© National Strength and Conditioning Association
Volume 27, Number 4, pages 80–85
Keywords: chaos; fractal; periodization; intensity; volume
Periodization Essentials and Innovations
in Resistance Training Protocols
Lee E. Brown, EdD, CSCS, *D, FACSM
California State University-Fullerton, Fullerton, California
Mike Greenwood, PhD, CSCS, *D, FACSM
Baylor University, Waco,Texas
summary
The following article deals with the
important topic of periodization
from a theory of fractal similarity. It
attempts to establish a link between
different cycles during a year-long
training program, which may assist
the reader in designing and writing
a more comprehensive resistance
prescription.
s a starting place, it is imperative
A to first discuss the concept of
periodization in relation to all
fitness components (1, 6). Please note
that for the purpose of general discus-
sion, we will discuss only a select sample
of what is commonly termed classic or
traditional periodization in this article.
Obviously, additional models and varia-
tions of periodization exist (i.e., Fit-
ness/Fatigue Theory, Undulating Model,
Repeated Mesocycle Model), and for
complete information on these topics,
we refer you to a recent and valuable
80
discussion provided by Plisk and Stone
in 2003 (11).
In the United States, periodization be-
came a catchphrase in the 1960s to pro-
mote an exercise system that, if de-
signed correctly, would help to prevent
overtraining while optimizing peak
performance through progressive train-
ing cycles (14). Periodization gained its
popularity and application from a
physiological theory called the General
Adaptation Syndrome or GAS (15).
GAS refers to the body’s ability to adapt
to a variety of physiological stressors as-
sociated with exercise programs (i.e.,
strength training, interval training, and
aerobic exercise) that occur in one of
three phases. Phase I, or what is com-
monly termed the shock or alarm phase,
occurs during the initial phases of the
exercise program (the first 3–4 weeks,
depending on the fitness level of the ex-
ercise participant); this phase is primar-
ily a neurological adaptation to the
stress being placed on the body. During
Phase II, or the super compensation
stage, the human body progressively
adapts to exercise stress in the form of
various physiological adjustments (i.e.,
biochemical, skeletal, muscular, con-
nective tissue, cardio-respiratory). This
progressive adaptation continues until
August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal
the individual reaches his or her desired
exercise and fitness goals or the period
when optimal performance is para-
mount during competition. In Phase
III of GAS, which should be avoided,
the individual enters the dreaded over-
training phenomena that is primarily
associated with physiological and psy-
chological staleness and/or exhaustion,
and hence a decrement of performance
occurs. This phase also is referred to as
the maladaptation stage. Thus, if you
support the notion of exercise training
progression, a systematic plan of peri-
odization can be created by manipulat-
ing GAS to enhance performance and
to prevent overtraining.
This innovative, systematic progres-
sive training plan has been labeled pe-
riodization cycles. The initial stage of
periodization is commonly referred to
as the macrocycle. The macrocycle con-
stitutes the overall training period and
plan, such as preparing for an athletic
competition that will take place 1 year
in the future. During that year of
training, the athlete goes through a se-
ries of progressive mesocycles—which
can last from weeks to months, de-
pending on the program goals desired
and the athlete’s progress—that allows
the athlete to reach optimal perfor-
mance levels prior to his or her compe-
tition while also avoiding overtrain-
ing. The mesocycle can be divided into
smaller segments (microcycles), which
can be periods of even 1-week dura-
tion, to concentrate on or isolate
sport-specific training considerations
in the periodization scheme.
Although a variety of periodization
schemes can be employed, a traditional
or classic periodization design for an
athlete could begin with a series of
mesocycles starting with a Transition I
phase. Transition I typically occurs
during the period right after a season
of competition. During the Transition
I phase, active rest is emphasized for
3–4 weeks so the athlete has some
much-needed recovery time from the
wear and tear of the competitive sea-
son. Active rest can be defined as a pe-
riod of little or no formal training,
with participation in recreational ac-
tivities and low-volume, nonspecific
resistance training and conditioning
(14). In this example, the periodiza-
tion phase would be considered a de-
training phase, as opposed to a training
or nontraining phase, but can be an
optional choice based on the program
and the athlete’s sport-specific needs.
In addition, others have placed a tran-
sition phase between the preparatory
and competition phases, with an em-
phasis on 1–3 sets, 1–3 repetitions,
with very high intensity and low vol-
ume (3).
After Transition I is completed, the
athlete moves into another mesocycle,
the preparatory period (competition
preparation), which comprises three
phases: hypertrophy, strength, and
power. In the hypertrophy phase, the
emphasis is placed on establishing a
fitness base, which is usually accom-
plished by performing resistance train-
ing with high volume (3–6 sets, 10–20
repetitions), low intensity (50–75% of
1 repetition maximum [1RM]), 2–3
times per week. This phase also is char-
acterized by low-intensity aerobic ac-
August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal
tivity, beginning low-level plyometric
drills, and even static flexibility ma-
nipulation, because once again, the
emphasis is placed on progression and
the hypertrophy phase is the start of
that progression (14). It could be that
various athletes are beyond the static
flexibility stage during the hypertro-
phy phase, and after appropriate base-
line assessments are administered, can
quickly move to other flexibility train-
ing variations. No doubt, a strong em-
phasis here would be a progression to
flexibility training that would positive-
ly contribute to sport-specific goals
and demands. There is even progres-
sion built within the hypertrophy
phase itself. By adjusting the Big 3
(volume, intensity, frequency), pro-
gression is built into each phase of the
periodization model. For example, the
hypertrophy phase usually lasts from
4–6 weeks (depending on fitness level,
fitness progression, and program
goals), but note the options available
with 3–6 sets per muscle group, 10–20
repetitions per exercise, and 2–3 days
per week (14). Early in the hypertro-
phy phase, the athlete may begin with
3 sets per muscle group, 10 repetitions
per exercise, and 2 days a week, only to
progress to the higher volume, intensi-
ty, and frequency options toward the
end of the phase. It should be noted
that in every periodization phase, some
experts employ a heavy/medium/light
training intensity during each week
and include this technique throughout
the entire year (3).
Once the athlete’s physiological adap-
tations have reached their peak in the
hypertrophy phase, there is a transition
into the strength phase involving mod-
erate resistance training volume (3–5
sets, 4–8 repetitions) and intensity
(80–90% of 1RM), with a frequency of
2–4 times a week. Aerobic activity,
flexibility (static to dynamic to propri-
oceptive neuromuscular facilitation),
and plyometric training also progress
to a moderate level of intensity in order
to continue the journey toward opti-
mal training and performance levels.
During this phase, the more complex
movements (i.e., power cleans, hang
cleans, push presses) typically are per-
formed first in the training session
with an emphasis on multi-joint move-
ments before single joint movements,
due to the tremendous fatiguing effects
associated with higher intensity levels
and total body exercises. Further, dur-
ing the strength phase more emphasis
is placed on infusing speed develop-
ment, such as towing and downhill ac-
tivities, into the training protocol. It is
recommended that all athletes have an
adequate strength-training base before
including speed development drills;
this typically occurs in the strength
phase (14).
As the athlete enters the power phase,
the primary resistance training thrust
becomes lower volume (3–5 sets, 2–5
repetitions) and high intensity (90–95%
of 1RM lift), 2–4 times a week. The
goal is to reach the highest levels of
strength and power that are required for
an individual athlete in his or her given
sport, which ultimately promotes opti-
mal peaking right before competition
begins. All other complementary activi-
ties (i.e., aerobic, plyometrics, flexibili-
ty, speed development) also are per-
formed at a high periodized intensity.
However, it is recommended that plyo-
metric and speed-development training
occur on separate days from resistance
training, due to the high intensity lev-
els associated with the power phase
(14). The same rules apply for power
lifts and multi-joint movements that
were prevalent in the hypertrophy
phase, with the exception of increased
recovery times between exercise sets
due to the athlete’s work at nearly max-
imum intensities (14).
A week or so before the competitive
season starts, some strength and condi-
tioning experts opt to use another
transitional phase to allow the athlete a
brief detraining period before begin-
ning the grind of competition, but this
81

Figure 1. A typical fractal object drawn on a computer.
Figure 2. A typical 1-year macrocycle graph of a periodization model depicting the
undulating inverse relationship between intensity and volume.
alternative is optional. The decision to
include an additional transition phase
often depends upon whether or not the
athlete has reached his or her training
goals and can afford to move into the
next mesocycle (competition or main-
tenance phase). Once again, the em-
phasis in a transitional phase here is to
perform 1–3 sets of 1–3 repetitions,
with very high intensity and low vol-
ume (3). Although postassessment pro-
cedures can help determine if the ath-
lete has reached his or her optimal
82
training level, athletes differ in the
sense that some can work at higher in-
tensities than others, and some recover
more quickly from an exercise bout
than others. So here, the moral of the
story is to have specific knowledge
about the individual athletes and mon-
itor/adjust the periodization scheme
accordingly to reduce the chances of
experiencing overtraining. That is
what periodization is all about: devel-
oping individualized exercise protocols
to optimize peak performance, to in-
August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal
clude adequate recovery strategies, and
to eliminate the possibilities of over-
training/injury.
In the competition or maintenance
phase, the challenge is to maintain
some semblance of the physiological
adaptations (i.e., strength, power,
speed, flexibility, aerobic function)
that were developed over the course of
the mesocycles to that point. As any
athlete knows, the course of the com-
petitive season can be physically and
psychologically taxing, so infusing ad-
ditional strength and conditioning
time into the schedule is not always
convenient or accepted in a positive
manner. However difficult it may be,
strength and conditioning during the
competitive season is a necessary
process. There is no logical or scientific
rationale for an athlete to work
through months of blood, sweat, and
tears to reach optimal performance lev-
els, only to lose those gains within a
matter of a few weeks. This is what will
happen if strength and conditioning is
not included during the competitive
season. The key element within the
competition phase is to maintain phys-
iological adaptation levels gained
throughout the previous mesocycles by
promoting the athlete’s strength and
conditioning frequency, volume, and
intensity with two training sessions a
week, if possible. So what magic train-
ing techniques can one use to accom-
plish this monumental feat? The use of
multi-joint exercises (i.e., reduced-
load power cleans, squats, bench) is
recommended, because they promote
sport-specific total body/multi-joint
training; this makes good use of the
limited strength and conditioning time
available during the season. The Essen-
tials of Strength Training and Condi-
tioning text lists an intensity of
80–85% of 1RM with moderate vol-
ume of 2–3 sets and 6–8 repetitions
during the maintenance phase (14). Of
course, this can vary depending on in-
dividual fitness levels and program
goals or needs.
Although competitive schedules vary
from sport to sport, it is vital to select
training days where hard, medium, and
light schedules can be utilized. For ex-
ample, football players compete in
games once a week, which usually occur
on a Friday or Saturday. It then becomes
possible to schedule resistance training
with a hard-to-medium protocol on a
Monday/Tuesday and a medium-to-
light protocol on a Wednesday/Thurs-
day. However, it becomes more of a chal-
lenge to schedule resistance training
during the season for sports like base-
ball, because teams often compete 4–5 Figure 3. A typical 3-month mesocycle showing undulating intensity and volume.
times a week. No matter what the chal-
lenge, the athlete and the certified
strength and conditioning specialist
need to develop creative ways to main-
tain previously attained physiological
gains to the best of their abilities. After
the competitive season is over, it is time
to start again with the Transition I
phase. It should be noted that this is just
one example of a systematic periodiza-
tion scheme. The periodization protocol
will vary from athlete to athlete and
from sport to sport.

Since its inception, the professional fit-

ness world has learned that in addition
to reaching peak performance at the pre-
cise time and avoiding overtraining,
properly designed periodization exercise
programs must be not only safe and pro-
gressive, but individualized and sport-
or activity-specific. In other words, any
exercise program protocol must be able
to be specifically tailored to meet the fit-
ness and health needs of any person in
any situation. This has become increas-
ingly evident with the general fitness
population, specialized athletes, and in-
dividuals functioning in clinical health
environments.
Fractal Periodization
In an attempt to better elucidate the
concept of periodization, the following
provides a novel approach to designing
its major cycles. The approach is called
fractal periodization. A fractal object
(Figure 1) is one that is self-similar at in-
Figure 4. A typical 2-week microcycle showing undulating intensity and volume.
creasing levels of magnification (8).
That is, the closer you look at the object,
the more it looks like itself. The coast-
line of California is an example of a frac-
tal element. If viewed from outer space,
it would appear craggy and irregular. If
viewed from an airplane, it also would
appear craggy and irregular. In the same
manner, if one stood atop a tall building
and looked at the coastline, it would ap-
pear irregularly shaped, and even if one
were to stand at the shore and watch the
waves lapping up, it still would appear
irregular.
A fractal is a function of mathematics
and nonlinear dynamics (4). It is
born out of chaos theory, which is
best explained as deterministic com-
plexity and not disorder (7). Peri-
odization, as we generally perceive it,
is designed to meet the training goals
of an individual on a nonlinear basis.
The periodized training program is
designed to affect the major training
variables of intensity, volume, and
rest by varying each one. Fractal peri-
odization is just a way to look at the
whole training cycle. That being, a
long periodization cycle should be
self-similar at increasing levels of
magnification or shorter periods of
training time.
Chaos and fractal theories tell us that if
two variables differ by an arbitrarily
small amount at the beginning, they
will diverge dramatically over the long
run (12). This will cause the system to
be unpredictable over time. This is

August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 83


Figure 5. A typical 1-day training session of 4 sets showing undulating intensity and
volume.
called “sensitive dependence on initial
conditions” (9). In the same way, a pe-
riodization model for any given time
period is dependent on the initial start-
ing conditions of intensity, volume,
and rest (10). The determination of
these control variables is what sets a
periodized program apart from linear
training alone. It is the undulation of
intensity, volume, and rest that make
periodization training models result in
strength outcomes that outperform
linear models (12).
Training Cycles
Periodization therefore can be seen to be
fractal in a time series (2, 13). It looks
similar when broken down by macrocy-
cle, mesocycle, and microcycle. The in-
verse relationship between intensity and
volume is replicated across the time se-
ries. Figure 2 is a graphical example of a
year-long periodization cycle that shows
how intensity and volume are inversely
related to each other. One can see from
comparing Figure 2 with Figure 3,
which depicts a 3-month cycle, that it is
self-similar. In other words, the same
undulating inverse relationship between
intensity and volume exists even at the
smaller time series. Furthermore, Figure
4 shows a typical 2-week cycle that looks
very similar to the 3-month cycle. This
self-similarity is carried all the way
down to a 4-set, 1-day training cycle de-
picted in Figure 5.
84
In other words, volume and intensity are
related at all levels. Increasing the mag-
nification of the periodization cycle by
focusing on a shorter time series reveals
very little about that cycle. The time se-
ries always looks similar and the undu-
lating manner of the variables remains
the same.
In a typical periodization cycle, the
starting point determines the finish-
ing point. A miscalculation at the be-
ginning may put the finish point
many weeks off from peaking. This
again is “sensitive dependence on ini-
tial conditions”(9). It is analogous to
sending a rocket to the moon and mis-
calculating the firing point by only a
fraction of a degree. The outcome may
be that the rocket misses the moon by
1,000 miles. In periodization, a mis-
calculation in training volumes or in-
tensity might result in overtraining or
not enough intensity to peak (2, 5,
10).
Conclusion
The key to managing a proper peri-
odization cycle, then, is to choose
wisely at the beginning of the training
program, based on an accurate and rel-
evant fitness assessment and needs
analysis, in order to maximize the
adaptation. Understanding the fractal
nature of periodization design may
help to prescribe training from week to
August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal
week. The mutuality of volume and in-
tensity will ultimately affect the out-
come of any training regimen. ♦
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Brown

Lee E. Brown is an associate professor of

Kinesiology at California State University-
Fullerton, Fullerton, California.

Greenwood

Mike Greenwood is a professor at Baylor

University, Waco,Texas.

August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 85