Noise

1. Example of engineering noise control is use of sound absorbing materials NOT Use
of earmuffs NOR Reducing the number of hours of exposure NOR Audiometric
testing. Engineering controls are used to permanently eliminate or lessen the severity
of a hazardous condition. In this case, use of sound absorbing materials for control of
over-exposure to noise is a good example of engineering control

2. The long-term cumulative effect of repeated and prolonged noise exposure, which
results in permanent pathologic changes in the cochlea, is referred to as: Noise-
induced hearing loss NOT Conductive hearing loss NOR Temporary threshold shift.
NOR Presbycusis. // Sensory hearing losses are associated with irreversible damage
to the inner ear. Noise produces primarily sensory hearing loss

3. Acoustic trauma is:

a. Noise induced hearing loss from prolonged exposure to intense sound
b. The intensity of a sound wave
c. Instantaneous damage caused by a loud noise
d. Trauma causes by sound with an intensity of 95 dBA or more

Ans. C

4. Which of the following type of ear protectors has maximum noise reduction
capabilities ? (a) ear plugs (b) √Ear muffs (c) No protection (d) None
Ans (b)
5. For a sound level of 115 decibel, which of the following ear protectors is
suitable. (a) √Ear plug (b) Ear muff. (c) No plug required (d) None of the above

Ans (a)

Noise measurement instruments are classified into sound level meters (SLM), integrating
sound level meters (ISLM), and spectrum analyzers (SA). The SLM, which is the most
common instrument for the measurement of sound levels, can be Type 1 for precision
measurements or Type 2 for general-purpose use. The ISLM instruments are designed for
situations where there is a need to measure the average sound levels over a period of time.
Spectrum analyzers identify the distribution of sound levels in frequency.
 Decibel addition
Table 1 can be used for decibel addition. Decibel addition relies on a few simple rules.
When decibels are measured on A-scale, they are referred to as dBA.
 1. When two decibel levels are equal or within 1 dB of each other, their sum is 3 dB
higher than the higher individual level. For example, 80 dBA + 80 dBA = 83
dBA; 100 dB + 101 dB = 104 dB.
2. When two decibel levels are 2 or 3 dB apart, their sum is 2 dB higher than the
higher individual level. For example, 87 dBA + 85 dBA = 89 dBA; 75 dBA + 77
dBA = 79 dBA.
3. When two decibel levels are 4 to 9 dB apart, their sum is 1 dB higher than the
higher individual level. For example, 80 dBA + 86 dBA = 87 dBA; 32 dB + 36
dB = 37 dB.
4. When two decibel levels are 10 or more dB apart, their sum is the same as the
higher individual level. For example, 80 dB + 95 dB = 95 dB.

Difference between Two Amount to be Added to Larger

Decibel Levels to be Level to Obtain Decibel Sum
Added (dB) (dB)

0 3.0

1 2.6

2 2.1

3 1.8

4 1.4

5 1.2

6 1.0

7 0.8

8 0.6

9 0.5

10 0.4

11 0.3

12 0.2

Table 1 Obtaining decibel sum of two decibel levels. This table is, in
essence, a summary of adding logarithms.

In situations where several sound levels have to be added to obtain the combined effect,
the following procedure can be used:
 1. Add the two lowest decibel levels.
2. Add the result of step 1 to the next higher level.
3. Continue until all decibel levels have been added.

Example
Assume that five machines are operating in a machine shop, and each is generating a
sound level as summarized below:
Machine 1: 79 dBA
Machine 2: 85 dBA
Machine 3: 87 dBA
Machine 4: 95 dBA
Machine 5: 93 dBA

Solution
In order to calculate the combined sound level, we proceed as follows:
79 dBA + 85 dBA = 86 dBA
86 dBA + 87 dBA = 90 dBA
90 dBA + 93 dBA = 95 dBA
95 dBA + 95 dBA = 98 dBA
Therefore, the combined effect from all five machines operating simultaneously is
equivalent to a sound level of 98 dBA.

 Sound absorption coefficients

The sound absorption coefficient of a material is an indication of the amount of sound
absorbed by the material at a given frequency. For example, a material with a coefficient
of 0.75 absorbs 75% of the sound reaching it. The remainder is reflected.
The term noise reduction coefficient (NRC) refers to the arithmetic average of the
absorption coefficient at frequencies 250, 500, 1,000 and 2,000 Hz.
Example
A sound absorbing material has a sound absorption coefficient of 0.3, 0.6, 0.8, and 0.9 at
frequencies of 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hertz respectively. Calculate the noise reduction
coefficient of this material.
Solution
Noise reduction coefficient is the arithmetic average of the sound absorption
coefficient at the given frequencies.
0.3 + 0.6 + 0.8 + 0.9
noise reduction coefficient =  0.65
4
 Exposure To Continuous Noise
The OSHA allowable time that a worker can be exposed to a continuous noise can be
obtained from:
8
t
2 L 90  / 5
where:
t is the allowable exposure time in hours
L is the sound intensity expressed in decibels.
Example
Calculate the OSHA allowable time for worker exposure to a sound level of 95 dB.
Solution

8
t
29590  / 5
8 8
t  5/5 
2 2
t  4 hours

Noise Dose
In many work situations, a worker may be exposed to varying levels of noise during a
given shift. If the value of the following exceeds 1, the OSHA allowable times have been
exceeded, and the worker has been exposed to excessive noise.

C1 C1 C1
  1
t1 t1 t1
where:
C1, C2, C3, … = actual exposure time
t1, t2, t3, … = allowable time
Example
During a given work shift, a worker has been exposed to noise levels of 100 dB for one
hour, 95 dB for three hours, and 92 dB for four hours. Determine whether this worker has
been exposed to excessive noise.
Solution

C1  1 hour
C2  3 hours
C3  4 hours

First we have to calculate the allowable time for

each noise level. For 100 dB :

8
t100   2 hours
210090  / 5
8
t95  9590  / 5  4 hours
2
8
t92  9290  / 5  6 hours
2
 Now we must calculate the value of

C1 C2 C3
 
t1 t2 t 3
1 3 4
   19
. 1
2 4 6

Since the above value exceeds 1, we have exceeded the allowable time, and this worker
has been exposed to excessive noise.

 Sound Level Meters A, B, C Response:

An SLM can measure sound on either A, B, or C scales depending on the frequency of
sound.
The A-scale response is maximum at about 2500 Hz. and drops sharply below 1000
Hz.
The B-scale response is maximum at about 1000 Hz. and drops sharply below 500
Hz.
The C-scale is designed for frequencies in the range of 30 to 8000 Hz.
OSHA regulations require A-scale noise measurement for assessment of noise exposure
to employees because this scale most closely resembles the response of the human ear.
Other scales such as B or C may be utilized for evaluation of noise as part of engineering
control or design along with spectrum analyzers.

Physiology of Hearing
Sound vibrations are transferred through the ear canal to the eardrum and into the middle
ear. The middle ear contains three bones called the ossicles that transmit sound waves to
the inner ear. The hearing part of the inner ear is called cochlea.

 Hearing loss and impairment

The adverse effect of noise on hearing can be classified into:
Conductive impairment Any conditions which interfere with the transmission of
sound waves to the cochlea.
Sensorineural impairment This is an irreversible hearing loss caused by damage to
the organ of “corti” and degeneration of the neural elements of the auditory nerve.
Mixed impairment Excessive noise can cause both conductive and sensorineural
(mixed) impairment.
Central impairment Refers to the lack of ability of a person to interpret what is
heard.
 Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL)
This type of hearing loss can occur as a result of over-exposure to noise over a long
period of time. Over-exposure to noise can initially cause a Temporary Threshold Shift
(TTS) in hearing. However, a TTS can be transformed into a Permanent Threshold
Shift (PTS) if over-exposure continues.
A high frequency noise is more harmful to human ear than a low frequency noise having
the same amount of sound energy.

Hearing Protection Equipment

Hearing protective devices can be classified into three general categories:
1. Ear plugs, or insert-type devices, which fit within the ear canal.
2. Ear muffs, which are devices that fit around the ears and are supported either from a
hard hat or from a headband that connects the individual muffs.
3. Canal Caps, which cover the entrance to the ear canal and are supported similarly to
ear muffs.
The noise reduction capability of hearing protective devices is a very important factor that
should always be considered.

 Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL)

Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) is caused as a result of over-exposure to excessive
noise. Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS) or Permanent Threshold Shift (PTS) can
result. Loss of hearing due to natural aging is called Presbycusis.

 Sensorineural hearing loss

Sensorineural hearing loss is loss of hearing as a result of over-exposure to excessive
noise. Other common causes are severe head trauma, use of certain drugs, blood diseases
and aging. This type of hearing loss is rarely correctable.

a) Presbycusis
Presbycusis is loss of hearing as a result of aging.

The major emphasis of the science of epidemiology as relates to diseases is:

a) cure
b) prevention
c) research
d) data collection
A. B
 Q8. Epidemiological studies that attempt to note the number of cases of a specific disease
in a specific time period are generally known as:

a) inductive studies
b) biological studies
c) descriptive studies
d) risk factor studies
A. C

Q9. In epidemiology, the studies that focus on proving or disproving a hypotheses

regarding the relationship between exposure and disease are called:

a) descriptive studies
b) risk factor studies
c) analytic studies
d) hypothetical studies
A. C

Q10. In an epidemiological study 2 out of 1,000 people were found to have a disease. The
prevalence for this study is:

a) 0.002
b) 0.004
c) 0.001
d) 2
A. A

Prevalence = 2 = 0.002

1,000

1. What is the noise dose for a worker who is exposed to a 95 dBA source for a period of
5 hours? (a) 165 % (b) 125% (c) 93% (d) 315%
Ans (b) The noise dose can be calculated from

Where Ci is the exposure time and the allowable time. The allowable time can be
calculated from
Where L is the exposure in decibels
For the problem at hand
2. A worker is exposed to noise level of 110 dBA for one hour, 95 dBA for 3 hours. The
noise dose for this worker is : (a) 50% (b) 275 % (c) 425 % (d) 312 %
Ans. (d_ First, we calculate allowable times for noise levels of 110, 95 and 90dB

3. Two machines each generate a noise level of 80dBA. When both machines work
simultaneously, the noise level is approximately : (a) 85dBA (b) 83 dBA (c) 86 dBA (d)
160 dBA
Ans. (b) When in a free filed and the difference between two sound levels is zero, we
add 3dB to obtain the combined effect.

4. In a machine shop, a worker is exposed to the following levels of noise.

Noise Level, dBA Duration, hours
91 3
105 1
98 2

The noise does expressed in percentage of the OSHA permissible exposure is : (a) 423%
(b) 87% (c) 219% (d) 215%
Ans (c) First, calculate allowable times.

5. A square ventilation duct 2 feet on each side connects two rooms through a 20feet
length of the duct. A noise reduction of 0.2 dB/ft. duct is required. What should the
sound absorption coefficient of the lining material be ? (a) 0.9716 (b) 0.612 (c) 0.526
(d) 0.186
Ans (d) We use the following equation.
Where NR is the noise reduction in decibels perimeter of the duct in inches, and A is the
cross section area of the duct in square inches.
For the problem at hand.

6. What is the noise reduction in decibels per foot of a 2ft. diameter circular duct lined
with material having a sound absorption coefficient of 0.75? (a) 1.4 (b) 2.3 (c) 3.8 (d)
2.9
Ans. (a)

7. A sound absorbing material with an absorption coefficient of 0.8 is used as lining in a

circular duct and provides a noise reduction of 1.2 dB per foot . The diameter of the
circular duct is . (a) 24 inches (b) 6 inches (c) 15 inches (d) 12 inches
Ans. (d) Since the diameter of the duct cannot be zero, we accept the other solution
for D which is 12.29 inches.

8. A sound wave has a sound pressure level of 95 dB with respect to 20 micropascals. The
root mean square sound pressure of this wave expressed in units of pascals is : (a)
9500 (b 5.2 (c) 1.12 (d) 0.8
Ans. (c)

9. In machine shop a worker is exposed to the following levels of noise.

Sound level dBA Duration
90 1 hour
110 5 minutes
95 2 hours
Which of the following statements is true? (a) The shop is not in compliance with
OSHA (b) We need additional data to calculate 8 hours TWA sound level for OSHA
requirements. (c) The shop is in compliance with OSHA requirements. (d) the shop is
not in compliance with OSHA requirements. However, use of hearing protectors
would bring the shop in compliance
Ans. (c) First calculate OSHA allowable times from :

10. The sound pressure level at a distance of 4 ft. from a sound source is 96 decibels.
The sound pressure level at 12ft. away from this sound sources is : (a) 90 decibel (b) 82
decibel (c) 86 decibel (d) 94 decibel
Ans (c) The relationship between sound level and distance is expressed by the following
relationship :
Where : dB1 is sound level at distance d1
dB0 is sound level at distance do
For the problem hand, we have
dB1 = 96 + 20 log

11. If the distance from a sound source is doubled, the reduction in sound pressure
level is : (a) 4 decibel (b) 8 decibel (c) 12 decibel (d) 6 decibel
Ans. (d) We start with
iB1 = dB0 + 20 log

This means that if we double our distance from a sound source, the sound pressure
level decreases by decibels.

12. In industrial noise control, every attempt must be made to reduce noise level by
means of engineering controls. One way to accomplish this is treatment of ceiling
with sound absorbing materials such as fiberglass. In a machine shop with a ceiling area
of 6000 ft2 and sound absorption coefficient of 0.04, the ceiling was treatment with a
sound absorbing material which has a coefficient of absorption of 0.8. The amount
of noise reduction in this machine shop is : (a) 13 decibel (b) 48 decibel (c) 24 decibel
(d) 8 decibel
Ans. (a) The relationship for calculation of noise reduction is :
Where :
dB = amount of noise reduction in decibels
A1 = amount of absorption before treatment expressed in units of “sabins”
A2 = amount of absorption after treatment in “sabins.
Values of A1 and A2 can be obtained by multiplying the ceiling area by the
coefficients of absorption. For the problem at hand.

13. The time weighted noise exposure for a worker is 95 decibels in a shift. The
noise dose is : (a) 120% (b) 199 % (c) 50% (d) 190%
Ans (b) The relationship between noise dose. ATWA is
 TWA = time weighted noise exposure in dB
D = noise dose in percent. For the problem at hand.

14. The noise level at an operator's position I m away from a noise source is 98 dBA. A safety
professional has proposed a design change that will keep the operator 2 m away from the
noise source. What is the expected noise level at this new location, assuming a point source
and free field radiation?

A. 49 dBA
B. 89 dBA
C. 92 dBA
D. 95 dBA

The correct answer is C.

15. Find the sound pressure level in dB when the operator moves to a new location 2 m away
from a noise source after having been I m away from the noise source.

Equation:

Db1 = dBo + 20 log (do / dl)

where

dB1 = new noise level

dBo = original noise level = 98 dB
do = original distance = I m
d I = new distance = 2 m

dB1 = 98 + 20 log (1/2)

= 98 + (-6.02)
= 98 - 6 = 92 dB

TLV-C refers to:

a) Total Liquid Volatile Compound

b) Threshold Limit Value Ceiling
c) Threshold Limit Value Concentration
d) Total Liquid Volatile Chromatography
A. B

TLV-C refers to that concentration of a chemical, which can not be exceeded even
momentarily. It is an abbreviation for Threshold Limit Value Ceiling. It must be
 pointed out that worker exposure may exceed the Threshold Limit Value Time
Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) as long as the eight hour average does not exceed
TLV-TWA and the value has never exceeded TLV-C during an eight hour work
period. The following graph shows the relationship between instantaneous exposures,
TLV-TWA and TLV-C.

Q14. A sound wave completes 360,000 cycles every hour. The frequency of this sound
wave is:

a) 3600 hertz.
b) 3600 megahertz.
c) 100 hertz.
d) 60,000 hertz.
A. C

Frequency of sound wave expressed in Hertz is defined as the number of complete

cycles in one second.

frequency = 360,000 cycles x 1 hr

hr 3600 seconds

frequency = 100 cycles or Hertz

second

Q15. The frequency of a sound wave is 4000 hertz. The amount of time required for one
complete cycle is:

a) 25 seconds
b) 25 x 10-5 seconds
c) 4 seconds
d) 2500 seconds

A. B

T=1

where T is period in seconds and F is frequency in Hertz.

T= 1 = 25 x 10-5

4000
Q16. The root mean square sound pressure of a sound wave is 200,000 micropascals. The
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) in describes is:

a) 90
b) 75
c) 85
d) 80
A. D

SPL in decibels = 10 log (rms sound pressure)2

(20 micropacal s)2

SPL = 20 log 200,000 = 80 decibels

20

Q17. Sound Level Pressure of 90 decibels is equivalent to:

a) 0.632 pascals
b) 0.90 pascals
c) 1.8 pascals
d) 1.2 pascals
A. A

SPL in decibels = 20log rms(in micropascals)

20 micropacal

90 = 20log rms

20 micropacal

Take antilog of 90

20

rms = 632455 micropascals = 0.632 Pascals

Q18. The allowable time for a continuous noise is 2 hours. The noise level expressed in
describes (dBA) is:

a) 80
b) 100
c) 75
d) 85
A. B

The relationship between allowable time and noise is

T= 8

2(L-90)/5

Where T is allowable time in hours and L is noise level in describes

2= 8

2(L-90)/5

2(L-90)/5 = 4

we take logarithm of both sides

log2(L-90)/5 = log 4

or:

(L -90)log2 = log4

or:

L -90 = 2

L = 100

Q19. The allowable exposure time for a sound level of 90 decibel is:

a) 2 hours
b) 6 hours
c) 1 hour
d) 8 hours
A. D

T= 8

2(L-90)/5

T= 8

2(90-90)/5

T = 8 = 8 hours
 20

Q20. In measuring sound levels in the work place for evaluation of employee noise
exposure, OSHA requires that all measurements be conducted on:

a) B, or C scales
b) A scale
c) A or B scales
d) A or C scales
A. B

OSHA regulations mandate A-scale measurements for identification and measurement

of work place noise exposures.

Q21. “Ossicles” are:

a) instruments used for measuring vibration

b) devices that control vibration by damping
c) bones in the human ear
d) devices that control oscillation of a sound wave
A. C

Ossicles are bones in the human ear, and are also the smallest bones in the human
body. The major function is to transmit the sound wave to the inner ear for
transmission to the brain by the inner ear nerve cells.

Q22. The forms of Noise Induced Hearing Loss (HIHL) are:

a) conductive
b) convective
c) sensorineural
d) only (a) and (c) above
A. D

The adverse effects of noise on hearing can be categorized into conductive impairment,
sensorineural, mixed and central impairment. A conductive impairment is caused by any
condition that interferes with the transmission of sound to the cochlea. Excessive noise can
contribute to this type of hearing impairment. A sensorineural impairment is caused as a
result of damage to the organ of corti and nerve cells and is generally irreversible. Excessive
noise can contribute to this type of hearing impairment as well.
In a machine shop, two machines are working simultaneously. The noise generated by the
first machine is 87 dB and the noise generated by the second machine is 85 dB. The
combined noise effect expressed in dB is:

a) 172
b) 92
c) 115
d) 89
A. D

Since the decibel levels differ by 2, we add 2 to the higher value.

85 dB+87 dB = 89 dB

Q39. Integrating sound level mete4rs measure:

a) the sound frequency

b) the sound wavelength
c) the sound level averaged over a period of time
d) the sound period averaged over different frequencies
A. C

ISLM’s measure the average sound levels over a period of time.

Q40. The combined effect of two sounds, one at 80 dB and the other at 86 dB is:

a) 87 dB
b) 166 dB
c) 85 dB
d) 93 dB
A. A

Since the two decibel levels differ by more than 4, we add 1 to the higher value.

80 dB+86 dB = 87 dB

Q41. A sound absorption coefficient of 0.5 means:

a) 0.5% of the sound energy is absorbed.

b) 50% of the sound energy is absorbed and 50% is reflected.
c) 50% of sound energy is absorbed and 50% goes through the material
d) all sounds having a frequency of 0.5 or more Hertz are absorbed
A. B

Sound absorption coefficient indicates the amount of sound energy which is absorbed,
the remainder is reflected by the material.
Q42. “Noise reduction coefficient” refers to:

a) the amount of reduction in noise frequency by a sound absorbing material

b) the amount of noise frequency reduction as a result of reflective properties of a
material.
c) Average value of absorption coefficient at frequencies 250, 500, 1000, and 2000
Hz.
d) A value when multiplied by the decibles gives the amount of reduction in noise
frequency.
A. C

”Noise reduction coefficient” refers to the arithmetic average of the sound absorption
at frequencies of 250, 500, 1000, and 2000Hz.

Which of the following devices is used to measure noise energy across a range of
frequencies?

a) Sound level meter

b) Sound integrating meter
c) Octave band analyzer
d) Sound absorption meter
A. C

Octave band analyzers are used to measure the actual sound energy over a range of
frequencies. This data in turn is used to calculate the noise exposure of employees

In a machine shop, the 8-hour TWA noise exposure exceeds the regulatory levels. The
management decides to solve the problem by allowing workers to work four hours in
the machine shop and four hours in a quiet area. This is an example of

a) Engineering control.
b) Management control
c) Administrative control
d) Time management control
A. C

Engineering controls offer a permanent solution to a safety problem. In this case, the problem
is solved by job rotation, which is an example of administrative control
Q22. The forms of Noise Induced Hearing Loss (HIHL) are:

a) conductive
b) convective
c) sensorineural
d) only (a) and (c) above
A. D

The adverse effects of noise on hearing can be categorized into conductive

impairment, sensorineural, mixed and central impairment. A conductive impairment is
caused by any condition that interferes with the transmission of sound to the cochlea.
Excessive noise can contribute to this type of hearing impairment. A sensorineural
impairment is caused as a result of damage to the organ of corti and nerve cells and is
generally irreversible. Excessive noise can contribute to this type of hearing
impairment as well.

A sound absorbing material has a sound absorption coefficient of 0.3, 0.6, 0.8, and 0.9 at
frequencies of 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hertz, respectively. The noise reduction
coefficient of this material is:

a) 0.45
b) 0.55
c) 0.65
d) 0.75
A. C

Noise reduction coefficient is the arithmetic average of the sound absorption

coefficient at the given frequencies.

Noise reduction coefficient = 0.3 + 0.6 + 0.8 + 0.9 = 0.65

Q87. During a given work shift, a worker has been exposed to noise levels of 100 dB of one
hour, 95 dB for three hours, and 92 dB for four hours. The value of noise dose is:

a) 0.9
b) 0.8
c) 1.7
d) 1.9
A. D

Now we must calculate the value of

 C1 + C2 + C3

t1 t2 t3

1 + 3 + 4 = 1.9 > 1

2 4 6

Since the above value exceeds 1, we have exceeded the allowable, and this worker has
been exposed to excessive noise

All of the following are types of noise EXCEPT:

a) Continuous
b) Impact
c) Impulse
d) Amplify
A. D

Continuous noise is defined as the type of noise in the workplace that has a frequency
of occurrence of more that once per second

Q105. The time weighted average noise exposure for a worker is 95 decibles in a shaft. The
noise dose is:

a) 120%
b) 199%
c) 50%
d) 190%
A. B

The relationship between noise dose. A TWA is:

Where:

TWA = 16.61log D + 90

100

TWA = time weighted noise exposure in dB.

D = noise dose in percent. For the problem at hand:

95 = 16.61log D + 90
 100

log D = 5

100 16.61

or

D = 1.99

100

D = 199%

 Types of Noise Exposure

Continuous: broadband noise of approximately constant level and spectrum, to

which an employee is exposed for a period of eight hours per day or 40 hours per
week.

Intermittent: a given broadband sound pressure level that occurs several times
during a normal workday.

Impact Type: a sharp burst of sound, generally less than one-half second in duration
and does not repeat more often than once per second.

A sound wave has a frequency of 5000 hertz. The amount of time required for one
complete cycle (in units of seconds) is:

a) 3.
b) 2  10-4.
c) 3  10-5.
d) 5.
 Select (b)

Solution

1
T
F
1
T  2  10 4 seconds
5000

 Decibels
The decibel (abbreviated dB) is the unit for expressing the sound pressure level relative to
2  10-10 atmosphere. In the metric system, this reference pressure is 2  10-5 newton/m2.
The unit termed “pascal” is defined as 1 N/m2; so the sound pressure level reference is
expressed as 2  10-5 pascal or 20 micropascals. Thus, to be technically correct, one
should say, “The sound pressure level is 75 decibels relative to 20 micropascals.” As this
is a universally recognized pressure base, it often is not stated, however, and one usually
says, “The sound pressure level is 75 dB.”

The sound pressure level (SPL) for any measured sound is defined by:

2
(rms sound pressure measured )
SPL  in decibels = 10 log 2
(20 micropascals )

or

(rms sound pressure measured)

= 20 log
(20 micropascals)

If we show the sound pressure level (in decibels) with Lp, the rms sound pressure
measured with P, and our reference pressure (20 micropascals) with P0, we can write:

P
LP ( in decibels )  20 log
P0
 Example 2
The sound pressure level of a sound wave is 6.3  105 micropascal. The decibel value
of this sound wave relative to 20 micropascal is
a) 63.
b) 72.
c) 90.
d) 85.

Select (c)

Solution

P
L p  20 log
P0
6.3  105
L p  20 log
20
L P  89.96 dB

 Sound Measuring Instruments

Noise measurement instruments are classified into sound level meters (SLM), integrating
sound level meters (ISLM), and spectrum analyzers (SA). The SLM, which is the most
common instrument for the measurement of sound levels, can be Type 1 for precision
measurements or Type 2 for general-purpose use. The ISLM instruments are designed for
situations where there is a need to measure the average sound levels over a period of time.
Spectrum analyzers identify the distribution of sound levels in frequency.
 Decibel Addition
Table 9 can be used for accurate decibel addition. Approximate decibel addition relies on
a few simple rules. When decibels are measured on A-scale, they are referred to as dBA.

1. When two decibel levels are equal or within 1 dB of each other, their sum is 3 dB
higher than the higher individual level. For example, 80 dBA + 80 dBA = 83 dBA;
100 dBA + 101 dBA = 104 dBA.

2. When two decibel levels are 2 or 3 dBA apart, their sum is 2 dBA higher than the
higher individual level. For example, 87 dBA + 85 dBA = 89 dBA; 75 dBA + 77
dBA = 79 dBA.

3. When two decibel levels are 4 to 9 dBA apart, their sum is 1 dBA higher than the
higher individual level. For example, 80 dBA + 86 dBA = 87 dBA; 32 dBA + 36
dBA = 37 dBA.

4. When two decibel levels are 10 or more dBA apart, their sum is the same as the
higher individual level. For example, 80 dBA + 95 dBA = 95 dBA.

Note: for every doubling of the distance from the source, the sound intensity is reduced by
approximately 6 decibels. For example, if the sound intensity at 10 ft. from a source is 96
dB, the intensity at 20 ft. is approximately 90 dB.
 Difference between Two Amount to be Added to
Decibel Levels to be Larger Level to Obtain
Added (dB) Decibel Sum (dB)

0 3.0

1 2.6

2 2.1

3 1.8

4 1.4

5 1.2

6 1.0

7 0.8

8 0.6

9 0.5

10 0.4

11 0.3

12 0.2

Table 9. Obtaining Decibel Sum of Two Decibel Levels. This table is, in
essence, a summary of adding logarithms.

In situations where several sound levels have to be added to obtain the combined effect,
the following procedure can be used:

1. Add the two lowest decibel levels.

2. Add the result of step 1 to the next higher level.
3. Continue until all decibel levels have been added.

Example 3
Assume that five machines are operating in a machine shop, and each is generating a
sound level as summarized below:

Machine 1: 79 dBA
Machine 2: 85 dBA
Machine 3: 87 dBA
Machine 4: 95 dBA
Machine 5: 93 dBA
 In order to calculate the combined sound level, we proceed as follows:

79 dBA + 85 dBA = 86 dBA

86 dBA + 87 dBA = 90 dBA
90 dBA + 93 dBA = 95 dBA
95 dBA + 95 dBA = 98 dBA

Therefore, the combined effect from all five machines operating simultaneously is
equivalent to a sound level of 98 dBA.

 Sound Absorption Coefficients

The sound absorption coefficient of a material is an indication of the amount of sound
absorbed by the material at a given frequency. For example, a material with a coefficient
of 0.75 absorbs 75% of the sound reaching it. The remainder is reflected.

The term “noise reduction coefficient” (NRC) refers to the arithmetic average of the
absorption coefficient at frequencies 250, 500, 1,000 and 2,000 Hz.

 Sound Transmission Loss Materials

The term “sound transmission loss” (STL) refers to the sound isolation properties of a
material. The STL is a measure of the amount of sound energy transmitted through a
material relative to the amount flowing toward the material. Mathematically the STL is
defined by the following expression:

Ei
STL = 10 log
Et

Where:
Ei: is the incident energy
Et: is the transmitted energy.

The STL increases with increasing frequency at a rate of about 5 dB for each doubling of
frequency.
 OSHA Allowable Times for Noise Exposure
The allowable time that a worker can be exposed to a continuous noise can be obtained
from:

8
t   L  90  /5
2
Where:
t is the allowable exposure time in hours
L is the sound intensity expressed in decibels.

Example 4

The allowable time that a worker can be exposed to a continuous noise level of 95
decibels in hours is:
a) 5.
b) 3.
c) 4.
d) 2.

Select (c)

Solution

8
t   95 90 /5  4 hours
2
 Sound Level Meters A, B, C Response
An SLM can measure sound on either A, B, or C scales depending on the frequency of
sound. OSHA regulations require A-scale noise measurement for assessment of noise
exposure to employees because this scale most closely resembles the response of the
human ear. Other scales such as B or C may be utilized for evaluation of noise as part of
engineering control or design along with spectrum analysis.

Physiology of Hearing
Sound vibrations are transferred through ear canal to the eardrum and into the middle ear.
The middle ear contains three bones called the “ossicles” which transmit sound waves to the
inner ear. The hearing part of the inner ear is called “cochlea.”

The adverse effect of noise on hearing can be classified into:

a) Conductive impairment
Any condition which interferes with the transmission of sound waves to the cochlea.

b) Sensorineural impairment
This is an irreversible hearing loss caused by damage to the organ of “corti” and
degeneration of the neural elements of the auditory nerve.

c) Mixed impairment
Excessive noise can cause both conductive and sensorineural (mixed) impairment.

d) Central impairment
Refers to lack of ability of a person to interpret what is heard.

 Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL)

This type of hearing loss can occur as a result of over-exposure to noise over a relatively long
period of time. Over-exposure to noise can initially cause a Temporary Threshold Shift
(TTS) in hearing. However, a TTS can be transformed into a Permanent Threshold Shift
(PTS) if over-exposure continues.

A high frequency noise is more harmful to human ear than a low frequency noise having
the same amount of sound energy.
Hearing Protection Equipment
Hearing protective devices can be classified into three general categories:

1. Ear plugs, or insert-type devices, which fit within the ear canal.
2. Ear muffs, which are devices that fit around the ears and are supported either from a hard
hat or from a head band that connects the individual muffs.
3. Canal Caps, which cover the entrance to the ear canal and are supported similarly to ear
muffs.

The noise reduction capability of hearing protective devices is a very important factor which
should always be considered.

Example 5
The root mean square sound pressure for a sound wave is 0.4 pascals. The sound pressure
level in decibels is:

a) 80.
b) 90.
c) 75.
d) 86.

Select (d)

The following relationship can be used to calculate the decibel value of a sound wave
from root mean square values P.

P
(decibels) = 20 log
20

where P is in micropascals and 20 micropascals is our reference point.

0.4  106
dB = 20 log = 86
20
 Relationship between noise dose and OSHA allowable times
In many workplace situations, an individual may be exposed to different levels of noise
during an 8-hour workday. The concept of noise dose is used to determine whether
OSHA allowable exposure times have been exceeded for a time varying noise level
exposure. Noise dose can be calculated from

n
ci
D  100 
i 1 ti

Where:
D: is the noise dose
Ci: actual exposure times
ti: allowable times.

When noise dose is calculated using the above relationship, we can say that allowable
time has been exceeded if noise dose is greater than 1. Otherwise allowable time is not
exceeded. The following relationship can be used to calculate allowable times:

8
t (L  90) / 5
2

Where:
t is the allowable time in hours.
L is the sound pressure level in decibels.
We demonstrate how to use the above relationships with an example.

Example 6
What is the noise dose for a worker who is exposed to a 95 dB source for a period of 5 hours?

a) 165%.
b) 125%.
c) 93%.
d) 315%.

Select (b)

The noise dose can be calculated from

n
Ci
D  100
i 1 ti

where Ci is the exposure time and ti the allowable time. The allowable time can be
8
calculated from t 
2 ( L 90)/5
where L is the exposure in decibels.

For the problem at hand:

8
t ( 95 90 )/ 5
 4 hours
2
 5
D  100 
 4

D  125%.
 Relationship between noise reduction, perimeter and cross sectional area of a duct.
In many buildings, noise generated by a given source can be transmitted to other locations
through ventilation or heating ducts. In many instances ducts are lined with a sound
absorbing material. The amount of Noise Reduction (NR) expressed in decibels per foot
length of the duct can be obtained from the following relationship:

12.6P
1. 4

NR 
A

Where:
NR is the sound absorption coefficient in decibels per foot.
P is the perimeter of the duct in inches
A is the cross sectional area of the duct in square inches
 is is the absorption coefficient of the lining material.

Example 7
A square ventilation duct 2 feet on each side connects two rooms through a 20 feet length of
the duct. The sound absorption coefficient of the lining material is 0.2. The Noise
Reduction in dB/foot is:

a) 0.9.
b) 0.6.
c) 1.1.
d) 0.2.

Select (d)

We use the following equation

12.6  8  12  0.21.4
NR 
4  144
NR  0.2 dB / foot

Noise Induced Hearing Loss (HIHL) results from over-exposure to high levels of noise
.NIHL depends on sound intensity and t he exposure time. Which of the following
statements is generally true regarding NIHL ? (a) High frequency noise is more
damaging. (b) Low frequency noise is more damaging (c) NIHL depends only on the
sound intensity and time of exposure . (d) Only (b) and (c) above

Ans (a) Although there are some differences among individuals, exposure to high
frequency noise is more damaging to the ears than a low frequency noise having the
same sound intensity and for the same exposure time.

27. Temporary Threshold Shift( TTS) in hearing is caused as a result of damage to

which of the following? (a) cochlea (b) incus (c) organ of corti (d) tympanic membrane

Ans. (c) TTS is caused as a result of over-exposure to loud noise which damages the
organ of Corti and its hair cells.

Sound absorption coefficient for a given material. (a) is more sensitive to frequency
changes than Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) (b) is less sensitive to frequency
changes than NRC. (c) is a synonym for NRC. (d) is a synonym for NRC and is
frequency independent.

Ans. (a) Sound absorption coefficient is given at a specific frequency. Noise reduction
coefficient is the average of sound absorption coefficient at frequencies of 250, 500,
1,000 and 2,000 HZ and is less frequency dependent than the sound absorption
coefficient.

Which environmental condition would be of the most concern in an office?

1. 40% relative humidity (concern >70% relative humidity)

2. temperature of 72 degrees F (concern less than 15 F)

3. noise level of 78 dBA√

4. air movement of 1 mph

Temporary Threshold Shift( TTS) in hearing is caused as a result of damage to which

of the following? (a) cochlea (b) incus (c) organ of corti (d) tympanic membrane
 Ans. (c) TTS is caused as a result of over-exposure to loud noise which damages the
organ of Corti and its hair cells.

Sound absorption coefficient for a given material. (a) is more sensitive to frequency
changes than Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) (b) is less sensitive to frequency
changes than NRC. (c) is a synonym for NRC. (d) is a synonym for NRC and is
frequency independent.

Ans. (a) Sound absorption coefficient is given at a specific frequency. Noise reduction
coefficient is the average of sound absorption coefficient at frequencies of 250, 500,
1,000 and 2,000 HZ and is less frequency dependent than the sound absorption
coefficient.

What is noise dose for a worker who is exposed to 95 dBA source for a period of 5 hours ?
a) 165% b) 125% c) 93% d) 31.5%

The noise can be calculate from D = 100∑ Ci

ti
where Ci is exposure time and ti is allowable time.

T = 8 . , where L is exposure in decibels

2 (L-90)/5
From this equation we can find D = 125% of 8 hrs TWA

A worker is exposed to noise level of 110 dBA for one hour, 95 dBA for 3 hr., 90 dBA fro
3 hours. The noise dose for this worker is : a) 500% b) 275% c) 425% d) 312%

First we calculate allowable times for noise levels of 110, 95, 90 dB

t = 8 . , where L is exposure in decibels
(L-90)/5
2
t110 = 0.5, t95 = 4, t90 = 8

Noise dose = D = 100∑ Ci

ti
D = (1/0.5 + ¾ + 3/8) x 100, D = 312% of 8 hour TWA

18 Two machines each generate noise level of 80 dBA. When both machines work
simultaneously, the noise level is approx. a) 85dBA, b) 83 dBA, c) 86 dBA, d)
160 dBA
Ans. (b)
When in a free hold and the difference between two sounds levels is zero, we add 3 dB
to obtain the combined effect.

19 In a machine shop, a worker is exposed to following levels of noise

 Noise Level dBA 91 105 98
Duration hours 3 1 2
The noise dose expressed in percentage of OSHA permissible exposure is
a) 423% b) 87% c) 219% d) 215%
Ans.(c) First calculate allowable times
t91 = 8 . = 7 Hours , from same equation t98 = 2.6, t105 = 1 hour
2 (91-90)/5

Noise dose = 100 (3/7 + 1/1 + 2/2.63)

Noise Dose = 219% of 8 hrs TWA

20 A square ventilation duct 2 feet on each side connects two rooms through a 20 feet
length of the duct. A noise reduction of 0.2 dB/ft of duct is required. What should the
sound absorption coefficient of lining material be? A) 0.9176, B) 0.612, c) 0.526,
d) 0.186
Ans (d)
We use following equation - NR = 12.6 P a1.4
A
Where NR is noise reduction in decibels per foot, P is perimeter of deuct in inches, A
is cross section area of duct in square inches.
From this equation we can calculate a = 0.186

21 What is noise reduction in decibels per foot of a 2ft. diameter circular duct lined with a
material having a sound absorption coefficient of 0.75?
a) 1.4, b) 2.3, c) 3.8 or d) 2.9

Ans (a) NR = 12.6 x 3.14 x 2 x 12 x 0.7514

314(1)2 x 144
NR = 1.4 decibel / foot

22 A sound absorbing material with an absorption coefficient of 0.8 is used as lining in a

circular duct and provide a noise reduction of 1.2 dB per foot. The diameter of circular
duct is
a) 24 inch b) 6 inch, c) 15 inches, d) 12 inches
Ans(d)
NR = 12.6 P a1.4 Perimeter P = 3.14 D, Area A = 3.14 D2
A 4

Therefore D is equal to 12.29 inches from above equation. We calculate

Since diameter of duct cannot be zero, we accept other solution for D which is 12.29
inches.
23 A sound wave has a sound pressure level of 95 dB with respect to 20 micro pascals,
the root mean square sound pressure of this wave expressed in units of pascal is :-
a) 9500, b) 5.2 c) 1.12, d) 0.8

Ans.(c) SPL(in decibels) = 20 log ( rms sound pressure) 95 = 20 log (P/20)

20 micro pascals

Or we can say P/20 is equal to antilog of 4.75 (your calculator should have antilog
 function)
From this equation we can calculate P = 1.12 pascal

24 The cochlea is main element of: a) inner ear b) middle ear c) outer ear d) tympanic
membrane
Ans(a)
The cochlea is main element of inner ear. It is filled with a fluid and shaped like a coil.
Sound waves travels through cochlea before reaching the hair like nerve cells for
transmission to brain.

25 Noise Induced hearing Loss (NIHL) results from over-exposure to high levels of noise.
NHIL depends on sound intensity and the exposure time. Which of the following
statements is generally true regarding NIHL ?
a) High frequency noise is more damaging.
b) Low frequency noise is more damaging.
c) NIHL depends only on sound intensity and time of exposure
d) Only b and c above
Ans.(a) Although there are some differences among individuals, exposure to high frequency
noise is more damaging to the ears than a low frequency noise having the same sound
intensity and for the same exposure time.

26 Temporary Threshold (TTS) in hearing is caused as a result of damage to which :-

a) Cochlea b) incus c) organ of corti d) tympanic membrane

Ans(c) TTS is caused as a result of over exposure to loud noise which damages the organ of
Corti and its hair Cells.

27 In a machine shop a worker is exposed to the following levels of noise :-

Noise Level dBA 90 110 95
Duration hours 1 hour 5 min. 2 hours
Which of the following statements is true ?
a) The shop is not in compliance with OSHA noise exposure requirement
b) We need additional data to calculate 8 hour TWA sound level for OSHA
Ans.( c) requirement
c) The shop is in compliance with OSHA requirement
d) The is not in compliance with OSHA requirement, however, use of hearing
protectors would bring shop in compliance.
First calculate OSHA allowable times from
t = 8 . , where L is exposure in decibels, we found t90 = 8, t95 = 4, t110 =
0.5,
2 (L-90)/5

D = 100[ 1/8 + 2/4 + (5/60)/0.5], D = 79% of 8 hrs. TWA

Since noise dose percentage does not exceed 100%.
This shop is in compliance with OSHA requirements.
28 “Raynaud’s Syndrome’ is an occupational diseases caused as a result of :-
a) Over exposure to excessive noise
b) Over exposure of hands to vibration
c) Repetitive movement of black muscles.
 d) Over exposure to ultraviolet radiation
Ans.( b) “Raynaud’s Syndrome’ is also know as “Dead Fingers” or ‘White Fingers’ results
from over-exposure of hands to vibrating tools. The circulation in fingers of hand
guiding the tool becomes impaired and when these fingers are exposed to cold temp.,
they become white and devoid of sensation.

The sound pressure level at a distance of 4 ft. from a sound is 96 decibels. The sound pressure
level at 12 ft. away from this sound source is - a) 90, b) 82 c 86 d) 94 decibel

dB1 = dB0 + 20 log(d0/d1), where dB1 is sound level at distance d1 ,

dB0 is sound level at distance d0 ,
From this equation we can found dB1 = 86.45

If distance from a sound source is doubled, the reduction in sound pressure level is :-
a) 4 decibel, b) 8 decibel, c) 12 decibel d) 6 decibel
dB1 = dB0 + 20 log(d0/d1),, in this case d0/d1 = 0.5 distance doubled
we have to calculate dB1 - dB0
dB1 - dB0 = 20 log0.5 = - 6

In industrial noise control, every attempt must be made to reduce noise level by means of
engineering controls, one way to accomplish this is treatment of ceilings with sound absorbing
materials such as fiberglass. In a machine shop with a ceiling area of 6000 ft2 and sound
absorption coefficient of 0.04, the ceiling was treated with a sound absorbing material which has a
coefficient of absorption of 0.8. The amount of noise reduction in this machine shop is:-
a) 13, b) 48, c) 24 or d) 8 decibel.
For calculation of noise reduction is : dB = 10 log(A2/A1)

Where dB is amount of noise reduction in decibels, A1 is amount of absorption before treatment

express in units of ‘sabins’, A2 is amount of absorption after treatment in sabins.

A2 = (6000 ft2) x (0.04) = 240 sabins

A2 = (6000 ft2) x (0.8) = 4800 sabins

dB = 13 decibels from above formula.

The time weighted average noise exposure for a worker is 95 decibels in a shift. The noise is
a) 120% b) 199% c) 50% d) 190%
Relationship between noise dose. A TWA is
TWA = 16.61 log(D/100)+90
TWA is time weighted noise exposure in dB, D is noise dose in percent.
From above equation we can calculate D = 199%
75 Which of following is an example of engineering noise control ?
a) Use of earmuffs, b) reducing number of hours or exposure, c) use of sound
absorbing material d) audiometric testing
Ans(c) Engineering controls are used to permanently eliminate or lessen severity of hazardous
conditions. In this case use of sound absorbing materials for control of over exposure to
noise is good example of engineering control.

A pocket dosimeter is a device that is used to measure employee exposure to which of

following :-
a) Radiation b) noise c) vibration d) airborne hazardous chemicals concentration
Correct answer is (a)