Falkland Island English 669

David Britain and Andrea Sudbury

Falkland Island English

1 Introduction
This chapter examines some of the grammatical variability and non-standardness found in the English of
the Falkland Islands. The Falklands are an archipelago of over 700 islands located in the western South At-
lantic Ocean, 480km off the east coast of Argentina. Although the population is small – around 3000 – the
islands cover an area of over 12000km 2 – slightly larger than Jamaica and half the size of Wales, making
them, after Greenland, the most sparsely populated political entity in the world. In political terms, the Falk-
lands are an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom. In contrast to the rural isolated image that the Falk-
lands perhaps conjure up, the community is, in demographic terms, an urban and diverse one. Over 85 %
of the population live in the capital Stanley. The 2006 census (Government of the Falkland Islands 2007: 6)
shows that 55 % of the population were not born on the Islands, with the largest migrant groups coming
from the UK, St Helena (another British Overseas Territory, located in the eastern South Atlantic), Chile and
Australia. It also highlighted the fact that people born in 62 different countries were resident on the islands
at the time (Pascoe and Pepper 2008: 38). By way of a comparison, in Europe only Monaco and Andorra have
a higher proportion of their populations made up of migrants. In addition to the local Falkland population,
there is a large military presence on the islands at the Royal Airforce Base at Mount Pleasant, 50km south-
west of Stanley. The Head of State is the monarch of the UK, who is represented on the islands by a gov-
ernor. The democratically elected 11-member Legislative Assembly is responsible for day-to-day govern-
ment of the islands.
The Falklands are perhaps most famous because of their 74 day occupation by Argentina in 1982. It is not
appropriate here to go into detail about the dispute between the UK and Argentina about the sovereignty of
the Islands. What is undisputed is that there has been a continuous Anglophone speech community on the
islands since the early 1830s, making it one of the most recently developed ‘Inner Circle’ (Kachru 1985) Eng-
lishes in the world. This chapter examines the grammatical characteristics of Falkland Island English, drawn
from a transcribed corpus of over 500,000 words of informal conversational speech, collected by Andrea Sud-
bury both in Stanley and in ‘Camp’ (the local name for the rest of the islands) (see Sudbury 2000, 2001 for
more details about the methods used in the survey).

2 Socio-cultural background
2.1 Social and demographic history

The first settlement of the Falklands was francophone. Louis-Antoine de Bougainville arrived on the islands
on the 3rd February 1764 and set up a small settlement at Port Louis on the North-East of East Falkland. Over
a short time a community of over 150 developed there, before vacating the settlement in 1767. Continuous
Anglophone settlement began on 2nd January 1833 when Captain Onslow arrived, also at Port Louis, on the
HMS Clio (Gough 1990: 270). A small garrison was set up, though initial attempts to set up a sustainable com-
munity were slow to get off the ground. The early Anglophone community was characterised by both a high
turnover and high spirits. Royle (1985: 209) reports both the first governor claiming that the inhabitants
were ‘men of reckless character, irregular passions unchecked by moral impulses, far less discipline’ and
that in 1842 over 2400 litres of spirits and 900 litres of wine were imported for a total population of 62. Both
official and unofficial migration characterises 19th century settlement. On the one hand, a small number of

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670 David Britain and Andrea Sudbury

the early islanders were sailors who had been shipwrecked or jumped ship, including a number of Scandi-
navians1. A second and highly turbulent group were South Americans, mostly Chileans and Uruguayans,
who were employed as cattle herders. But their number was never great – Spruce (1996: 1) suggested fewer
than 100. A third were contract workers from the UK, who came, served their time, and then left. On the other
hand, a number of attempts were made to set up organised migration programmes to the islands. It was felt
that migrants from Scotland, especially the Highlands and Islands off the north-west coast, would make
good settlers to the Falklands because of the similar terrains and climates of both (Gough 1990: 284–285;
Royle 1985: 207). Certainly many migrants did come from Scotland as did many from the South and South-
West of England (see Sudbury 2000), and, later, Northern Ireland. As the 19th century progressed, the popu-
lation gradually increased, reaching over 2000 by 1901. And so it remained, more or less, for the first half of
the 20th century. This overall population stability, however, hides considerable and ongoing demographic
instability. In 1952, for example, over 12 % of the population left the islands and another 9% took their place
(Sudbury 2000: 26). Economic decline saw the population fall between the end of the Second World War and
the 1982 Conflict, but economic regeneration since has resulted in a considerable rise. The population today
is the highest it has ever been, and, as mentioned earlier, is surprisingly diverse. The 2006 Census found that
326 people on the islands (11 % of the total) speaka language other than English in the home, with Spanish,
German and French being the other languages most often spoken (Government of the Falkland Islands 2007:
10)2. What is more, the population continues its earlier pattern of high turnover. The 2006 Census shows that
a full 34 % of the 2006 population were not resident on the islands in 1996 (Government of the Falkland Is-
lands 2007: 3). Distant from Europe and North America they may be, homogeneous and monocultural they
are most certainly not.

2.2 Status of language on the Islands

The small population, the high demographic turnover and large number of migrants from outside the islands,
the limited institutional apparatus and continued close cultural ties with the UK have prevented an institu-
tionalisation and standardisation of Falkland Island English. Furthermore, the media outlets available to is-
landers are dominated, obviously, by ‘foreign’ production. The Islands have five radio stations (a local one,
two serving the islands from the UK Forces base, one transmitting programming from St Helena and another
retransmitting BBC World Service programmes). There is a weekly newspaper, Penguin News, available in
hard copy and through a subscription website. There are two television networks available, one showing Brit-
ish programming from the Forces base and another private network carrying channels such as ESPN and CNN
International. It has been suggested that there is some regional variation in the Falkland Islands, with urban
Stanley showing more significant evidence of contact-induced koineisation than some of the settlements in
Camp, especially those in which there remain higher concentrations of descendants from particular single
locations in the UK. Trudgill argues, furthermore, that the isolation of these single-origin Camp settlements
would also militate against koineisation and new dialect formation more generally across the islands (Trud-
gill 1986: 128). Consequently, to some ears, while some parts of Camp sound like the South-West of England,
Stanley is often said to resemble Australian English (see Sudbury 2000, 2001 for an evaluation of this). Eng-
lish in the Falklands, then, has developed over the past 180 years, in almost tabula rasa conditions (see Trud-
gill 2004 for the importance of such communities in shedding light on new dialect formation). There was no
indigenous population present at the point of arrival of British migrants that could significantly shape or in-
fluence the variety of English developing there. Influence from Spanish has been purely lexical (see Sudbury

1 Scandinavian presence lasted longer on South Georgia, an- 2 2% of the population of the islands claim to speak English
other British Overseas Territory, now with no permanent settle- ‘not well’ or ‘not at all’ (Government of the Falkland Islands
ment, 1400km ESE of the Falklands. In the early 20th century, 2007: 10).
South Georgia sustained a population of well over 700, almost
all Scandinavian, who worked in whaling (see Britain and Sud-
bury 2010 for more information).

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 Falkland Island English 671

2000) and fairly insignificant, and there has been heavy adaptation to English phonology in these borrowings
(e.g. the place name Tranquilidad is realised as [trWnk@li:da:]). It has also developed in the context not of an
isolated population that has remained rather remote from the cultural and social influences of the UK, but of
a population that is both rather highly mobile and rather turbulent, with a significant turnover. Significantly,
also, those wishing to receive a post-16 schooling travel (free) to Hampshire or West Sussex in Southern Eng-
land for A-Level or other advanced education, meaning many young Falklanders have some experience of liv-
ing in the UK alongside British youngsters.

3 The grammar of Falkland Island English

Falkland Island English (FlkE) grammar is remarkable for being unremarkable. Very few of the WAVE features
are found there, and those that are are all, almost without exception, found both relatively infrequently and
in very many other varieties of English. We present here some brief comments about some of these WAVE fea-
tures – those that are found in the Falklands, however sporadically, are listed in the Overview (see appendix).

3.1 Pronouns

A number of non-standard pronoun forms are found in our data at very low levels, and the overall profile is
very similar to that found in varieties of southern England. As in a number of locations where there has been
influence from Irish Englishes (e.g. Beal, Burbano-Elizondo and Llamas 2012; Pawley 2004: 635), Falklanders
sometimes use youse as a second person plural pronoun (F34).

(1) a. when they saw youse in the airport.

b. that was split between about eight of youse.
c. so you fellas are gonna tidy up then before youse go home.

3.2 Noun phrase

One somewhat unusual characteristic of Falkland Island English is the absence of the definite article before
abbreviations such as UK (F62), as in the following examples from our data:

(2) a. he was gonna stay and have a summer in UK.

b. but they only pay the equivalent of going to UK.
c. I don’t know whereabouts in UK.
d. if my parents had gone to reside in UK.
e. sixteen’s the legal age to go into bars in UK.

It is not clear what the geographical scope of this form is, nor whether it applies to other country abbrevi-
ations (as no others were found in our data), but it has also been heard in the Englishes of the expatriate com-
munities in both Hong Kong and the Costa del Sol in Spain.

3.3 Verb phrase

Again, the range of forms that tend to be attested in southern England is also found, at low levels, in the
Falklands. Non-standard past tense forms are found (F128, F129, F130, F131), but are infrequent. Not listed in
WAVE, but characteristic of FlkE, is a relatively high use of got to (as opposed to have to, have got to, or must) to
express deontic obligation. Given that this is a characteristic also of South-western dialects of England (Tag-

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672 David Britain and Andrea Sudbury

liamonte and Smith 2006: 380), it could be argued that this feature may well represent a relic of the 19 th
century migrants from the south-west. This is currently being investigated further (see Britain, Zuberbühler,
Piercy and Sudbury, in preparation). In terms of stative possession, the Falklands prefer have got over have
and got and, as in many places elsewhere, have got is favoured more with concrete than abstract comple-
ments, and with non-generic rather than generic subjects.

3.4 Negation

Again low level non-standardness reigns here. Both ain’t and in’t are found as secondary contractions of ne-
gated auxiliary be and have (F155, F156), but the latter appears to be more common. Was-weren’t split (F163) is
extremely rare.

3.5 Agreement

The use of existential there’s/there is/there was with plural subjects (F172) is extremely common.A variation-
ist analysis of this variable feature can be found in Britain and Sudbury (2002). Also quite common is was-
generalisation (F180):

(3) a. They wasn’t allowed to bring Caitlin out.

b. They was covered in concrete.
c. Unless you was up on deck.
d. You wasn’t weighed.
e. We was joking around with her and mum.
f. We wasn’t allowed to have that.
g. I don’t know if the hawks was there.
h. James’ parents was here.
i. The Argie soldiers was living in the peat shed.
j. Another five days until the stitches was out.

Were-generalisation, however, is rare:

(4) The head officer there or whatever he were

This pattern of fairly low-frequency was- but not were- generalisation aligns FlkE with varieties such as Aus-
tralian English (Eisikovits 1991).

3.6 Other features

Relativisation with what (F190) is extremely rare:

(5) a. That was the locomotive what used to run up and down.
b. You can go down the road there and buy one of these stuffed penguins but everything what’s in them is
actually only sewed together here.

Adverbs and intensifiers without -ly are not uncommon (F220, F221) – a characteristic of very many Englishes:

(6) a. Put it in my bank quick.

b. Dad doesn’t go that slow.
c. They’re real good friends.
d. when it’s a real hot day
e. I can’t do the real old dances like they used to do.

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 Falkland Island English 673

Like many other non-British Englishes (see Britain and Fox 2009 for a review), FlkE occasionally lacks allo-
morphy in the definite and indefinite article systems, using the pre-consonantal forms before vowels too:

(7) a. He was such a enthusiastic person.

b. That’s having a effect on us really.
c. We went over to stay with a elderly uncle.
d. Everybody keeps a eye on each other.
e. I have a aerial outside for this.
f. There was a advert to say there would be a haggis.
g. He did train originally as a aircraft engineer.
h. They had a outpost up there as well.
i. We’re in the middle of a immigration policy review.
j. The one in Sheffield, a uncle to the one in the nick.

4 Discussion
Falkland Island English does not show considerable grammatical non-standardness, but we can point, on the
basis of the little found in our corpus, to a number of potential conclusions:
a) In comparison with the main donor varieties of present day FlkE – Scottish and South-Western English
English – the variety has undergone considerable levelling, suggesting the operation of koineisation in the
180 years since Anglophone settlement began on the islands. Very few of the marked grammatical forms men-
tioned in Wagner’s (2004) survey of the traditional dialect of the South-West or in Piercy’s (2010) examination
of remnant traditional forms in Dorset – one of the more easterly counties of the South West region – are
found in contemporary Falkland Island English. Those present in the traditional dialects of the South-West,
but absent in the Falklands include:

• the use of ich and utch as first person pronouns;

• the use of periphrastic do (F91);
• demonstrative pronoun ‘thik’ [.Wk];
• cliticised ‘m (e.g. we’m);
• gendered pronouns (cf. F2);
• pronoun exchange;
• invariant be (F90);

Similarly, very few traditional Scottish features have survived into FlkE either. Absent in FlkE, but noted for
Scotland (Miller 2004) are:

• -nae as a negator of do and modal verbs;

• double modals (F121).

Phonologically, too, FlkE has levelled away a very large proportion of the typically South-Western and Scot-
tish forms (Britain and Sudbury 2010).
b) There are, nevertheless, some traces that connect the Falklands to, especially, the South-West, most
notably the relatively high use of got to, instead of have got to, have to and must as verbs of obligation. This is
perhaps not as saliently South-Western as periphrastic do or pronoun exchange, but does show resemblances
to patterns of variation already found in the South-West (Tagliamonte and Smith 2006).
c) The levelling of South-Western and Scottish grammatical features has left FlkE not standard, but still
using, at low levels, a common core of non-standard features that are common to many varieties of English in
the UK and beyond (see Britain 2010), such as preterite come (F129), adverbs without -ly (F220, F221), me in-
stead of I in co-ordinate subjects (F7); absence of plural marking after quantifiers (F56), them instead of those
(F68), never as a past tense negator (F159), etc.

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674 David Britain and Andrea Sudbury

d) In a study of the phonology of FlkE, Sudbury questioned the extent to which it demonstrated similar-
ities with other Southern Hemisphere Englishes. She concluded that “they share more similarities than dif-
ferences” (2001: 75). The same can be said for the grammar of FlkE:

• relatively low levels of non-standardness;

• variable lack of article allomorphy;
• second person plural pronoun youse (F34);
• was-generalisation (F180), but extremely rare were-generalisation and no was-were split (F163);
• use of clause final but (F211)

Grammatically, then, Falkland Island English, whilst demonstrating considerable levelling with respect to its
ingredient dialects, still retains grammatical remnants of them. As an Inner Circle variety that developed at a
similar time to Australian and New Zealand Englishes, it shares a number of grammatical characteristics with
them too, though typologically remains a somewhat peripheral member of the Southern Hemisphere ‘club’.

Appendix:
Overview of WAVE features attested in Falkland Island English
# feature informal spoken FlkE example rating
I. Pronouns, pronoun exchange, nominal gender
1 She/her used for inanimate referents So the Bransfield is the BAS ship then? Yeah she was the sort of B
kingpin until they brought the James Clark Ross
7 Me instead of I in coordinate subjects Me and granddad went fishing and got a nine pounder B
8 Myself / meself instead of I in coordinate myself and this other female we decided we’d drive down to C
subjects Volunteers
11 Regularized reflexives paradigm he had to bury them all hisself C
12 Object pronoun forms serving as base for C
first and / or second person reflexives
14 No number distinction in reflexives (i.e. we have to do the tea ourself C
plural forms ending in -self)
26 Object pronoun forms as (modifying) because me father was about six I think when he come back here C
possessive pronouns: first person
singular
28 Use of us + NP in subject function Us folks we don’t even notice it A
29 Use of us in object function (with singular B
referent)
34 Forms or phrases for the second person when they saw youse in the airport C
plural pronoun other than you
II. Noun phrase
54 Group plurals (i.e. plural marker attached C
to the end of an entire phrase rather than
just its head)
56 Absence of plural marking only after A hundred and eighty pound a month B
quantifiers That was four foot wide and seven foot deep
62 Use of zero article where StE has definite they sent me off to UK after a few years for to take a City and B
article Guilds in UK
68 Them instead of demonstrative those it’s probably because them days you got your bottle and half a C
case of beer on a weekend
I don’t have any of them qualifications
72 Group genitives C
78 Double comparatives and superlatives Out on the west I think it’s a bit more madder than it is in the east C
The most grossest thing alive
79 Regularized comparison strategies: C
extension of synthetic marking
80 Regularized comparison strategies: They’re more free C
extension of analytic marking

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 Falkland Island English 675

III. Verb phrase: tense and aspect

92 Other non-standard habitual markers: Wherever they wants it – it was just above our place last year C
synthetic
95 Be sat / stood with progressive meaning I was sat on the train with this other fella and he said to me you C
have a really strange accent
96 There with past participle in resultative there was houses broken into B
contexts there’s a deep water port built here
113 Loosening of sequences of tenses rule C
V. Verb phrase: verb morphology
128 Levelling of past tense / past participle they went over and bended up a pipe C
verb forms: regularization of irregular
verb paradigms
129 Levelling of past tense / past participle because me father was about six I think when he come back here C
verb forms: unmarked forms three years ago I give up down there
130 Levelling of past tense / past participle tonight I was going to geta bollocking because they didn’t thinkI C
verb forms: past tense replacing the past had ate supper
participle
131 Levelling of past tense / past participle Hope seen it but Kieran didn’t know where it was C
verb forms: past participle replacing the I seen a plane coming in
past tense form
134 a-prefixing on ing-forms yeah a-twitching and a-jumping C
139 Distinctive forms for auxiliary vs. full verb yeah he done all sorts of jobs C
meanings of primary verbs (i.e. of do, be,
have)
147 Was for conditional were If we was to become independent B
VII. Negation
154 Multiple negation / negative concord we don’t want no more of this horrible stuff C
155 Ain’t as the negated form of be I ain’t telling! C
Wool is bad stuff to buy, in’t it, for the washing side of it
156 Ain’t as the negated form of have C
158 Invariant don’t for all persons in the I’ve got visitors so she don’t know C
present tense That’s because he don’t worry about him
She don’t mind white coke
159 Never as preverbal past tense negator he never left the islands again B
In ’92 when we went over, we never went anywhere near London
163 Was- weren’t split I was gonna say it wasn’t long before the Conflict, but it weren’t, C
of course
VIII. Agreement
171 Invariant present tense forms due to when I goes out they’d been in C
generalization of 3rd person -s to all
persons
172 Existential / presentational there’s / there there’s penguins everywhere even the loo brush holder’s a B
is / there was with plural subjects penguin
180 Was / were generalization They wasn’t allowed to bring Caitlin out B
IX. Relativization
190 Relativizer what or a form derived from That was the locomotive what used to run up and down. C
what
193 Gapping / zero-relativization in subject there was a guy met up with us and he was a South African C
position
X. Complementation
203 For (to) as infinitive marker the reins you have for to hang on to it C
204 As what / than what in comparative clauses at the second farm I was paid the same as what Bill was paid B
XI. Adverbial subordination
211 Clause-final but = ‘though’ I’d prefer to be at home but C
XII. Adverbs and prepositions
216 Omission of StE prepositions (not We don’t work Saturday C
necessarily with prepositional verbs, but
e.g. locative prepositions and prepositions
before temporal expressions)

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676 David Britain and Andrea Sudbury

220 Degree modifier adverbs have the same on a real good day you’d get I suppose fifteen fish B
form as adjectives
221 Other adverbs have the same form as and of course fur seals can move quick B
adjectives
XIII. Discourse organisation and word order
229 No inversion / no auxiliaries in main we just wondered if it’s a local word F B
clause yes / no questions it’s nine altogether F
234 Like as a focussing device they’d be able to go up like after school or this evening or B
something
235 Like as a quotative participle I was like yeah I’m fine thank you C

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