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• Adhoc network is one with wireless or temporary plug-in connection devices, where some of the network devices are a part
of the network only for the duration of a communications session or, in the case of mobile or portable devices, are in some
close proximity to the rest of the network.
• Ad hoc wireless networks do not need any infrastructure or sometimes partial fixed deployments are required.
• Mostly based on IP technology.
• Mostly ISM band frequencies are used except large scale network.

Types of ad hoc network

• It can be a personal area for personal devices. This kind of architecture is known as a wireless personal area network
(WPAN). The concept of a personal area network refers to a space of small coverage (less than 100 m) around a person
where ad hoc communication occurs.
• It can be a wireless local area network (WLAN) with a coverage of around 500 m. Some configurations of WLANs need
infrastructure that provides access to other networks. They follow centralized management. Others are pure ad hoc and
distributed networks.
It can be a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) on a large scale of the order of metropolitan area network (MAN) with mesh
configuration or multi hop transmission covering few kilometers.

Important Topic under Ad-hoc Network are


• Bluetooth
• Wi-fi—IEEE 802.11 standards
• WiMAX—IEEE 802.16 standards
• Wireless sensor networks
• UWB
Bluetooth
Bluetooth represents a single-chip low-cost radio-based wireless network technology. Hardware and protocol stack support is as
follows: Bluetooth radio technology are used into mobile phones, laptops, Printers, personal digital assistants (PDAs),desktops,
fax machines, Keyboards, Joysticks, Etc.

Blue Tooth Device Requirements:

It consist of hardware and protocol stack as shown in


figure

Bluetooth Network Structure—


Piconet Scatternet

 A Piconet starts with two connected devices, such as  a Multiple independent and non-synchronized piconets form a
portable personal computer (laptop) and mobile phone, and scatternet
may grow to eight connected devices.  Maximum ten piconets are allowed in a scatternet
 A master and maximum seven slave units in a Piconet
 Each piconet is identified by a different frequency hopping
sequence and is determined by the Bluetooth device
address (BD_ADDR) of the master.
Important Definitions
• Master unit It is the device in a piconet whose clock and hopping sequences are used to synchronize all other devices in the
piconet.
• Slave units All devices in a piconet that are not the master are called slave units.
• Active member address (AM_ADDR) It is a three-bit address to distinguish between the active units participating in a piconet.
• Parked units These are the devices in a piconet that are synchronized but do not have an AM_ADDR. They are identified with
PM_ADDR, which is valid only as long as the slave is parked.
• Access request address (AR_ADDR) This is used by a parked slave to determine the slave-to-master half slot in the access
window it can use to send access request messages.

Four Modes in Bluetooth


• Active mode--Bluetooth unit actively participates on the channel.
• Sniff mode--The devices synchronized to a piconet can enter power-saving modes in which the device activity is lowered.
• Hold mode--This is another power-saving mode. The master unit can put the slave units into the hold mode, where only an
internal timer is running.
• Park mode--a device is still synchronized to the piconet but does not participate in the traffic. Parked devices have given up
their MAC (AM_ADDR) address

Bluetooth Protocol Stack


Bluetooth Protocol Stack Abbreviations
 LM or LMP- Link manager (protocol)
 HCI-- Host controller interface
 L2CAP --Logical link control and
adaptation protocol
 RFCOMM-- Radio frequency
communication
 OBEX-- Generalized multi-transport
object exchange protocol
 BNEP --Bluetooth network
encapsulation protocol
 IP-- Internet protocol
 TCP/UDP-- Transfer control
protocol/user datagram protocol
 AT-- Attention sequence
 TCS BIN-- Telephony control
protocol specification binary
 SDP-- Service discovery protocol
The stack is divided into two main parts:

(a) Controller: It contains timing critical radio interference and is implemented in the h/w and Bluetooth processor.
(b) Host: It deals with high level data and is implemented as a part of the operating system.

Host Controller Interface (HCI):


 The HCI transmits data and commands from the layers above to the blue tooth module.
 It receives events from the Bluetooth module and transmits them to the upper layer.
 The function of HCI are implemented in the kernel.

Logic Link Control and Adaptation protocol (L2CAP):


 Multiplexing of data channels.
 Segmentation and reassembly of data packets to confirm to a device maximum packet size.
 Support for different channel types and channel IDs such as RFCOMM.

RFCOMM (serial Line Interface):


 It is a RS-232 serial port emulation protocol.
 Its main work is to make a data channel appear in the serial port.

SDP Layer: It is more of a service than a protocol. It is connected to the user level L2CAP layer to communicate with remote
blue tooth devices.

BNEP layer: It is similar to sub network access protocol in WAN and is used for delivering network packets on top of L2COM
during personal area network.

OBEX Protocol: It is an HTTP like protocol that supports the transfer of simple objects like files between devices.
Bluetooth Physical Layer

• Operate in the unlicensed ISM band at 2.4 GHz


• Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or time division duplex (TDD) with Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK)
carrier modulation ( BT = 0.5) is used.
• The 1 Mbps symbol rate exploits the maximum channel bandwidth of 1 MHz.
• Fast frequency hopping and short data packets are used.
• Continuous variable slope delta modulation (CVSD) voice coding enables operation at high bit error rates. (It is a 1
bit/sample vocoder and allows 8–16 kHz input sampling and yields 8–16 kbps compressed speech.)
• The air interface is tailored to minimize current consumption.
• The relaxed link budget supports low-cost single-chip integration.
• The standard uses a hopping rate of 1600 hops/s. These are spread over 79 fixed frequencies and they are chosen in a pseudo-
random sequence. The fixed frequencies occur at 2400 + n MHz, where the value of n varies from 1 to 79. This gives
frequencies of 2402, 2404, …, 2480 MHz.

Data Transfer Links in Bluetooth

Timing diagram of execution of some ACL and SCO links between a master and the bonding able to do the deal two
slaves.

There are two ways in which data is transferred

• Asynchronous connectionless (ACL) communications link is the normal type of radio link and uses a polling time division
multiple access (TDMA) scheme. It is used for file and general data transfers.
• Synchronous connection-oriented (SCO) communications link is used for applications such as digital audio, that is, voice
data.

Bluetooth MAC Layer


(a) Packet format (b) Packet header

 For asynchronous links, packet sequence numbers


are transmitted. If error is detected in a packet, then
the receiver can request it to be resent.
 For synchronous links, the packets cannot be
resent, as there is unlikely to be sufficient
bandwidth available to resent data and catch up. It
is only possible to include some forward error
control.
Modified Version of Bluetooth
• Of all the features included in Bluetooth 2, the most important is the enhanced data rate (EDR) facility. In the new
specification, the maximum data rate is able to reach 3 Mbps
• Bluetooth data is transmitted as packets made up of the following four elements: access Code, header, payload, interpacket
guard band.
• Bluetooth 2 specification uses a variety of modulation schemes. The GFSK is still used for transmitting the access code and
header for compatibility. Other schemes are π/4 DQPSK and 8DPSK
• Defines 10 new packet formats for use with the higher data rate modulation schemes, five each of the enhanced data rate
schemes.
• New format for these packets does not incorporate FEC.

WI-FI STANDARDS
• IEEE 802.11 protocols--Designed and standardized by IEEE and such equipments are handled by the Wi-fi forum.
• Networking with 802.11 equipment is being treated as WLAN
• Physical and MAC layers of the protocol are standardized.
• 48 bit addressing for the compatibility with other IEEE networking standards.
• Wi-fi hotspots can be created due to its various possible configurations and flexibility.
• ISM band frequencies are used

Various 802.11 Standards Along With Their Main Features:


• 802.11a: Wireless network bearer operating in the 5 GHz ISM band with data rate up to 54 Mbps
• 802.11b : Wireless network bearer operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band with data rates up to 11 Mbps
• 802.11e: QoS and prioritization (QoS extension)
• 802.11f: Handover
• 802.11g: Wireless network bearer operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band with data rates up to 54 Mbps
• 802.11h: Power control
• 802.11i: Authentication and encryption (enhanced security)
• 802.11j: Interworking
• 802.11k: Measurement reporting
• 802.11n: Wireless network bearer operating in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz ISM bands with data rates up to 600 Mbps
• 802.11s: Mesh networking

Wi-fi Elements
• Access points (APs) The AP is the WLAN transceiver or BS that can connect one or many wireless devices simultaneously
to the Internet.
• Wi-fi cards These accept the wireless signal and relay information. They can be internal or external. Examples are PCMCIA
card for laptop and PCI card for desktop computers.
• Safeguards These include firewalls or anti-virus software applications that are used to protect the network from uninvited
users and keep information secure.

Wi-fi Architectures
AP-based Topology Peer-to-peer Topology Point-to-multipoint Bridge Topology
(Infrastructure Mode) (Adhoc Mode)

 Client communicates through an AP.  AP is not required. It is used to connect a LAN in one
 RF coverage is provided by AP.  Client devices with in a cell building to LAN in other building
 AP’s are installed, such that their RF can communicate directly even if the buildings are miles apart.
coverage overlaps 10-15% of the total with each other. These conditions can be obtain by a
coverage area, and also roaming too.  It is useful for setting up of clear LOS between buildings.
 AP act as BS. a wireless network quickly The range of LOS varies based on the
and easily. type of wireless bridge and antenna
used.
Various significant WiFi standards

IEEE 802.11a IEEE 802.11b IEEE 802.11g IEEE 802.11n


• Adopts IEEE 802.11 • The RF signal format used • In order to provide higher • Major concern is speed.
protocol and uses 5 GHz for 802.11b is speeds than what 802.11a This is applied by
ISM band. Complementary Code provided while operating following innovations.
• The modulation is OFDM Keying (CCK), which is at the 2.4 GHz ISM band, • Changes in OFDM
with 52 subcarriers and slightly different than 802.11g was introduced. implementation-By
BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM, CDMA—unique code • No of improvements over adapting the way it is set
64QAM mapping schemes property of complementary 802.11b up, the data rate can be
• 12 non-overlapping code • A variety of modulation increased from the 54
channels--8 dedicated to • 2.4 GHz Carrier schemes can be used by Mbps data rate achieved
indoors and 4 to P2P. • 11 Mbps data rate 802.11g. for 802.11a and g to 300
• No MIMO, 54 Mbps max. • Adaptive rate selection • For speeds of 6 Mbps, 9 Mbps and more.
data rate. (ARS) Mbps, 12 Mbps, 18 Mbps, • Use of multiple input,
• The 22 Mbps version of 24 Mbps, 36 Mbps, 48 multiple output (MIMO)
IEEE 802.11b (sometimes Mbps, and 54 Mbps, • Power saving—this is in
called 802.11b + ) OFDM is used. order to reduce the power
technology uses the packet • For 5.5 Mbps and 11 consumed due to MIMO
binary convolutional code Mbps, it uses CCK, and • Antenna technology-
(PBCC). Ordinary 802.11b then for 1 Mbps and 2 significantly improved by
uses a short block length Mbps, it uses differential the introduction of beam
for its 8QPSK data BPSK or differential forming and diversity.
symbols. The PBCC, on QPSK–DSSS. • Increased channel
the other hand, uses 64- • Maximum range is also bandwidth-Previous
state symbols. higher. systems used the 20 MHz
bandwidth, but the new
ones have the option of
using 40 MHz.
• Removal of backward
compatibility-This
removes an overhead that
is not required and
enables the maintenance
of maximum efficiency.

Comparison of various significant Wi-Fi standards

Details of OFDM-based modulation stage in 802.11a as follows:

Wi-fi MAC Layer

• Wi-fi MAC layer uses CSMA/CA protocol, which avoids collision by explicit acknowledgement (ACK).
• It also supports request to send/clear to send (RTS/CTS) protocol to avoid hidden terminal problem
Utilization modes of MAC Layer: There are two power utilization modes
(a) In the continuous aware mode , the radio is always on and continually drawing power.
(b) In the power save polling mode , the radio is dozing with the AP queuing any data for it. The client radio will wake up
periodically in time to receive regular beacon signals broadcast from the AP.

Types of MAC Layer: There are two options for the MAC layer.

(a) The centralized control scheme, referred to as the point coordination function (PCF), for delay sensitive service
 The PCF mode supports time-sensitive traffic flows to some degree. PCF splits the time frame into a contention-free
period (CFP) and a contention period (CP)
 PCF supports time-bound delivery of data frames, but this approach is not widely adopted because the transmission
times are not predictable.

(b) The contention-based approach called distributed coordination function (DCF), for best effort delivery service
 The MAC layer sends instructions to the receiver to look for other carriers transmitting.
 If it sees none, then it sends its packet after a given interval and waits for an acknowledgement.
 If no acknowledgement is received, then it infers that its packet was not successfully received.
 It then waits for a given time interval and again checks the channel before retrying to send its data packet.

MAC Frame and Addressing:


MAC frame for IEEE 802.11

AP: Access point


H1: Wireless host 1
R: Router

For an ad-hoc mode, the addressing is very simple and straight forward which is explained by the diagram itself.

Wi-fi Security Aspects

Authentication: It is used to keep unauthorized users off the network

These are of two types


(a) User authentication: It is a process of identifying the user and verifying that he is allowed to access some service. The
user name and password are compared with the data base stored in server before providing the access.
(b) Server authentication: The validity of a server can be verified using a digital certificate. Validation of the digital
certificate occurs automatically with in the client software.

Privacy
wired equivalent privacy (WEP) algorithm with a robust security network (RSN) and transition security network (TSN)
(a) 64-bit pre-shared key—WEP
(b) 128-bit pre-shared key—WEP2
802.1X access control Scenario
Procedure:
 The AP forces the user into an unauthorized state.
 The user sends an extensible authentication protocol (EAP) start
message.
 The AP returns an EAP message requesting the user’s identity.
 The identity send by user in then forwarded to the authentication
server by the AP.
 The authentication server verifies the user and returns an accept
or a reject message to the AP.
 If accept message is returned, the AP changes the client state to
authorized and normal traffic flows.

Wi-fi Applications
• Internet access---through private and public (hotspot) access points
• Wi-fi sensor networks
• Deployments may be a large factory floor, multiple offices, a hospital, or a campus.
• In almost all cases, the basic network is a star configuration, extended in the tree structure of the nodes, with possible
provisions for client roaming or handoff.

WIMAX STANDARDS -stands for worldwide interoperability for microwave access


• It is broadband wireless data communications technology
• It is a technology for P2MP wireless networking.
• Upto 70 Mbps bit rate.

Evolution in IEEE 802.16 standards

Features of Mobile Wi-MAX


 Hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) error control protocol and fast channel feedback (CQICH) through channel quality
index make the system more reliable.
 Power Management in Wi-MAX--supports sleep mode and idle mode for power saving and traffic control.
 Handoff Management in Wi-MAX: There are three handoff methods:
(a) Hard handover (HHO) (mandatory)
(b) Fast base station switching (FBSS) (optional)
(c) Macro diversity handover (MDHO) (optional)

Antenna Technologies for Wi-MAX: It supports transmit diversity MIMO, spatial multiplexing MIMO, advance techniques
such as uplink collaborative MIMO, adaptive antenna steering, and cyclic delay diversity.
Difference between Wi-Fi vs Wi-MAX

Wi-MAX MAC Layer


• Each subscriber station (SS) in the network possesses a 48-bit MAC address and each BS possesses a 48-bit unique identifier
called BSId.
• Each transport connection has a particular set of associated parameters indicating characteristics such as cryptographic suite
and QoS ..Supports multicasting
• There are two different frame formats for uplink as well as downlink separated by TTG/RTG.
• The IEEE 802.16 protocol data unit (PDU) format consists of a generic MAC header, various optional headers like checksum
(CRC), and a data payload.
• Generic MAC header carries the connection identifier (CID) of the connection with which the PDU is associated. There is
another identifier known as service flow identifier (SFID).
• For the different formats of fixed and mobile WiMAX, the MAC design includes a Convergence Sublayer.
• The CS maintains an ordered classifier table. Each entry in the classifier table includes a classifier and a target CID.

Wi-MAX Security Aspects


Physical Layer Security Threats

Jamming Packet is scrambling


 It consist of a stronger signal then the WiMAX  This attack occurs when control packets in the
network signal over writing the network data feeds respective downlink and uplink sub-frames is sniffed,
either in intermittent burst or with sustained carrier and then is scrambling and returned to the network.
waves.  This attack is much harder to mount than a jamming
 Constant jamming, whether malicious or otherwise, attack. Since most Wi-Fi WiMAX networks uses TDD,
can usually be found quickly using a spectrum where the signal is sliced via timeslots.
analyzer and directional antennas to triangulated  The attacker can parse this timing sequence and capture
the signal. contorted the the preamble and a map, is scrambled
 It is more difficult to find the location off them, and send it back with connected timing to
intermittent jamming or interference. interrupt the legume signal again
 Interference jamming is a less instrusive to the
network, regarding in some packet retransmission
Upper Layer Security Threats
Man-in-the-middle attack Denial of service attack Base station attack Application layer attack
 Wi-MAX implements  It is vulnerable to reply  Wi-MAX protocols and  When the Wi-MAX is
unconditional based attacks to flood our security models are well intended to run securily,
authentication scheme network with management implemented, but making use of strong
using X .509 from frames, effectively attacker is to attempt to encryption, it is possible
subscriber to BS, but creating a Denial of exploit them, as some to deploy a solution
there is no provision to service. products have security without enabling either
subscriber authentication  Many Wi-MAX adopters flaws. data encryption standard
in return. are also concerned about  This ability allows an or AES.
 This opens a potential one jamming or is scrambling attacker to create a  When data is transmitted,
vulnerability for BS to attacks, where an attacker malicious request, which vulnerable to sniffing is
attempt the impersonation attempts to manipulate RF can allow administrators happened. To prevent
of legimate devices. signals in order to to assess the BS. this, administrators have
 Attackers can simply interfere with connections.  Although they are to take advantage of built
intercept subscriber typically found and in encryption capabilities
initiation requests and his patched rapidly. all Wi-MAX.
responses, organizing
them to use the AP.

Quality of Service (QoS) and Scheduling Aspects of Wi-MAX

Quality of Service (QoS)


QoS parameter set defined for service flow: These parameters are managed through a series of MAC management messages:
• The dynamic service addition (DSA) messages create a new service flow.
• The dynamic service change (DSC) messages change an existing service flow.
• The dynamic service deletion (DSD) messages delete an existing service flow.

The following five services are supported in the mobile Wi-MAX:


(a) Unsolicited grant service (UGS)
(b) Real-time polling service (rtPS)
(c) Extended real-time polling service (ErtPS)
(d) Non-real-time polling service (nrtPS)
(e) Best effort service (BE)

Scheduling:
 It is the main component of the Mac Layer that assumes QoS to various service classes.
 The Mac scheduling services are adopted to determine which package will be served first in a specific queue.
 The scheduler work as a distributor in order to allocate the available resources among SS.
 The scheduling algorithms can be implemented in the BS as well as in the SS.
 There are mainly three different schedulers: two at the BS to schedule the packet transmission in the downlink and
uplink sub-frames and one at the SS for the uplink to the assigned bandwidth to its connections.

WiMAX QoS Service Classes


WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS
Some examples of wireless ad hoc sensor networks are as follows:
(a) Military sensor networks to detect and gain as much information as possible about enemy movements, explosions, and other
phenomena of interest
(b) Sensor networks to detect and characterize chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosive (CBRNE) attacks and
material
(c) Sensor networks to detect and monitor environmental changes in plains, forests, oceans, and so on
(d) Wireless traffic sensor networks to monitor vehicle traffic on highways or in congested parts of a city making it an intelligent
transport system
(e) Wireless surveillance sensor networks for providing security in shopping malls, parking garages, and other facilities
(f) Wireless parking lot sensor networks to determine which spots are occupied and which are free

Common Tasks in WSN


• Determining the value of some parameter at a given location:
In the environment network, the temperature, atmosphere pressure amount of sunlight and related humidity at the number of
locations can be determined.

• Detecting the occurrence of events of interest and estimating the parameters of the detected events:
In a traffic sensor network, it is possible to detect a vehicle moving through an intersection and estimate the speed and
direction of the vehicle.

• Classifying a detected object:


It is possible to identify the type of vehicle detected in traffic sensor network such as a car, minivan, light truck on a bus.

• Tracking an object:
six In a military sensor network, an enemy tank is tracked as it moves through the geographic area, covered by the network.

Desirable Features of WSN


• Large number of sensors
• Low energy use
• Network self-organization
• Collaborative signal processing
• Querying ability

Topologies supported by sensor networks: (a) Star (b) Peer to peer (c) Cluster tree

ULTRA-WIDEBAND

Features:

• Ultra-wideband (UWB) is for indoor and short-range outdoor communication


• UWB uses time domain electro-magnetic for transmission
• Wider bandwidth and large data rate support
• First band of UWB starts from 3 GHz

Technologies for UWB: There are two very different technologies being developed for UWB

(a) One is based around a carrier free technology where a series of impulses is transmitted. In view of the very short
duration of the pulses, the spectrum of the signal occupies a very wide bandwidth-impulse, baseband , or zero carrier
technology.
It operates by sending low-power Gaussian-shaped pulses
Two of the most popular forms of modulation used for UWB are pulse position modulation (PPM) and BPSK
(b) The alternative technology uses a wide band or multiband OFDM (MBOFDM) signal, which is effectively a 500 MHz
wide OFDM signal that is hopped in frequency to enable it to occupy a sufficiently high bandwidth.

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