Composites Science and Technology 70 (2010) 847–853

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Composites Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compscitech

Role of surface treatment on water absorption of poly(vinyl chloride)

composites reinforced by Phyllostachys pubescens particles
H. Wang, K.C. Sheng *, T. Lan, M. Adl, X.Q. Qian, S.M. Zhu
School of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Water absorption is one of key parameters in quality assessment of wood-plastic composites. The influ-
Received 6 July 2009 ence of surface treatment of lignocellulosic particles on water absorption of composites made from poly(-
Received in revised form 15 January 2010 vinyl chloride) (PVC) and moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) particles was studied. The effect of
Accepted 23 January 2010
modification with three kinds of chemical treatment agent (alkali, silica and oxidant) on particle surface
Available online 8 February 2010
was examined. The concentration and pH values of the agent aqueous solutions were analyzed and their
relationships with water absorption, porosity ratio, thermal property, micro-structure and hemicelluloses
Keywords:
content were evaluated. Results showed that pH values of aqueous solutions had little impact on water
A. Particle-reinforced composites
B. Surface treatment
absorption of the composites while the types of treatment agents did. Alkali treatment lowered the con-
A. Phyllostachys pubescens tent of hemicelluloses in moso bamboo particles and thus reduced corresponding water absorption.
Water absorption Water resistance improvements of silicate or oxidant treated particles reinforced composites were due
to changes of porosity ratio. In general, surface treatment improved water resistance of moso bamboo
particles reinforced PVC composites. Compared with the other two agents, sodium bisulfite enhanced
the compatibility between cellulose particles and granulated PVC.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Natural fiber composites are one of the outstanding topics now-
adays to make reconciliation between industry and environment.
Many efforts have been done to investigate the suitability of natu-
ral fibers as a reinforcing component of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
polymers during the last few years. A brief summary of tested
materials and investigated parameters through Refs. [1–7] have
been presented in Table 1. These composites show high mechanical
and thermal properties, thus they are widely used in different pur-
poses from construction materials to decorative parts and from
aerospace components to vehicles’ compartments. Moso bamboo
(Phyllostachys pubescens) is a famous plant due to its broad applica-
tions in wood industry and constructional works. The natural fiber
reinforced plastic composites that utilize this plant have drawn
much attention because of their biodegradability and environmen-
tal friendly nature. Kim and his colleagues studied morphology and
mechanical behavior of PVC/bamboo flour composites [8]. A com-
parison of tensile properties, morphology and thermal behavior be-
tween PVC composites containing bamboo flour and pine flour was
done in another research work and showed their suitability as
wood-like materials [9]. The role of wood particles in thermoplas-
tic composites has been comprehensively studied in a number of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 571 86971209; fax: +86 571 86971139.
E-mail addresses: hwang@zju.edu.cn (H. Wang), kcsheng@zju.edu.cn (K.C.
Sheng).
researchers such as the work of Stokke and Gardner [10]. These
composites often encounter limitations in application because of
low water resistance. Researchers have previously found the water
resistance of PVC composites proportionally dependent with the
volume fractions of fibers as well as the interface bonding
[11,12]. An improvement in water resistance of moso bamboo rein-
forced PVC composites would significantly enhance their qualities
and consequently widened their applications.
An enormous amount of researches had been invested in study-
ing the modification of natural fibers and their subsequent charac-
terizations in composites. Kim et al. [8] used poly(styrene-co-
maleic anhydride)–block–poly(styrene-co-acrylonitrile) as a novel
coupling agent in making PVC/bamboo flour composites. Vilay and
Cui et al. concluded that chemical treatment reduced the hydroxyl
group in structural molecules of the cells’ wall in natural fibers and
resulted in lower water absorption of the composites [13,14]. Bilba
et al. used silane to treat bagasse fiber and improved the hygro-
scopic behavior of its reinforced cementitious composites [15].
Bessadok et al. investigated influence of chemical modifications
of Agave and Alfa (Stipa tenacissima) fiber [16,17] and found that
both fiber and fiber interface would affect fibers’ water sorption.
Demir et al. regarded that water absorption was caused by hydro-
gen bonding between free hydroxyl groups in cellulose molecules
and water molecules as well as the adhesion between fiber and
matrix [18]. Acrylonitryl and anhydride acetic were also used to
treat moso bamboo fibers [19,20]. However, roles of different types
of surface treating solutions and their concentrations on water

0266-3538/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2010.01.023
848 H. Wang et al. / Composites Science and Technology 70 (2010) 847–853
Table 1
Brief summary of investigated materials and parameters concerning natural fiber-PVC composites from selected researches.
Refs. Type of fiber(s) Polymer matrix and additive(s)
no.
[1] Bagasse, rice straw, rice PVC + styrene-ethylene-butylene-
husk, pine fiber styrene (SEBS)
[2] Oil palm empty fruit PVC + benzoyl chloride + NaOH
bunch (OPEFB)
[3] OPEFB PVC + epoxidized natural rubber
(ENR) + poly methyl acrylate
[4] OPEFB PVC + ENR + poly methyl acrylate
[5] Wood flour PVC + Zn and Pb stearates + zeolite
[6] Rubber wood sawdust PVC + low density poly-ethylene
(LDPE), methyl methacrylate + silane
[7] Banana wood fiber PVC
absorption of moso bamboo particles reinforced PVC composites,
especially prosperity ratio and compatibility changes still seem
unclear.
This article presents an experimental assessment of different
types of aqueous solutions as surface treating agents, including alka-
li solution, silicate solution and oxidizing solution as well as their
concentrations on water absorption of moso bamboo particles rein-
forced PVC composites. Concentration and pH value were employed
as the characteristics of different aqueous solutions. Water absorp-
tion, porosity ratio, thermal behavior and micro-structure morphol-
ogy were adopted to evaluate the manufactured composites. The
mechanism of surface treatment of moso bamboo particles and its
effects on water absorption and other mentioned parameters in
bamboo fiber reinforced PVC composites were analyzed by consid-
eration of the impact of type and concentration of above mentioned
chemical solutions. This experimental procedure laid a framework
for a systematic study of surface treatment and its influence on
water resistance of natural fiber reinforced composites and aimed
to find the most effective treatment agent among the investigated
chemical solutions and its optimum concentration.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Sawdust of moso bamboo was collected from a local moso bam-
boo processing factory in Lin’an, Zhejiang, China. The moso bam-
boo was dried at 75 °C to 3% moisture content and then ground
by a hammer mill to a particle size range of 200–400 lm. Granu-
lated PVC (M-1000, about 300 lm diameter) from Shanghai
Chlor-Alkali Chemical Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China) was used as the
polymer matrix. Sodium hydroxide (purity >96%) was supplied
by Hangzhou Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. (Hangzhou, Zhejiang, Chi-
na). Sodium silicate was bought from Rugao Zhongbang Chemical
Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Sodium bisulfite was supplied by
Shanghai No. 4 Reagent & HV Chemical Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China).
The moso bamboo particles were soaked in sodium hydroxide,
sodium silicate, sodium bisulfite solutions (solutions temperature
was 20 ± 3 °C) at different concentrations (0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5% and
10%) for 15 min, then washed with distilled water for several
times. After that they were dried in a blast drying oven (GZX-
9140 ME Electric Blast Drying Oven, Shanghai Boxun Co., Ltd.) at
75 °C.
2.2. Preparing the composite specimens
Closed mould hot compressing technique was used to fabricate
bamboo–PVC composites in this study. Inner size of the mould was
Investigated parameters
Storage modulus, tensile strength, impact strength, glass-transition temperature,
degradation temperature, thermal activation energy, water absorption, thickness
swelling
Tensile strength, impact strength, adhesion quality, water resistance, glass-transition
temperature
Glass-transition temperature, thermal stability
Ultimate tensile strength, Young’s modulus, elongation at break, flexural modulus,
hardness and impact strength
Thermal stability, decomposition temperature
Tensile strength, impact strength, glass-transition temperature, morphological
properties
Tensile strength, impact strength, specific weight
152  152  h mm, where h was the thickness of the composites.
The bamboo–PVC mixing ratio as well as operational parameters
(temperature, pressure and time) was adopted according to pre-
ceding research work [11]. Moso bamboo particles obtained after
surface treatment were mixed with PVC at a weight proportion
of 7:3. Then they were put into the mould homogeneously and
molded in a hot press molding machine (GT-7014-A50C, GOTECH).
The mould was preheated at 170 °C for 3 min, and pressed at
180 °C by a pressure of 10 MPa for 5 min. In this study five repli-
cates of each sample were taken and the average values were cal-
culated for the following analysis.
2.3. Characterizations
2.3.1. Water absorption of the composites
Water absorption tests were conducted in accordance with
ASTM D570-98 [21]. The specimens were dried at 75 °C for 4 h
and weighed (Wo), then immersed in distilled water at room tem-
perature (20 °C) for 2 h and 24 h respectively. The composites
specimen was removed from water afterwards and dried with bib-
ulous paper to remove the water present on composites’ surface
and weighed again to measure the saturated weight (Wt). The
water absorption was calculated as follows:
Wt  Wo
Water absorption ð%Þ ¼  100 ð1Þ
Wo
2.3.2. Hemicellulose content of moso bamboo
Wood extractives were removed prior to analyze of structural
components of moso bamboo by the use of water according to TAP-
PI T264 [22]. Sugars were analyzed by 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid
(DNS) according to Miller (1959) [23]. Determination of c-cellulose
was carried on according to TAPPI T203 om-93 [24] with two rep-
licates per sample. This method was chosen due to lack of an ade-
quate method for analysis on degraded wood. Therefore, c-
cellulose mainly represented hemicellulose in moso bamboo with
this method.
2.3.3. Porosity ratio of the composites
The terms commonly used in composites are porosity and air
filled porosity, also known as free air space (FAS) [25]. Porosity of
composite samples is defined as the ratio of void volume to total
volume of the sample, including air and water filled voids. Eftoda
and McCartney [26] proposed that the total volume of air in a com-
posting matrix could be further divided into inter-particle and in-
tra-particle air voids based on whether it was contained in
interstitial voids between particles or in pore spaces within parti-
cles respectively. They distinguished the first one as the readily
 H. Wang et al. / Composites Science and Technology 70 (2010) 847–853
available air for aerobic microorganisms and named it free air
space (FAS); on the other hand the intra-particle voids represented
what they called unavailable air space (UAS) as it was not accessi-
ble to microorganisms.
In this study, the porosity ratios were FAS and defined as e and
measured in a liquid pycnometer. The pycnometer was initially
filled with ethyl alcohol and the weight (W1) was measured. The
oven dried sample was inserted after weighing (WS) into the empty
pycnometer. Then ethyl alcohol was added to fill the pycnometer
and final weight was measured (W2). At last, the saturated sample
was taken out and the free alcohol film on the surfaces of sample
was removed by bibulous paper and weighted (W3) immediately.
The measurement sequence of saturated samples was repeated
three times and the average of three replicates was adopted. The
porosity (e) was calculated by the following method.
VP W3  WS
e¼ ¼ ð2Þ
VP þ VS W1  W2 þ W3
where VP was the free air space volume of the samples, VS was the
volume of solid phase of the samples with unavailable air space.
2.3.4. The pH value of the solutions
The precision pH-meter (PHS-4CT, Shanghai Dapu Instruments
Co., Ltd.) was used to measure the pH values of disposal solutions
of different concentrations. The precision of the instrument is
0.001.
2.3.5. Thermal behavior of the composites
The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC 200F3, NETZSCH)
equipment was used to test the thermal property of raw moso
bamboo particles and bamboo–PVC composites [27]. DSC cali-
brated with indium standard prior to use. A heating rate of 15 °C/
min from 50 °C to 275 °C and a sample weight of 3–4 mg in an
aluminum crucible were used in a nitrogen atmosphere.
2.3.6. Micro-structure and morphology observation
Both surfaces morphology of moso bamboo particles and the
fracture surfaces of the samples were observed by scanning elec-
tron microscopy (SEM) (SIRION-10, FEI). The surfaces were coated
with a 20-nm thick gold layer prior to SEM operation.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Characteristics of the fabricated composites
3.1.1. Water absorption and tensile strength of the composites
As shown in Table 2, water absorption of the composites chan-
ged along with the concentration of surface treating aqueous solu-
tions. For alkali treatment, 2 h water absorption of the composites
decreased with concentration increasing of sodium hydroxide
aqueous solution. When the concentration of sodium hydroxide
doubled from 0.5% to 1%, the 2 h water absorption showed a
remarkable decreasing. The 24 h water absorption of these samples
Table 2
Water absorption of composites with different treated aqueous solutions.
Concentration of treated Sodium hydroxide
aqueous solution (w/w %)
2 h water 24 h water
absorption (%) absorption (%)
0 27.55 36.49
0.5 23.75 28.45
1 8.07 18.36
2 5.62 11.23
5 3.69 8.02
10 3.22 6.78
849
was larger than their corresponding 2 h, and they presented a
homologous trend as 2 h water absorption. Sodium silicate treat-
ment resulted in higher water absorption in composites than those
of sodium hydroxide. Both 2 h and 24 h water absorption followed
a fluctuating trend with concentration of sodium silicate solution
increasing. This trend was primarily descending for up to 1% con-
centration, and then showed a further increase at 2% and a mini-
mum value at 5% concentration respectively. Composites made
by oxidizing treated particles showed descending–ascending trend
in 2 h and 24 h water absorption with concentration increasing of
sodium bisulfate and a minimal value was observed pertaining 2%
concentration. The values for the later composites were less than
sodium silicate treated samples but larger than alkali treated ones.
As shown in Fig. 1, the effect of reagents was dose dependent. The
maximum tensile strengths were obtained when the concentration
reached 5%, as the concentration of solution went higher as to 10%,
the tensile strength of each bamboo particles reinforced PVC com-
posites (BPPC) decreased. This effect probably owned to the confor-
mation change of cellulose in the presence of these agents.
Functional groups such as hydroxyl became active, which made
it easier for the combination between bamboo particulate and
the polymer matrix, and thus improved interfacial adhesions. So
the composites showed an increased tensile strength with improv-
ing the stress transfer between the PVC and moso bamboo. But too
high concentration would cause moso bamboo fiber degradation
and thus the strength decreased at the concentration of solution
reached 10%.
3.1.2. Calorimetric measurements of the composites
Two crystalline peaks were detected in the calefaction process
of raw Phyllostachys particles reinforced PVC composites, which
conformed that parts of PVC (183 °C) and cellulose (153 °C) were
crystalloid (Fig. 2). Sodium hydroxide solutions did not show
remarkable effect on crystalline characteristics, which indicated
that sodium hydroxide solution did not react with cellulose in this
research. After sodium silicate treatment, crystalline peak of cellu-
lose disappeared and value of PVC peak reduced (180 °C). The crys-
tallization melting temperature of cellulose in the composites
increased (160 °C) with the treatment of sodium bisulfite and
PVC crystallization melting temperature reduced (177 °C). This
phenomenon indicated sodium bisulfite enhanced the compatibil-
ity between cellulose and PVC.
3.1.3. Surface morphology of moso bamboo particles
SEM studies revealed that spaces between Phyllostachys fibers
was increased (Fig. 3) after chemical solutions treatment, which
confirmed the removal of many components like hemicellulose
and lignin from the Phyllostachys fibers. And hemicellulose demon-
strated easier hydrophilic properties than cellulose. Among these
three solutions, sodium hydroxide solution had the best removal
result of hemicellulose and lignin from moso bamboo particles
(Fig. 3), which conformed with above results about water absorp-
tion and following results about hemicellulose contents.
Sodium silicate Sodium bisulfite
2 h water 24 h water 2 h water 24 h water
absorption (%) absorption (%) absorption (%) absorption (%)
27.55 36.49 27.55 36.49
22.91 30.56 13.68 26.65
21.90 28.23 9.82 22.19
25.84 32.68 9.26 21.89
14.54 21.16 11.90 22.43
16.04 25.77 14.29 23.54
850
Fig. 1. Tensile strengths of bamboo particles reinforced PVC composites.
Fig. 2. DSC characteristics of bamboo particles reinforced PVC composites: (a)
untreated, (b) 5% sodium hydroxide solution treated, (c) 5% sodium silicate solution
treated and (d) 5% sodium bisulfite solution treated.
Fig. 3. Surface morphology of moso bamboo particles: (a) untreated, (b) treated by 5% sodium hydroxide solution, (c) treated by 5% sodium silicate solution and (d) treated by
5% sodium bisulfite solution.
H. Wang et al. / Composites Science and Technology 70 (2010) 847–853
3.1.4. Micro-structure and compatibility of the composites
Fig. 4 showed the SEM of freshly fractured surface for micro-
structure of raw and treated moso bamboo particles reinforced
composites with 5% concentration solutions respectively. In
Fig. 4a rare physical contact was observed between these compo-
nents, hence the raw bamboo particles were not well interlocked
with PVC, and the interfacial adhesion between them was there-
fore poor.
To the contrary, it could be seen from Fig. 4b–d that the sur-
faces of composites had been modified comparing to the original
one. The outer cellular layer had been removed and the internal
structure of bamboo particles was exposed and prominently
rough upon solution treatments. Fig. 4b and c showed that bam-
boo particles’ surfaces with sodium hydroxide and sodium sili-
cate treatment were rough with some protrusions and a better
intimate contact between fiber and matrix was presented in
Fig. 4c. It had been suggested that during the alkali treatment
of micro bamboo particles the cellulose molecular chains lost
their crystalline structure and detachment of hemicelluloses
and lignin [28] and furthermore the bamboo particles might be-
come more disordered and easier to make compatibility with
granulated PVC. Such phenomenon was observed when the
authors mixed treated moso bamboo particles with granulated
PVC in a beaker compared with that of raw particles, in which
PVC clung onto the beaker wall because of its polarity [29].
Fig. 4d reflected disorder dispersion of moso bamboo particles.
This might interpret the poor tensile strength of sodium bisulfite
treated composites compared with the other two. But the com-
patibility was enhanced between bamboo particles and matrix
due to oxidization of cellulose.
According to SEM observations mentioned above all examined
surface treating solutions appeared effect on moso bamboo parti-
cles to obtain higher mechanical properties and better physical
qualities, although results upon three types of solutions were sig-
nificantly different.
 H. Wang et al. / Composites Science and Technology 70 (2010) 847–853
Fig. 4. Micro-structure of moso bamboo particles reinforced PVC composites: (a) untreated, (b) treated by 5% sodium hydroxide solution, (c) treated by 5% sodium silicate
solution and (d) treated by 5% sodium bisulfite solution.
3.2. Influence of chemical surface treatment on composites water
absorption
3.2.1. Effect of solution pH value on water absorption of composites
The highest pH value (13.83) was belong to sodium hydroxide
with 10% concentration and sodium bisulfite with a concentra-
tion of 10% had the lowest pH (3.90) (Fig. 5). Water absorption
of sodium hydroxide treated samples showed a relationship with
the pH changing of this solution, and higher concentration of so-
dium hydroxide aqueous solution resulted to lower water
absorption of the composites. The pH value changing of sodium
silicate aqueous solution was ascending with the increased con-
centration but with much lower values comparing to sodium
hydroxide. Water absorption of sodium silicate treated samples
did not decrease all through and did not have the same trend
as pH values. For sodium bisulfite, the pH value decreased with
the increasing of aqueous solution concentration but water
absorption of relevant composite samples did not present a clear
relationship.
Fig. 5. The pH value changes of each disposal solution with different
concentrations.
851
3.2.2. Relation between hemicellulose content of Phyllostachys and
water absorption of composites
Moso bamboo was constituted of cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin and the reported contents were usually in the range of 41–
50%, 23–28% and 21–27% respectively [30,31]. Both cellulose and
hemicellulose were high water absorbing materials so the water
absorption in bamboo–plastic composites had a direct relation-
ship with their contents in bamboo particles [10,11]. When the
content of hemicellulose changed, water absorption would also
change.
As shown in Fig. 6, higher concentration of sodium hydroxide
got more removal of hemicellulose, which was confirmed with pre-
vious researchers [32,33]. So water absorption of the composites
reduced with the concentration increased in sodium hydroxide
solution below 10%. Though sodium silicate aqueous solution pre-
sented an alkali condition, hemicellulose content in sodium silicate
treated moso bamboo particles did not show an obvious reduction.
So the water absorption presented a different characteristic with
sodium hydroxide treated samples. For sodium bisulfite, the
Fig. 6. Hemicellulose content of moso bamboo particles treated with different
aqueous solutions and different concentrations.
852 H. Wang et al. / Composites Science and Technology 70 (2010) 847–853
concentration did not have effect on the content of hemicellulose
in moso bamboo obviously.
3.2.3. Impact of chemical treatment on porosity ratio and its
relationship with water absorption of composites
The water absorption in composites was mainly dependent to the
presence of lumens, fine pores and hydrogen bonding sites existing
in moso bamboo particles, the gaps and flaws at the interfaces, and
the micro-cracks in the matrix formed during the compounding pro-
cess [10]. Fig. 7 showed simultaneously the porosity ratio, water
absorption and hemicellulose content of different solution treated
composites. This figure illustrated that the concentration of treating
agents did not show a meaningful influence on the porosity ratio of
composites. Sodium hydroxide would make the surface of bamboo
particles slicker and resulted in better interaction between matrix
and bamboo particles [34,35]. It could be found from Fig. 7b that so-
dium silicate created a relatively resembling trend in porosity ratio
and water absorption in particle treated composites, which corre-
sponded to a water absorption peak (at concentration of 5%) and a
minimum porosity (at concentration of 2%) respectively. Sodium
bisulfite had little impact on both porosity ratio and hemicellulose
content of composites and the lowest content of hemicellulose of
corresponding composites had the least water absorption. A part
of water absorption was due to water penetration in free pores and
cracks in the composites and another part was accompanied by free
surfaces of cellulose and hemicellulose, hence water absorption was
generally higher than porosity ratio as it could be found in all results
demonstrated in Fig. 5.
Fig. 7. Porosity ratio and water absorption versus hemicellulose content in composite samples treated with different aqueous solutions and different concentrations.
4. Conclusions
Three kinds of chemical surface treating agents, including so-
dium hydroxide (alkali agent), sodium silicate (silicate agent)
and sodium bisulfite (oxidant agent) were adopted to modify
moso bamboo particles surface and then reinforced PVC compos-
ites. By investigating the mechanisms of water absorption of the
composites, the main conclusions were made as follows: (1) Al-
kali treatment on moso bamboo particles improved water resis-
tance of the composites and higher concentration of alkali
solution would give rise to lower water absorption of the com-
posites; silicate treatment lead to a lower water absorption than
untreated composites, but higher than alkali treatment; oxidant
treatment got the least affected result. (2) The maximum tensile
strengths were obtained at the concentrations of 5%, as the con-
centration of solution went higher as to 10%, the tensile strength
of each BPPC decreased. Compared with the other two agents,
sodium bisulfite enhanced the compatibility between cellulose
and PVC. (3) The pH value of the aqueous solution did not show
an obvious effect on water absorption of the composites but the
type of treated agent presented an evident impact. (4) Alkali
treatment decreased the content of hemicellulose in bamboo
particles and thus got a lower value of water absorption, which
was confirmed by the spaces increasing of treated Phyllostachys
fibers. (5) Silicate and oxidant treatment lead to little improve-
ment in porosity ratio but they reduced the amount of hemicel-
luloses, which resulted in a relative change in water absorption
of the composites.
 H. Wang et al. / Composites Science and Technology 70 (2010) 847–853
Acknowledgements
The authors greatly appreciated the fund of Zhejiang Province
Technology Department for Young Talent Program (2008R40
G2010085) and fund of Education Department of Zhejiang Province
(G20050412).
References
[1] Xu Y, Wu Q, Lei Y, et al. Natural fiber reinforced poly(vinyl chloride)
composites: effect of fiber type and impact modifier. Journal of Polymers and
the Environment 2008;16(4):250–7.
[2] Abu Bakar A, Baharulrazi N. Mechanical properties of benzoylated oil palm
empty fruit bunch short fiber reinforced poly(vinyl chloride) composites.
Polym Plast Technol 2008;47(10):1072–9.
[3] Ratnam CT, Raju G, Ibrahim NA, et al. Characterization of oil palm empty fruit
bunch (OPEFB) fiber reinforced PVC/ENR blend. Journal of Composite Materials
2008;42(20):2195–204.
[4] Raju G, Ratnam CT, Ibrahim NA, et al. Enhancement of PVC/ENR blend
properties by poly(methyl acrylate) grafted oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber.
Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2008;110(1):368–75.
[5] Sombatsompop N, Taptim K, Chaochanchaikul K, et al. Improvement of
structural and thermal stabilities of PVC and wood/PVC composite by Zn and
Pb stearates, and zeolite. J Macromol Sci A 2008;45(7):534–41.
[6] Prachayawarakorn J, Khunsumled S, Thongpin C, et al. Effects of silane and
MAPE coupling agents on the properties and interfacial adhesion of wood-
filled PVC/LDPE blend. J Appl Polym Sci 2008;108(6):3523–30.
[7] Balzer PS, Vicente LL, Briesemeister R, et al. Study of the mechanical properties
of PVC/banana fiber composites. Polymeros 2007;17(1):1–4.
[8] Kim JY, Peck JH, Hwang SH, et al. Preparation and mechanical properties of
poly(vinyl chloride)/bamboo flour composites with a novel block copolymer as
a coupling agent. J Appl Polym Sci 2008;108(4):2654–9.
[9] Ge XC, Li XH, Meng YZ. Tensile properties, morphology, and thermal behavior
of PVC composites containing pine flour and bamboo flour. J Appl Polym Sci
2004;93(4):1804–11.
[10] Stokke DD, Gardner DJ. Fundamental aspects of wood as a component of
thermoplastic composites. J Vinyl Addit Technol 2003;9(2):96–104.
[11] Wang H, Chang R, Sheng KC, et al. Impact response of bamboo–plastic
composites with the properties of bamboo and polyvinylchloride (PVC). J
Bionic Eng 2008;5(Suppl. 1):28–33.
[12] Zhang W, Zhang XX, Liang M, et al. Mechanochemical preparation of surface-
acetylated cellulose powder to enhance mechanical properties of cellulose-
filler-reinforced NR vulcanizates. Compos Sci Technol 2008;68(Suppl.
12):2479–84.
[13] Vilay V, Mariatti M, Taib RM, et al. Effect of fiber surface treatment and fiber
loading on the properties of bagasse fiber-reinforced unsaturated polyester
composites. Compos Sci Technol 2008;68(3–4):631–8.
[14] Cui YH, Lee S, Tao J. Effects of alkaline and silane treatments on the water-
resistance properties of wood-fiber-reinforced recycled plastic composites. J
Vinyl Addit Technol 2008;14(4):211–20.
[15] Bilba K, Arsene MA. Silane treatment of bagasse fiber for reinforcement of
cementitious composites. Composites Part A – Appl Sci 2008;39(9):1488–95.
[16] Bessadok A, Marais S, Roudesli S, et al. Influence of chemical modifications on
water-sorption and mechanical properties of Agave fibres. Composites Part A –
Appl Sci 2008;39(1):29–45.
853
[17] Bessadok A, Marais S, Gouanve F, et al. Effect of chemical treatments of Alfa
(Stipa tenacissima) fibres on water-sorption properties. Compos Sci Technol
2007;67(3–4):685–97.
[18] Demir H, Atikler U, Balkose D, et al. The effect of fiber surface treatments on
the tensile and water sorption properties of polypropylene–luffa fiber
composites. Composites Part A – Appl Sci 2006;37(3):447–56.
[19] Di?u TV, Huân Ph?m Gia, Khái PX. Study on surface treatment of bamboo fibers
by acrylonitryl and properties of bamboo fibers reinforced polypropylene. TC
Hoá hoc 2005;43(5):590–4 [Vietnamese].
[20] Di?u TV, Nguyên Ph?m Duy Linh, Ðào Minh Anh. Study on the effect of surface
treatment of bamboo fibers by anhydride acetic on tensile strength of
polypropylene composite material. TC Hoá hoc 2005;43(4):479–83
[Vietnamese].
[21] American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). ASTM D570-98. In: 2002
Annual book of ASTM standards. West Conshohocken (PA): ASTM; 2002.
[22] TAPPI Standard T 264 cm-97, TAPPI Standard T 264 cm-97. Preparation of
wood for chemical analysis; 1997.
[23] Miller GL. Use of dinitrosalicylic acid reagent for determination of reducing
sugar. Anal Chem 1959;31:426.
[24] TAPPI Standard T 203 om-93, TAPPI Standard T 203 om-93. Alpha-, beta- and
gamma-cellulose in pulp; 1993.
[25] Ruggieri Luz, Gea Teresa, Artola Adriana, et al. Air filled porosity
measurements by air pycnometry in the composting process: a review and a
correlation analysis. Bioresour Technol 2009;100:2655–66.
[26] Eftoda G, McCartney D. Correlating bench-scale FAS test to full scale windrow
composting performance. In: Michel FC, Rynk RF, Hoiting HAJ, editors,
Proceedings of the international symposium composting and compost
utilization, Columbus, OH, USA, 2002. p. 204–20.
[27] Ash BJ, Siegel RW, Schadler LS. Glass-transition temperature behavior of
alumina/PMMA nanocomposites. J Polym Sci Polym Phys 2004;42(1):
4371–83.
[28] Goda K, Sreekala MS, Gomes A, et al. Improvement of plant based natural fibers
for toughening green composites – effect of load application during
mercerization of ramie fibers. Composites Part A – Appl Sci 2006;37(12):
2213–20.
[29] Rowell RM, Caulfield DF, Sanadi AR, ODell J. Thermoplasticization of Kenaf and
compatibilization with other materials. In: International Kenaf association
conference, New Orleans; 1994.
[30] Yao F, Wu QL, Lei Y, et al. Thermal decomposition kinetics of natural fibers:
activation energy with dynamic thermogravimetric analysis. Polym Degrad
Stab 2008;93(1):90–8.
[31] Scurlock JMO, Dayton DC, et al. Bamboo: an overlooked biomass resource?
Biomass Bioenergy 2000;19:229–44.
[32] Ren JL, Peng F, Sun RC. Preparation of hemicellulosic derivatives with
bifunctional groups in different media. J Agric Food Chem 2008;56(23):
11209–16.
[33] Pejic BM, Kostic MM, Skundric PD, et al. The effects of hemicelluloses and
lignin removal on water uptake behavior of hemp fibers. Bioresour Technol
2008;99(15):7152–9.
[34] Sreekala MS, Kumaran MG, Thomas S. Oil palm fibers: morphology, chemical
composition, surface modification, and mechanical properties. J Appl Polym
Sci 1997;66(5):821–35.
[35] George J, Sreekala MS, Thomas S. A review on interface modification and
characterization of natural fiber reinforced plastic composites. Polym Eng Sci
2001;41(9):1471–85.