Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
E X E R C I S E
22
Human Reflex
Physiology
M A T E R I A L S O B J E C T I V E S
341
bj00078_ch22_pg.341_354.qxd 8/12/06 5:03 PM Page 342
342 Exercise 22
F I G U R E 2 2 . 1 Simple reflex arcs. Components of all human reflex arcs: receptor, sensory neuron,
integration center (one or more neurons in the CNS), motor neuron, and effector.
Sensory (afferent)
neuron Spinal cord
Sensory (afferent)
Sensory receptor neuron
(muscle spindle) Sensory receptor
endings in
fingertip
Interneuron Nail
Motor (efferent)
neuron
Motor (efferent)
neuron
Effector
Effector (quadriceps (biceps
femoris muscle) brachii
muscle)
F I G U R E 2 2 . 2 Monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex arcs. The integration center is in the spinal cord,
and in each example the receptor and effector are in the same limb. (a) The patellar reflex, a two-neuron
monosynaptic reflex. (b) A flexor reflex, an example of a polysynaptic reflex.
bj00078_ch22_pg.341_354.qxd 8/12/06 5:03 PM Page 343
Spinal Reflexes
Stretch Reflexes Stretch reflexes are important pos-
tural reflexes, normally acting to maintain posture, balance,
and locomotion. Stretch reflexes are initiated by tapping a 3 Efferent impulses
Muscle to antagonist
tendon, which stretches the muscle the tendon is attached to. muscles are
This stimulates the muscle spindles and causes reflex con- spindle
damped
traction of the stretched muscle or muscles, which resists (reciprocal
further stretching. Even as the primary stretch reflex is inhibition)
occurring, impulses are being sent to other destinations as
well. For example, branches of the afferent fibers (from the
muscle spindles) also synapse with interneurons controlling
the antagonist muscles (Figure 22.3). The inhibition of those
interneurons and the antagonist muscles that follows, called Which muscles contracted? __________________________
reciprocal inhibition, causes them to relax and prevents them
from resisting (or reversing) the contraction of the stretched ________________________________________________
muscle caused by the main reflex arc. Additionally, impulses
are relayed to higher brain centers (largely via the dorsal
What nerve is carrying the afferent and efferent impulses?
white columns) to advise of muscle length, speed of
shortening, and the like—information needed to maintain
muscle tone and posture. Stretch reflexes tend to be ________________________________________________
hypoactive or absent in cases of peripheral nerve damage or
ventral horn disease and hyperactive in corticospinal tract
lesions. They are absent in deep sedation and coma.
A C T I V I T Y 1
344 Exercise 22
346 Exercise 22
Right pupil: ________ mm Left pupil: ________ mm What is the reaction of the left pupil?
2. Stand to the left of the subject to conduct the testing. The The reaction of the right pupil?
subject should shield his or her right eye by holding a hand
vertically between the eye and the right side of the nose.
2. If you see no reaction, repeat the test using a gentle pinch
3. Shine a flashlight into the subject’s left eye. What is the in the same area.
pupillary response? The response you should have noted—pupillary
dilation—is consistent with the pupillary changes occurring
________________________________________________ when the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated. Such a
response may also be elicited in a single pupil when more im-
Measure the size of the left pupil: ______________ mm pulses from the sympathetic nervous system reach it for any
reason. For example, when the left side of the subject’s neck
was stimulated, sympathetic impulses to the left iris in-
4. Without moving the flashlight, observe the right pupil.
creased, resulting in the ipsilateral reaction of the left pupil.
Has the same type of change (called a consensual response)
On the basis of your observations, would you say that the
occurred in the right eye?
sympathetic innervation of the two irises is closely integrated?
________________________________________________
Why or why not?
Measure the size of the right pupil: ______________ mm
________________________________________________
bj00078_ch22_pg.341_354.qxd 8/12/06 5:03 PM Page 347
for 2 minutes, the subject is to expectorate (spit) the accumu- most reflex actions are subject to modification by learning or
lated saliva into a small beaker. Using the graduated cylinder, conscious effort. In general, however, if the response in-
measure the volume of the expectorated saliva and determine volves a specific reflex arc, the synapses are facilitated and
its pH. the response time will be short. Learned reflexes involve a far
larger number of neural pathways and many types of higher
Volume: cc pH: intellectual activities, including choice and decision making,
which lengthens the response time.
2. Now place 2 or 3 drops of lemon juice on the subject’s There are various ways of testing reaction time of re-
tongue. Allow the lemon juice to mix with the saliva for 5 to flexes. The tests range from simple to ultrasophisticated. The
10 seconds, and then determine the pH of the subject’s saliva following activities provide an opportunity to demonstrate
by touching a piece of pH paper to the tip of the tongue. the major time difference between simple and learned re-
flexes and to measure response time under various condi-
tions.
pH:
A C T I V I T Y 9
As before, the subject is to refrain from swallowing for 2
minutes. After the 2 minutes is up, again collect and measure
the volume of the saliva and determine its pH. Testing Reaction Time
for Basic and Acquired Reflexes
Volume: cc pH: 1. Using a reflex hammer, elicit the patellar reflex in your
partner. Note the relative reaction time needed for this basic
3. How does the volume of saliva collected after the appli- reflex to occur.
cation of the lemon juice compare with the volume of the first
2. Now test the reaction time for learned reflexes. The sub-
saliva sample?
ject should hold a hand out, with the thumb and index finger
extended. Hold a metric ruler so that its end is exactly 3 cm
above the subject’s outstretched hand. The ruler should be in
the vertical position with the numbers reading from the bot-
How does the final saliva pH reading compare to the initial tom up. When the ruler is dropped, the subject should be able
reading? to grasp it between thumb and index finger as it passes, with-
out having to change position. Have the subject catch the
ruler five times, varying the time between trials. The relative
speed of reaction can be determined by reading the number
How does the final saliva pH reading compare to that ob- on the ruler at the point of the subject’s fingertips.* (Thus if
tained 10 seconds after the application of lemon juice? the number at the fingertips is 15 cm, the subject was unable
to catch the ruler until 18 cm of length had passed through his
or her fingers; 15 cm of ruler length plus 3 cm to account for
the distance of the ruler above the hand.)† Record the number
of cm that pass through the subject’s fingertips (or the num-
What division of the autonomic nervous system mediates the ber of seconds required for reaction) for each trial:
reflex release of saliva?
Trial 1: __________ cm Trial 4: __________ cm
__________ sec __________ sec
Trial 2: __________ cm Trial 5: __________ cm
Dispose of the saliva-containing beakers and the grad- __________ sec __________ sec
! uated cylinders in the laboratory bucket that contains Trial 3: __________ cm
bleach and put the used pH paper into the disposable auto- __________ sec
clave bag. Wash the bench down with 10% bleach solution
before continuing. ■ *Distance (d) can be converted to time (t) using the simple formula:
348 Exercise 22
3. Perform the test again, but this time say a simple word Number of times the subject did not catch the ruler:
each time you release the ruler. Designate a specific word as
a signal for the subject to catch the ruler. On all other words,
the subject is to allow the ruler to pass through his fingers.
Trials in which the subject erroneously catches the ruler are You should have noticed quite a large variation in reaction
to be disregarded. Record the distance the ruler travels (or the time in this series of trials. Why is this so?
number of seconds required for reaction) in five successful
trials:
Trial 1: ___________ cm Trial 4: ____________ cm
___________ sec ____________ sec
Trial 2: ___________ cm Trial 5: ____________ cm
___________ sec ____________ sec
Trial 3: ___________ cm
___________ sec
■
Did the addition of a specific word to the stimulus increase or
decrease the reaction time?
A C T I V I T Y 1 0
Electrode
Check
CH1
CH2
CH3
CH4
BIOPAC Syste Busy Power
ms
MP35
F I G U R E 2 2 . 7 Setting up the BIOPAC® MP30 (or MP35) unit. Plug the headphones into the back of
the unit and the hand switch into Channel 1.
bj00078_ch22_pg.341_354.qxd 8/12/06 5:03 PM Page 349
7. Type in a filename that will save this subject’s data on 3. Observe the recording of the data, which should look
the computer hard drive. You may want to use the subject’s similar to the data in Figure 22.9.
last name followed by React-1 (for example, SmithReact-1), • If the data look very different, click Redo and repeat the
then click OK. steps above.
Calibrating the Equipment • If the data look similar, move on to recording the next
1. Seat the subject comfortably so that he or she cannot see segment.
the computer screen and keyboard. Segment 2: Random Trial 2
2. Put the headphones on the subject and give the subject 1. Each time a sound is heard, the subject should respond by
the hand switch to hold. pressing the button on the hand switch as quickly as possible.
3. Inform the subject to push the hand switch button when 2. When the subject is ready, the director should click
a “click” is heard. Resume to begin the stimulus-response sequence. The
4. Click Calibrate, and then click OK when the subject is recording will stop automatically after ten clicks.
ready. 3. Observe the recording of the data, which should again
5. Observe the recording of the calibration data, which look similar to the data in Figure 22.9.
should look like the waveforms in Figure 22.8. • If the data look very different, click Redo and repeat the
• If the data look very different, click Redo Calibration steps above.
and repeat the steps above. • If the data look similar, move on to recording the next
• If the data look similar, proceed to the next section. segment.
Recording the Data Segment 3: Fixed Interval Trial 3 Repeat the steps for
Segment 2 above.
In this experiment, you will record four different segments of
data. In Segments 1 and 2, the subject will respond to random Segment 4: Fixed Interval Trial 4
click stimuli. In Segments 3 and 4, the subject will respond to
1. Repeat the steps for Segment 2 above.
click stimuli at fixed intervals (about 4 seconds). The director
will click Record to initiate the Segment 1 recording, and 2. If the data after this final segment is fine, click Done. A
Resume to initiate Segments 2, 3, and 4. The subject should pop-up window will appear; to record from another subject
focus only on responding to the sound. select Record from another subject, and return to step 7 un-
der Setting Up the Equipment. If continuing to the Data
Segment 1: Random Trial 1 Analysis section, select Analyze current data file and pro-
1. Each time a sound is heard, the subject should respond ceed to step 2 in the Data Analysis section.
by pressing the button on the hand switch as quickly as pos-
sible. Data Analysis
2. When the subject is ready, the director should click 1. If just starting the BIOPAC® program to perform data
Record to begin the stimulus-response sequence. The record- analysis, enter Review Saved Data mode and choose the file
ing will stop automatically after ten clicks. with the subject’s reaction data (for example, SmithReact-1).
• A triangular marker will be inserted above the data each 2. Observe that all ten reaction times are automatically cal-
time a “click” stimulus occurs. culated for each segment and are placed in the journal at the
bottom of the computer screen.
• An upward-pointing “pulse” will be inserted each time
the subject responds to the stimulus.
bj00078_ch22_pg.341_354.qxd 8/12/06 5:03 PM Page 350
350 Exercise 22
3. Record the ten reaction times for each segment in the Likewise, do you observe a significant difference between
chart below. the average response times of Segment 3 and Segment 4? If
so, what might account for the difference, even though they
4. Delete the highest and lowest values of each segment,
are both fixed interval trials?
then calculate and record the average for the remaining eight
data points.
5. When finished, exit the program by going to the File
menu at the top of the page and clicking Quit.
Do you observe a significant difference between the average
response times of Segment 1 and Segment 2? If so, what Optional Activity with BIOPAC® Reaction
might account for the difference, even though they are both
random trials? Time Measurement
To expand the experiment, choose another variable to test.
Response to visual cues may be tested, or you may have the
subject change the hand used when clicking the hand switch
button. Devise the experiment, conduct the test, then record
and analyze the data as described above. ■
10
Average
bj00078_ch22_pg.341_354.qxd 8/12/06 5:03 PM Page 351
22
R E V I E W S H E E T
NAME
EXERCISE
LAB TIME/DATE
, , and
Reflexes classified as somatic reflexes include a _______, _______, _______, _______, _______, ________, and ______.
Of these, the simple stretch reflexes are ________ and ________, and the superficial cord reflexes are ______ and ______.
Name two somatic reflexes in which the higher brain centers participate.
and
6. Can the stretch reflex be elicited in a pithed animal (that is, an animal in which the brain has been destroyed)? __________
351
bj00078_ch22_pg.341_354.qxd 8/12/06 5:03 PM Page 352
7. Trace the reflex arc, naming efferent and afferent nerves, receptors, effectors, and integration centers, for the two reflexes
listed. (Hint: Remember which nerve innervates the anterior thigh, and which nerve innervates the posterior thigh.)
patellar reflex:
Achilles reflex:
8. Three factors that influence the rapidity and effectiveness of reflex arcs were investigated in conjunction with patellar reflex
testing—mental distraction, effect of simultaneous muscle activity in another body area, and fatigue.
Which of these factors increases the excitatory level of the spinal cord?
When the subject was concentrating on an arithmetic problem, did the change noted in the patellar reflex indicate that brain
activity is necessary for the patellar reflex or only that it may modify it?
9. Name the division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for each of the reflexes listed.
10. The pupillary light reflex, the crossed-extensor reflex, and the corneal reflex illustrate the purposeful nature of reflex activ-
ity. Describe the protective aspect of each.
corneal reflex:
crossed-extensor reflex:
12. Differentiate between the types of activities accomplished by somatic and autonomic reflexes.
13. Several types of reflex activity were not investigated in this exercise. The most important of these are autonomic reflexes,
which are difficult to illustrate in a laboratory situation. To rectify this omission, complete the following chart, using refer-
ences as necessary.
Receptors
Reflex Organ involved stimulated Action
Micturition
(urination)
Hering-Breuer
Defecation
Carotid sinus
bj00078_ch22_pg.341_354.qxd 8/12/06 5:03 PM Page 354
15. Name at least three factors that may modify reaction time to a stimulus.
16. In general, how did the response time for the learned activity performed in the laboratory compare to that for the simple
patellar reflex?
17. Did the response time without verbal stimuli decrease with practice? _____________ Explain the reason for this.
18. Explain, in detail, why response time increased when the subject had to react to a word stimulus.
19. When measuring reaction time in the BIOPAC® activity, was there a difference in reaction time when the stimulus was pre-
dictable versus unpredictable? Explain your answer.