6th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

Contemporary achievements in civil engineering 20. April 2018. Subotica, SERBIA

STRUT – AND – TIE MODEL FOR ANALYSIS OF

PILES CAP

Radomir Folić 1
Boris Folić 2
Ilija M. Miličić 3 UDK: 624.072.2.012.45
DOI: 10.14415/konferencijaGFS2018.002
Summary: Technical beam theory is not applicable for the analysis of non-standard
reinforced concrete structural elements (D-region), especially when members are
exposed to significant shear stress and/or torsion. In this case strut – and – tie models
(STM), which give reliable results, are used. In this paper we present a review of
theoretical bases and application of STM for design. The focuse is also on the detailing
of pile caps for diferent numbers of piles (2, 3 and 4) in the foundation. Some
international recommendations are also commented (ACI, EN 1992, etc.).

Keywords: Pile foundation, pile cap, strut–and–tie methods, shear strength, punching

1. INTRODUCTION

Piles are structural members used to transmit surface loads to lower levels in the soil
mass. This transfer could be made by a vertical distribution of the load along the pile
shaft (friction pale) or by a direct application of load to a lower stratum through the pile
base (end – bearing pile) [10]. However, most piles carry loads as combination of side
resistance and point bearing except when the pile penetrates an extremely soft soil to a
solid base. Pile caps are structural elements that fulfil the function of transmitting the
load from superstructure (column or a wall) to a group of concrete piles. A cap is
necessary to spread the vertical and horizontal loads and overturning moments to all the
piles in the group. Pile cap may be designed using one of the following methods:
conventional design method; finite element method (FEM), and strut-and tie method.
Historically pile cap has been designed by the following methods: the truss analogy; ACI
Code; AASHTO LRFD Standard and Strut – and – Tie model (STM). The literature on
the design of pile caps is limited [4]; exception is Germany School [17]. In the UK used
British building code CP110 and recommendation of Cement and Concrete Association.
In EN 1992 [7], it is possible to use both procedures: reinforcement in a pile cap should
be calculated either by using strut-and-tie or flexural methods is appropriate (Clause.

1
Prof. Emeritus Dr Radomir Folić, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Science, Department CE&G,
Serbia, tel: ++381 21 459 798, e – mail: folic@uns.ac.rs
2
Dr Boris Folić, University of Belgrade, Inovative Center, Faculty of Machanical Engineering, Belgrade
3
Ilija M. Miličić, PhD, CE, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, Kozaračka 2a,
24000 Subotica, Serbia, e – mail: milicic@gf.uns.ac.rs

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9.8.1). The conventional method, illustrated in [15], and [10] consists of four steps. First
step related to determine the load of each pile is given by:

1.05 • N
Ppl = ≤ Pallwablw (1)
n
In which P=pile working load; 1.05 factor taking into account the pile cap self weight;
n =Number of piles;
N=working load of the column,
Pallowable=allowable pile load.
For eccentrically loaded pile cap, the load per pile is given by:

N My Mx
Ppile = + x+ y ≤ Pallowable
n ∑x ∑ y2
2 (2)

Where
Mx , My - moment about x and y axes, respectively,
x and y - distances from y and x axes to any pile.
Second step (one-way shear strength of pile cap) the critical section is located at d/2;
where d is depth of the pile cap.
Step 3: Two-way (punching) shear strength of the pile caps. The punching load can be
calculated as:

Four steps is design for flexure [10].

Pile cap bending moments can be obtained using FEM using commercially software.
The pile cap is modelled using shell elements while the pile modelled using spring
element. Usually sectional method is employed for flexible pile caps, where the distance
between the axis of any of any pile to the column face is more the twice the height of the
pile cap [12]. Usually, in Code [1] & [7], the reference section used to calculate the
factored shear force is taken at a distance d from the column face, where d is the
effective depth of the pile cap. However, failure by punching shear is checked in a
control perimeter d/2 from the column face [1] and [9], or at a distance 2d [7].
Punching shear is verified as in slabs (ACI 318-14) [1]. This sectional method is
employed for flexible pile caps. The slab thicknesses in the evaluation of the shear
resistance consider in some design codes. The joint committee report of ACI – ASCE
445 (1998), on shear and torsional has given a detailed commentary on the use of STM
for design of disturbed region, including pile cap.
In this paper strut-and-tie model is described and illustrate its using in special case of
disturbed region (non flexural member in RC structures), i.e. pile caps wit different
geometrical shape depend of number of pile. Example related for pile cap for two, three
and four pile as most used in practice design buildings pile foundation.

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6th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
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2. DESIGN USING THE STRUT – AND – TIE METHODS

The ordinary beam theory based on Bernoulli's assumption not applicable regions of
members (D-region), or discontinuity in geometry, shall be designed for shear and
torsion using strut-and-tie model (STM). Pile cap are three-dimensional discontinuity
region in which three is a complex variation in straining not adequately captured by
sectional approaches. A new design procedure (STM) for all D region, including pile
caps, has bee adopted by the Canadian Code in 1984 and AASHTO LDFD bridge design
in 1994, and ACI 318-2002, and 2005 [4], in RC structures. International committee of
concrete (FIB) described solving structural design problems with ST Models and
published publish book [8] in 2011 year. First part of book contents footing under
uniaxial and footing under biaxial bending, and pile cam for precast concrete piles.
Based on these examples authors conclude “the STM allows us to understand the
creation of the models and the verification of the elements, struts, ties and nodes.
The examples give in [2] illustrates use STM's for design of pile cap. Two load cases are
considered: 1) axial load only, and 2) axial load and overturning moment. The design is
based on Appendix A of ACI 318/02. Results are compared to section design
proceedings per ACI 318/99. Compared to section design methods, STM design is more
rational and leads to a more reliable structure. In all examples reinforced bars are located
above the piles; overall footing depth is increased compared to traditional design in
which the bars are placed between piles [2].
In design idealised prismatic strut used. The STM is based on lower bond theory of
plasticity assuming that steel and concrete are frequently plastic and efficiency factors
are applied to uniaxial strength of concrete to account for concrete softening.

The ST procedure is relatively straightforward and involves following steps [4]:

1. Develop STM. The strut and ties serve to condense or replace the real stress
field by resultant straight lines and concentrate their curvature in nodes.
2. Calculate the strut and tie forces to satisfied equilibrium.
3. Determine dimensions of the strut and ties for internal forces.
4. Determine the reinforcement to resist the ties and check the capacity of the
struts against the internal forces.
5. Check the capacity of the nodal region for anchorage of the steel bars.

The STM is a design method which uses a hypothetical equivalent truss (spatial truss) to
represent the stress field in structural concrete members in the ultimate limit state (ULS).
For control of cracking under service loads, the magnitude of principal tensile stress can
be checked using the principles of Mohr's Circle [11]. Nonlinear strain distributions
typically exist in deep pile caps. The principle of the method is to simulate the flow of
forces in cracked RC, after plastic redistribution has occurred, by using struts, ties and
connecting nodes Fig. 1. The STM consist of: major diagonal compression diagonals
(strut); tension ties and truss nodes.
Figure 2 show the ST model usually employed for two-pile caps. The column is
subjected to a centred load and has a rectangular cross section. The struts go from the
column base, on the top of the pile cap, towards axes op piles at the reinforcement level.
The design load Nd is distributed equally to the two struts, being applied at distance 0.25
a form the column axes, where a is the dimension of the column cross section in the

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direction of the piles [12]. Compressed stresses in the struts are evaluated on nodes 1 and
2, below the column and over the piles, respectively, and are given by:
Nd
σ c1 = (3)
Ac sin 2 θ 0
Nd
σ c2 = (4)
2 Ap sin 2 θ 0
Where AC is area of the column cross section and AP is area of the pile cross section.
These stresses are compared with concrete effective strength fcd,ef, to ensure safety
against crashing of the strut. It is usually adopted fcd,ef =1.2 fcd for two pile caps, fcd,ef =1.5
fcd for three pile caps, and fcd,ef =1.8 fcd for four pile caps; where fcd is the design value of
the uniaxial compressive strength of concrete [12]. Because d' > 0 and dispersion of the
contact stresses up to level of reinforcement (reduction of σ c 2 ) and alternative proposal
model show in [12].

Figure 1. Description of strut-and-tie Figure2. Classical strut-and-tie model for

model, after [1] two-pile caps, after [12]

Steel reinforcement must be provided within the tension ties to carry tension force when
the steel is at yield. Further, the steel must be sufficiently anchored to carry the tie force
along its entire length [7] and [11]. The nodes at which the strut and ties meet must also
satisfy compression-stress limits. The different nodes in STM are usually referred to
according to the members they are connecting, C for every strut (member) and one for
every tie; the common nodes are presented in Fig. 3. The strength of reinforced strut
(first part related to unreinforced strut) is given by:

AS f y 0.67 f cu
FC = AC f Cd +
γs
where f cd = βs (5)
γc
where
Ac – area of effective cross section of strut,
fcd – limiting compressive stress,
Ast – is area of reinforcement,
fy – yield strength of steel,

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6th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
Contemporary achievements in civil engineering 20. April 2018. Subotica, SERBIA

γs = 1.3, and γc = 1.6, β=1.0 for prismatic strut with constant cross section; β=0.7 for
botelled shape (BS) strut paralel to direction of crackes; and β=0.6 for BS strut not
paralel with direction of crackes. Load combinations are given in EN 1990: 2002.
EN 1992 [7] specifies that the inclination of the direct strut (angle between strut and tie)
should be sufficiently high:

1 ≤ tgθ ≤ 2.5 or 450 ≤ θ ≤ 68.20 (6)

However, angles smaller than 300 are unrealistic and involve high compability strains
(ACI 318 permits angles up to 250 [13].
Strength of tie given by [1]:

[
Pn = f y Ast + Aps f pe + f y ] (7)
Where
fy – yield strength of mild steel longitudinal reinforcement,
Ast – total area of non-prestressed steel in the tie,
Aps – area of prestressing steel,
fpe – stress in prestressing steel due to prestress after losses; β is obtained from
Fig.3.

Β = 1.0 β = 0.8 β = 0.6

Fig. 3. Classification of nodes in ST Models Fig. 4. Strength of CCT nodal zone

according to different design code

The nodal zone over the pile is referred to as CCT-node because it receives two struts
and one tie. In order to avoided crashing of the strut it is necessary to limit σ c 2 ≤ f cd 2 .
Limit to the compressive stress to the compressive stress f cd 2 in some codes is different
[12] as follow:
ACI 318-14 f cd 2 =0.68fcd;
Canadian Code CSA: 2014 f cd 2 =0.70fcd;
 f 
EN 1992 (EC2): 2004 f cd 2 = 0.851 − ck  f cd , and
 250 

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1/ 3
 30 
FIB Model Code 2010 (2013) f cd 2 = 0.50  ,
 f ck 
 f ck 
CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 (1993) f cd 2 = 0.601 −  f cd
 250 
Figure 4 show the variation of f cd 2 with the caracterisitic strength fck according this
f ck
standard, considering f cd = . Equations of ACI and EC2 provided the higest
1.5
values. Therefore, conservatively, it is adopted the expresion of FIB or CEB – 90 [12].
Adaptable STM for design and verification of four pile show in [14] and [16]

3. DETAILING PILE CAPS

The distance from the outer edge of the pile to the edge of the pile cap should be such
that the tie forces in the pile cap can be properly anchored [7]. Geometry and detailing of
reinforcement depend of number of piles. Figure 5 show lustration detailing for pile cap
with three and four pile. For widely spaced piles (L>4Øp , Fig. 5d), the regions in
between the piles are also reinforced. It is necessary to arrange for “supporting stirrups”
along the edges (supporting stirrups are also necessary with indirect supports) [6]. The
main tensile reinforcement to resist the action effests should be concentrated in the stress
zones metween the tops of the piles. A minimum bar diameter Ømin is 8mm should
provided. An orthogonal grid of reinforcement must be provided near the faces of the
components to control the significant cracking expected at the limit when the struts and
ties are realized.

a)

b)

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6th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
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c)

d)
Figure 5. Pile cap supported by three or four piles; a) top view; b) strut-and-tie models;
c) scheme of the reinforcement; d) case of cap with large distance between the pile
L>4Ø, after [6]

4. CONCLUSION

Strut – and – tie methods (STM) is a simple method which effectively expresses
complex stress patterns as pile caps models. STM is based on truss analogy and usually
adopted to design non-standard elements as pile caps. STM is a lower bound plastic
theory which means it is safe providing that [5]:
• Equilibrium is satisfied.
• The structure has adequate ductility for the assumed struts and ties to develop.
• Struts and ties are proportioned to resist their design forces.
STM is a powerful engineering tool where the engineer can design different pile caps for
centrically and eccentrically forces.

Acknowledgements
This paper was done with the financial assistance of the Ministry of Science, Education
and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia, within the project for
technological development TR 36043.

REFERENCES

[7] ACI – 14: Building code requirements for structural concrete, and Comentary ACI-
318R – 14, FH ACI, 2014. Appendix A (ACI 318-08).

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6. МЕЂУНАРОДНА КОНФЕРЕНЦИЈА
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[8] ACI SP-208: Examples for design of structural concrete with Sstrut-and-tie models,
Ed. K.H. Reineck, 2002.
[9] Adebar, P., Zhou, L. Z.: Design of deep pile caps by strut-and –tie models, ACI
Structural journal,, July-August, Vol. 93, No.4, 1996, pp.437-448.
[10] Ahmad, S. Shah, A., Zaman, S.: Evaluation of the shear strength of four pile cap
using strut and tie model (STM), Journal of the Chinese Instititute of Engeneering,
Vol. 32, No.2, 2009, pp. 243-249
[11] Chantelot, G., and Matheren, A.: Strut-and-tie modelling of reinforced concrete pile
caps, Master's Thesis Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, 2010
[12] https://www.scribd.com/document/245585535/Design-With-Strut-and-Tie-Model,
download, February 2013. (Design with strut – and – tie models, Ch. 14)
[13] EN 1992 (EC2). Design of concree structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules
for buildings. Brussels, ECS, 2004.
[14] Fib (CEB-FIP): Design examples for strut-tie models, Bul. No. 61, Task Group 1.1,
Design Applications, September 2011.
[15] Fib: fib model code 2010, Lausiane, 2013.
[16] Ghoneim M. A., El-Mihilmy M.T.: Design of reinforced concrete structures, Vol 3.
Cairo University, 2008.
[17] Mertz, D.R.: The strut-and tie- model, AASHTO LRFD, ASPIRE, Winter 2011.
[18] Milton de Araújo, J.: Design of rigid pile caps through an iterative Strut-and-Tie
Model, J. of Advanced Concrete Technology, Vol.14,, 2016, pp. 397-407.
[19] Nori, V.V., Tharval, M.S.: Designe of pile caps – Strut and tie method (Point of view),
The Indian Concrete Journal, April, 2007, pp. 13 – 19
[20] Park, J.W. , Kuchma, D., Souza, R.: Strength prediction of pile caps by a strut-and-
tie model approach, Can. J. Civil Eng. Vol. 35, 2008, pp. 1399-1413.
[21] Sklena, J.: Proračun temelja, AGM knjiga, Beograd, 2008.
[22] Souza, R..,, Kuchma, D. Park, J., Bittencourt, T.: Adaptible strut-and-tie model for
design and verification of fur-pile caps,ACI Structural journal, 2009, Vol 106, No. 2
pp. 142 – 150.
[23] Schliach, J., Shafer,K.: Design and detailing of structural concrete using strut-and-
tie models, The structural enginieer, Vol. 69, No. 6, May-June, 1991, pp. 113-125

PRIMENA ŠTAPNIH MODELA U ANALIZI KAPE

TEMELJA NA ŠIPOVIMA

Rezime: Tehnička teorija savijanja nije primenljiva kod analize nestandardnih

armiranobetonskih (AB) nosača, naročito kada su izloženi znatnim smičućim naponima
i/ili torziji. U takvim slučajevima se koriste uprošćene analize, koje daju dovoljno tačne
rezultate, za praktične probleme. Rad je usmeren na primenu štapnih modela (pritisnuti
kosnici i zatege) kod analize i oblikovanja detalja temeljnih kapa („jastuka“) kod
fundiranja na šipovima. Pri tome korišćene su i komentarisane neke međunarodne
preporuke (ACI, EN 1992, i dr.).

Ključne reči: Kapa šipova, metod pritisnuti kosnici i zatege, smicanje, proboj

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