer-grade resin bond are used to keep workpiece temperature low and an improved
surface finish up to 1.6 µm Rmax
With CFG it takes 117 s to remove 1 in3 (16 cm3) of material, whereas precision grinding would
take more than 200 s to do the same. CFG has the disadvantage of a wheel that is constantly
degrading, requires high spindle power (51 hp or 38 kW), and is limited in the length of part it
can machine.
To address the problem of wheel sharpness, continuous-dress creep-feed grinding (CDCF) was
developed in 1970s. It dresses the wheel constantly during machining, keeping it in a state of
specified sharpness. It takes only 17 s to remove 1 in3 (16 cm3) of material, a huge gain in
productivity. 38 hp (28 kW) spindle power is required, with a low to conventional spindle
speeds. The limit on part length was erased.

4.3.3. High-efficiency deep grinding (HEDG) uses plated superabrasive wheels, which
never need dressing and last longer than other wheels. This reduces capital equipment investment
costs. HEDG can be used on long part lengths and removes material at a rate of 1 in3 (16 cm3) in
83 s. It requires high spindle power and high spindle speeds.

4.3.4. Peel grinding, patented under the name of Quickpoint in 1985 by Erwin Junker
Maschinenfabrik, GmbH in Nordrach, Germany, uses a thin superabrasive grinding disk oriented
almost parallel to a cylindrical workpiece operates somewhat like a lathe turning tool.

4.3.5. Ultra-high speed grinding (UHSG) can run at speeds higher than 40,000 fpm
(200 m/s), taking 41 s to remove 1 in3 (16 cm3) of material, but is still in the R&D stage. It also
requires high spindle power and high spindle speeds.

22
4.3.6. Others
Form grinding is a specialized type of cylindrical grinding where the grinding wheel has the
exact shape of the final product. The grinding wheel does not traverse the workpiece.
Internal grinding is used to grind the internal diameter of the workpiece. Tapered holes can be
ground with the use of internal grinders that can swivel on the horizontal.

4.3.7. Centerless grinding is when the workpiece is supported by a blade instead of by

centers or chucks. Two wheels are used. The larger one is used to grind the surface of the
workpiece and the smaller wheel is used to regulate the axial movement of the workpiece. Types
of centerless grinding include through-feed grinding, in-feed/plunge grinding, and internal
centerless grinding.

4.3.8. Pre-grinding When a new tool has been built and has been heat-treated, it is pre-
ground before welding or hardfacing commences. This usually involves grinding the OD slightly
higher than the finish grind OD to ensure the correct finish size.

4.3.9. Electrochemical grinding is a type of grinding in which a positively charged

workpiece in a conductive fluid is eroded by a negatively charged grinding wheel. The pieces
from the workpiece are dissolved into the conductive fluid.

23
4.4. GRIND A CYLINDERICAL ROD IN CYLINDRICAL
GRINDING MACHINE

4.4.1. Aim:
To grinding a cylinder using the Cylindrical grinding machine

4.4.2. Material required:

MS rod dia 25 x 150 mm

All Dimensions are in mm

Fig.4.2 Cylindrical grainding

4.4.3. Tools required:

 0-25mm out side micrometer,
 grinding wheel,
 Cleaning brush,
 Double end spanner,
 Dog carrier

24
4.4.4. Procedure:

 Check the given material to required dimension

 Fix the job using dog carrier in between the head stock and tail stock..
 Mount the grinding wheel in the wheel head.
 Switch on the wheel head and then switch on the work head.
 Give the depth of the cut and longitudinal feed by using crosswise movement wheel head
and lengthwise movement of the table respectively.
 After grinding the cylinder, check the dimension and finishing accuracy using the
Micrometer.

4.4.5. Result:
Thus the required shape and size of the work piece was done by using Cylindrical
grinding machine

25
4.5. GRIND A SURFACE IN SURFACE GRINDING MACHINE

4.5.1. Aim:
To Grinding a plain surface in a given job using surface grinding machine.

4.5.2. Material required:

MS plate 70 x 50 x 10 mm

All Dimensions are in mm

Fig.4.3 Surface Grainding

4.5.3 Tools requirement:

 micrometer,
 hand vice,
 Magnetic chuck,
 Grinding wheel,
 Cleaning brush,
 Center punch,
 Chalk powder

26
4.5.4. Procedure:

 Check the given material size to required dimensions

 Marking and punching on the job for given dimension as per figure.
 Place the job on the magnetic vice and tightening the job using vice hand wheel.
 Fix the grinding wheel on the spindle of the surface grinding machine.
 Switch on the machine and give depth of the cut for the job by using up and down
movement of the table.
 Machine the job by giving the cross feed and longitudinal feed by using crosswise and
lengthwise movement of the table respectively.
 After machining the job, check the dimension and finishing accuracy using the Try squire
and Vernier caliper.

4.5.5. Result:
Thus the required shape and size of the work piece was done by using Surface
grinding machine

27
 CHAPTER-5
GEAR HOBBING MACHINE & MILLING

5.0. STUDY OF GEAR HOBBING MACHINE AND ITS

WORKING PRINCIPLE

5.1. Aim :-

Study of Gear hobbing Machine and its working principle

Fig.5.1 Gear Hobbing Machine

Hobbing is a process of generating a gear by means of a rotating cutter called hob. The
hob has helical threads Grooves are cut in the threads parallel to the axis. This will provide the
cutting edges. Proper rake and clearance angles are ground on these cutting edges. The rotating
hob acts like a continuously moving rack as it cuts.

The gear blank is mounted on a vertical arbor. The hob is mounted in a rotating arbor.
The hob axis is tilted through the hob lead angle a so that its teeth are parallel to the axis of the
gear blank.

Then. = (900 - 1)

Where 1 = helix angle of the hob thread

28
The hob axis is inclined at 0 with the horizontal as shown in the figure.

(Note: hob lead angle = 900 - hob helix angle)

The hob is rotated at suitable cutting speed. It is fed across the blank face. The hob and blank are
made to rotate in correct relationship to each other. ié, they rotate like a worm and worm gear in
mesh For one rotation of the hob, the blank rotates by one tooth (In case of single start hob)

For cutting helical gears, the axis of the hob is inclined to horizontal by 0 where

 +  (90° - ) (If the helix of the hob and the helix of the gear to be cut are
different i.e. One is right handed and another is left handed)
 =  - (900 - 1) (If the helix of hob and the helix of gear to be cut are both
right handed or both left handed)

Where  - Helix angle of the helical gear to be cut 1 - Helix angle of the
hob.

5.2. Application:
1. Hobbing is used for generating spur helical and worm gears
2. Used in automobiles, machine tools and other equipments

5.3. Advantages:
1. A single hob with the given module can be used for generating gear with any number of
teeth of the same module.
2. The same hob can be used for spur aid helical gears.
3. Operation is continuous. So very fast rate of production.
4. Perfect tooth shape is obtained.

29
 5. Process is automatic and so less Skilled operator is sufficient.
6. Worm gears are generated only hobbing.
7. Multiple blanks can be cut at a time. Hence high rate of production.

5.4. Limitations:
1. Internal gears cannot be generated
Hobbing cannot be used for producing gear teeth very near to shoulders.

30
5.5. GEAR CUTTING IN MILLING MACHINE

5.5.1. Aim:
To make a spur gear for number of given number of teeth and module using the milling
machine.

5.5.2. Material Required:

Aluminiumdia 90 x 25 mm

5.5.3. Tools required:

 Involute gear cutter,
 universal dividing head,
 try square,
 gear tooth Vernier,
 cleaning brush,
 ball peen hammer,
 double end spanner.

5.5.4. Procedure:

 Check the given material size to required dimension.

 Find out the index calculation as per the given requirements.
 Mount the dividing head and tailstock on the table.
 Place the job with mandrel in dividing head and it support with tailstock.
 Fix the involute milling cutter in arbour of the milling machine.
 Positioning the job under the cutter using the table movement.
 Select the cutter speed as per the material specifications.
 Set the depth of cut using up and downward movement of the table.
 Switch on the machine and cut the first tooth of required gear by giving the longitudinal
feed of the table.
 Rotate the index plate for cutting the next tooth as per the index calculations and remove
the material from the blank by the above procedure.
 Similarly cut all required number of teeth.
 Finally, check the dimensions and finishing accuracy using the gear tooth Vernier
calliper.

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 All dimension are in mm
Fig.5.2 Gear teeth

5.5.5. Calculation
Milling a spur gear for the following data
Module (m) = 3 mm, No. of teeth N = 28,

5.5.6. Solution
1. Outer Diameter (OD) = (N+2)m
OD
2. Number of teeth = m – 2
3. P.C.D = N x m
OD
4. Module(m) =N+2
5. Addendum = 1 x m
6. Dedendum = 1.157 x m
7. Working Depth = 2 x m
8. Whole depth = 2.151 x m
9. Clearance = 0.151 x m
10. Circular pitch (CP) = 𝜋 x m
25.4
11. Diametral Pitch = m
12. Tooth thickness = 1.157 x m
Sin 90
13. Chordal thickness = PCD x N
PCD 1−cos90
14. Chordal Addendum = 2 ( N ) + m
15. Indexing = 40 /N = 40 / 28 = 112/28 = 13/7 = 13x3/7x3 = 19/21
For each indexing the index plate crank must be rotated in one full rotation and 9
holes in 21 holes index plate.

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5.5.7. Result:-
Thus the required shape and size of the gear was done by using Milling machine

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 CHAPTER-6
SHAPER

6.0. INTRODUCTION
A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the workpiece and
a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear toolpath. Its cut is analogous to that of a lathe,
except that it is (archetypally) linear instead of helical.
A wood shaper is a similar woodworking tool, typically with a powered rotating cutting head and
manually fed workpiece, usually known simply as a shaper in North America and spindle
moulder in the UK.
A metalworking shaper is somewhat analogous to a metalworking planer, with the cutter riding a
ram that moves relative to a stationary workpiece, rather than the workpiece moving beneath the
cutter. The ram is typically actuated by a mechanical crank inside the column,
though hydraulically actuatedshapers are increasingly used. Adding axes of motion to a shaper
can yield helical toolpaths, as also done in helical planing

6.1. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SHAPER

A single point cutting tool is rigidly held in the tool holder, which is mounted on the ram. The
work piece is rigidly held in a vice or clamped directly on the table. The table may be supported
at the outer end.The ram reciprocates and thus cutting tool held in tool holder moves forwards
and backwards over the work piece. In a standard shaper, cutting of material takes place during
the forward stroke of the ram the backward stroke remains idle. This is obtained by "Quick
Return Mechanism". The depth of the cut is adjusted by moving the tool downwards towards the
workpiece. The feed motion is given to the workpiece and follows the "Pawl and Ratchet
mechanism".

6.2. TYPES
Shapers are mainly classified as standard, draw-cut, horizontal, universal, vertical, geared, crank,
hydraulic, contour and traveling head,[1] with a horizontal arrangement most common. Vertical
shapers are generally fitted with a rotary table to enable curved surfaces to be machined (same
idea as in helical planing). The vertical shaper is essentially the same thing as a slotter (slotting
machine), although technically a distinction can be made if one defines a true vertical shaper as a
machine whose slide can be moved from the vertical. A slotter is fixed in the vertical plane

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 Fig.6.1 Shaper machine

6.3 USES
The most common use is to machine straight, flat surfaces, but with ingenuity and some
accessories a wide range of work can be done. Other examples of its use are:

 Keyways in the boss of a pulley or gear can be machined without resorting to a

dedicated broaching setup.
 Dovetail slides
 Internal splines and gear teeth.
 Keyway, spline, and gear tooth cutting in blind holes
 Cam drums with toolpaths of the type that in CNC milling terms would require 4- or 5-
axis contouring or turn-mill cylindrical interpolation
 It is even possible to obviate wire EDM work in some cases. Starting from a drilled or
cored hole, a shaper with a boring-bar type tool can cut internal features that don't lend
themselves to milling or boring (such as irregularly shaped holes with tight corners).
 Smoothness of a rough surface

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6.4. MACHINING OF HEXAGON IN SHAPING MACHINE

6.4.1. Aim:-
To machine a hexagon in the given workpiece to the dimensions as shown in the figure using
shaping machine

6.4.2. Material Required:

MS dia 60x 15mm

All Dimensions are in mm

Fig.6.2 Hexagon

6.4.3. Tools required:

 Shaping machine
 Steel rule
 Scriber
 Shaping tool
 bevel protractor

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6.4.4. Procedure:-

 The given workpiece is measured for its initial dimensions.

 With the help of scriber, mark the hexagon dimensions in the workpiece.
 Fix the workpiece in the vice of the shaping machine.
 After fixing the workpiece and the shaping tool, allow the ram to reciprocate.
 Start the shaping process by giving the required depth by lowering the tool.
 Slowly increase the depth of cut and repeat the procedure to make the hexagon shape.
 The workpiece is now checked for final dimensions.

6.4.5. RESULT
Thus, a hexagon is machined in the given workpiece to the dimensions as shown in the
figure using shaping machine.

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6.5. MAKING A V-BLOCK USING ON A SHAPER

6.5.1. Aim:
To make a V-block using a shaping machine.

6.5.2. Material Required

Castiron 70 x 70 mm

All Dimensions are in mm

Fig.6.3 V-Block

6.5.3. Tools required:

 Vernier calliper
 Vernier height gauge
 Steel rule
 Surface plate
 Punch and hammer
 Scriber
 Try square
 Shaping tool
 Combination set or bevel protractor

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6.5.4. Procedure:

 Check the given material size to required dimension.

 Marking and punching on the job for given dimension as per figure.
 Place the job on the parallel block in the machine vice and turn the handle to hold the job.
 Hold the single point cutting tool in the tool head of the shaper machine.
 Set the stroke length of ram for required machining length of the job.
 Give the depth of cut for the job using the clapper box hand wheel.
 Switch on the machine and give longitudinal feed by using the table movement.
 After rough cutting, turn the job into required angle and repeat the same procedure for V-
block machining.
 Check the dimension and finishing accuracy using the try square, bevel protractor and
Verniercaliper.

6.5.5. RESULT
Thus the V - Block was machined using shaper as per dimensions.

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