Arctic and Alpine Research

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Studies of Soil Creep, Western Alberta, 1970 to

1972

Stuart A. Harris

To cite this article: Stuart A. Harris (1973) Studies of Soil Creep, Western Alberta, 1970 to 1972,
Arctic and Alpine Research, 5:sup3, A171-A180

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Arctic and Alpine Research, Vol. 5, No.3, Pt. 2, 1973, pp. A17I-AISO

STUDIES OF SOIL CREEP, WESTERN ALBERTA, 1970 TO 1972

STUART A. HARRIS
Department of Geography
University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta

ABSTRACT
Soil creep is an important component of
mass wasting in the Rocky Mountains of south-
ern Alberta. Near the Continental Divide, the
movement takes place principally in summer
when the soil contains 40% moisture by vol-
ume. Movement may range up to 323 mm and
the trees move with the soil. In the Front
Range, soil creep may amount to 210 mm per
year at a site, but occurs mainly in late summer
and fall when soil moisture contents are mini-
mal. It is independent of freeze-thaw cycles.
Some movement (20 mm) also occurs in winter
when the ground is frozen.
Continuous recording apparatus demonstrates
diurnal fluctuations on bare ground. Insolation
correlates with downslope movement, and sim-
ilar fluctuations occur in a vertical direction.
Heaving correlates with increased humidity of
the air at night or in early morning. The com-
bined ,result is that a given soil particle tends
to follow an orbital path elongated in a hori-
zontal direction, unlike the diurnal movement
proposed in many current theoretical studies.
Retrograde creep also occurs in colder weather.
The logarithm of the sine of the angle of slope
correlates with the amount of movement on
a south-facing slope, movement apparently
ceasing at angles below 2 0 • Movement usually
decreases with depth except on screes or in
shallow soils over bedrock. In the latter, water
abstraction by plants or a perched water table
produce increased soil creep with depth.

INTRODUCTION
Only limited studies of movement of soil on
slopes have been carried out in the Northern
Rocky Mountains (Harris, 1971). Almost all
this work has concentrated on processes on
unvegetated surfaces such as rock falls on
avalanches (Slaymaker and McPherson, 1972).
No previous studies have been made of the pro-
cesses affecting the vegetated slopes of the sub-
alpine zone which make up the bulk of the
lower parts of the mountains, hence the study
reported here.
In September 1970 a pilot study of the types
of movement of soil on vegetated slopes was
commenced at the University of Calgary, En-
vironmental Sciences Centre at Kananaskis.
Twelve sites were selected in a north-south
traverse aross the Kananaskis river valley from
the shoulder of Pigeon Mountain (1,829 m)
across to the lower spur of Barrier Mountain
in the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains.
In addition, two stations were chosen in and
adjacent to an experimental burn in the pine
forest under otherwise similar environmental
conditions. As the work progressed, the study
was extended to include three of the sites for-
merly used in a Chinook study (Marsh, 1965)
between Calgary and Kananaskis, as well as the
stations within the Vermilion Pass Fire study
on the Continental Divide. This gives data
from a transect spanning the range from the
prairie to the upper levels of the subalpine
zone (Figure 1).

S. A. HARRIS / A171
 SOIL MOVEMENT STATIONS

0
I!£
20
Km.
40

..&

~
H ... , I

@) S'ahan

1;:;:::::1 Land 0 •• ' 1524m.

FIGURE 1. Locations of the sites for the study of soil creep between Calgary and the Vermilion
Pass.
INSTRUMENTATION
At each site instrumentation includes snow- bedrock, a flexible polyethylene tube to move
stakes, a rain gauge, hygrothermograph, and with the soil, and a nylon monofilament fishing
duplicate direct-reading soil movement indi- line connecting them. This line is passed
cators for both vertical and horizontal move- through a polyethylene tube so that it is not
ments. Runoff traps were installed at the first affected by snow and ice and is led up the
sites, but since no runoff was encountered at holdfast to an aluminum scale (Figure 2). A
the stations, they were not used. Thermo- fishing weight of a standard size gives a
couples are used to measure soil temperature standard tension to the line and a knot is used
to 150 em, and a neutron probe is used to to measure movement past the scale. For meas-
measure soil moisture. Lambrecht continuous uring vertical movements, the nylon line is tied
soil temperature recorders provide a check on to a 15-cm nail which is pushed into the
the soil temperatures at 5, 10, and 20 em soil until its head is level with the surface.
below surface. Rusting provides a satisfactory bond with the
Where appropriate, sites are located side-by- soil which withstands heaving. Tests with the
side in different microclimatic environments, line at a variety of temperatures show that it
e.g., in aspen (Populus tremuloides) and in ad- does not change in length by more than 0.5
jacent climax forest. Snow densities are meas- mm in the temperature range -40 to +40°C.
ured and the winter precipitation and water It does not readily freeze to the polyethylene,
balance in the top 100 em of soil is calculated but moves smoothly when necessary. Instead
by the method of Harris (1972). All stations of the direct-reading scale, a clockwork or
are visited once a week for the collection of electric drive chart has been used to give details
charts and readings. of diurnal movements at representative sites.
The direct-reading movement probes used for The direct-reading instruments have also been
measuring horizontal movement consist of a attached to trees to show their behavior in
steel reinforcing bar as a holdfast, dnven into comparison to the soil.
the ground to at least 150 em or preferably to
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
CLIMATE in precipitation on the prairie. Kananaskis re-
Table 1 shows the mean monthly temper- ceives about three times as long a period of
ature and precipitation for Calgary, Kananas- chinooks (warm, dry winds) as Calgary each
kis, and Lake Louise. Note the marked drop winter, while the Continental Divide suffers

Al72 / ARCTIC AND ALPINE RESEARCH


FIGURE 2. Typical soil movement installation show-
ing holdfast and polyethylene tubes protecting the
nylon line from the effect of the winter snow
cover.
from marked rainfall each June. Mean aver-
age temperatures are similar, but mean frost-
free days per year drop from 60 at Calgary to
under 45 at Lake Louise. The Vermilion Pass
has an even shorter summer, and higher pre-
cipitation.
SoILS
At Calgary the soils are Black soils, now
classified as Orthic Chernozemic soils (Canada
Soil Survey Committee, 1970). They grade
into Regosols, Eutric Brunisols, and Grey
Wooded Luvisols at Kananaskis (Karkanis,
1972) and into Podzols at the lower sites in the
Vermilion Pass (Noakes and Harris, 1971).
As elevation increases, the Podzols grade back
via Eutric and Dystric Brunisols to Regosols
on screes.
Parent materials are mainly Rocky Mountain
till except for the screes. Clay minerals present
at Calgary are illite (60%), montmorillonite
(28%), and chloride (12%) with some kaoli-
nite (Tharin, 1960), while at Kananaskis they
consist of limestone, dolomite, quartz, illite,
and chlorite. Textures are sandy loams and
silt loams in the mountains, grading to loams
at Calgary. Liquid limits range from 18.3 to
31.8% moisture by volume. Soil densities range
from 1.25 g cc- 1 near Calgary and on screes
to 0.70 g cc- 1 in the mountains under forest.
Slope angle varied from 3 to 34° but this full
range was only studied at Kananaskis and at the
Vermilion Pass.
VEGETATION
At Calgary the vegetation was tall grass
prairie while the intervening sites on the way
to Kananaskis were on grazing land in the
former prairie (Hilltop) and forest (Copi-
thorne) . At Kananaskis the vegetation cover
varied from bare scree, via bearberry-rose assoc-
iation (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi-Rosa acicular-
is) to aspen-alder (Populus tremuloides-Alnus
crispa) and thence to a lodgepole pine-Douglas
fir-alpine fir-white spruce forest (Pinus con-
torta latijolia, Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glau-
ca, Abies lasiocarpa, Picea glauca var, alber-
tiana) . Charcoal testified to periodic fires in
the past. The vegetation at the Vermilion
Pass was originally climax alpine fir-white
spruce association (Abies lasiocarpa, Picea
glauca var. albertiana) with spruce trees aver-
aging 235 years old (Dube, 1972). In 1968
fire destroyed over 6,000 acres so that both
forested and burned areas were studied.
MICROCLIMATE
Soil temperatures at Calgary range from
30°C in August to -11°C in January and
S. A. HARRIS / A173
 TABLE 1
Mean monthly temperatures and precipitation for Calgary International Airport, Lake Louise,
Kananaskis Forest Research Station"

Temperature eC) Rainfall (mm)

Month Calgary Kananaskis L.Louise Calgary Kananaskis L.Louise

January -9.9 -9.8 -14.3 3.10 3.30 7.85

February -8.8 -6.8 -11.1 1.98 3.56 6.45
March -4.4 -3.9 - 7.1 2.57 3.81 5.28
April 3.5 2.1 0.3 3.45 6.60 5.28
May 9.8 7.2 6.5 5.16 7.62 4.90
June 13.0 11.0 9.6 8.76 10.92 6.25
July 16.6 14.0 12.4 5.84 6.10 4.98
August 15.1 13.2 11.2 5.92 6.10 5.79
September 10.9 9.1 7.2 3.48 5.33 4.98
October 5.4 4.8 1.7 2.26 4.06 6.63
November -2.2 -1.9 -6.6 1.60 5.60 8.23
December -6.6 -6.8 -11.4 1.55 3.05 10.52

Total 42.57 66.05 77.14

"Data for Calgary International Airport and Lake Louise are means of over 40 years of data after
Monthly Weather Record (1971). Data for Kananaskis Forest Research Station is for 1951 to 1971 (Kar-
kanis, 1972).

February. Diurnal fluctuations during the
snow-free period range up to 15°C in clear,
sunny weather both at Calgary and at Kananas-
kis. High summer soil temperatures are also
experienced in the mountains but they last for
a much shorter period. As soon as snow covers
the ground, diurnal effects are negligible but
the strong chinooks experienced at the sta-
tions between Calgary and Kananaskis, and
particularly at the latter locations, cause peri-
odic thawing of the surface 20 ern of soil dur-
ing the winter in a year with an average num-
ber (over 20) of chinooks. However, there is
a considerable variation in the number of these
warm, dry winds in winter, e.g., winter 1971-72
lacked any marked chinooks. At Calgary and
at the Vermilion Pass the ground remains
frozen for the winter.
The depth of snow varies from 170 em at
1,600 m to 220 em at 2,000 m elevation in
the Pass. At Kananaskis, 40 em of snow is a
usual winter maximum while at Calgary, the
maximum thickness is normally under 20 ern.
Combined with warmer winter minimum air
temperatures in the Pass, this means that the
soils do not usually get colder than -6°C on
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
Although runoff has been observed above recorded at the study sites in the subalpine
the tree line (Dingwall, 1972), none has been zone. Small mudflows occur locally on the
the Continental Divide in spite of their higher
elevation. Thawing comes abruptly in the
spring and occurs on both north- and south-
facing slopes within 2 weeks even though some
sites on north-facing slopes at Kananaskis do
not receive direct sunlight until later in the
year. Apparently, heating through advection is
the major cause of the thawing.
Soil moisture may drop as low as 1% by
volume on the prairie or under forest at
Kananaskis in September. The first heavy
snowfalls can replenish the water if the ground
is warm enough. Spring soil moisture contents
are usually about 28% by volutne after thc
main snowmelt but quickly drop to 10 to 15%
on the prairie and 15 to 20% in the forest.
Drying continues steadily until the fall snow-
falls, except in exceptionally wet years. By
contrast the more sandy soils on the Vermilion
Burn may contain 40% moisture by volume
at the end of the spring melt. Thereafter the
soils dry to about 20 to 25% moisture by
volume in spite of the heavy June rains. These
soils are invariably much wetter than the soils
further east.

A174 I ARCTIC AND ALPINE RESEARCH

 lake and outwash silts in the Vermilion ?ass,
but were absent during the period of study at
the other locations.
The major common feature of the study
area is the slow movement of material downhill,
commonly called soil creep. Highest amounts
are recorded at the Continental Divide, and the
rate decreases towards the prairie. An im-
portant complicating factor is heaving, al-
though amounts are usually small. Snow creep
is only important when the snow depth exceeds
about 70 em.
In the following account, attention is focused
on soil creep and heaving. Soil creep is used
here to denote the slow movement of material
in a downslope direction (Sharpe, 1938). Heav-
ing is used in the sense of changes of the
position of the ground surface in a vertical
direction.

DIURNAL MOVEMENTS
One of the problems facing workers who
have studied soil creep is the fact that retro-
gressive movements sometimes take place (e.g.,
Everett, 1963). In order to study the way
this movement is related to other factors, a
continuous recording was made of movements
over short periods of time at Kananaskis (Fig-
ures 3 and 4). The results indicate that there
is a small but significant fluctuation in both
heave and surface soil creep with diurnal en-
vironmental changes. In the case of creep, the
forward movement is closely related to the in-
coming radiation hitting the surface of the soil.
When the evening comes, retrograde movement
takes place. At first one might think that ex-
pansion of air was the cause, but measurements
of soil permeability to air discount this idea.
Exactly what process is taking place is un-
known but the pattern of movement can be
demonstrated time and time again when the
ground is not covered in snow. It is most
marked on screes or under bearberry but can
also be shown to occur elsewhere. Trees
greatly reduce its amplitude. Simple thermal
expansion and contraction of soil particles
could not produce changes of this order
(Kirkby, 1967; Young, 1972). Clearly the
retrograde movement complicates measuring

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FIGURE 3. Diurnal fluctuations (in 1971) in soil FIGURE 4. Diurnal fluctuation (in 1971) in heave and
creep and in some related environmental factors, in some related environmental factors, bearberry
bearberry association, 1,829 m elevation on the association, 1,829 m elevation on the south-facing
south-facing slope of Pigeon Mountain at Kanan- slope of Pigeon Mountain at Kananaskis.
askis.

S. A. HARRIS / A175
small amounts of creep, although this was not
a problem in this study because of the magni-
tude of the downslope movements.
Heaving also shows diurnal fluctuations
under nonfreezing conditions but this appears
to be related to the humidity of the air. In-
creased humidity correlates with a rise of the
soil surface, indicating that hydration of clays
and organic matter may be the cause. Daily
movements are generally small except during
a rainstorm, but show that some of the
processes noted in the case of soils with swelling
clays in South Australia (Aitcheson and
Holmes, 1953) also operate in this environ-
ment.
The results cannot be a function of changes
in length of the nylon since the movements
occur at different times on adjacent lines
(creep and heave) at a given site. They do,
however, provide actual measurements of the
movement of particles on the soil surface. Kirk-
by (1967) and others have usually assumed that
YEARLY AND SEASONAL MOVEMENTS
As noted by Everett ( 1963 ) , retrograde
movement shows periodically in the long-term
data. In the study area these movements occur
whenever colder conditions set in, or when
cold rain cools the ground. In spite of this,
there is a net downhill movement of the soil itt
1971 1972
JUNE SEPT DEC MAR
orr-.;:.....,.....:..:;.:~~..:..;:-:~~-r'~~:,--:...-,....::...,,.....,---.--,
50
100
i 1970
!
..
w
w
'"
U
o 200
'"
w
> !
~
s:E
::>
u 300
~ooL-_--I.~_-L _ _--L_ _.L..._---JL-_ _
FIGURE 5. Soil creep at site No.5, 2,073 m eleva-
tion on the northwest-facing slope of the burn area,
Vermilion Pass,
A176 / ARCTIC AND ALPINE RESEARCH
the dominant movement in soil creep is up-
wards at approximately right angles to the
slope and downwards under the influence
of gravity. Everett had differing views. How-
ever, the new data indicate slight sinking and
downslope movement at midday, continued
sinking and upslope movement in the afternoon
and evening, and rising of the soil surface
during the night. Thus the individual soil
particle follows an orbital course, the shape of
which is controlled by the relative sizes of the
two processes. Thus in spring, sinking (re-
covery from heave) may be dominant at Ka-
nanaskis or Calgary, while combined sinking
and downslope movement are dominant at the
Vermilion Pass. During summer and fall,
downslope movement is dominant except after
rain or in cold periods. In the late fall and
winter, heaving and upslope movement are
obvious while diurnal orbital movement vir-
tually ceases.
all sites each year (see Figures 5 and 6).
Maximum recorded movement in a year (June
1971 to June 1972 was 356 mm with 323 mm
taking place between June 7 and September 13,
1971, on the Continental Divide at the Ver-
milion Pass. The site was in the burned area
at an elevation of 2,093 m on the northwest-
facing slope of Storm Mountain. The soil was
a Regosol developed on former scree deposits.
JUNE SEPT DEC
1972
oo;:.;cc-,...:':rEC=--_M:c;A:::..~J:.;UNc..:E~.::SEr-P1~....:';.::ECe..--,....:M:;:"'-,-,.:.J;:UN::.,E ~S~EP:::.'_
'
•
100
u
§ 20'
>
~ --- ---
s
a JOO
FIGURE 6. Soil creep under aspen woodland at
1,829 m elevation on the south-facing slope of
Pigeon Mountain, Kananaskis.
 TABLE 2
Movement and heave for the period June 7 to September 13, 1971, for the Vermilion Pass,
Kootenay National Park, B.C.
Site Site Altitude Movement
no. (m) (mm)
3 Valley Bottom 1,615 90
Valley Bottom 1,618 205
4 N.-facing slope 1,768 275
5 N.-facing slope 2,073 323
6 W.-facing slope 1,676 177
(Control)
aDate incomplete due to failure to note down both distance off scale and the new setting when adding
a new knot.
As will be seen in Figure 5, the movement
varies markedly from year to year, and there is
comparatively little movement under the snow.
At the end of the winter 1970-71 there was
228 mm recovery from heaving in June while
the bulk of the 356 mm creep was taking place.
The main movement took place while the
thawed soils were sinking and contained up to
40% moisture by volume. Movement decreased
as the soil dried but continued slowly from
September until January in spite of a snow
cover and the ground being frozen. It was
followed in 1972 by a cool, wet summer and
although movement took place during the
warming phases, the amount was far less at all
sites than the previous year, although the
moisture content of the soil followed a similar
pattern. Amount of movement was similar
both in the burn and in the surrounding climax
forest (Table 2), and showed limited variation
with factors other than with angle of slope for
the summer 1971. The figures are based on the
amount of movement during the period when
the ground is unfrozen. Elevation appears to
be a subsidiary factor, but there are too few
stations to carry out a statistically satisfactory
study.
Data on soil creep are more complete for
Kananaskis. Figure 6 shows a typical pattern
of soil creep with time. Unlike at the Contin-
entalDivide, movement is most marked in the
fall of years when the soil is driest. Actual
amounts are appreciably less than at the Con-
tinental Divide. Movement can be large with-
out freezing being involved and there is by no
means always an abrupt change when the
Heave Parent Slope Soil
(mm) material angle
246 Alluvium 3° Gleysol
246 Alluvium 20° Podzol
199 Outwash gravels 12° Podzol
>228 a Scree 17° Regosol
393 Outwash sands 13° Regosol
freeze-thaw cycles begin. A small amount of
movement (up to 20 mm) can take place when
the ground is completely frozen, as in the win-
ter of 1971-72. A secondary peak of movement
occurs in the spring, but it may partly be the
result of rising soil temperatures. Similar
peaks occur when the soil becomes unfrozen
during periods of chinook, e.g., late February
1971. Amounts of frost heave are very small
(20 mm) and have only been recorded in the
spring. At other times of the year, there are
smaller fluctuations related to moisture changes.
The same regime is found on the prairie near
Calgary but amounts of creep appear to de-
crease.
The above data refers to movements of the
soil surface. Figure 7 shows that patterns occur
with depth below the surface as shown by
curvature of flexible polyethylene tubing in-
serted initially in vertical holes. The pattern
of decrease in movement with depth is normal
under forest regardless of topographic postion
or floristic composition, but on the adjacent
scree and under the bearberry-rose association,
the pattern changes. The increase of movement
with depth under the bearberry parallels the
mean moisture content of the soil. The latter
is due to a perched water table effect over the
bedrock. Until more bearberry sites have been
investigated, it is impossible to say how typical
this site may be.
Figure 8 shows the relationship of surface
soil movement to slope angle at Kananaskis.
The pattern indicates that the amount of
movement may be related to the logarithm
of the sine of the angle of the slope, rather
S. A. HARRIS / AI77
 ROSE - SCREE BEARBERRY - ROSE
ASSOCIATION ASSOCIATION
0 5 0 5
0 0
10 10
~ 20 20
I
.... , ,C?WCK/
::; 30 30
c
40
50
60
0 0
33 SlOPE 33 SLOPE
( 4 x Horizontal exaggeration)
FIGURE 7. Distribution of soil creep with depth from September 25 to October 28, 1970, under
four different vegetation covers on the south-facing shoulder of Pigeon Mountain at 1,829 m
elevation, Kananaskis (after Harris, 1971).
than the sine of the angle of slope as sug-
gested previously (Schumm, 1967; Washburn,
1967). The data also suggest that movement
0
may be zero on slopes of less than 2
Experiments involving dead and live trees at
the Vermilion burn and live trees at Kananaskis
show that aspen, white spruce, and lodgepole
pine trees move with the soil. These species
are all shallow-rooted. The mean rate of
movement of four probes in the soil closely
parallels the rate of movement in the trees
(Figure 9) suggesting that the measurement of
Marked soil creep occurs in the mountains
and foothills of southwest Alberta. Highest
rates occur on the Continental Divide with up
to 323 mm being recorded in the period when
the ground is essentially unfrozen. Amounts
decrease toward the prairie but fluctuate mark-
edly from year to year indicating that long
periods are necessary for reasonable measure-
ments of mean rates. In the Vermilion Pass,
maximum movement takes place at high mois-
ture contents in early summer, while elsewhere
maximum movement occurs when the soil is
fairly dry in the late summer and fall. Some
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work has been carried out with the aid
of NRC Grant A7483. Mr. K. Froning of the
A178 / ARCTIC AND ALPINE RESEARCH
FIR - SPRUCE - PINE
ASPEN STAND
ASSOCIATION
MOVEMENT (cms]
10 15 0 5 0
0 0
10 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
50
60
0 ()
31 SLOPE 20 SlOPE
the tree movement may give a better figure for
mean soil movement rate than individual
probes. Like the soil, trees also show retro-
• grade movement in cold weather, relative to a
concrete reinforcing bar driven into the under-
lying bedrock. The absence of certain deep-
rooted tree species from these soils may be due
to damaging to the roots by the movement.
Thus, limber pine (Pinus flexilis) is confined
to rock outcrops throughout the region (Harris,
1971) .
CONCLUSIONS
movement can occur at any time of the year.
Diurnal soil creep and heave have also been
recorded during the snow-free period. Soil
creep appears to be closely related to soil
temperature while the retrograde movements
indicate that special care needs to be taken
when measuring small amounts of movements
as in Ohio or the United Kingdom.
The diurnal movements also indicate that
movement of individual soil particles is more
complicated than suggested by European work-
ers, and agrees more closely with the pattern
of forces suggested by Everett (1963).
Northern Forest Research Centre at Edmonton
and Mr. R. Huber permitted the author to use
 MOVEMENT OF SOIL AT ALL STATiONS
IN RELATION TO SLOPE
CONTROL STATION No.6
18 40 S. slope
• • 30 o JUNE JULY AUG SEPT
./
16 • /
20
• /
/

g
14
,./ ./ 15

60

0 12 • / 10
/
15
Z
-c
Z
Vi
o
10 .
./
/
//

120
S / i
/ ~
28
/ I-
/ Z ~
......
..
\~~~ V . . . .
W
/ ~
". '

26 /1/ W
> 180
0
~
24
a 20 40 60 80 100
SOil CREEP (mm )

FIGURE 8. Total soil creep at all stations on the

240
south-facing slope of Pigeon Mountain, Kanana-
skis, between November 5, 1970, and March 17,
1971, as related to angle of slope. - Soil
...... Tree

a plot on the experimental burn site, and also

300 I I
loaned the author some of the necessary
meteorological equipment initially.
I I
The Wardens of Kootenay National Park FIGURE 9. Comparative rates of mvement of an
collected the data at the Vermilion Pass for the alpine fir tree and soil at the 1,676 m elevation
writer and thanks are also due to the Director, under climax forest at the Vermilion Pass in 1971.
Parks Branch, Department of Indian Affairs
and Northern Development, for permission to Parks Branch, Department of Indian
publish the results. Affairs and Northern Development,
Ottawa.
Everett, K. R.
1963 : Slope movement, Neotomia Valley,
REFERENCES Southern Ohio. Institute of Polar
Aitcheson, G. D. and Holmes, J. W. Studies, Rep. NO.6. Ohio State Uni-
1967 : Aspects of swelling in the soil profile, versity, Columbus, Ohio. 62 pp.
Aust, J. Appl. Sci., 751: 359-378. Harris, S. A.
Canada Soil Survey Committee 1971 : Preliminary observations on down-
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