CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Optical fiber have brought a new era in the telecommunication field. The reason behind such
success of the optical fiber is due to its various properties like low transmission loss, high optical
damage threshold and low optical nonlinearity. All of these properties complied has enabled to
achieve long distance transmission of the signals. However, no matter how much the optical fiber
are efficient, like all matters of technology they are also limited by the effects of dispersion.
Dispersion leads to pulse broadening of the signals as they travel across the fiber leading to
overlapping of the signal. This creates errors at the receiver output which is known as inter
symbol interference (ISI).The concept of Fibre Bragg Gratings was introduced in the 1980s and
till now it is a widely used technique for compensating dispersion in optical fiber. It is a rather
cost effective technique compared to the Dispersion Compensating Fiber. The efficiencies of
both the techniques are to be seen separately as well as combined. Moreover, the advance pulse
shaping techniques are to be used as an effective way of maintaining dispersion.

The aim of this thesis is to do a complete analysis of the dispersion compensation techniques and
find out the one which is the most effective. The parameters are studied to achieve efficient
dispersion compensation scheme. Also, a comparative analysis will be done by changing the
components used in the simulation optical model design and finding out what will be the
parameter constraints. The idea is to use the dispersion compensation scheme in designs where
the frequency spacing is very small. Moreover, advance pulse shaping methods will be seen to
combat dispersion at high data rates.

1.2 A Brief Overview of Optical Fiber Communication System

Since the beginning of time mankind has found different ways to communicate with each other.
People were assigned the duties of messengers to carry the communication from one place to
another. Also, some took the positions at hilltops with good acoustic points to shout the
messages so that they can be carried in the form of echo. With the advancement of science and
technology things definitely took a turn for better. Advances in the field of optical

1
communication started at the onset of the invention of lasers in the 1960s. The introduction of
the laser led to the concept of using the optical region in the electromagnetic spectrum for
transmitting information. The first installed optical fiber links appeared in the late 1970s and
were used for transmitting telephony signals at about 6Mbps over distances of around 10 km.[1]
Fiber optic communication is a way of exchanging the information between places by sending
the light signal through the optical fiber cables. Fiber optic communication brought the
revolutionary change in the telecommunication industry and played a major role in the advent of
information age. In the twenty first century, its advantages over electrical transmission cause the
replacement of copper wire with the optical fiber in the communication system. Today, optical
fiber are not only used in telecommunication links but also used in the Internet and local area
networks to achieve high signaling rates. The core advantages of optical fiber such as low loss,
allows long distances between amplifiers and its high data carrying capacity. Also no cross talk
is introduced in optical fiber running alongside each other for long distances as compared to
some types of electrical transmission lines. The use and demand for optical fiber has grown
tremendously and optical fiber applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are
widespread, ranging from global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission
of voice, data, or video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one
of a few standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.[2] The near ideal properties of
optical fibre make it a good use in communication. The basic block diagram of an optical
communication system is as follow

Fig.1.1 Block diagram of Optical Fiber Communication System

The transmitter side consists of an optical source and a modulator. The modulated optical signal
is transmitted via the channel which is the optical fiber link. The receiver side consists of the

2
optical detector and demodulator. The function of the demodulator is to decompose the received
signal into vectors and the function of the detector is to decide which of the M possible signal
waveforms was transmitted based on the vector r. It helps to minimize the error of probability of
transmitted signal [3]. An optical fiber is a flexible thin filament of silica glass that accepts
electrical signals as input and converts them to optical signal. It carries the optical signal along
the fiber length and reconverts the optical signal to electrical signal at the receiver side.

1.3 Optical Fiber

The fiber used in optical communication contains a cylindrical glass core via which the light will
travel. The core is enveloped by another cylinder made of glass known as cladding. For
protection of these cylinders, they are wrapped up by a plastic jacket. The refractive index of the
core is slightly higher than the refractive index of cladding. It is as shown in figure 1.2

Fig1.2: Structure of Optical fiber

The working of fiber optics is related to the phenomenon of total internal reflection which is
defined as the condition when the incident light is at an angle that is greater than a threshold
value (known as critical angle) denoted by ᶿc, then the light is totally reflected back. No
refraction takes place.

Optical fiber are generally classified as-

1. Single mode fiber (SMF)

2. Multimode Fiber (MMF)

The size of the core in SMF is typically of 9 microns whereas in MMF, it varies from 50 microns
to 62.5 microns. Modes in a multimode fiber are the multiple paths by which the light can travel.
A specific wavelength is there known as the cut off wavelength, for which a single mode fiber

3
can become multimode fiber when it is below this threshold value. Distortion effects occur more
in the multimode fiber due to the various paths taken by the light signal to travel.

1.4 Optical Sources

An optical source is the one which generates an optical carrier frequency. The carrier is
modulated according to the transmitted data and is passed through the fiber to the receiver. Light
is produced whenever a photon or phonon is emitted. There are two processes of light production
namely, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.

1.5 Advantages of using Optical Fibers

1. The distance of transmission of signals is increased i.e. data can be sent over longer distances
which helps in decreasing the overall requirement of equipment and thereby reducing the cost.

2. Since the optical fiber have wider bandwidths which means more information can be sent via a
single link.

3. Optical fiber are smaller in size and of low weight.

4. Optical fiber have an inherent immunity to electrical interference.

5. The security of the signal is improved as the signal travels within the fiber with an opaque
coating around it.

1.6 Limitations- Dispersion

Although the advantages of fiber optics are manifold, however, due to the linear and nonlinear
characteristics of fiber put limitations over high speed data transmission in the communication
system. The linear characteristics include attenuation, chromatic dispersion (CD), polarization
mode dispersion (PMD), and optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR). The nonlinear characteristics
include self-phase modulation (SPM), cross-phase modulation (XPM), four-wave mixing
(FWM), stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), and stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS).
Nonlinear fiber effects such as self- and cross-phase modulation combined with the group
velocity dispersion result in intensity distortion of the propagating signals in WDM links,
limiting the maximum transmission distance. The transmission distances can be increased by
optimizing the dispersion map to reduce the impact of nonlinearities. Further the maximum

4
transmission distance is limited by the dispersion or spreading of optical pulses as they travel
along the fiber. As the signal travels along the fiber, the pulses tend to broaden which leads to
overlapping of the signals thereby introducing inter symbol interference, which causes errors at
the receiver side. This is known as dispersion.[1]Generally speaking, dispersion is divided into
three major categories:

1. Intermodal dispersion

2. Intramodal dispersion

3. Polarization mode dispersion

1.6.1 Intermodal dispersion

This type of dispersion is widely known as Chromatic dispersion. A band of frequencies are
emitted by the optical source instead of a single one. Propagation delay may arise due to the
different spectral components of the signal arriving at the receiver which may cause broadening
of the pulses. The delay differences may be due to the dispersive properties of the waveguide
material (material dispersion) or the guidance effects within the fiber structure(waveguide
dispersion)[4]

Material dispersion: This is a consequence of the various group velocities of the different
spectral components send into the fiber by the source of optical origin.

Mathematical condition: The second differential of the refractive index with respect to
wavelength is not zero.

Waveguide dispersion: This is due to variation in group velocity with wavelength for a
particular mode [3].

Multimode fiber does not exhibit waveguide dispersion.

1.6.2 Intramodal dispersion

It is also known as modal or mode dispersion and as the name suggests occurs in multimode
fiber due to the propagation delay associated with multi modes. To nullify the effects of
dispersion, adoption of an optimum refractive index profile should be used in the case of graded

5
index fiber. Differential attenuation of the modes helps in reducing this type of dispersion. This
type of dispersion is obviously absent in single mode fiber.

1.6.3 Polarization mode dispersion

It results from the fact that light signal energy at a given wavelength in a single mode actually
occupies two orthogonal polarization states or modes.[4] This is due to imperfections in the fiber
material which results in different refractive indices along the fiber Hence, each mode will travel
at slightly altered speeds, which leads to pulse broadening.

1.7 Dispersion Compensation Techniques

Depending on the place and realization where the dispersion compensation is made in a system,
it can be distinguished between three compensating methods:

a) pre-chirp techniques at the transmitter side

b) dispersion compensation in the transmission line (inline compensation) and

c) dispersion compensation at the receiver side [6].

Fig.1.3 Categories of Dispersion compensation

The idea behind the pre-chirping at the transmitter side is the implementation of chirp with the
opposite sign to the fiber chirp in order to counter the GVD effects in the fiber The main
implementation area of this technique is cost effective, optical short-reach systems (e.g. MANs)
with smaller channel bit rates, but in combination with other dispersion compensation techniques
(e.g.in-line compensation) it can enable a performance improvement even in high-bit rate
transmission systems over long distances. In-line dispersion compensation represents the key
enabling technology for the realization of long-haul transmission systems. The dispersion

6
compensation is realized in the optical domain without electro-optical conversion of the signal,
enabling better compensation of the signal because the optical phase is maintained. The post-
chirp techniques at the receiver side are characterized by the compensation of the chromatic
dispersion in electrical domain. This compensation method is cost effective, and in combination
with in-line compensation, enables an enhanced transmission performance. Implementation of
in-line compensation devices in the transmission line affects the transmission performance of the
system because of the interaction of dispersion map with transmission disturbances (e.g. ASE-
noise, nonlinearities).

1.7.1 Fiber Bragg Gratings

The widening of the pulses is a function of both the parameters of distance and dispersion. The
unit of dispersion is ps/nm/km and differs from the type of fiber used and is denoted by D. To
reduce the effect of intersymbol interference at the receiver it is required to resort to methods for
compensating dispersion. There are many techniques to compensate dispersion such as using
Dispersion Compensating Fiber, Fiber Bragg Gratings etc. In this thesis, the FBG method will be
analysed in detail. The FBG is permanent grating type structure introduced in the fiber. In other
words, The Gratings are an alternate modulation of the refractive index in the core of optical
fiber [7]. This type of gratings is formed by exposing the core to an intense optical interference
pattern. Now, fiber gratings allow the power between the modes to be transferred in the fiber by
matching the phase of one mode with the phase of another. [7].Gratings are fabricated onto the
fiber by several methods out of which the transverse holographic technique is more used due to
its distinct advantages like Bragg gratings can be photo imprinted into the fiber core when the
glass cladding is still inside; moreover, the period of the photo induced grating depends on the
angle between the two interfering coherent ultraviolet light beams [5]. This helps to operate the
Bragg gratings at much longer wavelengths. The core which is germanium doped is the most
widely used material to make optical fiber due to photosensitivity property. The grating which is
introduced can be said to work like an intrinsic sensor which will change the spectrum of any
signal travelling by coupling energy to different modes. Fiber gratings are usually written in bare
fibers where the acrylate coating is removed. This means that optical fibers behave like a three
layer structure with different effective refractive indexes for the core n1, for the cladding n2 , and
with a final outer cladding being air n3=1. The index perturbation in the core is a periodic

7
structure, similar to a volume hologram or a crystal lattice that acts as a stop-band filter. A
narrow band of the incident optical field within the fiber is reflected by successive, coherent
scattering from the index variations. The strongest interaction or mode coupling occurs at the
Bragg wavelength given by

λb=2nɅ

where, n and Ʌ are refractive index of core and grating period in fiber, respectively.

A uniform grating can be expressed as sinusoidal modulation of fiber core refractive index

n(z)= ncore+δn [1 + cos( 2πz/Ʌ +φ(z) )]

where, ncore is the core refractive index when it is not radiated and δn is amplitude of induced
refractive index.

The grating is an intrinsic sensor which changes the spectrum of an incident signal by coupling
energy to other fiber modes. In the simplest case, the incident wave is coupled to a counter
propagating like mode and thus reflected.

1.7.2 Dispersion Compensating Fiber:

DCF represents the most widely used in-line dispersion compensation technique in today’s
transmission systems. This technique dates back to the 1980s. The DCFs are characterized by a
large negative dispersion and a small core diameter. The large negative dispersion values can be
achieved by variation of the fiber profile by doping the fiber cladding (e.g. by fluorine),
introducing an increase in the refractive index difference between the core and cladding. The
demands on DCFs are a large negative dispersion (-70-300 ps/nm), low insertion losses, low
polarization dependent (PDL) losses, a low polarization mode dispersion (<0.05 ps/km), a large
effective area (dispersion slope). The DCFs can be used for simultaneous compensation of
several channels, but due to imperfections in slope compensation, a small amount of residual
dispersion remains especially in outer channels. It is an effective technique .When a DCF is used
for dispersion compensation in a system built on single-mode fiber (SMF), the condition for
perfect dispersion compensation is

L1D1+L2D2=0

8
Where D1 and D2 are fiber dispersions of the SMF and DCF respectively. L1 and L2 are the
fiber lengths of the SMF and DCF respectively.

1.8 Optical Amplifiers

As the signal continues its journey across the optical fiber, the signal quality degrades to various
factors like fiber attenuation losses, tap losses and splice losses. Due to these types of losses, the
received signal is not the same with the transmitted portion. Therefore, for transmission of the
signal over a long distance in a fiber, it is of utmost necessity to mitigate such losses. At the
beginning, there was the conversion of the optical signal to electrical signal which were then
amplified and then reconverted to optical signal. This was not an efficient procedure as losses
were incurred. With the advent of the optical amplifiers, amplification of the signals in the
optical state can be done. Optical amplifiers are generally classified into two categories-

1. Semiconductor optical amplifier

2. Fiber amplifiers.

The classification is illustrated as

Fig 1.4 Optical Amplifiers classification

In context to the research work, the following amplifiers are discussed in the further sections

1.8.1 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA)

The EDFA amplifier is doped with erbium ions and is a silica based amplifier. The method of
doping is done with Erbium ions( Er3+). This is due to the inherent fluorescent properties which

9
these ions have and makes them suitable for optical amplification. In optical communication, two
wavelength widows C-Band (1530nm-1560nm) and L-Band (1560nm-1600nm) are generally
used. EDFA can amplify signals in the range of these optical windows (1500nm-1600nm)
simultaneously. The basic foundation of EDFA says that when an optical signal like in the range
of 1550nm wavelength enters the amplifier from the input side, the signal then gets combined
with either a 980nm or 1480nm pump laser via a wavelength division multiplexer. The input
signal along with the signal of the pump laser pass through an optical fiber that has been doped
with erbium ions. The 1550nm signal gets amplified now via interaction with doped erbium ions.
To understand the working of the Erbium ions, we have to go through its energy band gap
diagram.

Fig.1.5 The Energy band gap diagram.

In the figure, we have considered the three energy levels namely E1, E2, and E3 which
respectively denotes the ground state, the meta-stable state and lastly the excited state. N1, N2
and N3 denote the population or number of erbium ions in the three levels. The population
density is N1>N2>N3 in equilibrium state, when no pump signal is used. There undergoes a
change in these population density levels when there is pump or signal present. This happens due
to the movement of the ions between the different states. It can be due to emission or absorption
of the photons at the frequencies which are provided by the energy level difference. As can be
seen from the figure 1.4, we are using two pump wavelengths for EDFA i.e. at 980nm and
1480nm respectively. Due to the presence of the 980nm pumping wavelength, the erbium ions
get excited and jump to the excited state i.e. from E1 to E3. The rate by which such transition or

10
movement of electrons occurs will be determined by the pump power. The newly excited
electrons which are in the excited state cannot stay long in the E3 level and giving up their
energy falls back to the meta stable state and then fall back to the ground state after
approximately 10ms and emits photon, which in other terms is known as spontaneous emission.
However, the photons generated in this spontaneous process are treated as noise as these are non-
polarized and incoherent through time and space. But when the ions or photons which are present
in the metastable state interacts with photons of suitable wavelength, they fall back to the ground
state emitting photons , and travel back in the same direction as the photons of the incident wave.
This process is known as stimulated emission. By this method, one photon is able to give two
photons at the output, due to which the multiplication factor occurs. So, number of photons are
multiplicatively generated and if we give a large number of photons at the input, multiplication
occurs at output which in return increases the light intensity (also known as gain) and the signal
gets amplified. The same procedure occurs when the 1480 nm wavelength is given. The
population inverse mechanism occurs when we will be getting more ions in the meta stable state
rather than the excited state.

1.8.2 Raman Amplifier

Such type of amplifiers is based on the phenomena of Raman Scattering. Raman Scattering is a
type of non linear process and as such Raman amplifiers are a contrast to EDFA. Raman
amplifiers need to be optically pumped to give gain. The Raman gain arises from power transfer
between optical beams which are downshifted in frequency by the energy of a phonon, a
vibrational mode of the medium. Pumps are utilized for giving energy to the transmitted signal
by the effect of Raman Effect mechanism. It is an elastic scattering process. So it can be
summarized that stimulated Raman scattering is a nonlinear optical process in which intense
pump light interacts with a signal of low frequency, simultaneously amplifying the signal and
producing an optical phonon. Raman scattering occurs in all optical fibers with its strength
depending only on the type of optical fiber and the frequency offset and power of the interacting
waves. Maximum gain occurs for a frequency offset between the pump and signal of 13.2THz.
Due to the large bandwidth of fiber such amplifiers are used in fiber optic communication. Noise
in Raman amplifiers comes from the spontaneous Raman scattering. Raman amplifiers are called
lumped or distributed depending on the design.

11
 CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Literature Survey
Nazmi A. Mohamad et.al (2014) demonstrated a single-channel system using standard values
and equipment to evaluate the dispersion compensation performance of several dispersion
compensation techniques. The results showed that linear chirping is preferable among all the
chirping functions for dispersion compensation purposes. The study indicated that the grating
length should be optimized to guarantee acceptable dispersion compensation behavior. The DCF
technique yields a good dispersion compensation unit, but it is costly for the standard link in the
system under examination. The DCF, together with the optimized linearly chirped tanh FBG,
achieves remarkable dispersion compensation performance that is associated with an acceptable
pulse shape, and its price is moderate [8]

A. Hessainiaa et.al (2014) the approach of this paper was to study the effect of different taper
profiles on dispersion slope compensation in optical fibre links. FBGs are the spectral filters
which are based on the principle of the principle of Bragg wavelength.[9] different apodization
factors of the chirped FBGs have been studied to check their effects on high speed systems.
Importance is bestowed on the tapered FBGs under strain or stress. Results indicate that linearly
tapered FBGs display nonlinear group delay under strain, which means that the linearly tapered
FBGs can be used in dispersion slope compensation [10]. This paper aims to numerically
computate the dispersion and dispersion slope cancellation characteristics of two types of tapered
FBGs having exponential–linear and parabolic profiles. The numerical analysis is done on
Matlab and it is seen that apodization factors optimize reflection spectra and also diminishes the
ripples and side lobes. This further helps to prevent cross talk in the channels and as a result, can
be used in the WDM systems. Linear tapered FBG shows a better performance.

Jyoti Choudhary et.al (2014) the DWDM technique is analyzed here. It is an effective
technique for faster data rates and has such has become a key player in optical communication.
However, when the data rate is less than 10 Gbps per channel than dispersion and non linearity
creeps into the system degrading the performance of the system. Therefore, methods are required
to alleviate such effects. The dispersion compensating technique used over here is dispersion

12
compensating fibre. Positive dispersion is counteracted by negative dispersion effect. Different
modulation formats are used to find the system performance for long distance preferably in the
range of 1500 km. 16 channels of DWDM are analysed in a comparative manner to find out the
best modulation format out of (NRZ, Carrier suppressed return-to-zero, Duo binary return-to-
zero and Modified duo binary return-to-zero) and compensation schemes ( Pre, Post and Mix
compensation) at different bit rates (10Gbps, 20Gbps and 40Gbps) with standard and dispersion
compensated fibre on the basis of Q-factor, eye-diagram and bit error rate for fixed gain EDFA
and length for both types of fibre[11]. The software used over here for the simulation model is
OptiSystem software. From the simulation results for the different modulation formats, it has
been found that MDRZ modulation shows a relatively faithful performance for long distance
communication.

Jyotsana et.al, (2013) The performance of a 40 Gbps Optical Time Division Multiplexed
transmission system is analyzed along with a comparative analysis of pre-, post-, and
symmetrical dispersion compensation techniques for different fibre standards have been done.
OTDM is capable of increasing the capacity of optical systems. Transmission length and system
performance of OTDM systems depends a lot on chromatic dispersion and optical Kerr effect.
This paper approaches three types of dispersion compensating techniques namely pre-, post- and
symmetrical are done by the help of dispersion compensating fibres. The transmitter setup of the
OTDM system consists of laser sources, modulators and multiplexers, while the receiver
contains timing synchronization circuits and channel demultiplexer. Optical line delay technique
is used over here in the transmitter side [12].

The output of laser source is divided by the power splitter into four channels generating 10 Gbps
data each and then multiplexed to input it to the fibre. Here the dispersion effects take place
which effect the system performance. The fibre link uses the DCFs and EDFA to compensate the
dispersion. The receiver comprises of detector and demodulator along with a BER analyzer. The
signal is again splitted into 4 ways and fed to the demodulator. The signal noise is filtered out
and the eye diagrams are analyzed by BER analyzer. The different fibre standards are Alcatel,
ITU652a, ITU653, ITU654 and ITU655. Results of the compensation techniques show that the
best performance is by ITU655 for pre-compensation technique and the worst is shown by ITU
653 for all the techniques.

13
Takayoshi Mori et.al, (2013) In this paper modal dispersion is compensated with the help of
adaptive equalization in multimode fibres. Enlarging the effective area (Aeff) of optical fibres is
a practical way of reducing nonlinearity and increasing the fibre fuse threshold power[13].
Increasing the effective area leads to difficulties in maintaining the single mode operation and
bending loss tends to increase. Modal dispersion, as the name suggests, creates more trouble in
multimode fibres. There are two ideasto curb modal dispersion. The first method suggests a
signal light which is launched into the centre of the core of a multimode fibre to prevent the
occurrence of the higher order mode(HOM).[14-18]. The second idea is to filter the mode which
will remove the HOM in the receiver side by using a modal filter.[19,20] Directly using a digital
signal processor with an electric adaptive equalizer degrades the signal at the receiver side. Here,
a digital coherent receiver with an adaptive multi mode fibre for curbing modal dispersion is
used. Also, the quality of transmitted signal compensation in the case of mode conversions
created by axial deviations is studied. Experimental studies shown over here the realization of
signal travelling till 20 km uncompensated even when axial deviations occur. The experimental
set up consists of introducing an adaptive filter adjusted to an adaptive algorithm prior to the
receiver at the end of the multimode fibre. The higher order modes are first excited with the help
of mode excitation unit so that modal dispersion occurs. The signal travelling from the end of a
single mode fibre is coupled into a GI MMF based on the standard ITU-T G.651. Numerical
aperture, focal length of the lens is predefined. Mapping of the SMF to the MMF is done in the
mode excitation unit. The signal is degraded by introducing modal dispersion to check the
performance of the digital coherent receiver. The received signal is combined by the light from a
continuous wave local oscillator in a 90 degree optical hybrid. The polarization is adjusted in a
way so that optical power of the signal at the output of optical hybrid is maximum. The decision
directed detector is used to compensate the noise. A digital filter with the taps of the symbol
space to reduce the tap number is used [13] Thus, digital signal processing to recover a signal
distorted by MPI in an MMF transmission is used.

Zihang Zhu et.al, (2012) Radio over fibre (RoF) systems are simplified in terms of
implementation and cost by the usage of a high frequency 40-60 GHz millimeter wave.
However, the generation of such optical mm-waves is a limitation due to fibre chromatic
dispersion. The use of dual Mach-Zehnder Modulator helps in overcoming the chromatic
dispersion to some extent to generate optical carrier suppression However, the repetitive

14
frequency of the optical mm-wave is only two times frequency of the local oscillator (LO) signal,
it still requires expensive electrical equipments to generate 40–60 GHz mmwave.[21] The
paper’s approach is to generate quadrupling frequency optical mm-wave by using a dual drive
MZM. The phase difference in the two modulation arms of MZM is adjusted properly alongwith
other parameters, to remove the optical carrier while the output signal contains two second order
sidebands and modulation of data is done on one sideband only. This helps in exclusion of time
shifts of the codes due to chromatic dispersion and the second order sidebands (as they are not
carrying any information) carries the upstream data of duplex RoF system. Simulation of the
approach is done on the OptiSystem software where the eye diagram is analyzed and the
parameters are compared to check the effect of chromatic dispersion on the generation of the 40
GHz mmwave. The repetitive frequency of the RF signal is reduced and use of one dual drive
MZM is included. Comparative analysis with the conventional method of generation of
quadrupling frequency mm-wave (OCS- optical carrier suppressed) is done and results show that
the effect of chromatic dispersion is less in the later case.

Bishanka Brata Bhowmik et.al, (2012) This paper analyzes a scheme for parallel demodulating
and dispersion compensating of WDM (NRZ) differential phase shift keying optical fibre link
with the help of an optical ring resonator (ORR) based filter. DPSK signaling is an efficient
modulation format for optical communication. The reason behind this is high sensitivity at the
receiver end and combustibility towards impairments due to non-linearity. Some of the
demodulation techniques used are-Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI), narrowband optical
filter (NBOF) etc. Here, the phase information is converted into amplitude followed by direct
detection. Gaussian filters can simultaneously demodulate the WDM DPSK signals. Optical ring
resonator (ORR) filter based DPSK demodulator is much in use due to some of its characteristics
like high flexibility, lower latency etc. In this paper, channel data rate of 10.7 Gbps is taken for
each of the channel used for simultaneous demodulation and dispersion compensation. Usage of
a suitable ORR based dispersion compensator along with NRZ-DPSK demodulator can reach
about 400 km uncompensated data. The bit error rate has been found in such cases to be of 10-3.
The ORR has a number of N uncoupled rings with tunable phase shifters attached to it. It was
shown that by tuning of the round-trip phase and the coupling coefficient of each ring the desired
value of the negative dispersion slope could be achieved [22]. It has been noticed that by proper
tuning of ORR parameters having multiple rings, the power transfer function of a periodic NBOF

15
can be obtained having a desired 3 dB BW and FSR. So an ORR can demodulate WDM NRZ-
DPSK signals if the channel spacing is made equal to or an integer multiple of the FSR of the
filter[12] The group delay response has the same periodicity with the power transfer function
which verifies the account to be true i.e. simultaneously demodulation and dispersion
compensation can occur.

M.Ahmed et.al, (2012) models an optical fibre communication system by the usage of a 1.55-
µm distributed feedback In GaAs laser diode alongwith a single mode fibre and a PIN photo
detector. The effect of dispersion is found out at the maximum transmission distance along with
the different transmission rates. It is found out that the limitation on the repeater distance is 162-
202 km. Also, this distance becomes less when finding the chromatic dispersion for the bit rate 2
Gbps. It is seen that at higher data rates the power loss is high as 22.2 dB. This is reduced by
using the laser chirp. [23]

S. O. Mohammadi1 et.al, (2012) Chromatic Dispersion is a result of waveguide dispersion and

material dispersion and it is a function of wavelength. Here, as the group index (Ng ) is
dependent on wavelength, propagation delay of the pulses occurs which leads to pulse widening,
thus inducing errors at the receiver side. Erbium doped fibre amplifiers (EDFA), dispersion
compensating fibres (DCFs), bulk type dispersion compensators and fibre bragg gratings (FBGs)
are some of the commonly used dispersion compensating techniques. In FBGs, the gratings that
are provided in the fibre produce slightly different refractive indices for the signal travelling
along the fibre. The distance between the gratings indicate reflected wavelength, which is
removed from the transmission spectra in Bragg wavelength. A chirp FBG is a mutation of the
previous FBGs. Here, there is inclusion of variations in the grating period which induces changes
in the different wavelengths. Hence, a delay related to wavelength of signal is produced by the
grating. This concept is used for compensating dispersion. Mathematical equations: Bragg
wavelength is given by

λb=2nɅ

where,n and Ʌ are refractive index of core and grating period in fiber, respectively.A uniform
grating can be expressed as sinusoidal modulation of fiber core refractive index

n(z)= ncore+δn [1 + cos( 2πz/Ʌ +φ(z) )]

16
where, core is the core refractive index when it is not radiated and δn is amplitude of induced
refractive index. The simulation of the transmission system is done in the Optisystem software
7.0 version. In this paper, the dispersion compensation model is done with the help of chirp
gratings. [5]

Ojuswini Arora et.al, (2011) demonstrated the performance of optical fiber at high speed with
the help of dispersion compensating module. The dispersion combat techniques used for the
symmetrical configurations are the pre-compensation and the post compensation, which gives the
optimum results. Here, a single channel is taken for test operating at a speed of 10 Gbps at the
wavelength 1550 nm. The operating distance is 120 km and the compensating fibers are used for
24 km, 30 km and 35 km. The NRZ format is used here for the modulation. The software used is
OptiSystem to evaluate the Q factor and BER.[24]

Wei CHEN et.al, (2010) Introduction of the dispersion compensating techniques in thefiber
links have upgraded the WDM method. This paper has built dispersion compensation fibers
showing high performance rate and the data rate is 40 Gbps. The optical fiber is developed by the
method of plasma chemical vapor deposition (PCVD) and fabricated a dispersion optical link
with high performance rate(DCF). Some of the improved characteristics shown by such fibers
are- low insertion loss, polarization mode dispersion is less, low non linearity and better stability
for topology changes of the environment. The fiber formed shows dispersion compensation in
the range of 1525 to 1625 nm. The idea is to compensate dispersion by counteracting with
collected dispersion along the fiber by using opposite dispersion optical fibers. The use of DCFS
is gaining importance due to the fact that it shows a higher performance rate than the other
techniques. DCF is a kind of optical whose dispersion characteristics are opposite in nature to
that of transmission fiber links. The commonly used optical fiber link is G.652 according to
ITU.T standard. This type of fiber shows positive dispersion in the C band operation window.
Dispersion parameter is 18ps/nm/km at 1500 nm wavelength. Accumulation of the dispersion
after the signal travels a certain long distance is huge which reduces the signal to noise ratio,
thereby further increasing the bit error rate(BER) leading to bad performance of the system.
Hence, The DCF designed compensates the accumulated positive dispersion by its negative
dispersion and negative slope characteristics. The DCF designed has a triple clad index profiles
with a core surrounded by a region with a depressed index followed by a raised ring. Numerical

17
analysis shows that by changing the refractive index of the core or of the ring as well as the
coupling length, dispersion characteristics can be changed. A parameter that affects the DCF is
bending loss which needs to be considered while designing the fiber. Results show that
successful implementation of the WDM system was made and the cost of channel was smaller
than 1.20 db without any sign of bit error [25].

Bo-ning Hu et.al, (2010) demonstrates the use of dispersion compensating fiber. The schemes
ofpre-compensation, mix-compensation and post compensation are studied for the dispersion
effect The simulation is done with the help of the OptiSystem software. Two factors such as the
Q factor and the BER are analyzed. The non linear effects are reduced to an extent by the mix-
compensation scheme. It is seen that effect of laser power is less in this scheme. The
transmission code used here is the DPSK scheme. The transmission rate was kept at 40 Gbps
using the WDM system. A moderate increase in the laser power leads to better BER improving
the system response [26].

Zhongwei Tan et.al, (2009) explored the limitation the communication systemusing the
dispersion compensation chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings. Here, FBG is the preferred method as it
is inexpensive scheme and has no insertion losses. The transmission distance of the system
designed exceeds 3000 km.[27] The CFBG used here is a specially fabricated using a scanning
mask technique. Hydrogen loaded fiber is used to fabricate the gratings and the PMD of the fiber
in test is less than 1ps/nm. The BER of the designed system was found out tobe below 10-9 till
2000 km. Forward error correction is applied at the distances 3000km to achieve zero BER. The
amplifiers are used at 100 km interval.

Young-Geun Han et.al, (2005) This is another method to compensate dispersion with the help
of uniform Fibre Bragg grating. It is based on symmetrical bending. The specially designed two
translation stages with gears and a saw tooth wheel can simultaneously induce the tension and
compression strain corresponding to the bending direction. The tension and compression strain
can effectively control the chirp ratio along the fibre grating attached on a flexible cantilever
beam and consequently the dispersion value without the center wavelength shift.[28]Chirped
Fibre gratings are gaining interest in the methods to compensate dispersion due to their
properties like fibre compatibility, polarization insensitivity, low non linearity etc. The approach
proposed in this paper is to induce systematic bending of flexible cantilever beam with the

18
uniform FBG by interacting the two translation stages and a saw tooth wheel. By doing this
bandwidth and group delay can be controlled. A tunable dispersion controller is analyzed by
numerical methods and inbuilt into the fibre. With the increasing growth and demand for
capacity in national, regional, and even metropolitan optical networks, high bit rate fiber

19
 CHAPTER 3
PROBLEM FORMULATION
3.1 MOTIVATION
With the increasing growth and demand for capacity in national, regional, and even metropolitan
optical networks, high bit rate fiber transmission has recently become an essential part of
communications. The high bit rate transmission improves spectral utilization which results in
increased overall system capacity and reduces overall cost. The optical communication systems
are used as high speed long–haul communication systems. To release the potential of optical
communication systems and achieve higher transmission capacity at high bit rate, a lot of
research on modulates on formats and dispersed managed systems has been done in recent years.
The goal of an optical fiber communication system is to transmit the maximum number of bits
per second over the maximum possible distance with the fewest errors.

First From literature survey, we come across a number of suggested ways come but the issues
with implementation of these ways inspires us to look forward for solution which in itself should
not be a problem to increase Quality of service and Data rate.

Discussions of these solutions include:

1) Till now, lot of work has been reported to compensate dispersion effects using DCF and
FBG. But cost and manufacturing of the DCF is a main issue and efficiency of FBG is another
.So decreasing the cost of DCF by reducing its length and enhancing the efficiency of FBG by
using different chirping and apodizations is great area of research.

2) In reported work, Combined effects of DCF and FBG enhanced the efficiency and reduce
the cost of the system to some extent. However more work can be studies to reduce the further
cost of the system.

3) So far, DCF and chirped FBG modules are used for single channel only. However
performance of these modules is interesting to analyze for multi channels(WDM ) systems.

20
4) No article so far used DCF and FBG combined module to compensate the non linear
effects such as FWM and SPM. So,these modules can be used to compensate non linear effects
as they are cost effective easily available.

3.2 THESIS OBJECTIVES

The proposed is focused out to fulfill following objectives:

1) Design and implementation of low cost dispersion compensation module with enhanced pulse
width reduction efficiency.

2) Suppression of nonlinear effects by using cost effective DCF+FBG module.

3) Investigation and evaluation of the combined effects of DCF and CFBG in multi-channel
(WDM) system at ultra narrow channel spacing

3.3 SOFTWARE USED

In the current work two softwares are used:

• Optisystem, and

• Matlab

Optisystem is an innovative, rapidly evolving and powerful optical network design tool that
enables user to plan, test, optimize and simulate optical communication systems from
components to system level. User can change component parameters and connections to test
endless scenarios in minimum time and decrease cost of design with high precision simulation of
nonlinear devices and non-Gaussian noise sources with results to industry. Optisystem can be
used for design variety of applications such as PON, WDM/TDM, Synchronous Optical
Networking / Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SONET/SDH), link budget calculations and
transmitter, channel, amplifier receiver design.

Optisystem is a single tool that does not depend upon other simulation frameworks. It is physical
layer simulator centered on the accurate demonstration of fiber-optic communication systems. It
is a strong simulation environment and a really hierarchical description of mechanism and
systems. Its capability can be total easily with the adding of user mechanism, and can be

21
effortlessly interfaced to a broad variety of tools. The wide library of active and passive
mechanism comprises sensible, wavelength dependent parameter. Parameter sweep permit the
user to examine the consequence of exacting device stimulation on system performance.
Optisystem calculate the signals by employing suitable algorithms related to the required
simulation .The data flow model that deals with the limitations of the broadcast layer is the
Component Iteration Data Flow. In order to calculate system performance, Optisystem software
calculates parameter such as BER and Q-Factor using arithmetical analysis or semi-analytical
technique for system limited by ISI and noise.

Key features of optisystem are:

• Extensive component library

• Quality and performance algorithm

• Comprehensive graphical user interface

• Mixed signal representation

• Data monitor

• Parameters sweep and optimization

• Advanced visualization tools

• Report page

• Multiple layout

• Bill of material

• Integration with other optiwave tools

3.4 METHODOLOGY / PLANNING OF WORK

Research Methodology that will be taken to complete the project is described as under:

First and foremost, a timeline literature survey will be done for better understanding of
dispersion compensation and optical communication systems. Also it enable to identify the

22
concept more accurately. The second step will be designing and simulation of the optical single
channel system with DCF and FBG. After this more work will be done on the system for better
results. This will be done by using Optiwave’s Optisystem software. Firstly the study about
software will be done.

Fig.3.1 Flow chart of Thesis Work

23
 CHAPTER 4
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF LOW COST
DISPERSION COMPENSATION MODULE WITH ENHANCED
PULSE WIDTH REDUCTION EFFICIENCY

INTRODUCTION
In modern time, with the rapid growth internet business needs, people urgently need more
capacity and network systems. So the demand for transmission capacity and bandwidth are
becoming more and more challenging to the carriers and service suppliers. Under the situation,
with its huge bandwidth and excellent transmission performance, optical fiber is becoming the
most favorable delivering media and laying more and more important role in information
industry. The optimal design and application of optical fiber are very important to the
transmission quality of optical fiber transmission system. Therefore, it is very necessary to
investigate the transmission characteristics of optical fiber. And the main goal of communication
systems is to increase the transmission distance. Loss and dispersion are the major factor that
affect fiber-optical communication being the high-capacity develops. The EDF A is the gigantic
change happened in the fiber-optical communication system; the loss is no longer the major
factor to restrict the fiber optical transmission. Since EDFA works in 1550 nm wave band, the
average Single Mode Fiber (SMF) dispersion value in that wave band is very big, about 15-20ps
/ ( nm.km-1)[24]. It is easy to see that the dispersion become the major factor that restricts long
distance fiber-optical transfers [25].

Dispersion Compensation Techniques

Depending on the place and realization where the dispersion compensation is made in a system,
it can be distinguished between three compensating methods:

a) pre-chirp techniques at the transmitter side

b) dispersion compensation in the transmission line (inline compensation) and

c) dispersion compensation at the receiver side.

24
The idea behind the pre-chirping at the transmitter side is the implementation of chirp with the
opposite sign to the fiber chirp in order to counter the GVD effects in the fiber The main
implementation area of this technique is cost effective, optical short-reach systems (e.g. MANs)
with smaller channel bit rates, but in combination with other dispersion compensation techniques
(e.g.in-line compensation) it can enable a performance improvement even in high-bit rate
transmission systems over long distances. In-line dispersion compensation represents the key
enabling technology for the realization of long-haul transmission systems. The dispersion
compensation is realized in the optical domain without electro-optical conversion of the signal,
enabling better compensation of the signal because the optical phase is maintained. The post-
chirp techniques at the receiver side are characterized by the compensation of the chromatic
dispersion in electrical domain. This compensation method is cost effective, and in combination
with in-line compensation, enables an enhanced transmission performance. Implementation of
in-line compensation devices in the transmission line affects the transmission performance of the
system because of the interaction of dispersion map with transmission disturbances (e.g. ASE-
noise, nonlinearities).

SYSTEM SETUP

In this work, Optiwave optisystem has been used for the realization of the proposed work. Three
design models had been simulated to check which of the techniques had the best efficiency. The
pulse width reduction percentage has been taken as the deciding factor to find the efficiency of
the techniques. The first design is to use the FBG as compensating method and second DCF
alone, third DCF+FBG and final is DCF+FBG+FBG.

Single channel system that consists of optical transmitter and receiver has been taken into
consideration. Optical fiber is the communication channel through which data transmits to
recipient. System model considered for compensation of Dispersion is given in Fig.4.1. A
continuous wave (CW) laser is with frequency of 193.1 THz is applied with an output power of
1MW. The data rate is 10 Gbps which is externally modulated with a non return to zero (NRZ)
pseudo random binary sequence in a Mach Zehnder modulator. EDFA is of idealistic nature and
gain is set to 5 db and is independent of wavelength and negligible noise.

The parameters that have been considered for this design is as follows:

25
 Table.4.1 System specification for proposed system

Parameter Values
Frequency 193.1 THz
Output power 1MW
Extinction ratio 30 db
Dispersion(ps/km/nm) 16
Dispersion
slope(ps/nm2/km) 0.50
Attenuation index 0.20
Length of fibre (km) 100

Fig 4.1.Simulation for Compensation of Dispersion by FBG

This model has been studied for three different profiles of FBG. Each chirping is analyzed in
terms of efficiency to reduce pulse width.

Here all the chirping profiles have been used namely- the linear chirp, the square root chirp and
the cube root chirp. Mathematically they are represented as-

26
1. Linear Chirped Profile:

2. Square root chirp profile:

3. Cubic Chirp Profile:

Where, ˄(z), ˄0 and ∆ are the grating period at a distance Z, from the beginning of the grating,
the grating period at the middle of the grating and the total chirp respectively.
The transmitter design is the same as the previous case. Here, we are replacing the DCF with
the FBG. The apodization function is set to tanh for all the three cases. It is given by

It is seen that out of the three cases the linear chirp gives a better performance than the rest. It
has a PWRP of 75.15 %. The FBG is a very cheap method with respect to the DCF. The
parameters of FBG are shown in the table 3.

Table.4.2 Specification of Fiber Bragg gratings

Parameter Values

Effective refractive Index 1.45

Length of grating(mm) 70mm

Apodization function Tanh

Tanh parameter 1-4

Chirp parameter 0.0007

In another system setup, dispersion compensation has been analyzed with help of Dispersion
compensation fiber (DCF). Only difference in former mentioned system with FBG and later
system with DCF is of dispersion compensation medium.

27
Similar setup is considered here for dispersion analysis and its compensation. A PRBS is used
for the transmission of data bits in binary 1’ and 0’s. Speed is 10 Gbps and binary bits is
converted into electric energy with the help of non return to zero line coding (NRZ). Mach
zehnder modulator is for conversion of electric data into optical data with the use of continuous
wave laser. Laser is having frequency 193.1 THz and operated at 0 dBm (1mW) power level.
Optical spectrum analyzer shows the optical spectrum of the signal and optical time domain
vizualizer depicts the data in the form of bits. Single mode fiber is used with all practical
standard values of SMF-28 universally defined model. Now dispersion compensation fiber with
dispersion of -80 ps/nm/Km is considered.

Fig 4.2 Design of a model to curb dispersion by using DCF

Table 4.3 DCF parameters

Parameters Values
Dispersion(ps/km/nm) -85
Dispersion slope(ps/km2/nm) -0.3
Attenuation index 0.5

28
Basic principle of the working of DCF is to reduce the dispersion after optical fiber by negative
dispersion. Dcf of length 20 Km is used to nullify the effects of dispersion.

The third is the joint technique i.e. both DCF and FBG are used together. The design model is
same but replaced with a DCF of 17.1km length and a linear ACFBG.

Fig 4.3 Design of a model to curb dispersion by using DCF+FBG

Here the combined effects of FBG and DCF are utilized to compensate the effects of dispersion.
Fbg is in linear chirping and the length of the dcf fiber taken 17.1 Km after optimization of dcf
length and best results was seen at this length.

Finally current investigation has been done using two consecutive FBG and one DCF fiber to
get improved results. In this work linear chirped FGBs are used operated at 193.1 THz
frequency. These FBGs are placed to give two order pulse width reduction in this system
followed by DCF. It is reported that when only DCF is used, it require length of 20 Km for pulse
width reduction. In second case when DCF and FBG is taken into consideration, Length of 17.1
Km is required. To give cost effective solution to dispersion compensation module, We used two
tanh apodized FBG with 11.5 Km DCF fiber. It is prominently observed that we reduce DCF
length from 20 to 11.5Km.Each 1m DCF fiber cost 3$ thus saving of cost has been done.

29
 Fig 4.4 Design of a model to curb dispersion by using DCF+FBG+FBG

Moreover, Pulse width reduction of 102 Ps is obtained from 230 Ps which is less width than 106
Ps with DCF+FBG module case among other case.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The system has been implemented and results are taken. This section discusses the step by step
results of implementation in terms of pulse width and Eye diagrams.

First of all the system Comparison of system with and without dispersion compensation is done
to mark the importance of dispersion compensation. The Eye diagram in figure 4.5 shows the
performance of system without pulse width reduction module. From the eye diagram it becomes
clear that the system is very much prone to noises and dispersion and degradation is easily
visible.

After this, a dispersion compensation module is inserted in system and performance of same
system is evaluated and is shown in terms of eye diagram in figure 4.6 from where it becomes
easily understandable that system performance is vastly improved with dispersion compensation.

30
Fig. 4.5 Eye diagram of system without dispersion compensation

Fig. 4.6 Eye diagram of system with dispersion compensation

31
After fibre, a compensator is used to produce dispersion index equal but with opposite sign (dcf)
to that produced in fibre, of which the former will finally inactive the latter one. Moreover, by
changing the length of the Single Mode fibre (SMF), it is seen that as we increase fiber length,
distortion effect is more. From the optical time domain visualizers, we get an idea of the data
journey as it moves from one component to another. From the parameters given in the table 4.2
and the simulation model, we reach to a conclusion that the grating length should be kept to 6
mm.

The outputs of the optical time domain visualizers are seen in the figs. 4.8 (a), (b) and (c). The
transmitting pulse is being transmitted at 100 ps. Due to dispersion after travelling a length of
100km through the channel, the output of the second visualizer is 230ps. The final result are
given below

First setup FBG-

Linear chirped-130 ps

Square root chirping-140 ps

Cube root chiping-150 ps

Figure 4.7 Graphical representation Launched power vs Q-factor

32
This plot is taken by varying the values of power from the laser from 0 dB to 12 dB. Values of
quality factor have been seen with change of power in the system. Linear chirping is the best
chirping profile and exhibit better pulse reduction properties.

Fig 4.8(a) Pulse shape generated from the NRZ pulse generator

Fig.4.8 (b) Effect of dispersion when the signal has travelled 100 km.

33
 Fig.4.8(c) Output of the final visualizer when DCF has been used.

Fig.4.9 (a) The output of the final visualizer when linear chirp ACFBG is used gives 130ps

34
 Fig.4.9 (b) Output of the final visualizer at the receiver end when square root chirp is
used.(140ps)

Fig.4.9 (c) Output of the final visualizer at the receiver side when cube root chirp is used.(150ps)

35
The PWRP found out is 96.36% which is the optimum among all the techniques seen. The result
of the output of the final visualizer is seen in fig.4.10.

Fig.4.10 Output of the final visualizer at the receiver side when the joint technique is used
(112ps)

Final results at vizulizer when FBG+FBG+DCF is take into account as shown in fig.4.11.

Figure 4.11Output of the final visualizer at the receiver side when the FBG+FBG+DCF
technique is used (102ps)

36
The graph below compares the performance of all dispersion compensation schemes and proves
the fact that a combination of DCF and FBG + FBG with tan h apodization can be stated best for
pulse width reduction with distance in communication systems.

Fig. 4.12 Comparison of all pulse width reduction schemes

Figure 4.12 Cost comparison with reported work and current work

37
CONCLUSION

In this work, a cost effective pulse width reduction scheme is demonstrated by utilizing two
linear chirped fiber bragg gratings with combination of dispersion compensation fiber. It is
observed that 98% efficiency has been reported in this case. Moreover this module is very cheap
as compared to reported techniques earlier. Pulse after transmitter at 10Gbps is measured of
100Ps and after 100 Km SMF it expands to 230 Ps. After applying current investigation, we get
pulse of 102 Ps again. Also this work compared with reported work in which alone FBG
different chirpings are used and with FBG+DCF module also in terms of Q-factor and BER.
Maximum Q-factor and minimum BER is seen in case of FBG+FBG+DCF.

38
 CHAPTER 5
SUPPRESSION OF NONLINEAR EFFECTS BY USING COST
EFFECTIVE DCF+FBG MODULE

INTRODUCTION

FWM takes place when light of two or more diverse wavelengths is launched in the fiber, thus
generating a new wave. It is a parametric procedure in which unlike frequencies interact and by
frequency mixing produce new spectral components [48]. Fig.3.1 represents four-wave mixing in
the frequency domain. As seen clearly, the light that was there prior to launching, packing in the
two pumping waves in the frequency domain is called the probe light (or signal light). The idler
frequency fidler may then be determined by:

fidler = fp1 + fp2 –fprobe

where fp1 and fp2 are the pumping light frequencies, and fprobe is the frequency of the probe
light [21, 49]. This state is called the frequency phase-matching condition. When the frequencies
of the two pumping waves are same, the more precise term "degenerated four-wave mixing"
(DFWM) is used, and the equation for this case is written as: fidler = 2fp –fprobe where; fp is
the frequency of the degenerated pumping wave. While transmitting dense wavelength-division
multiplexed (DWDM) signals, FWM must be avoided, but for certain applications, it provides an
efficient technological base for fiber-optic devices. Furthermore, FWM presents the fundamental
technology for measuring the nonlinearity and chromatic dispersion of optical fibers.

Four-wave mixing (FWM) is one of the leading degradation effects in wavelength-division-

multiplexing (WDM) systems with narrow channel spacing and small chromatic dispersion on
the fiber. If in a WDM system the channels are uniformly spaced, the new waves produced by
FWM will fall at channel frequencies and will give rise to crosstalk. In case of full in-line
dispersion compensation, i.e., 100% dispersion compensation per span, the FWM crosstalk
becomes maximum since the FWM products add coherently in each span [22].

39
 Figure 5.1(a) Schematic of four wave mixing in frequency domain

Effect of chromatic dispersion on FWM

In a WDM system with angular frequencies ω1… ωn the interaction of three signals at any
frequencies ωi, ωj and ωk occur due to the nonlinear polarization and produce the signals at
frequencies ωi ±ωj ± ωk, the most bothersome is the signal equivalent to ωijk= ωi +ωj – ωk
depending on the individual frequencies. This beat signal may be of exact frequency or may lie
very near to one of the individual channels frequency resulting in considerable crosstalk to that
channel. In a multi channel system with ω channels, this effect creates a large number of
interfering signals analogous to i, j, k, varying from 1 to ω. For example in a system with three
channels 12 interfering terms are produced as shown below:

Fig.5.1 (b) WDM system with three channels

40
Four wave mixing depends on the phase relationship among the interacting signals. If the entire
interfering signals move with the equal group velocity, as would be the case if there was no
chromatic dispersion, then the effect builds up. On the other hand if chromatic dispersion is
present, the different signals move with different group velocities hence the different waves
alternately overlap in and out of phase and net effect reduces the mixing efficiency. The velocity
difference is large when the channels are spaced further apart (in system with chromatic
dispersion).

Theoretical analysis

The following equation quantifies the power penalty due to four wave mixing:

Pijk= (wijk n dijk/ 3cAe)2 PiPjPk L2

This equation assumes a link of length L without any loss and chromatic dispersion. Here Pi, Pj
and Pk denote the powers of the mixing waves and Pijk, the power of the resulting new
degeneracy factor. In the real systems both FWM and chromatic dispersion are present, to take
the loss into account, L is replaced with effective length Le, which is given by the following
equation for a system of length L with amplitude spacing l Km apart

Le= 1- e-αl /α L/l

The presence of chromatic dispersion reduces the efficiency of mixing. This can be modulated
by assuming a parameter ηijk, which represents the efficiency of mixing of three waves at
frequencies ωi, ωj and ωk taking these into account, we can modify the preceding equation to

Pijk= ηijk (ωij n dijk/3cAe) PiPjPkLe2

The efficiency, ηijk= α2/α2+ (Δβ)2 [1+4e-αlsin2(Δβl/2)/(1-e-αl)2

Here Δβ is the difference in the propagation constants between different waves and D is the
chromatic dispersion. The efficiency has a component that varies periodically with the length as
the interfering waves go in and out of the phase for the maximum value of this component, the
phase mismatch can be calculated as

Δβ= βi + βj – βk- βijk

41
FWM manifests itself as intra channel crosstalk. The total crosstalk power for a given channel ωc
is given as:

Σωi + ωj –ωk= ωc Pijk

SYSTEM SETUP

Several techniques have been used in past to suppress the effect of FWM crosstalk and enhance
the signal output. FWM signals can be removed by decreasing phase coherence between
channels, decreasing input power per channel, increasing channel spacing or by introducing
unequal channel spacing. FWM is inversely proportional to dispersion of transmission fiber.
Chromatic dispersion can be compensated by dispersion compensation fiber (DCF) and fiber
Bragg gratings (FBG). Also, Erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) can be used to compensate
dispersion in optical system. DCF compensation needs very high negative dispersion coefficient
to compensate dispersion in a narrow band frequency. This increases the overall losses and
nonlinear effects and the cost of the optical communication system. FBG is another method to
compensate dispersion. FBG gives low losses and decreases the cost of the transmission system.
Nowadays, Fiber Braggs Grating (FBG) is used for chromatic dispersion compensation by
recompression of the dispersed optical signal. Chirped Fiber Bragg grating (CFBG) is a small
all-fiber passive device with low insertion loss that is compatible with the transmission system
and CFBG dispersion can be easily adjusted. CFBG should be located in-line for optimum
results. The numerical results indicated that the BER performance can be improved significantly
depending on the fiber length and chip rate. Chirped FBG (CFBG) is more preferred technique
over conventional FBG and DCF because of its advantages including small footprint, low
insertion loss, dispersion slope compensation and negligible non-linear effects over others.

The higher the dispersion coefficient of the compensating fiber, the smaller will be required
length of the compensating fiber. Dispersion compensation fiber has a high negative dispersion -
70 to -90ps/nm.km and can be used to compensate the positive dispersion of transmitter fiber in
C and L bands. Spans made of SMF and DCF are good source as their high local dispersion is
known to reduce the phase matching giving rise to four-wave mixing in WDM. But this solution
is not cost effective. The attenuation of DCF fiber is not null. Thus, the attenuation of DCF fiber
will produce impairment to the signal quality as well as that of SMF. The influence of

42
attenuation can be compensated with optical fiber amplifier such as EDFA. Advantages of DCF
are that they can be easily constructed and highly reliable. DCF provides continuous
compensation over a wide range of optical wavelengths i.e. DCF does not require precise laser
wavelengths. A DCF module should have low insertion loss, low polarization mode dispersion
and low optical non-linearity. In addition to these characteristics DCF should have large
chromatic dispersion coefficient to minimize the size of a DCF module. However DCF has high
insertion loss. A 60 km compensator can exhibit 6 dB of loss or more. . Because of this, DCM's
are usually co-located with EDFA's which also increases the overall cost of the fiber. Since DCF
has a small core size which may make it prone to certain types of nonlinearities. So DCF also has
high optical nonlinearities. DCF compensation depends on the wavelength and they can perfectly
act only in a narrow band of frequency. Using fiber Bragg gratings for dispersion compensation
is a promising approach. They are passive optical component fiber compatible, having low
insertion losses and costs. The structure of the FBG can vary via the refractive index, or the
grating period. The grating period can be uniform or graded, and either localized or distributed in
a superstructure. Typically, the refractive index profile can be uniform or apodized, and the
refractive index offset is positive or zero. On the basis of grating period fiber Bragg grating can
be of four types: Uniform gratings - in this gratings are done in fixed interval; Chirped gratings-
in this gratings are done non-uniformly; Tilted gratings- in this gratings are done in uniform
manner but tilted; Superstructure- in this gratings are uniformly grouped. Advantages of FBG are
that it helps in minimizing the overall cost of the fiber and also it also has low insertion loss (IL).
Due to the very flexible grating process developed by approximation, the chirp characteristics
can readily be chosen according to fiber specifications, i.e. dispersion level and dispersion slope
can be tailored to fit any fiber type. The ability to tolerate high optical powers without any loss
caused by nonlinear effects is also one prominent characteristic separating the FBG-DCF from
the DCF-DCF. Although a DCF will display nonlinearity effects at rather low optical powers, the
FBG-DCF won’t introduce such effects even at the highest power levels present throughout
optical network.

In this work. 16 optical transmitter are used from 193.1 THz frequency and operated at different
input powers to see effect on FWM. This setup works on 160 Gbps each channel at 10 Gbps.
Channel spacing among frequencies is choose 50 GHz which is very dense and bandwidth
efficient. A ideal multiplexer is placed after transmitter to multiplex all channels and fed to

43
optical fiber of length 50Km.After travelling through optical fiber fwm sidebands appeared and
maximum at high power due to change of refractive index.

To compensate the effects of FWM, a dcf (5 Km) and fbg is placed after SMF.It is seen that
FWM power degraded after this module and then demultiplexed by using demultiplexer. Same
effects are studied after using alone FBG and conventional FBG.A receiver and BER analyzer
incorporated after demux for each channel.

Figure 5.2.Simulation setup of FWM compression using DCF+FBG module

Apodized FBGs give better system performance than the conventional FBGs. Fig 5.3 shows the
comparison of apodized FBG and conventional FBG in terms of FWM effect. Figure shows that
apodized FBG is better.

44
 Figure 5.3 Comparison of apodized FBG and conventional FBG.

So in our final system we have used apodised FBG. Hence in our final system we have used
linearly chirped uniformly apodized FBG. Figure 4.12 shows the output power spectra’s at -15
dBm power for system compensated with DCF + uniformly apodised linear FBG, system
compensated with DCF and system compensated with uniformly apodised linear FBG.

Figure 5.4 (a) Power spectra for DCF (b) Power spectra for FBG

45
 Figure 5.4(c) Power spectra for DCF + FBG

By comparing the two methods we can see that using DCF techniques increase the total losses
nonlinear effects and costs of optical transmission system. FBG helps in decreasing the cost of
the system and also have low insertion loss. The apodized grating play a very important role to
suppress side lobe and maintaining the reflectivity and narrow bandwidth.

Figure 5.5 Comparison of FWM using DCF, Apodised FBG and DCF + Apodized FBG.

46
DCF + FBG is the best approach to compensate the system non-linearities and dispersion.
System can be optimized by using the combination of the two dispersion compensation
techniques by choosing optimal length, power, chirping profile, grating period etc.

Figure.5.6(a) Eye diagram for DCF at -10 dBm power. (b) Eye diagram for FBG at -10 dBm
power.

. (c) Eye diagram for DCF + FBG at -10 dBm power.

Comparison among three dispersion compensation on the basis of eye diagram. Eye diagrams
give the simulation results at the first channel. As we can see from different eye diagrams, the

47
effect of dispersion compensation is very good. The signal quality is high, eye's opening is very
good, and the edge neat graph is symmetrical. This indicates that DCF compensate different
channel's chromatic dispersion greatly. The eye diagram shows that the time delays in the
received bits are negligible and the signal distortion due to BER is tolerable. In optical
communication systems, only optical signal to noise ratio (OSNR) could not accurately measure
the system performance, especially in WDM systems. Typically, quality factor Q is a one of the
important indicators to measure the optical performance by which to characterize the BER.

Figure.5.7 Q-factor Vs Launched power

CONCLUSION

Four wave mixing nonlinearity is observed in this work along with its suppression technique. At
high powers, maximum FWM power can be seen and at low power very less nonlnearity. Several
FWM degradation schemes proposed so far but they limited in terms of performance and are
very expensive such as phase conjugator. In current work a cost effective FBG in uniform
chirping and tanh apodization is used to suppress FWM. Also comparison has been done with
single tanh apodized FBG, conventional FBG and FBG+DCF module. It is concluded that
apodized fbg is better than conventional FBG and DCF+FBG module is better than former
techniques in terms of FWM power degradation.

48
 CHAPTER 6
INVESTIGATION AND EVALUATION OF THE COMBINED
EFFECTS OF DCF AND CFBG IN MULTI-CHANNEL (WDM)
SYSTEM AT ULTRA NARROW CHANNEL SPACING

INTRODUCTION

Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) are an important optical component widely used in fiber optical
communication systems and fiber lasers. FBGs are those filters which work on the theory of
Bragg reflection. A Fiber Bragg Grating is a periodic or non-periodic perturbation of the
effective refractive index in core. it is a periodic over a certain length of few nm of mm and
period of hundred nm. FBGs usually reflect light in a shorter range of wavelength and transmit
remaining wavelengths. When light propagate through the Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG), the total
reflection take place at Bragg wavelength and the remaining wavelengths are not affected by the
Bragg grating except a few side lobes exist in reflection spectrum.

Suppression of the side lobes is important for some applications such as wavelength division
multiplexing (WDM), to eliminate crosstalk between information channels. The side lobes
suppression in the reflection spectrum is done by gradually changing the amplitude of the
coupling coefficient along the grating length known as apodization.

To meet specific parameter requirements for particular FBG applications, the apodization profile
can be optimized. Various apodization profiles are investigated for dispersion compensation and
filter applications. Erdogan classified the types of FBGs into five main categories: uniform,
apodized, chirped, phase-shifted and superstructure gratings. In this thesis, performance of
FBG+DCF in multichannel system is analyzed in terms of Dispersion compensation. A FBG is
produced by periodically modulating the refractive index of the fiber core

49
Figure 4.1 Refractive index profile in the core of: 1) a uniform positive-only FBG, 2) a Gaussian-
apodized FBG, 3) a raised-cosine-apodized FBG with zero-dc change, and 4) a discrete phase
shift FBG.

SYSTEM SETUP AND RESULTS

From the literature review, it has been seen that DCF and FBG are the widely used methods for
compensating dispersion. The dispersion compensation techniques are carried out in the DWDM
systems and the result will be seen as to whether DCF and FBG is better at high data rates. Also,
the joint technique of FBG and DCF is to be analyzed. DCF is an expensive method whereas
FBG is cost effective. We came across the methods of DCF and FBG analyzed separately as well
as combined too. Different chirp functions of the FBG have been compared in previous works
out of which the linear chirped FBG is the best and hence we have used linear chirped FBG in
our simulation. A standard 20Gbps optical link had been taken over a distance of 50 km
consisting 20 channels. Although the DCF gave an efficiency of 93%, it is an expensive

50
technique. The joint technique using the DCF and the linear chirped FBG showed an efficiency
of 96.36% in the pulse width reduction. By using model design in OptiSystem software, the
parameters such as Data rate, different modulators, signal power, number of users etc are varied
and used to study system performance. The BER analyzers are used for analysis, where the
system BER, Q-factor, and eye diagrams will be obtained.

Figure 6.2 Design of a 20 channel WDM model to curb dispersion using tanh apodised FBG +
DCF

In this section, we analyzed the FWM effect using different dispersion compensation techniques
in the WDM system. A pseudo random generator is used, which randomly generates, as the name
suggests a bit sequence which then passes through an NRZ pulse generator. The source used is
CW laser having the frequency 195 THz which is the input to the MZM.

This comprises the transmitter side. A smf is the multi channel carrying a data rate of 20 Gbps.A
design models had been simulated to check the dispersion compensation. joint technique i.e. both

51
DCF and FBG are used together. The design model is same but replaced with a DCF of 8 km
length and a linear chirped AFBG. Here, we will be considering 20 channels where each channel
will be carrying data rate of 20 Gbps each. Therefore, the total capacity becomes 400 Gbps and
the spacing between the channels is narrow. i.e. 50 GHz. The design block consists of a WDM
transmitter having 20 ports with a frequency spacing of 50 GHz, which are then multiplexed by
an ideal multiplexer. EDFA amplifiers are used for pre-, post-, as well as in-line amplifying. The
length of the fiber has been taken as 50 km. At the receiver side, we have the demultiplexer
which segregates the channels and feeds them to the different optical receivers which are the
photo detectors attached to low pass filters with a cut off frequency of 0.75 ×bit rate. The BER
analyzers have been applied to each of these to find out the BER pattern. The length of the DCF
is found out from the formula: L1D1+L2D2=0 where, L1 is the length of SMF, D1 is the
dispersion of SMF, L2 is the length of DCF and D2 is the dispersion of DCF. The analysis is
done at the BER analyzers by finding the value of the minimum BER which is evaluated by the
analyzer. The maximum q factor is also seen at these outputs. The iterations are set for the
different power levels. (from -15dBm to +5dBm).

Table 6.1 Comparison of DCF and FBG

Characteristics DCF FBG

Bandwidth Wide band, 20 nm Narrow band, 0.1- 5

nm

Fiber Length 17- 20 km 10- 15 cm

Construction Complex Simple

Negative +15 to +25 +2000 ps/nm/km

dispersion ps/nm/km

Positive dispersion -80 to -120 -2000 ps/nm/km

ps/nm/km

Dispersion 16 ps/nm/km 17 ps/nm/km

52
 Bending loss 0.4 – 0.6 dB/km 0.14 dB/km

Reflectance Ratio 99.99% 10- 95%

Attenuation 0.8 dB/km 0.2 dB/km

Non-linear Effects Some limitations No

Insertion loss High Low

Results has been taken after dispersion compensation using DCF+FBG module. We have seen
that by increasing FBG bandwidth, compensation of dispersion of 20 channels has done. It
compensates only few channels otherwise due to less reflection band. Also results are compared
when use single FBG only, DCF only and combined module. Results shows that combination of
both DCF and FBG provide best dispersion compensation in multi channels too. Optical
spectrum after NRZ line coding and MZM is shown in fig.6.3.

Figure 6.3 Optical spectrum analyzer after 45 WDM channels

53
 (a) (b)

(c)

Figure 6.4 OTDV Data measurement after (a) Transmitter (b) 50 Km SMF (c) FBG+DCF
module

54
It is clearly seen that data is regained after dispersion compensation which experience dispersion
after 50 Km SMF.

Moreover Q-factor reported maximum in this case and minimum BER is seen after 100 Km.
Thus we observed combined module is performing best among other techniques even in WDM
systems.

Distance covered in case of alone DCF is 522 Km with the Q-factor of 5.22 and BER of 10-9. In
case of DCF+FBG module this distance prolongs to 628 Km with Q-factor 9.3 and BER 10-20 .
With the increase of distance, Quality tends to decrease in both the cases. However less decrease
of Quality is seen in combined case.

Figure 6.4 Q-factor vs Distance

55
 Figure 6.6 (a) Eye diagram for WDM DCF

Figure 6.5 (b) Eye diagram for WDM DCF+FBG

56
CONCLUSION

In this work, analysis has been carried out in WDM system to compensate dispersion effects.
This is for the first as per authors best knowledge that combined module FBG+DCF is used in
multi wavelength system. Three different scheme is proposed such as alone FBG, alone DCF and
DCF+FBG for pulse width reduction. Results revealed that FBG+DCF provide best results than
other techniques in terms of Q- factor and BER. Distance covered in case of alone DCF is 522
Km with the Q-factor of 5.22 and BER of 10-9. In case of DCF+FBG module this distance
prolongs to 628 Km with Q-factor 9.3 and BER 10-20 .System is tested over 50 Km repetition
loop Km at 50GHz channel spacing for evaluation as DWDM channels. It is observed that pulse
width reduction of 96% done with combined module and 75 % with FBG. Also proposed module
is less expensive than other two, and best in efficiency.

57
 CHAPTER 7
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF OPTICAL SPECTRAL
INVERSION MODULE IN OPC, FBG+OPC, DCF+OPC AND
FBG+DCF+OPC CONFIGURATIONS TO COMPENSATE
EFFECTS OF DISPERSION

INTRODUCTION

Dispersion compensation is an important issue for fiber-optic links, i.e., in the context of optical
fiber communications. Here, strong dispersive broadening of modulated signals can occur in
cases with high data rates. Without dispersion compensation, each symbol would be broadened
so much that it would strongly overlap with a number of neighbored symbols. Even for moderate
broadening, significant inter-symbol interference can strongly distort the detected signal.
Therefore, it is essential to compensate the dispersion before detecting the signal. For high data
rates such as 10 Gbit/s or 40 Gbit/s, pulse broadening becomes much stronger than for 2.5 Gbit/s,
for example. This is essentially because the spectral bandwidth of the signal becomes larger.

The dispersion compensation technique via mid-span spectral inversion (MSSI) offers a cost-
effective alternative to dispersion-compensating fibers for long distance multi-channel optical
signal transmission [40]. The concept is based on optical phase conjugation (OPC) [42] in a
nonlinear medium placed in the middle of a fiber transmission link. The phase conjugated signal
carries the same data as the original signal but the signal spectrum is inverted. This spectral
inversion operation allows the spectral components that travel slower in the first half-span to
become faster in the second half-span and vice versa, thus compensating for accumulated phase
shifts between the spectral components. The OPC is typically accompanied by nonlinear optical
wavelength conversion. Therefore, the phase conjugated (converted) signal at a different
wavelength can be easily separated from the original signal by optical filters. The MSSI
technique offers unique advantages over other competitive methods such as data rate and
modulation format transparency, ultra-fast responses, simultaneous multi-channel compensation,
and compensation of nonlinear distortions. It is independent of the transmission fiber’s

58
dispersion property as long as the same type of fiber is used for both halves of the transmission
link. Unlike systems based on dispersion compensating fibers or other dispersion compensating
devices, the overall cost of MSSI based transmission does not scale with the link distance as only
one unit is required at the midpoint of the link; therefore, this method is particularly beneficial
for high data rate and long haul systems.

SYSTEM SETUP

In this work, Optiwave optisystem has been used for the realization of the proposed work. Three
design models had been simulated to check which of the techniques had the best efficiency. The
pulse width reduction percentage has been taken as the deciding factor to find the efficiency of
the techniques. The first design is to use the OPC as compensating method and second
FBG+OPC, third DCF+OPC and final is DCF+FBG+OPC.

Single channel system that consists of optical transmitter and receiver has been taken into
consideration. Optical fiber is the communication channel through which data transmits to
recipient. System model considered for compensation of Dispersion is given in Fig.7.1. A
continuous wave (CW) laser is with frequency of 193.1 THz is applied with an output power of
1MW. The data rate is 10 Gbps which is externally modulated with a non return to zero (NRZ)
pseudo random binary sequence in a Mach Zhender modulator. EDFA is of idealistic nature and
gain is set to 5 db and is independent of wavelength and negligible noise.

Figure 7.1 Design of OPC operated system

59
 Table.7.1 System specification for proposed system

Parameter Values
Frequency 193.1 THz
Output power 1MW
Extinction ratio 30 db
Dispersion(ps/km/nm) 16
Dispersion
slope(ps/nm2/km) 0.50
Attenuation index 0.20
Length of fibre (km) 100

Figure 7.2 Design of OPC-FBG operated system

In another system setup, dispersion compensation has been analyzed with help of Dispersion
compensation fiber (DCF) and OPC. Only difference in former mentioned system with FBG-
OPC and later system with DCF is of dispersion compensation medium.

Similar setup is considered here for dispersion analysis and its compensation. A PRBS is used
for the transmission of data bits in binary 1’ and 0’s. Speed is 10 Gbps and binary bits is
converted into electric energy with the help of non return to zero line coding (NRZ). Mach

60
zehnder modulator is for conversion of electric data into optical data with the use of continuous
wave laser. Laser is having frequency 193.1 THz and operated at 0 dBm (1mW) power level.
Optical spectrum analyzer shows the optical spectrum of the signal and optical time domain
vizualizer depicts the data in the form of bits. Single mode fiber is used with all practical
standard values of SMF-28 universally defined model. Now dispersion compensation fiber with
dispersion of -80 ps/nm/Km is considered. Optical phase conjugation is the process to reverse the
phase of the spectrum which changed due to dispersion and nonlinearities. Opc is used in middle
of the transmission for symmetrical compensation of dispersion. A DCF of 10 Km is used after
50 Km SMF so as to compensate the dispersion followed by optical phase conjugator.

Figure 7.3 Design of OPC-DCF operated system

Finally investigation has been done using DCF-OPC-FBG to get improved results. In this work
linear chirped FGBs is used operated at 193.1 THz frequency. This DCF are placed to give two
order pulse width reduction in this system followed by OPC and FBG. It is reported that when
only DCF-OPC-FBG is used, it exhibits Q-factor of 25.42 and bit error rate 10-143. In this case
when DCF is taken into consideration, Length of 10 Km is required after 50 Km optical fiber. To
give effective solution to dispersion compensation module, We have used tanh apodized FBG
with 10+10 Km DCF fiber.

61
 Figure 7.4 Design of OPC-DCF-FBG operated system

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Results have been observed for different configurations of dispersion compensation modules.
Efficiency of the configurations is seen in terms of Q-factor and BER. Optical spectrum
analyzers depict the wavelength used with respect to power of the transmitter. Figure 7.5
represents the optical spectrum after transmitter for three configurations.

Figure 7.5 representation of optical spectrum after Tx

62
Optical time domain analyzer represents the data bits with respect to the amplitude and time of
the pulse. As distance is increased, noise can be seen in the analyzer on the data bits and
amplitude reduced with distance.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 7.6 OTDV depictions of data after (a) Transmitter (b) in case of DCF OPC at receiver (c)
in case of DCF+OPC+FBG at receiver

63
Noise can be seen more in case of DCF-OPC in the (b) section of fig.7.6. Further analysis is
carried out by varying power of the laser and effects observed on the Q- factor and BER of the
system. Results are given in Table.7.2

Table 7.2 Values of Q-factor at different powers for three configurations

Lunched Power (dB) OPC DCF-OPC DCF-OPC-FBG

0 21.65 23.90 25.42

6 22.86 38.54 26.64

12 16.40 20.14 32.08

16 8.63 6.91 23.62

Table 7.3 Values of Eye diagram at different powers for three configurations

Lunched Power (dB) OPC DCF-OPC DCF-OPC-FBG

0 2.4e-104 1.17e-126 6.9e-143

6 4.92e-118 0 9.5e-157

12 8.66e-60 6.6e-91 3.4e-226

16 2.7e-018 1.9e-12 1.1e-121

64
Graphical representation of three configurations clearly depicts that DCF-OPC-FBG is best
choice among other two schemes.

Figure 7.4 Q factor Vs Launched power

(a) (b)
65
 (c)

Figure7.5 Eye diagrams at 0 dBm for (a) OPC (b) DCF-OPC (c) DCF-OPC-FBG

The eye diagrams have been verified through simulations. The proposed work is better than the
previously reported works in terms of high Q-factor, low BER and a long distance transmission
leading to a highly proficient system for communication. Figure 7.5 shows the BER pattern
observed at a distance of 100 km. It depicts that a clear and open eye diagram is obtained having
BER 6.9e-143 at 0dB for DCF-OPC-FBG. It is observed that as input power increases, BER
decreases. But after 12 dB BER start increasing due to non linear effects at higher powers. While
in case of OPC and OPC-DCF setup, results degrades after 6 dB. Figure 7.5 shows the Q-factor
obtained at a distance of 100km. The maximum achievable Q-factor is observed to be 25.42 in
DCF-OPC-FBG which is acceptable for such a long distance transmission. The value of Quality
factor plays a crucial role in deciding the system performance. Greater the value of Q-factor
better will be the system performance and lower the value of Q-factor, lesser will be the
efficiency of the system.

66
CONCLUSION

In this work, dispersion compensation configurations are demonstrated by utilizing optical phase
conjugation, fiber bragg grating and dispersion compensation fiber.FBG with linear chirping and
Tanh apodization is used. Three systems are analyzed to nullify dispersion effects by using OPC,
DCF and FBG. It is observed that a clear and open eye diagram is obtained having BER 6.9e-143
at 0dB for DCF-OPC-FBG. It is pragmatic that as input power increases, BER decreases. But
after 12 dB, errors start increasing due to non linear effects at higher powers. The maximum
achievable Q-factor is observed to be 25.42 in DCF-OPC-FBG which is acceptable for such a
long distance transmission. The value of Quality factor plays a crucial role in deciding the
system performance. Greater the value of Q-factor better will be the system performance and
lower the value of Q-factor, lesser will be the efficiency of the system.

67
 CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

9.1 CONCLUSION

This chapter draws the overall conclusions of the work done in the dissertation. A section of the
chapter deals with the future scope for future research in Optical Networks, which is the latest
technology for remarkable communication results.

Initially, In this work, a cost effective pulse width reduction scheme is demonstrated by utilizing
two linear chirped fiber bragg gratings with combination of dispersion compensation fiber. It is
observed that 98% efficiency has been reported in this case. Moreover this module very cheap as
compared to reported techniques earlier. Pulse after transmitter at 10Gbps is measured of 100Ps
and after 100 Km SMF it expands to 230 Ps. After applying current investigation, we get pulse
of 102 Ps again. Also this work compared with reported work in which alone FBG different
chirpings are used and with FBG+DCF module also in terms of Q-factor and BER. Maximum Q-
factor and minimum BER is seen in case of FBG+FBG+DCF.

Secondly, Four wave mixing nonlinearity is observed in this work along with its suppression
technique. At high powers, maximum FWM power can be seen and at low power very less
nonlnearity. Several FWM degradation schemes proposed so far but they limited in terms of
performance and are very expensive such as phase conjugator. In current work a cost effective
FBG in uniform chirping and tanh apodization is used to suppress FWM.Also comparison has
been done with single tanh apodized FBG, conventional FBG and FBG+DCF module. It is
concluded that apodized fbg is better than conventional FBG and DCF+FBG module is better
than former techniques in terms of FWM power degradation.

Thirdly, analysis has been carried out in WDM system to compensate dispersion effects. Three
different scheme is proposed such as alone FBG, alone DCF and DCF+FBG for pulse width
reduction. Results revealed that FBG+DCF provide best results than other techniques in terms of
Q- factor and BER. System is tested over 100 Km at 50GHz channel spacing for evaluation as
DWDM channels. It is observed that pulse width reduction of 96% done with combined module

68
and 75 % with FBG. Also proposed module is less expensive than other two, and best in
efficiency.

Finally, dispersion compensation configurations are demonstrated by utilizing optical phase

conjugation, fiber bragg grating and dispersion compensation fiber.FBG with linear chirping and
tanh apodization is used. Three systems are analyzed to nullify dispersion effects by using OPC,
DCF and FBG. It is observed that a clear and open eye diagram is obtained having BER 6.9e-143
at 0dB for DCF-OPC-FBG. It is pragmatic that as input power increases, BER decreases. But
after 12 dB, errors start increasing due to non linear effects at higher powers. The maximum
achievable Q-factor is observed to be 25.42 in DCF-OPC-FBG which is acceptable for such a
long distance transmission. The value of Quality factor plays a crucial role in deciding the
system performance. Greater the value of Q-factor better will be the system performance and
lower the value of Q-factor, lesser will be the efficiency of the system.

9.2 FUTURE SCOPE

It is envisaged that, in the coming future, access based on the multichannel will be dominant.
Primarily because this technology is maturing fast, it allows the total cost to be shared amongst a
larger number of customers. It is certain that as a number of available HDTV channels grow
even more bandwidth will be required. This could provide an incentive to quicken the
development of networks based on WDM mode and significantly reduce their time to market.
Despite being in the laboratory phase, this technology might become available on the market in
the next couple of years. In comparison with other access technologies such as DSL or Cable,
FTTH offers much bigger bandwidth. Although the objectives of this research have been
achieved, there are still other research opportunities to be investigated.

• Use of the bandwidth efficient modulation schemes such as QAM,QPSK and DP-QPSK
can be studies in this work

• This work limited to the channel spacing of 50GHz.Further work can be done on the
narrow channel spacings.

• Use of Broadband amplifier like HOA can be used for the further analysis of this system
for C+L band to effect of amplification and dispersion.

69
 REFERENCES

1. Gerd Keiser (2013) Optical Fibre Communications, McGraw Hill Education, India, p.03
2. Gerd Keiser (1991) Optical Fibre Communication, third edition, McGraw Hill Series in
electrical Engineering, p.37
3. John G. Proakis(2008) Digital Communications, McGraw Hill Education India, p.233
4. Senior John M. (2008) Optical Fibre Communications, Pearson Education India p.48
5. S.O. Mohammadi, SaeedMozaffari and M. Mahdi Shahidi,(2011) “Simulation of a
transmission system to compensate dispersion in an optical fibre by chirp gratings”,
International Journal of Physical Sciences Vol.6(32), pp 7354-7360
6. John M.Senior, [1999] Optical Fiber Communication, second edition, Principles &
Practice, Pearson Education India p.31
7. Raman Kashyap (1999) Fibre Bragg Gratings, Academic Press, USA p.12
8. Nazmi A. Mohammed, Mohammad Solaiman, and Moustafa H. Aly [2014] “Design and
performance evaluation of a dispersion compensation unit using several chirping
functions in a tanhapodized FBG and comparison with dispersion compensation fiber”
Optical Society of America, Vol. 53, No. 29 / APPLIED OPTICS
9. Hessainiaa, S. El-Akrmib, H. Trikia, A. El-akrmia,(2014) “Analysis of fibre Bragg
grating with exponential–linear and parabolic taper profiles for dispersion slope
compensation in optical fibre links”, Elsevier Gmbh
10. J. Zhang, P. Shum, X.P. Cheng, N.Q. Ngo, S.Y. Li, “Analysis of linearly tapered fibre
Bragg grating for dispersion slope compensation”, IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett. 15 (2003)
1389–1391.
11. JyotiChoudhary, Lalit Singh Garia, Rajendra Singh Shahi(2014) “International Journal of
Advanced Research in Computer and Communication Engineering Vol. 3, Issue 5
12. Jyotsanaa, RamandeepKaura, Rajandeep Singh (2013)“Performance comparison of pre-,
post- and symmetrical-dispersion compensation techniques using DCF on 40 Gbps
OTDM system for different fibre standards”, Elsevier Gmbh.
13. Takayoshi Mori, Taiji Sakamoto, Takashi Yamamoto, Shigeru Tomita,(2012) “Modal
dispersion compensation by using digital coherent receiver with adaptive equalization in
multi-mode fibre transmission” Elsevier Inc.

70
14. Gasulla, J. Capmany, 1 Tb/s_km “Multimode fibre link combining WDM transmission
and low-line width lasers”, Opt. Express 16 (2008) 8033–8038.
15. D.H. Sim, Y. Takushima, Y.C. Chung, “High-speed multimode fibre transmission by
using mode-field matched center-launching technique”, J. Lightw. Technol. 27 (2009)
1018–1026.
16. Y. Ma, Y. Tang, W. Shieh, “107 Gb/s Transmission Over Multimode Fibre with
Coherent Optical OFDM Using Center Launching Technique”, ECOC 2009, Paper 3.5.2,
2009.
17. F. Yaman, N. Bai, Y. Huang, M. Huang, B. Zhu, T. Wang, G. Li, “10Gb/s PDM-QPSK
transmission over 5032 km in few-mode fibres”, Opt. Express 18 (2010) 21342–21349.
18. J. Downie, J. Hurley, D. Kuksenkov, C. Lynn, A. Korolev, V. Nazarov, “Transmission of
112 Gb/s PM-QPSK Signals Over up to 635 km of Multimode Optical Fibre”,
ECOC2011, Tu.5.B.6, 2011.
19. T. Itoh, H. Fukuyama, S. Tsunashima, E. Yoshida, Y. Yamabayashi, M. Muraguchi, H.
Toba, H. Sugahara, “1-km Transmission of 10 Gbit/s Optical Signal Over Legacy MMF
Using Mode Limiting Transmission and Incoherent Light Source”, OFC/NFOEC 2005,
OWH3, 2005.
20. L. Ma, N. Hanzawa, K. Tsujikawa, S. Tomita,” Ultra-Wideband WDM Transmission in
Multi-Mode Fibre Using PCF Devices”, OECC2011, 6C2_3, 2011.
21. Zihang Zhu, Shanghong Zhao, Zhoushi Yao , Qinggui Tan , Yongjun Li, Xingchun Chu
Lei Shi and Xi Zhang,(2012) “Optical millimeter-wave signal generation by frequency
quadrupling using one dual-drive Mach–Zehnder modulator to overcome chromatic
dispersion”, Elsevier
22. BishankaBrataBhowmik, Sumanta Gupta and RanjanGangopadhyay,(2012)
“Simultaneous demodulation and dispersion compensation of WDM DPSK channels
using optical ring resonator”, Elsevier
23. M.Ahmed(2012),“Modeling and simulation of dispersion-limited fiber communication
systems employing directly modulated laser diodes”, Indian J Phys.
24. OjuswiniArora, Dr.AmitkumarGarg, SavitaPunia(2011), “Symmetrical Dispersion
Compensation For High Speed Optical Links”, IJCSI International Journal of Computer
Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 6, No 1.

71
25. Wei CHEN ,Shiyu LI, Peixiang LU, Dongxiang WANG, Wenyong LUO,(2010)
“Dispersion compensation optical fibre modules for 40 Gbps WDM communication
systems”, Front. Optoelectron. China 2010, 3(4) pp.333–338
26. Bo-ning HU, Wang Jing Wang Wei ,Rui-mei Zhao, “Analysis on
DispersionCompensation with DCF based on Optisystem”, 2010 2nd International
Conference on Industrial and Information Systems.
27. Zhongwei Tan, Yanhua Wang, WenhuaRen, Yan Liu,BinLi,TigangNing,
ShuishengJian(2009), “Transmission system over 3000km with dispersion compensated
by chirped fiber Bragg gratings”, Elsevier.
28. Young-Geun Han and Sang Bae Lee,(2005) “Tunable dispersion compensator based on
uniform fibre Bragg grating and its application to tunable pulse repetition-rate
multiplication”, Optical Society of America
29. LajosHanzo, Harald Haas,, Sa´ndorImre, Dominic O’Brien, Markus Rupp, and Laszlo
Gyongyosi, (2012)“Wireless Myths, Realities, and Futures: From 3G/4G to Optical and
Quantum Wireless”, Proceedings of The IEEE
30. D'Errico, R. Proietti, L. Giorgi, G. Contestabile, E. Ciaramella, Electronics Letters 42
(2006) 112.
31. J. H. Lee, Y. M. Chang, Y. G. Han, H. Chung, S. H. Kim and S. B. Lee, "A detailed
experimental study on single-pump Raman/EDFA hybrid amplifiers: static, dynamic,
and system performance comparison," Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. 23, no.
11, pp. 3484-3493, 2005.
32. M.I. Hayee and A.E. Willner, "NRZ versus RZ in 10-40-Gb/s dispersion-managed
WDM transmission systems," IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 2003.
33. H. Sunnerud, M. Karlsson, and P. A. Andrekson, "A comparison between NRZ and
RZ data formats with respect to PMD-induced system degradations," IEEE Photonics
Technology Letters, 13(5):448-450, May 2001.
34. P. J. Winzer and A. Kalmar, "Sensitivity enhancement of optical receivers by
impulsive coding," J. Lightwave Technology, vol. 17, pp.171-177, Feb. 1999.
35. G. Castanon and T. Hoshida, "Impact of dispersion slope in NRZ, CSRZ, IMDPSK
and RZ formats on ultra high bit-rate systems," European Conference on Optical
Communication (ECOC), 4(9.6.1), September 2002.

72
36. Simranjit Singh, R.S. Kaler “Investigation of hybrid optical amplifiers with different
modulation formats for DWDM optical communication system,” Journal of Optic,
Volume 124, Issue 15, Pages 2131–2134, August 2013.
37. G. Bosco, A. Carena, V. Curri, R. Gaudino, P. Poggiolini, “On the use of NRZ
RZ,and CSRZ modulation at 40 Gb/s with narrow DWDM channel spacing,” IEEE J.
Lightwave Technology, pp. 1694–1704, 20 (9) (2002).
38. Bo-hun-choi, Chang-Bong kim and jesoo ko, “Experimental Study on Economic
Long-haul Transmission Link Using standard SMF and All EDFAs,” Advanced
communication technology, pp.2017 – 2022, 2008.
39. Anu Sheetal, Ajay K.Sharma, R.S.Kaler “Simulation of high capacity 40Gb/s long
haul DWDM system using different modulation formats and dispersion compensation
schemes in the presence of Kerr’s effect,” Journal of Optic, Volume 121, Issue 8, pp.
739–749, April 2010.
40. Gabriella Bosco, Ivan N. Cano, Pierluigi Poggiolini, “MLSE-Based Differential Phase
Shift Keying Transmission in 43 Gb/s DWDM Long-Haul Dispersion-Managed
Optical Systems” Journal of light wave technology, Vol. 28, NO. 10, MAY 15, 2010.
41. A.Yin, L. Li, X. Zhang, “Analysis of modulation format in the 40 Gbit/s optical
communication system,” Optik , pp.1550–1557, 121 (2010).
42. Inderpreet Kaur, Neena Gupta, “Enhancing the Performance of WDM Systems By
Using TFF In Hybrid Amplifiers,” Advance Computing Conference (IACC), 2010
43. Lalit Kishor Tyagi, Arvind Kumar Jaiswal, and Tripuresh Joshi, “Performance
Analysis of Four Wave Mixing Based Wavelength Conversion in Commercial Optical
Fibers,” International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2,
Issue 7, July 2012.
44. Zahid Gulzar Khaki, Harpreet Singh Bedi, “Transient Correction using EDFA: In-
Line Optical Fiber with Feedback,” International Conference on Computing
Sciences, pp. 233 – 238, Sept. 2012,
45. LiLi , Jijun Zhang, Degong Duan, Aihan Yin “ Analysis modulation formats of
DQPSK in WDM-PON system,” Journal of Optic, Volumen123, Issue 22, pp.2050–
2055, November 2012 .
46. John C. Cartledge and John D. Downie, “Long-Haul Performance of 112 Gb/s PM-

73
 QPSK Implications of Enhanced Optical Fiber Transmission Properties,” Journal of
light wave technology, Vol. 30, No. 24, December 15, 2012.
47. M. M.Ismail,, M.A.Othman, Z.Zakaria, M.H.Misran, M.A.Meor Said, H.A.Sulaiman,
“EDFA-WDM Optical Network Design System,” Malaysian Technical Universities
Conference on Engineering & Technology, Volume 53, 2013, Pages 294–302.

74