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T. C. Woo
Analysis of thermal stress, fracture strength, and the effect of ion exchange on high average power
phosphate glass slab lasers
J. Appl. Phys. 67, 1784 (1990); 10.1063/1.345604
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JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS VOLUME 39, NUMBER 4 MARCH !968
The development of the residual stresses in a glass plate undergoing a heat treatment is discussed in the
light of viscoelasticity. Emphasis is placed on the method in which measured material functions are used.
Advantages are pointed out of such a method versus other existing methods and the extension to an asym-
metric thermal stress problem is given for an illustration.
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THERMAL STRESS PROBLEMS IN GLASS 2083
;; .5
e
e
.....
FIG. 1. Single-stage and multistage anneal- '"
ing of 0.3-cm glass plate. ~
-.S
-1.0
-1.5
following formula: and 01, d, E and /I denote the same quantities as before.
This method essentially refined Bartenev's method with
- 2aET
0"( 00 ) = ( g
jd 2In cos (2(hX)
l
-d dx, (3) a quadratic term in Tg. When the cooling rates are
1-/l)d 0
high the residual stress distribution in the thickness
where is the linear coefficient of expansion (per °C),
a according to Eq. (5) will no longer be a second-degree
E the Young's Modulus, /I the Poisson's ratio, d the parabola.
thickness (em), Tg the solidtfication temperature (0C), Lee et al. 4 extended Aggarwala and Saibel's method
and 01 is the first eigenvalue of the equation by using the experimental results of a relaxation test
instead of a single Maxwell model and employing the
atano=h'd/2, (4) shift property (William-Landel-Ferry law) deduced
where h' is the heat transfer coefficient (em-I). In a from various experiments8 for the temperature depend-
later paper7 Bartenev also discussed the choice and ence. Thus the viscoelastic law and its temperature
significance of Tg in order to make the analysis more dependence are given by
self-contained. ae .. (x t')
j
~
Aggarwala and Saibel3 assumed the deviatoric visco- S;j(x, ~) = 0 2G(~-~') 'J a~;" df
elastic behavior of glass to be represented by a Maxwell
model with the viscosity changing from zero to infinity 0"=3k(f-3a[T(x, t) -T(x, O)JI
at the same solidification temperature as Bartenev's.
By taking the linear coefficient of heat expansion as a
linear function of temperature, a=ao+a1T, the residual
~= [cp[T(X, t')Jdt'
o
stress is expressible as a sum of two terms corresponding and
to ao and a1 10glO'P(T) =A (T-TB ), (6)
(5)
8 F. L. Bagley, Jr. and T. C. Woo, Proceedings of the Fourth
International Congress on Rheology, Pt. Z (Interscience Publishers,
7 G. M. Bartenev, Steklo i Keram. 7, (1950). Inc., New York, 1965), p. 643.
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2084 T. C. WOO
N .5
E
E
"-
co
:t. FIG. 2. Effect of boundary radiation of
(f)
0
----------::::-- O.3-cm plate annealing.
(f)
w
a:
f-
(f)
-.5
-1.0
-1.5
where Sij, eij and u, € are the deviatoric and volumetric cided exactly point-by-point with the calculated one
stresses and strains, respectively, T the temperature, (an incredible feat judging that all the parameters and
and cp(T) a shift function which "extrapolates" for the especially material functions are subject to considerable
relaxation function at that particular temperature from inaccuracies). Aggarwala and Saibel did not furnish
that at a base temperature T B. The constant A was experimental results but the theoretical results should
determined from the experiments to be 0.0386 for be dose to Bartenev's since the former is a refinement
soda-lime glass when T B = 538°C. The numerical itera- of the latter. The method by Lee et al. has been used
tions are rather involved but can be successfully for annealing when the heat transfer coefficient is in
handled by a high speed computer so that both transient the range of 0.0001-0.001 cal;oCosecocm2 and for
and residual stresses are calculated. Since the transient tempering, in the range of 0.005-0.05. The residual
stresses are printed out at each time step, they serve stresses within almost the entire range agree fairly
to indicate whether excessive temporary surface tensions well in order of magnitudes with what has been observed
are present or not, thus enabling one to have an in practice and even the evolution of transient stresses
appraisal of a particular heat treatment. have been verified in bench-type experiments as far as
The formulation of the last method not only modifies the general timing and magnitudes are concerned. The
the temperature dependence of the viscoelastic property method due to its full generality can also be very
from an abrupt change to a gradual one, but also advantageously used for comparative purposes and for
removes the somewhat cryptic parameter Tg from the simulating processes when construction of actual equip-
analysis. The treatment therefore separates out the ment would be costly and time-consuming. To furnish
environment conditions (cooling rates) and the geom- some numerical results, let us consider an annealing
etry (thickness of the plate) from the material proper- problem of 1.4 cm glass plate. The residual center
ties which now are based entirely on independent data. tension according to Eq. (2) is 0.158 kg/mm2 with the
A wider variety of problems can be treated within this cooling rate of 5°C/min. Calculations by the method
framework as will be seen in the next sections. of Lee et al. gives residual center tension of 0.123
kg/mm2 with the initial glass temperature of S6S.6°C
and initial environment temperature of SS4.SoC de-
EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL RESULTS creasing at S.SSoC/min in simulation of the constant
cooling rate 5°C/min on the surface. The environmental
Discussion
• G. M. Bartenev, Dokl. Akadem. Nauk. 60, (1948). FIG. 3. The coordintate system for asymmetric problem.
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THERMAL STRESS PROBLEMS IN GLASS 2085
STRESS (K Imm 2 )
8.31
5.82
f-
z
4.0 o
a::
....
2.0
FIG. 4. Symmetric tempering of O.3-cm
glass plate.
0.1 sec.
-2.0
INITIAL TEMPERATURE
-4.0
0-1.5 sec HF =H B =.023 Col/sec-cm2 - o
C
1.5 sec - CO H F = H B = .01
-6.0 ENVIRN. TEMPERATURE 61 ° C
-8.0
conditions can also be more varied with the last approach by Lee et at. seems to be more realistic and
method. 10 The comparison between a single-stage and a versatile, the material function data and their tempera-
multistage process, for instance, is indicated in Fig. 1; ture dependence are by no means final. Refinement
the effect of the boundary radiation on the stresses is through more reproducible experimental results would
assessed by incorporating a radiation term in the itera- certainly be very desirable. One of the important facets
tive scheme (Fig. 2). Aside from the free slab configura- of glass properties that has been neglected in all the
tion as utilized for glass tempering and annealing, solu- aforementioned papers is the fictive temperature,12 It
tions to the problems with other configurations for characterizes the past thermal histories of the glass
other viscoelastic materials can be readily adapted for plate before the heat treatment. A much more sophis-
glass. The fully constrained slab and free sphere prob- ticated approach may have to be taken for assessing its
lem, for example, have been solved for polymethyl- influences on the stress buildup. Also the effect due to
methalcrylate,u The analysis can further be conven- the temperature dependence of the linear coefficient
iently extended to asymmetric heat transfer conditions of expansion is excluded in the methods discussed above
on the two surfaces, to be discussed in the sequel. except in that by Aggarwala and Saibel, where a linear
It is also of interest to compare the residual stress function of temperature was assumed. A general func-
determination in the methods of Lee et at. and Adams tion of temperature can also be incorporated in the
and Williamson. The equation for residual stresses in the method by Lee et at. through some revision of the
former was derived on the basis of neglecting viscoelastic computer program since the plate is subdivided into
effects when the whole plate cools down to a fairly several layers for the iterations and the particular
low temperature at the so-called "hardening time" t* as coefficient of thermal expansion values pertinent to
the temperature in that layer under consideration can
O'(X, 00) =O'(x, t*) -O'e(x, t*) be used. The effect on the stress buildup due to a
variable thermal expansion coefficient may be very
= -[O'e(X, t*) -O'(x, t*) ] pronounced, but unfortunately the temperature depend-
ence of the thermal expansion coefficient has not yet
=- (the stresses lost by viscous yielding), (7) been measured exactly and such data are comparatively
meager.
where O'(x, t*) and O'e(X, t*) are the viscoelastic and
elastic stresses at the hardening time t*, respectively.
It is seen that Eq. (7) reduces to the same argument Asymmetric Problem
as in Adams and Williamson's method.
The asymmetric problem is to be analyzed analog-
It may be added that while the general viscoelastic
ously as in the paper of Lee et al. 4 The deviatoric
stresses are related to the deviatoric strains through
10 Since the publication of the paper by Lee et at. the computer
program has been rewritten using iterative method for the temper- the relaxation function G in terms of a reduced time
ature calculations together with a few generalizations on the other scale ~. The variable ~ comprises the physical time t and
parts. The results shown in this paper are based on the revised
program.
11 R. Muki and E. Sternberg, J. Appl. Mech. 28, 193, (1961). 12 A. Q. Tool, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 29, 240 (1946).
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2086 T. C. WOO
STRESS (Kg/mm 2 )
759
<0
6.49
5.37
4.0 4.33
3.5
2.0
FIG. 5. Asymmetric tempering of O.3-cm
glass plate.
0.1 sec.
-2.0 INITIAL TEMPERATURE 649°C
. {HF =0.023 Cal/sec.- cm 2 _oC
-4.0 0-1.5 sec.
He =0.015
t
-6.0 HF = 0.01
1.5 sec.- CO
He =0.006
-8,0 ENVIRN. TEMPERATURE 61° C
RESIDUAL RADIUS 5,349 cm.
the shift function which prescribes the temperature tion integrals permits the above equation to be ex-
dependence of the viscoelastic properties. The volu- pressed in a simpler form in terms of the auxiliary
metric response is assumed to be elastic. These funda- function RW, first introduced by Muki and Sternberg,!l
meri tal rela tionships have been summarized in Eq. (6). which satisfies the Volterra-type integral equation
With the coordinate axes taken as shown in Fig. 3, the
present problem is solved with the zero resultant force 41~ aR(~')
- G(~-n --de+R(~)=2GW
and zero resultant moment conditions: ~ 0 ~ •
This is again a plane stress problem, i.e., 0'22(XI, t) =3 [ R[~(XI' t) -HXI' t') ] (a/at')
o
X[a(t')+xlb(t') -aT(xI, t')]dt'. (9)
If we assume that the circular cylindrical surface has
no distortion at any instant (d., Fig. 3) the in-plane The Eqs. (8) and (9) are coupled integral equations
strains will be a linear function of Xl which can be solved numerically for the unknowns
O'dXI' t), aCt), and bet). The iterative scheme and
residual stress and strain calculations are given in the
Appendix. Two examples, one with symmetric and the
where aCt) and bet) are unknown functions of time and other with asymmetric temperature conditions are given
l/b(t) gives the radius of curvature of the plate at any in Figs. 4 and 5. It can be seen that the stress symmetry
time due to the asymmetric temperature conditions. is not affected greatly but the residual curvature in the
The strain Ell will be an unknown function of both Xl asymmetric case is not quite negligible. For a free plate
and t but can be eliminated by using the second part with radius of 100 cm the sag in the middle would be
of Eq. (6). The system of stress-strain relations then about 0.94 cm. The solution to the asymmetric problem
reduces to a single equation for the nonzero stress com- can be used effectively for predicting the intentional
ponent 0'22 ( =0'33) curvatures in thermal-warping processes on:one hand,
or setting the control limits on the temperature condi-
tions of the two surfaces so as to meet the flatness
requirement on the other.
=3 t 2G(~-e) (a/a~')[E22(XI' n
o
-aT(xI, e)Jd~'. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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THERMAL STRESS PROBLEMS IN GLASS 2087
-3 t
o
[a(t') +xb(t') -aT(x, t') +aT(x, 0) J(a/at') {R[Hx, t) -Hx, t') Jldt.'
Letting t1=0, tn=t, ai=a(ti), bi=b(ti), Ti=T(x, ti), Ri=R[Hx, tn)-t(x, ti)], and ti be intermediate values, we
have
where
n-2
- L{[ai+ai+l+x(bi+bi+1) +a(2T1-Ti-T H1 ) J(Ri-Ri+l) I
i=l
is the quantity that is known previous to nth step. The quantities an and bn are determined from the Eq. (8) to be
an = (AnEn - BnDn)! (CnEn - Dn2)
bn= (BnCn- AnDn) / (CnEn - Dn2)
where
Cn = t
o
[R(O) +Rn_1]dx,
En= to
x2[R(0) +Rn- 1]dx.
For the residual stress and strain, we apply the same argument as before to get
0"22 (x, 00) =0"22(X, t*) -3R(0) [ae(t*) +xbe(t*) -aT(x, t*) +aT(x, 0)],
where t* is the hardening time and ae(t) and beet) are obtained from using Eq. (8) on elastic stresses as
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