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• Adhoc network is one with wireless or temporary plug-in connection devices, where some of the network devices are a part
of the network only for the duration of a communications session or, in the case of mobile or portable devices, are in some
close proximity to the rest of the network.
• Ad hoc wireless networks do not need any infrastructure or sometimes partial fixed deployments are required.
• Mostly based on IP technology.
• Mostly ISM band frequencies are used except large scale network.
• It can be a personal area for personal devices. This kind of architecture is known as a wireless personal area network
(WPAN). The concept of a personal area network refers to a space of small coverage (less than 100 m) around a person
where ad hoc communication occurs.
• It can be a wireless local area network (WLAN) with a coverage of around 500 m. Some configurations of WLANs need
infrastructure that provides access to other networks. They follow centralized management. Others are pure ad hoc and
distributed networks.
It can be a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) on a large scale of the order of metropolitan area network (MAN) with mesh
configuration or multi hop transmission covering few kilometers.
A Piconet starts with two connected devices, such as a Multiple independent and non-synchronized piconets form a
portable personal computer (laptop) and mobile phone, and scatternet
may grow to eight connected devices. Maximum ten piconets are allowed in a scatternet
A master and maximum seven slave units in a Piconet
Each piconet is identified by a different frequency hopping
sequence and is determined by the Bluetooth device
address (BD_ADDR) of the master.
Important Definitions
• Master unit It is the device in a piconet whose clock and hopping sequences are used to synchronize all other devices in the
piconet.
• Slave units All devices in a piconet that are not the master are called slave units.
• Active member address (AM_ADDR) It is a three-bit address to distinguish between the active units participating in a piconet.
• Parked units These are the devices in a piconet that are synchronized but do not have an AM_ADDR. They are identified with
PM_ADDR, which is valid only as long as the slave is parked.
• Access request address (AR_ADDR) This is used by a parked slave to determine the slave-to-master half slot in the access
window it can use to send access request messages.
(a) Controller: It contains timing critical radio interference and is implemented in the h/w and Bluetooth processor.
(b) Host: It deals with high level data and is implemented as a part of the operating system.
SDP Layer: It is more of a service than a protocol. It is connected to the user level L2CAP layer to communicate with remote
blue tooth devices.
BNEP layer: It is similar to sub network access protocol in WAN and is used for delivering network packets on top of L2COM
during personal area network.
OBEX Protocol: It is an HTTP like protocol that supports the transfer of simple objects like files between devices.
Bluetooth Physical Layer
Timing diagram of execution of some ACL and SCO links between a master and the bonding able to do the deal two
slaves.
• Asynchronous connectionless (ACL) communications link is the normal type of radio link and uses a polling time division
multiple access (TDMA) scheme. It is used for file and general data transfers.
• Synchronous connection-oriented (SCO) communications link is used for applications such as digital audio, that is, voice
data.
WI-FI STANDARDS
• IEEE 802.11 protocols--Designed and standardized by IEEE and such equipments are handled by the Wi-fi forum.
• Networking with 802.11 equipment is being treated as WLAN
• Physical and MAC layers of the protocol are standardized.
• 48 bit addressing for the compatibility with other IEEE networking standards.
• Wi-fi hotspots can be created due to its various possible configurations and flexibility.
• ISM band frequencies are used
Wi-fi Elements
• Access points (APs) The AP is the WLAN transceiver or BS that can connect one or many wireless devices simultaneously
to the Internet.
• Wi-fi cards These accept the wireless signal and relay information. They can be internal or external. Examples are PCMCIA
card for laptop and PCI card for desktop computers.
• Safeguards These include firewalls or anti-virus software applications that are used to protect the network from uninvited
users and keep information secure.
Wi-fi Architectures
AP-based Topology Peer-to-peer Topology Point-to-multipoint Bridge Topology
(Infrastructure Mode) (Adhoc Mode)
Client communicates through an AP. AP is not required. It is used to connect a LAN in one
RF coverage is provided by AP. Client devices with in a cell building to LAN in other building
AP’s are installed, such that their RF can communicate directly even if the buildings are miles apart.
coverage overlaps 10-15% of the total with each other. These conditions can be obtain by a
coverage area, and also roaming too. It is useful for setting up of clear LOS between buildings.
AP act as BS. a wireless network quickly The range of LOS varies based on the
and easily. type of wireless bridge and antenna
used.
Various significant WiFi standards
• Wi-fi MAC layer uses CSMA/CA protocol, which avoids collision by explicit acknowledgement (ACK).
• It also supports request to send/clear to send (RTS/CTS) protocol to avoid hidden terminal problem
Utilization modes of MAC Layer: There are two power utilization modes
(a) In the continuous aware mode , the radio is always on and continually drawing power.
(b) In the power save polling mode , the radio is dozing with the AP queuing any data for it. The client radio will wake up
periodically in time to receive regular beacon signals broadcast from the AP.
Types of MAC Layer: There are two options for the MAC layer.
(a) The centralized control scheme, referred to as the point coordination function (PCF), for delay sensitive service
The PCF mode supports time-sensitive traffic flows to some degree. PCF splits the time frame into a contention-free
period (CFP) and a contention period (CP)
PCF supports time-bound delivery of data frames, but this approach is not widely adopted because the transmission
times are not predictable.
(b) The contention-based approach called distributed coordination function (DCF), for best effort delivery service
The MAC layer sends instructions to the receiver to look for other carriers transmitting.
If it sees none, then it sends its packet after a given interval and waits for an acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgement is received, then it infers that its packet was not successfully received.
It then waits for a given time interval and again checks the channel before retrying to send its data packet.
For an ad-hoc mode, the addressing is very simple and straight forward which is explained by the diagram itself.
Privacy
wired equivalent privacy (WEP) algorithm with a robust security network (RSN) and transition security network (TSN)
(a) 64-bit pre-shared key—WEP
(b) 128-bit pre-shared key—WEP2
802.1X access control Scenario
Procedure:
The AP forces the user into an unauthorized state.
The user sends an extensible authentication protocol (EAP) start
message.
The AP returns an EAP message requesting the user’s identity.
The identity send by user in then forwarded to the authentication
server by the AP.
The authentication server verifies the user and returns an accept
or a reject message to the AP.
If accept message is returned, the AP changes the client state to
authorized and normal traffic flows.
Wi-fi Applications
• Internet access---through private and public (hotspot) access points
• Wi-fi sensor networks
• Deployments may be a large factory floor, multiple offices, a hospital, or a campus.
• In almost all cases, the basic network is a star configuration, extended in the tree structure of the nodes, with possible
provisions for client roaming or handoff.
Antenna Technologies for Wi-MAX: It supports transmit diversity MIMO, spatial multiplexing MIMO, advance techniques
such as uplink collaborative MIMO, adaptive antenna steering, and cyclic delay diversity.
Difference between Wi-Fi vs Wi-MAX
Scheduling:
It is the main component of the Mac Layer that assumes QoS to various service classes.
The Mac scheduling services are adopted to determine which package will be served first in a specific queue.
The scheduler work as a distributor in order to allocate the available resources among SS.
The scheduling algorithms can be implemented in the BS as well as in the SS.
There are mainly three different schedulers: two at the BS to schedule the packet transmission in the downlink and
uplink sub-frames and one at the SS for the uplink to the assigned bandwidth to its connections.
• Detecting the occurrence of events of interest and estimating the parameters of the detected events:
In a traffic sensor network, it is possible to detect a vehicle moving through an intersection and estimate the speed and
direction of the vehicle.
• Tracking an object:
six In a military sensor network, an enemy tank is tracked as it moves through the geographic area, covered by the network.
Topologies supported by sensor networks: (a) Star (b) Peer to peer (c) Cluster tree
ULTRA-WIDEBAND
Features:
Technologies for UWB: There are two very different technologies being developed for UWB
(a) One is based around a carrier free technology where a series of impulses is transmitted. In view of the very short
duration of the pulses, the spectrum of the signal occupies a very wide bandwidth-impulse, baseband , or zero carrier
technology.
It operates by sending low-power Gaussian-shaped pulses
Two of the most popular forms of modulation used for UWB are pulse position modulation (PPM) and BPSK
(b) The alternative technology uses a wide band or multiband OFDM (MBOFDM) signal, which is effectively a 500 MHz
wide OFDM signal that is hopped in frequency to enable it to occupy a sufficiently high bandwidth.