CARGO REFRIGERATION

INTRODUCTION:
During the 19th century an International trade in Natural ice was developed and ice was harvested in
Scandinavian countries and in New England (USA), and exported to the tropics and other parts of the
world.
The Ice was carried in ship’s holds insulated with pine saw dust. Although this use of natural ice served
the purpose of short term preservation of produce at chilled temperatures and enabled a trade to
flourish between the USA and Europe in fruit and butter, and to some extent chilled beef, it became
apparent that the growth of the manufacturing industries in Europe in the middle of the century and the
consequent increase in urban population was giving rise to a situation where indigenous food supplies,
particularly meat were no longer adequate.
At the same time Australia, New Zealand and the Americas were raising sheep and cattle for wool and
hide purposes. The meat they were producing could not all be consumed by the local population, There
was, therefore, a need for means to bring the ever increasing surplus of meat in the sheep and cattle
raising countries to hungry consumers in the industrial countries of Europe.
Refrigeration was brought into use on land long before it was successfully applied to shipboard
transport. As far as 1824 a patent was taken out by Vallence for an ice making machine and progress
was made in refrigeration techniques until in 1861, Thomas Mort established the first freezing works in
the world at Sydney Harbour, New South Wales. By this time mechanical refrigeration plant had reached
a pint where the major step of transporting meat between the continents could be transported and in
1877 a Frenchman, Tellier, carried a cargo of beef from Argentina to France. Although the voyage was
not fully successful, a sufficient quantity of meat arrived in and edible condition to show that
refrigerated transport was a practical proposition and a few months later another Frenchman, Carre,
improved on the above achievement and successfully carried a cargo of frozen meat from Buenos Aires
to Marseille. These vessels used Ammonia as the refrigerant, but leakage problems were so great that
its use, for the time being, was abandoned.
Engineers in Great Britain concentrated on air as the refrigerant and in 1879 a Bell Coleman cold air
machine was installed and tested onboard a ship trading to America.
In 1880 a vessel fitted with a Bell Coleman cold air machine carried a cargo of frozen meat in perfect
condition from Australia to London, thus starting the frozen meat trade between continents. Two years
later another liner started the frozen meat trade from New Zealand to Europe and the revolution in the
worldwide carriage of refrigerated produce was firmly established, progressing until it arrived at the
various differing modes of carriage which comprise todays’ seaborne transportation system.
REFRIGERATED CARGO:
Marine refrigerated transport is most suitable for carrying perishable cargo under CONTROLLED
TEMPERATURE, RELATIVE HUMIDITY and, recently, under CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERES (reduced
OXYGEN and increased CARBON DI OXIDE levels).
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A perishable is something that is easily injured or destroyed. Some of them are:

1. Frozen produce
2. Meats
3. Seafood
4. Dairy produce
5. Fresh fruit and Vegetables
6. Juices
7. Horticulture produce such as flowering bulbs & fresh flowers
8. Confectionary such as sweet items
9. Chemicals
10. Pharmaceuticals
11. Photographic materials
Without careful treatment, the time taken to deteriorate to a condition which will either reduce the
value, or render it unsaleable, may become unacceptably short.

The object of refrigeration is to prolong the storage of a perishable food product by

lowering its temperature so that metabolic deterioration and decay caused by
micro-organisms or enzymes are retarded.
The successful carriage of refrigerated cargo depends upon:
1. Correct preparation for transport
2. Packaging
3. Handling during loading and unloading
4. Correct storage on board
5. Relative humidity
6. Temperature
7. Required fresh air ventilation
8. Sufficient air circulation in holds
9. Correct levels of O2 & CO2 if transported under CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE.

ANIMAL PRODUCTS:
These products, which may be carried frozen or chilled, do not generate any gases or heat during sea
voyage and are frequently referred as ‘DEAD CARGO’.
FROZEN MEAT:
Frozen meat should never be carried at temperatures higher than -10°C. Although microbiological
activity has ceased at -8°C, chemical and physical deterioration continues, although at a diminishing
rate, as the temperature decreases.
In practice, the carrying temperature depends on the type of meat and its package, length of voyage and
destination and is likely to be within the range -29°C to -15°C with the current trend being towards the
lower temperature.
 CARGO REFRIGERATION
The frozen cargo stack should be well dunnaged, away from any heat transmitting surface eg. The ships’
side and bulkheads. Provided the cargo is all loaded at or near the carrying temperature, it is more
important to maintain a good air flow around the outer perimeter of the stack than through the stack.
CHILLED MEAT:
Chilled meat may be carried in Vacuum bags packed in cartons. An alternative method is to wrap the
quarters of meat in a thin transparent liner material and hang them on chains and hooks in the
chamber.
The quality of chilled meat is largely judged in terms of temperature, appearance and smell at the time
of off-loading.
To ensure the maximum storage life, the chilled meat must not only be prepared in fashion, but also
protected from subsequent contamination during loading, the main source of which will come from air
borne mould spores.
The mould problem may be particularly acute if fruit has been the previous cargo, so the cleanliness of
the chamber and meat handling is of paramount importance.
Before loading commences chambers are usually scrubbed with hot water and detergent followed by
fumigation by formaldehyde, or similar for 24 hours with fans running.
Chilled meat is carried at around -1°C, with a temperature -1.8°C being more suitable for unpacked
cargo. If the temperature falls below this value the meat starts to freeze resulting in partial disruption of
the tissue and formation of large ice crystals, which is detrimental to the quality of the meat.
It is therefor of utmost importance that the chamber temperature is closely controlled. The cargo
storage arrangements are to be such that a uniform temperature distribution is achieved.

HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTS:
FRUIT, VEGETABLES & FLOWERS:
Such products are frequently referred to as ‘LIVE CARGOES’, because they remain alive after harvesting,
and respire, absorbing Oxygen(O2) from the atmosphere and exhaling Carbon di oxide (CO2).
During this process energy is released and a host of volatiles given off.
Normally, a higher rate of circulation is required in the holds than for meat cargoes, together with the
introduction of fresh air to maintain CO2 concentration within acceptable limits.
In order to secure maximum storage life and reduce the load on the cooling system, fruit and vegetables
should be brought close to the carrying temperature before they are loaded on the ship.
The only exception is BANANA cargo, which is usually loaded non-precooled. Uniform temperature and
steady relative humidity in the hold is of prime importance and can only be achieved with good
ventilation.
Warm air pockets may result in the accumulation of Carbon dioxide and other metabolic products, and
may encourage mould development and general deterioration.
 CARGO REFRIGERATION
The optimum carrying temperatures for live products vary with variety, producing area, season and
duration of transport and, with few exceptions, will be as close to freezing as possible in order to slow,
but not prevent, the ripening process.
Some fruits, however, if kept below a certain temperature, which may be well above the freezing point,
may sustain damage due to the ripening process being prematurely arrested and the fruit will never
attain the full flavour of ‘eating ripe’ fruit. One such fruit is BANANA.
BANANAS:
Bananas are carried by sea in greater quantities than any other commodity. They are very sensitive to
bruising, temperature fluctuations and the presence of CO2 and ethylene in excessive quantities, and
are regarded as one of the most difficult cargoes.
A harvested banana fruit passes through three physiological development stages, viz.
1. Pre-climacteric stage or Green life stage.
2. The Climacteric and ripening stage
3. Eat ripe and senescence stage
They must be packed in a state of maturity that will allow them, under normal conditions, to arrive at
their destination before ripening has commenced.
All fruits produce ethylene but in climacteric fruits like bananas there is a rapid and massive increase
in ethylene production which precedes the respiratory climacteric. Once, initiated the climacteric is
irreversible.
The use of sealed polyethylene bags has the effect of reducing water loss, reducing O2 concentration
and increasing CO2 concentration, and these bags are widely used.
Thirty years ago bananas were carried by the sea on the stem, wrapped in polythene sheets, but today
they are separated into hands, washed and given an antifungal treatment, then placed in 20kg
cardboard boxes and transported as bulk or palletized cargo.
The average product temperature will be approximately 30°C when loaded. At this temperature
bananas emit, like other ‘living’ cargoes, large quantities of heat, carbon dioxide and ethylene, whilst
their ripening process continues.
If the heat and gases are not removed quickly enough there will be a temperature and ethylene
concentration increase which may result in premature ripening.
During long distance transport, bananas must be kept in the pre-climacteric state, so that ripening can
later be induced artificially in the “ripening rooms”.
If premature ripening is to be avoided, then besides cutting the fruit at the appropriate maturity, three
other requirements must be fulfilled:
1. There must be no delay between cutting and loading the fruit into the refrigerated space.
2. The cooling process itself must be as rapid as possible (preferably within 24hrs. after
harvesting/cutting).
3. The prevention of ethylene accumulation in the atmosphere surrounding the bananas.
The rate of cooling is limited by the minimum transport temperature of bananas which, depending upon
the variety will be between 13°C and 14°C.
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If the hold temperature is reduced below this level even for a short time, the biological activity of
bananas may decline to such an extent that it will be impossible for them to ripen after unloading.
It is common practice to introduce fresh air to the hold as soon as, or sometimes even before, cooling is
completed, to remove even small traces of ethylene, the presence of which promotes ripening of the
bananas.
Carbon dioxide concentrations below 2% are sometimes tolerated as they assist in retarding the
ripening of the bananas by reducing the rate of respiration.
O2 below 2% may cause dull yellow or brown skin discoloration, failure to ripen properly and off-
flavours. CO2 greater than 5% may cause the fruit to soften while green and confer undesirable texture
and flavour. Presence of ethylene can cause premature and rapid ripening during transit.
In higher concentrations of CO2, the fruit may suffocate, unless its oxygen level is reduced.
(Controlled atmosphere).

TAINT ODOUR & REMEDIES

Tainting may be defined as contamination of refrigerated cargoes by odours from other cargoes. The
intensity of tainting is a function of the prevailing odour concentration in the storage space and the
duration of exposure to the odorous atmosphere.
A considerable number of perishable commodities give off volatile odorous substances which may taint
susceptible cargo.
Oranges, other citrus fruits and apples are particularly problematic although tainting may also be caused
by other fresh fruit such as pineapples, pears, peaches and apricots and by potatoes, onions and other
vegetables with strong odour. Cheese can also contribute to odour problems.
Adequate caution must be used in allocating the available spaces to different commodities. Needless to
say, goods which may taint each other should never be stored in the same space, even if this would be
acceptable with regard to temperature requirements etc.
Moreover, loading of odour generating goods in the same hold as susceptible commodities must be
avoided unless there is full assurance of the complete gas tight separation between the individual
spaces in the hold.
There is a considerable risk of tainting during loading and unloading.
Ozone is widely used for deodorising holds after unloading. Little is known about what concentration
and duration of treatment is required under various conditions, but it is often recommended to supply
3-6 mg of ozone per hour per m3 of space. Activated carbon filters may also be used for deodorisation
of empty holds.

CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE
Controlled atmosphere is an inert gas system used to extend the storage life of seasonal perishable
products and has been used for many fruits and vegetables, primarily apples and pears in the past and
now mainly for bananas.
To successfully store fruit for long periods, the natural ripening of the produce has to be delayed
without affecting the eating quality.
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This is achieved by reducing the temperature of the fruit to the lowest level possible without causing
damage through freezing or low temperature breakdown.
To further delay ripening, the oxygen supply in the space is reduced to levels below that of the natural
atmosphere. This level is below the level required to support human life.
The precise levels of temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide required to maximise storage life and to
minimise storage disorders are extremely variable, depending on the type of produce, growing
conditions and maturity. Optimum storage conditions can vary from farm to farm from season to
season.
On refer vessels, oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and relative humidity (RH) in controlled
atmosphere zones (cargo chambers) can be independently controlled within close tolerances,
irrespective of type, temperature and volume of the cargo carried and length of voyage.
A typical modern controlled atmosphere marine system would be expected to have flexibility to control
gas levels within the following ranges:
O2: < 1-8% CO2: 0-15% RH: 40-90%
The required oxygen and carbon dioxide levels can be achieved in a number of different ways:
1. The oxygen level can be decreased by:
a. Injecting pure Nitrogen as a gas or liquid from bottles or storage tanks
b. Burning propane in an open flame burner, or a burner with a catalyst
c. Generating gas (Nitrogen with a low oxygen level) on board from compressed dry and clean
air, using high pressurised membranes etc.
2. The carbon dioxide level can be increased by:
a. Injecting carbon dioxide gas
b. Fruit respiration
3. The carbon dioxide level can be decreased by:
a. Fresh air or gas injection
b. Hydrated lime
c. Carbon scrubbers
d. Water scrubbing etc.
4. Relative humidity can be increased by:
a. Injecting water mist
b. Steam
c. Evaporating water etc.
It should be remembered that during transport fruit and vegetables are still living organisms absorbing
oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide, water vapour and heat. If the chambers loaded with such cargo
were absolutely air tight, the oxygen level would decrease and carbon dioxide level increase, but
complete air tightness cannot be currently achieved. Air leakage is to be compensated by injecting the
required amount of gas to produce the desired result. The Lloyd’s Register Provisional Rules for
Controlled Atmosphere are applicable to any gas system, permanent or portable, gas generating or
storage type, which would achieve the above goal.
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Secondary Refrigerants used In Cargo refrigeration
A secondary refrigerant is one which is used as a heat transfer medium, with a change of temperature
but no change of state. The secondary refrigerants used in Marine plants are Brine, Ethylene glycol and
trichloroethylene.
Main advantages compared to direct expansion are:
1. The primary refrigerant is only present in the machinery space and the risk of loss by leakage
more readily controlled.
2. Difficulties of oil recovery from evaporators half a ship’s length away from the compressors are
avoided.
3. The Brine system is more easily controlled to give accurate temperature control, if a manual
system less skilled operators are required, if an automatic system, simpler automatic controls
can be used.
4. Greater flexibility in simultaneously carrying cargoes at different temperatures in different
spaces is possible.
Calcium chloride/ Brine is the commonest secondary refrigerant used for cargo ships. Water is used for
air conditioning installations (with suitable safeguards to prevent its freezing) and trichloroethylene is
used for very low temperature installations, such as fishing trawlers.
Brine:
Brine is a mixture of Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) and water and has a specific gravity associated to
temperature as shown below.

Specific 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.266 1.275 1.28

Gravity at
15°C
% CaCl2 25.77 26.59 27.06 28.0 29.0 29.26
Operating -21 -23 -26 -29 -32 -34
temp.
Freezing -30 -32 -35 -37 -41 -43
temp.

In refrigerated Brine systems, severe corrosion can occur causing valves to jam open or shut and pipe
failure leading to loss of Brine. To prevent corrosion the brine should be maintained slightly alkaline (pH
8.5 to 9.5) by the addition of an inhibitor eg. Sodium chromate or dichromate.
One such inhibitor is ‘Nalfleet brine treatment liquid’ a blend of chromate inhibitors, together with an
alkaline buffering agent which generally eliminates the need to supplement the treatment of caustic.
Ideally the brine should be maintained in the range 8.5-9.5 and the concentration of sodium chromate is
based on the principle that the yellow colour chromate ion is a measure of its concentration.
The colour is measured using a Lovibond comparator and chromate disc 4/35 in accordance with the
chemical manufacturers test procedure.
Brine is normally used for temperatures down to -34°C below which it is extremely viscous resulting in
unacceptable pumping losses.
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Brine is bitter to taste and will contaminate foodstuffs. Calcium chloride flakes readily absorb moisture
to form a corrosive substance, so must be stored in sealed containers in a dry place.
As a safety precaution, eye protection and gloves should be worn when handling caustic soda or
hydrochloric acid and great care must be exercised when mixing calcium chloride, as the chemical
reaction generates a considerable amount of heat. Do not use plastic containers to mix brine.
Trichloroethylene:
It is used for temperatures down to -73°C. The gas, which is both toxic and heavier than air, has a
maximum permissible concentration in air of 200 ppm.
Trichloroethylene acts as a solvent to most synthetic rubbers and jointing materials. It is non-flammable
and non-toxic. The liquid is both heavier than, and immiscible with, water, so any water in the system
will freeze at temperatures below 0°C.