Thermal Stress Problems in Glass

T. C. Woo

Citation: Journal of Applied Physics 39, 2082 (1968); doi: 10.1063/1.1656492

View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1656492
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 JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS VOLUME 39, NUMBER 4 MARCH !968

Thermal Stress Problems in Glass

T. C. Woo
PPG Industries, Glass Research Center, Harmar Township, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
(Received 8 September 1967; in final form 27 November 1967)

The development of the residual stresses in a glass plate undergoing a heat treatment is discussed in the
light of viscoelasticity. Emphasis is placed on the method in which measured material functions are used.
Advantages are pointed out of such a method versus other existing methods and the extension to an asym-
metric thermal stress problem is given for an illustration.

INTRODUCTION transfer rates and therefore their thermal history, the

In fabrication and conditioning processes glass
usually goes through extensive temperature ranges.
The thermal effect is often more predominant than
that due to mechanical constraints. Due to insufficient
knowledge of glass structures, theories based on micro-
scopic considerations are not as successful as with metals
or alloys. One therefore resorts to phenomenological
approaches in which stresses and strains are formulated
according to the gross behavior. Several methods of
approach,1-4 have been used to treat this type of
problem. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss
these methods in the light of viscoelasticity, point out
certain generalities of the method in the last paper,
and extend the analysis therein to a problem of asym-
metric temperature conditions.
The need to deal with thermal stresses in glass arises
mainly in two directly opposite situations, namely
annealing and tempering. In annealing, glass is cooled
down from an elevated temperature so gently that
residual stresses can be made negligibly small. The
stress-release of the Mt. Palomar telescope lenses was
one such problem that prompted the classical analysis
of Adams and Williamson. In tempering, glass is cooled
down drastically in the transformation range (about
5000-650°C for soda-lime glasses) so as to build up a
high residual compression at the surfaces. The process
of tempering (believed to have been first used on the
German submarine windows during World War I)
will render the glass much stronger since glass is more
susceptible to tension failures on account of surface
flaws and the residual surface compression has to be
overcome before the onset of any tension for a tempered
plate. . where d is the plate thickness (cm) and h is the constant
The viscoelastic property of glass can be charactenzed
by its isothermal stress relaxation functions and their
tempe'rature dependence. For both annealing and
tempering, though greatly different in their heat-
1 L. H. Adams and E. D. Williamson, J. Franklin lnst. 190, 835
(1920) .
2 G. M. Bartenev, Steklo i Keram. 6, 7 (1949).
3B. D. Aggarwala and E. Saibel, Phys. Chern. Glasses, 2, 137
(1961) .
• E. H. Lee, T. G. Rogers, and T. C. Woo, J. Am. Ceram. Soc.
48,480 (1965).
2082
glass plate is assumed to have an initial stress-free state
at the uniform temperature and two traction-free sur-
faces of infinite expanse. The stresses are generated
purely from an interaction of the effects of the thermal
expansion, stress relaxation, and constraint condition
between different layers. The methods cited will now
be discussed according to such a formulation.
EXISTING METHODS OF APPROACH
Adams and Williamson! chose a nonlinear relaxation
law at constant temperature for the in-plane stress u
to be
du/dl=cu 2 (1)
after the experimental data failed to fit a Maxwell
model for which the stress rate is proportional to stress.
The temperature dependence of the relaxation property
was not given explicitly but was incorporated in the
deduction of the residual stress which was the only
stress given by this method. The heuristic argument
arriving at this stress is as follows: "The strain (stress
in the present usage) remaining in a block of glass is
equal and opposite in sign to the reverse strain (stress
in the present usage) lost by viscous yielding in the
early stages of the cooling process." The heat transfer
part was characterized by a constant cooling rate of
the surface temperature although the solution could
be extended to the cases when cooling rates are not
constant. 5 The evaluation for the residual midplane
stress u( 00) for soda-lime glasses reduced to a simple
formula6
u( 00 ) =0.012Sd2h kg/mm2, (2)
cooling rate (OC/min). In annealing problems where
cooling is very slow the above equation gives fairly
satisfactory results and therefore remains as a standard
method in the glass industry to predict the residual
anneal.
Bartenev2 consolidated the relaxation and its tem-
. perature dependence by taking a solidification tempera-
6 E. D. Williamson, J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 12, 1 (1922).
6 The notations and units in this equation and hereafter have
been changed from the original for consistency in this paper.

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 THERMAL STRESS PROBLEMS IN GLASS 2083

INITIAL TEMPERATURE 593.5°C

I.S - - SINGLE STAGE
0.0 sec. - <0 H =0.0002 ENVIRN. TEMP. 20S·C "o~
----- MULTI STAGE
0.0 -7.0 s.c. H' 0.0015 ENVIRN. TEMP. 482 0 C
1.0 7.0 -25.0 sec. H = 0.0 II II

25:0-32.0 sec. H =0·0015

32.0 sec. - <0 H =0.0

;; .5
e
e
.....
FIG. 1. Single-stage and multistage anneal- '"
ing of 0.3-cm glass plate. ~

-.S

-1.0

-1.5

ture Tg as the transition point above which stresses in where

the glass relax out instantaneously (as with a viscous sinal j2hX ld sinu sint(ol-u) COSt(Ol+U)
liquid) and below which no relaxation occurs (as with 0"1=1- - - - du
an elastic solid). The solidification temperature Tg is 01 0 t(Ol-U) cos2u
determined from the glass composition, the cooling
rates, and the thickness of the plate. The residual 0"2= ~
4
{1- sin201
201
stresses were derived from similar reasoning as with
Adams and Williamson's method and were the only
sinu [sin(ol-U) ] }
stresses that could be calculated from that analysis.
The residual midplane stress 0"( 00) is given by the
-2 jo'lA1X/d
- 3
cos u
(
01-U
) COS(Ol+U) +1 du

following formula: and 01, d, E and /I denote the same quantities as before.
This method essentially refined Bartenev's method with
- 2aET
0"( 00 ) = ( g
jd 2In cos (2(hX)
l
-d dx, (3) a quadratic term in Tg. When the cooling rates are
1-/l)d 0
high the residual stress distribution in the thickness
where is the linear coefficient of expansion (per °C),
a according to Eq. (5) will no longer be a second-degree
E the Young's Modulus, /I the Poisson's ratio, d the parabola.
thickness (em), Tg the solidtfication temperature (0C), Lee et al. 4 extended Aggarwala and Saibel's method
and 01 is the first eigenvalue of the equation by using the experimental results of a relaxation test
instead of a single Maxwell model and employing the
atano=h'd/2, (4) shift property (William-Landel-Ferry law) deduced
where h' is the heat transfer coefficient (em-I). In a from various experiments8 for the temperature depend-
later paper7 Bartenev also discussed the choice and ence. Thus the viscoelastic law and its temperature
significance of Tg in order to make the analysis more dependence are given by
self-contained. ae .. (x t')
j
~
Aggarwala and Saibel3 assumed the deviatoric visco- S;j(x, ~) = 0 2G(~-~') 'J a~;" df
elastic behavior of glass to be represented by a Maxwell
model with the viscosity changing from zero to infinity 0"=3k(f-3a[T(x, t) -T(x, O)JI
at the same solidification temperature as Bartenev's.
By taking the linear coefficient of heat expansion as a
linear function of temperature, a=ao+a1T, the residual
~= [cp[T(X, t')Jdt'
o
stress is expressible as a sum of two terms corresponding and
to ao and a1 10glO'P(T) =A (T-TB ), (6)
(5)
8 F. L. Bagley, Jr. and T. C. Woo, Proceedings of the Fourth
International Congress on Rheology, Pt. Z (Interscience Publishers,
7 G. M. Bartenev, Steklo i Keram. 7, (1950). Inc., New York, 1965), p. 643.

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 2084 T. C. WOO

INITIAL TEMPERATURE 593.5 0 C

1.5 ENVIRN. TEMPERATURE 205 0
C
H' 0.0002

------ WITHOUT BOUNDARY RAD.

1.0
- - WITH BOUNDARY RAD .

N .5
E
E
"-
co
:t. FIG. 2. Effect of boundary radiation of
(f)
0
----------::::-- O.3-cm plate annealing.
(f)
w
a:
f-
(f)

-.5

-1.0

-1.5

where Sij, eij and u, € are the deviatoric and volumetric
stresses and strains, respectively, T the temperature,
and cp(T) a shift function which "extrapolates" for the
relaxation function at that particular temperature from
that at a base temperature T B. The constant A was
determined from the experiments to be 0.0386 for
soda-lime glass when T B = 538°C. The numerical itera-
tions are rather involved but can be successfully
handled by a high speed computer so that both transient
and residual stresses are calculated. Since the transient
stresses are printed out at each time step, they serve
to indicate whether excessive temporary surface tensions
are present or not, thus enabling one to have an
appraisal of a particular heat treatment.
The formulation of the last method not only modifies
the temperature dependence of the viscoelastic property
from an abrupt change to a gradual one, but also
removes the somewhat cryptic parameter Tg from the
analysis. The treatment therefore separates out the
environment conditions (cooling rates) and the geom-
etry (thickness of the plate) from the material proper-
ties which now are based entirely on independent data.
A wider variety of problems can be treated within this
framework as will be seen in the next sections.
EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL RESULTS
Discussion
cided exactly point-by-point with the calculated one
(an incredible feat judging that all the parameters and
especially material functions are subject to considerable
inaccuracies). Aggarwala and Saibel did not furnish
experimental results but the theoretical results should
be dose to Bartenev's since the former is a refinement
of the latter. The method by Lee et al. has been used
for annealing when the heat transfer coefficient is in
the range of 0.0001-0.001 cal;oCosecocm2 and for
tempering, in the range of 0.005-0.05. The residual
stresses within almost the entire range agree fairly
well in order of magnitudes with what has been observed
in practice and even the evolution of transient stresses
have been verified in bench-type experiments as far as
the general timing and magnitudes are concerned. The
method due to its full generality can also be very
advantageously used for comparative purposes and for
simulating processes when construction of actual equip-
ment would be costly and time-consuming. To furnish
some numerical results, let us consider an annealing
problem of 1.4 cm glass plate. The residual center
tension according to Eq. (2) is 0.158 kg/mm2 with the
cooling rate of 5°C/min. Calculations by the method
of Lee et al. gives residual center tension of 0.123
kg/mm2 with the initial glass temperature of S6S.6°C
and initial environment temperature of SS4.SoC de-
creasing at S.SSoC/min in simulation of the constant
cooling rate 5°C/min on the surface. The environmental

As for experimental verification, Adams and William-

son's method generally gives reasonable results for
annealing but not for tempering. In Bartenev's method9
the residual stress profile observed in experiment coin-

• G. M. Bartenev, Dokl. Akadem. Nauk. 60, (1948). FIG. 3. The coordintate system for asymmetric problem.

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 THERMAL STRESS
STRESS (K Imm 2 )
8.31
5.82
f-
z
4.0 o
a::
....
2.0
FIG. 4. Symmetric tempering of O.3-cm
glass plate.
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
-8.0
conditions can also be more varied with the last
method. 10 The comparison between a single-stage and a
multistage process, for instance, is indicated in Fig. 1;
the effect of the boundary radiation on the stresses is
assessed by incorporating a radiation term in the itera-
tive scheme (Fig. 2). Aside from the free slab configura-
tion as utilized for glass tempering and annealing, solu-
tions to the problems with other configurations for
other viscoelastic materials can be readily adapted for
glass. The fully constrained slab and free sphere prob-
lem, for example, have been solved for polymethyl-
methalcrylate,u The analysis can further be conven-
iently extended to asymmetric heat transfer conditions
on the two surfaces, to be discussed in the sequel.
It is also of interest to compare the residual stress
determination in the methods of Lee et at. and Adams
and Williamson. The equation for residual stresses in the
former was derived on the basis of neglecting viscoelastic
effects when the whole plate cools down to a fairly
low temperature at the so-called "hardening time" t* as
O'(X, 00) =O'(x, t*) -O'e(x, t*)
= -[O'e(X, t*) -O'(x, t*) ]
=- (the stresses lost by viscous yielding), (7)
where O'(x, t*) and O'e(X, t*) are the viscoelastic and
elastic stresses at the hardening time t*, respectively.
It is seen that Eq. (7) reduces to the same argument
as in Adams and Williamson's method.
It may be added that while the general viscoelastic
10 Since the publication of the paper by Lee et at. the computer
program has been rewritten using iterative method for the temper-
ature calculations together with a few generalizations on the other
parts. The results shown in this paper are based on the revised
program.
11 R. Muki and E. Sternberg, J. Appl. Mech. 28, 193, (1961).
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PROBLEMS IN GLASS 2085
0.1 sec.
INITIAL TEMPERATURE
0-1.5 sec HF =H B =.023 Col/sec-cm2 - o
C
1.5 sec - CO H F = H B = .01
ENVIRN. TEMPERATURE 61 ° C
approach by Lee et at. seems to be more realistic and
versatile, the material function data and their tempera-
ture dependence are by no means final. Refinement
through more reproducible experimental results would
certainly be very desirable. One of the important facets
of glass properties that has been neglected in all the
aforementioned papers is the fictive temperature,12 It
characterizes the past thermal histories of the glass
plate before the heat treatment. A much more sophis-
ticated approach may have to be taken for assessing its
influences on the stress buildup. Also the effect due to
the temperature dependence of the linear coefficient
of expansion is excluded in the methods discussed above
except in that by Aggarwala and Saibel, where a linear
function of temperature was assumed. A general func-
tion of temperature can also be incorporated in the
method by Lee et at. through some revision of the
computer program since the plate is subdivided into
several layers for the iterations and the particular
coefficient of thermal expansion values pertinent to
the temperature in that layer under consideration can
be used. The effect on the stress buildup due to a
variable thermal expansion coefficient may be very
pronounced, but unfortunately the temperature depend-
ence of the thermal expansion coefficient has not yet
been measured exactly and such data are comparatively
meager.
Asymmetric Problem
The asymmetric problem is to be analyzed analog-
ously as in the paper of Lee et al. 4 The deviatoric
stresses are related to the deviatoric strains through
the relaxation function G in terms of a reduced time
scale ~. The variable ~ comprises the physical time t and
12 A. Q. Tool, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 29, 240 (1946).
 2086 T. C. WOO

STRESS (Kg/mm 2 )

759
<0
6.49

5.37
4.0 4.33

3.5
2.0
FIG. 5. Asymmetric tempering of O.3-cm
glass plate.
0.1 sec.
-2.0 INITIAL TEMPERATURE 649°C
. {HF =0.023 Cal/sec.- cm 2 _oC
-4.0 0-1.5 sec.
He =0.015

t
-6.0 HF = 0.01
1.5 sec.- CO
He =0.006
-8,0 ENVIRN. TEMPERATURE 61° C
RESIDUAL RADIUS 5,349 cm.

the shift function which prescribes the temperature tion integrals permits the above equation to be ex-
dependence of the viscoelastic properties. The volu- pressed in a simpler form in terms of the auxiliary
metric response is assumed to be elastic. These funda- function RW, first introduced by Muki and Sternberg,!l
meri tal rela tionships have been summarized in Eq. (6). which satisfies the Volterra-type integral equation
With the coordinate axes taken as shown in Fig. 3, the
present problem is solved with the zero resultant force 41~ aR(~')
- G(~-n --de+R(~)=2GW
and zero resultant moment conditions: ~ 0 ~ •

The equation for 0'22(XI, t) can now be written in the

for all t. (8) form

This is again a plane stress problem, i.e.,
If we assume that the circular cylindrical surface has
no distortion at any instant (d., Fig. 3) the in-plane
strains will be a linear function of Xl
where aCt) and bet) are unknown functions of time and
l/b(t) gives the radius of curvature of the plate at any
time due to the asymmetric temperature conditions.
The strain Ell will be an unknown function of both Xl
and t but can be eliminated by using the second part
of Eq. (6). The system of stress-strain relations then
reduces to a single equation for the nonzero stress com-
ponent 0'22 ( =0'33)
0'22(XI, t) =3 [ R[~(XI' t) -HXI' t') ] (a/at')
o
X[a(t')+xlb(t') -aT(xI, t')]dt'. (9)
The Eqs. (8) and (9) are coupled integral equations
which can be solved numerically for the unknowns
O'dXI' t), aCt), and bet). The iterative scheme and
residual stress and strain calculations are given in the
Appendix. Two examples, one with symmetric and the
other with asymmetric temperature conditions are given
in Figs. 4 and 5. It can be seen that the stress symmetry
is not affected greatly but the residual curvature in the
asymmetric case is not quite negligible. For a free plate
with radius of 100 cm the sag in the middle would be
about 0.94 cm. The solution to the asymmetric problem
can be used effectively for predicting the intentional
curvatures in thermal-warping processes on:one hand,
or setting the control limits on the temperature condi-
tions of the two surfaces so as to meet the flatness
requirement on the other.

=3 t 2G(~-e) (a/a~')[E22(XI' n
o
-aT(xI, e)Jd~'. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the

As shown in the previous paper,4 the theory of convolu- PPG Industries for the permission to publish this paper.

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 THERMAL STRESS PROBLEMS IN GLASS 2087

APPENDIX: ITERATIVE FORMULAS AND RESIDUAL STRESSES IN THE

ASYMMETRIC PROBLEM
The Eq. (9) becomes, after integration by parts, (with subscript 1 omitted on x)
O"22(X, t) =3R(0) [a(t) +xb(t) -aT(x, t) +aT(x, 0)]

-3 t
o
[a(t') +xb(t') -aT(x, t') +aT(x, 0) J(a/at') {R[Hx, t) -Hx, t') Jldt.'

Letting t1=0, tn=t, ai=a(ti), bi=b(ti), Ti=T(x, ti), Ri=R[Hx, tn)-t(x, ti)], and ti be intermediate values, we
have

where

n-2
- L{[ai+ai+l+x(bi+bi+1) +a(2T1-Ti-T H1 ) J(Ri-Ri+l) I
i=l

is the quantity that is known previous to nth step. The quantities an and bn are determined from the Eq. (8) to be
an = (AnEn - BnDn)! (CnEn - Dn2)
bn= (BnCn- AnDn) / (CnEn - Dn2)
where

Cn = t
o
[R(O) +Rn_1]dx,

En= to
x2[R(0) +Rn- 1]dx.

For the residual stress and strain, we apply the same argument as before to get
0"22 (x, 00) =0"22(X, t*) -3R(0) [ae(t*) +xbe(t*) -aT(x, t*) +aT(x, 0)],
where t* is the hardening time and ae(t) and beet) are obtained from using Eq. (8) on elastic stresses as

ae= (2/d2) {2d f a[T(x, t) -T(x, 0) ]dx-3 fax[T(X, t) -T(x, 0) ]dX} ,

be=(6/1fl) {z{ ax[T(x, t)-T(x, O)]dX-d{ a[T(x, t)-T(x, O)]dX}.

The residual strain is found f;rom the relation
O"e(X, t*) = -3R(0) [E22(X, 00) -E22(X, t*) -aT(x, 00) +aT(x, t*)],
E22(X, 00) = [ -0" e(x, t*) /3R(0) ]+E22(X, t*) +aT(x, 00 ) -aT(x, t*)
= {[a(t*) -ae(t*)]+a[T(x, 00) -T(x, O)]l+x[b(t*) -be(t*)],
therefore the residual radius of curvature is identified to be l/[b(t*) -be(t*)].

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